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Indian Watch industry is estimated to be around 1600 crores and Titan is riding on top of it with a market share of over 50%.This is a super brand that has changed the way we look at ( or wear) watches. A marketing success story, Titan is a brand that will be of interest to most of the marketers. Titan , a brand from TATA was launched in 1987. During that time Indian watch market was dominated by HMT . At that time watches were seldom stylish and was catering to the basic need of knowing the time. Titan changed all that. With its stylish watches and smart advertising ,Titan took the market by storm. Titan infact changed the way watches was manufactured and marketed in India.
HMT , a public sector company seldom bothered to respond.

Titan initially pioneered the concept of ” Gifting watches”. The ads captured the essence of gifting and along with the trendy music, easily caught the imagination of the market.
Customers who were fed up with ugly time machines welcomed the brand and Titan had a dream run for many years.

Titan faced lot of problems later when the competition began to eat up the lower end of the market. Besides that, there was another problem. The brand was lacking innovation. To be more precise, the customers were bored by Titan.There was nothing new. Gifting proposition was no longer working .

During this period, Titan made a big mistake. It wanted to play the volume game. For that Titan launched another brand Sonata. Sonata was a huge success because it was a cheap product but at the cost of the mother brand Titan. Titan was perceived to be a premium brand but with Sonata ( at that time ” Sonata from Titan”) endorsed by Titan took away the premium image from the mother brand. It was a big costly mistake.

Titan realised this mistake and took away the Titan brand from Sonata. Now Sonata is endorsed by Tata not Titan.

Titan realising that the market wanted something to be excited about watches began an extensive marketing campaign. Titan carefully segmented the market and developed different subbrands for each segment. Sub brands like Edge, Steel, Dash, Nebula , Classique, Royale, Fast Track , Raga, and the recently launched Wallstreet . By having various products / models and subbrands, Titan was able to create freshness about the brand.

Titan also moved away from gifting . Titan was positioning itself as a fashion accessory rather than a time keeping device.
Titan also found its persona in Aamir. Aamir provided the much needed edge to the brand. Titan was careful in keeping the brand above the celebrity.
The ads were fresh and neatly executed.

Titan also was pushing another strategy . Watches was perceived as a one time buy and consumers seldom owned multiple watches. So Titan pushed the concept of ” Matching Watches to Clothes” in the recent commercials.

Since men are becoming more serious customers of fashion accessories, this is strategy that is worth trying out. For Titan, even if the concept fails, It has created the much needed freshness in the brand.
Titan also made its presence in the ladies watch segment. It have a sub brand Raga targeting the upwardly Mobilee ladies in the premium segment.

Titan also relaunched the FastTrack brand of watched aiming the target segment of 18-30 yrs old.

Earlier Fasttrack was targeted at 20-25 year olds and positioned along the line ” Cool watches from Titan”. Then the company found out that the youth in the age group of 11-20 years account for 42% of watch buying in India. Based on this insight the company relaunched the brand lowering the target segment to 18-30 year olds with the baseline ” How many you have?”. Again the strategy aimed at promoting the multiple watch owning concept. Fasttrack also launched a range of fashion accessories like Sunglasses trying to be a lifestyle brand.

Indian watch market is clearly segmented and lot of serious players are fighting out in these segments . The lower volume segment has HMT, Sonata , Maxima fighting it out. The mid segment has Titan, Timex etc and the premium segment has Titan ,Citizen etc. The super premium segment is also hotting up with lot of international brands setting shops in India.

Titan has carefully created a market for itself through careful segmentation and branding strategies.It is a brand that showed the world that Indians are good in Branding.

Introduction

The field of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) is a rapidly expanding area within UK settings, in state-funded and in private educational arenas, and because of the changing nature of immigration, ESOL teachers are challenged with meeting the demands of diverse and complicated ethnic/linguistic groups (Chan, 1998). Learning English is seen as a necessity for immigrants or long term visitors to the UK, although the field is complicated by political debates and social discussions around funding, socialisation, naturalisation and the erosion of traditional cultures and languages. However, it does seem that language fluency in English is key to proper integration into British society, and is supported by the “UK Government’s policy response to refugees and asylum seekers [as] outlines in the White Paper Secure Borders, Safe Haven: Integration and Diversity in Modern Britain (Home Office, 2002) [which] set out proposals for a curriculum of English language, IT and citizenship classes for refugees and asylum seekers” (Morrice (2007) p 156). While the Therefore, it is essential that ESOL provision is not only provided, but is designed in ways which can encourage learners to acquire real proficiency and fluency, without disempowering people or undermining their nationality (Halliday, 2005).

The literature on the pedagogies of ESOL teaching is diverse and outlines ways in which second language acquisition can be facilitated effectively, with teachers having their own take on pedagogy and on the ways in which students work, alone or with each other, in learning English (Dagenais et al, 2008; Burns, 2006). While linguistics studies directly address issues of grammar, syntax, construction, coherence and cohesion, the more practical aspects of developing practical fluency in English for speakers of other languages relate to classroom strategies that can support this. This essay will explore two aspects of ESOL teaching, that of group work, in which ESOL students are encouraged to work together on key tasks, with the aim of improving fluency (Haneda, 2005), and the provision of feedback, either peer feedback or tutor feedback, to enhance fluency. Both are contentious issues, because they can spell difficulties in the management of learning experiences (Holliday, 2005), and could be seen positively or negatively. This essay will look at some of the literature on this subject, and attempt to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of group or collaborative work, and of different types of feedback. The author will then draw conclusions from the literature to inform ESOL teaching practice.

Discussion

Group work is a popular means of building on constructivist theories and pedagogies by supporting students to apply new knowledge in given situations. In ESOL teaching, it provides opportunities to practice new words, conversations, sentence constructions, and functional elements of communication, such as making a particular type of telephone call or initiating a conversation. However, group work in this context can be viewed negatively as well, partly because of a fear that groups with the same first language will simply lapse into their own tongue rather than always speaking English, and that as learners they will not recognise each other’s mistakes. The latter point will be dealt with in some more detail below, in the exploration of types of feedback. But in relation to group work, types of collaborative or group learning or practice have been shown to be of great benefit to students of English.

Some authors have found that pair work or small group work in this context does help improve language fluency and competence (Long, 1996; Pica et al, 1996), perhaps because these activities provide different opportunities and options for ESOL learners which are not possible during teacher-led activities. These students may find themselves able to become more confident in a setting which is not only smaller, but comprises only peers who are also ESOL students. Johnson 91995) argues that learners who interact and engage with each other in these ways feel more self-efficacy and control over their own learning. However, others argue that small group work in peer-only groups does not necessarily help with issues such as pronunciation (Morley, 1991) and proper grammar (Widodo, 2006; Widdowson, 1978). Another particular issue for group work is that of English intonation, which can be particularly difficult and may represent for some the last hurdle of English fluency and comprehension (Atoye, 2005; Morgan, 1997).

McDonough (2004) carried out a small-scale research study which “explored instructors’ and learners’ perceptions about the use of pair and small group activities in a Thai EFL context, and examined whether the learning opportunities theoretically attributed to pair and small group activities occurred in an intact classroom” (p 207). The study also looked at whether the learners showed improved outcomes (McDonough, 2004). McDonough (2004) found that “learners who had more participation during the pair and small group activities demonstrated improved production of the target forms, even though they did not perceive the activities as useful for learning language” (p 207). This would suggest that these activities might improve elements of fluency and skill, but this study does not demonstrate how this occurs, nor does it look in detail at language fluency, which is our concern here.

Li and Campbell (2008) carried out a study in New Zealand which examined “Asian students’ perceptions of the much-promulgated cooperative learning concepts in the form of group work and group assignments”, and “found that Asian students valued highly the significance of classroom group discussions where they could interact with students from other cultures and backgrounds, improve their English-language skills, enhance their cultural understanding and provide them with opportunities to make friends” (P 203). Again, this underlines social elements of group working in ESOL learning which may be important in developing true fluency, because the elements of language skills and enhancing cultural understanding can be related to development of deeper-level fluency. Not all the outcomes of this study were positive, however, and LI and Campbell (2008) also found that these Asian students “held intensely negative views about group assignments that required students to complete a project as a group with shared marks determined by the performance of the group” (p 207). This may have something to do with the learner orientations of these students, or it may have to do with other factors. Li and Campbell (2008) found that “contributing factors affecting group dynamics included members’ attitudes and willingness to cooperate and contribute as a team, the composition of the group, students’ competing demands on students’ time and attention, heterogeneity from the natural abilities of students, and the varying cultural values and beliefs held by group members” (p 207). Because Li and Campbell (2008) found that group assignments that were assessed seemed to disempower the students in their study, it would suggest that group activities which are collaborative have a different meaning than group activities which are assessed, and this should be taken into account when applying group working to ESOL classrooms. However, the study does suggest the group learning itself enhanced competency level (Li and Campbell, 2008). The negative responses to the group assessment activities may have had something to do with students’ preconceptions or expectations about their ESOL learning (Bordia et al, 2006). Expectations which are not fulfilled might negatively affect responses to and evaluations of these learning activities (Bordia et al, 2006). These expectations, of course, may originate in the background, culture and previous experiences of the learner, which would suggest that teachers need to take into account these kinds of expectations and find ways to address them.

Ewal (2004) describes a study which focuses on the student perspective on group work, in which “21 students and their teachers participated in a collaborative forum in which they explored the use of small group work in their L2 classroom.” (p 163). This study found that by engaging students, in an almost metacognitive way, in learning about how the group work affected their learning and behaviour, the students were able to discover the benefits of group work for themselves, in improving their literacy and fluency, and in supporting peer bonding, confidence and self-efficacy (Ewal, 2004). In this study, small group behaviours changed as the students became aware of these behaviours and of the functions of the group and the class as a whole (Ewal, 2004). This demonstrates that while group work is still viewed along pedagogical lines as a requisite of proper learning, through application and testing of knowledge, the dynamics of group work require some attention, and may act as militating or mediating factors in the effectiveness of group activities. Ewal (2004) concludes that “teachers should be attentive to opportunities to discuss language learning and classroom-related issues with their students” (p 175). This adds an extra dimension to the concept of group work, as functioning for students on many levels, not simply on a praxis/practice level.

Of course, the discussion of group work leads us neatly into the concept of peer feedback, which is connected to the theories on group activities and just as contentious, it seems. Rollinson (2005) shows how although peer feedback has been supported in ESL classrooms, teachers and students are less than convinced of its efficacy and usefulness.

Rollinson (2005) argues that proper training and procedures for peer feedback in ESOL classrooms is the key to making such feedback effective. Hu (2005) seems to echo this, that peer feedback can enhance learning, but does acknowledge that these activities need monitoring and that peer review situations can be problematic. Feedback and review of English language proficiency can be formalised into learning activities in the classroom context. Al-Hazmi and Scholfield (2007) describe an action research study which was aimed at improving English language writing proficiency in Saudi Arabian university students. This study involved “a regime of enforced draft revision, using a checklist” in which two groups were involved, one trained in peer revision, the other doing their own revision (Al-Hazmi and Scholfield, 2007 p 237). These authors found that “there were clear draft improvements in quality, especially in mechanics, despite only modest amounts of meaning-changing and multisentential revisions being recorded” Al-Hazmi and Scholfield, 2007 p 237). The most significant finding from this study demonstrated that the students enjoyed and responded positively to peer review (Al-Hazmi and Scholfield, 2007). This may simply underline the fact that language learning is as much a social as an individual process (Dagenais et al, 2008; Roberts and Baynham, 2006; Schellekens, 2007)

Formal tutor feedback is also an essential component of developing fluency, although again, the form that this takes can affect its value. Hyland and Hyland (2006), for example, agree that feedback is vital in terms of encouraging learning and consolidating that learning, and demonstrate that it is used in process-based classrooms and in genre-orientated learning environments. It may seem obvious to some that tutor feedback is important, but teachers and learners should be aware that feedback has different purposes, as well as different forms, and while it can be difficult for some students to assimilate feedback and correction, it is through signposting mistakes as well as successes that students can learn how much they have learned.

Feedback itself has expanded to encompass not only written comments from the teacher, but language workshops, conferences and even electronic feedback (Hyland and Hyland, 2006). Lyster and Mori (2006) examined the effects of explicit correction, recasts, and prompts on learner uptake and repair, and found that “instructional activities and interactional feedback that act as a counterbalance to a classroom’s predominant communicative orientation are likely to prove more effective than instructional activities and interactional feedback that are congruent with its predominant communicative orientation” (p 269). This suggests that feedback must be specific to the task and to the context, and also that there is a need for a deeper understanding of the pedagogical dimensions of formal tutor feedback, and the purpose that this feedback serves. This also shows that the emergence of the communicative classroom is not necessarily the final evolution of the ESOL context (Campbell and Duncan, 2007).

However, there are those who have argued strongly against written feedback, and the trends in ESOL teaching in recent years has been to avoid this (Bitchener, 2008). However, research by Bitchener (2008) shows that in some cases, written feedback enhances learning:

The study found that the accuracy of students who received written corrective feedback in the immediate post-test outperformed those in the control group and that this level of performance was retained 2 months later.

Bitchener 2008 p 102.

This would seem to suggest that there is value in providing written tutor feedback. Lochtman (2002) also shows the value of oral or verbal feedback, but underlines the need to give different kinds of feedback depending on the language learning context, the task, and the learner, suggesting that while this feedback is beneficial, it is only so if it meets the needs of the individual learner.

One of the issues with fluency is also related to currency (Taylor, 2006), and it could be that the provision of both types of feedback is central to understanding the current use of various idiomatic forms as well as of slang and vernacular. While many ESOL teaching contexts shy away from teaching ‘common’ spoken forms and focus on formal, correct English, feedback from a tutor, for example, can help to draw comparisons between the two forms and allow students to develop awareness of when it is appropriate to use the different types of English expression (Taylor, 2006; Wallace, 2006). This ability to speak fluently is much more complex than simply learning linguistic form, it is about attaining a degree of comfort and ease with using the language, and using it appropriately and ‘naturally’. All of these approaches to supporting language learning could be said to be fostering this development, but only if they are properly planned, and managed, and it seems that quality ‘teaching’ and facilitation is still required.

Conclusion

This essay demonstrates that there is a range of literature to support the development of language fluency in ESOL classrooms through group work and through interactive processes of learning, and through the provision of tutor feedback and peer feedback. There are issues and challenges with ESOL learning in relation to developing verbal skills, because verbal language requires real-time interaction and the ability to respond to different cues and situations. It would seem from the literature cited above that the use of group work in ESOL learning needs to be planned carefully and designed to ensure that learning is not impeded by individual differences or by the negative aspects of group work, including frustration between learners with different levels of competency, and difficulties in group work which is assessed formally.

Collaborative learning may be a strength in developing fluency, and this could be incorporated with peer feedback, but it would seem that this is only truly effective if the students are ‘trained’ and supported in giving feedback to ensure it is fair and an constructive, and given in the appropriate spirit. Similarly, it would seem that feedback may assist in developing fluency, but the literature cited does not provide strong or conclusive evidence that formal feedback is good for this, despite its value in developing written and verbal language skills. More research is required in looking at different kinds of feedback in supporting fluency. However, the literature does indicate that feedback must be individualised and meet the needs of the learner.

References

Al-Hazmi, S.H. and Scholfield, P. (2007) Enforced revision with checklist and peer feedback in EFL writing: the example of Saudi university students. Scientific Journal of King Faisal University (Humanities and Management Sciences 18 (2)237-267.

Atoye, R.O. (2005) Non-native perception of English intonation. Nordic Journal of African Studies14 (1) 26-42.

Bitchener, J. (2008) Evidence in support of written corrective feedback Journal of Second Language Writing 17 (2) 102-118.

Brillinger, K. (2003) From Theory to Practice: Creating Intermediate ESL Reading Materials Based on Current SLA Research and Theories, Newsletter of the Association of Teachers of English as a Second Language of Ontario, 29(3), 1-6

Burns, A. (2006) Surveying landscapes in adult ESOL research, Linguistics and Education, 17, 97–105

Campbell, C. and Duncan, G. (2007) From Theory to Practice: General Trends in Foreign Language Teaching Methodology and Their Influence on Language Assessment. Language and Linguistics Compass 1 (6) 592-611

Chan, M..M. (1998) What We Already Know about Teaching ESL Writers (Research in the Classroom). English Journal 77 (6) 84-85

Chen, R. and Hird, B. (2006) Group Work in the Efl Classroom in China: A Closer Look. RELC Journal, 37 (10) 91-103.

Dagenais, D. Beynon, J. and Mathis, N. (2008) Intersections of Social Cohesion, Education, and Identity in Teachers, Discourses, and Practices Pedagogies: An International Journal 3 (2) 85 – 108.

Ewald, J.D. (2004) A classroom forum on small group work: L2 learners see, and change, themselves. Language Awareness 13 (3) 163-179.

Ferris, D.R. (1994) Lexical and syntactic features of ESL writing by students at different levels of L2 proficiency. TESOL Quarterly 28 (2) 414-420.

Haneda,. M. (2005) Some Functions of Triadic Dialogue in the Classroom: Examples from L2 Research Canadian Modern Language Review 62 (2) 313-333

Hyland, K. and Hyland, F (2006). Feedback on second language students’ writing. Language Teaching, 39 83-101.

Holliday, A. (2005) The Struggle to Teach English as an International Language New York: Oxford University Press.

Hu, G. (2005) Using peer review with Chinese ESL student writers. Language Teaching Research 9 (3) 321-342.

Johnson,K.E. (1995) Understanding communication in second language classrooms New York: Cambridge University Press.

Lochtman, K. (2002) Oral corrective feedback in the foreign language classroom: how it affects interaction in analytic foreign language teaching International Journal of Educational Research 37 (3-4) 271-283.

Long, M. (1996) The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In Ritchie, W. and Bhatia, T. (eds) Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (413-468) San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Lyster, R. and Mori, H. (2006). Interactional Feedback And Instructional Counterbalance. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28 , 269-300

McDonough, K. (2004) Learner-learner interaction during pair and small group activities in a Thai EFL context System 32 (2) 207-224

Morgan, B. (1997) Identity and intonation: linking dynamic processes in an ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly 31 (3) 431-450.

Morley, J. (1991) The pronunciation component in teaching English to speaker sof other languages. TESOL Quarterly

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Pica, T., Lincoln-Porter, F., Paninos, D. and Linnell, J. (1996) Language learners’ interaction: how does it address the input, output and feedback needs of L2 learners? TESOL Quarterly 30 59-84.

Roberts, C. & Baynham, M. (2006) Introduction to the special issue: Research in adult ESOL, Linguistics and Education, 17, 1-5

Rollinson, P. (2005) Using peer feedback in the ESL writing class ELT Journal Volume 59/1 ELT Journal 59 (1) .

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Taylor, L. (2006) The changing landscape of English: implications for language assessment ELT Journal 60(1):51-60

Wallace, C. (2006) The text, dead or alive: Expanding textual repertoires in the adult ESOL classroom, Linguistics and Education, 17, 74-90

Widdowson, H.G. (1978) Teaching language as communication Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Widodo, H.P. (2006) Approaches and procedures for teaching grammar. English Teaching: Practice and Critique. 5 (1) 122-141.

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Governmental Control Over Curriculum and the Impact on Teachers as Skilled Professionals

Introduction

Caldwell and Hayward (1998) state that the need for reform in England’s school system was realized in 1976 (p. 1). Yet, it was not until 1988 with the Education Reform Act instituted under Margaret Thatcher that a “national curriculum, national tests” and control of the schools by the government began to become a reality (Caldwell & Hayward 1998, p. 1). Murnane and Steele (2007) contend that national involvement in the public schools was intended to support the learners, as well as the teachers (p. 15). However, because of the continued awareness by governments that Western educational institutions were lagging behind the accomplishments of Eastern schools, continued changes in the area of education and government’s control over it have completely altered the educational landscape (Murnane & Steele 2007, p. 15). This is because of an adopted neo-liberalist policy approach that has favored markets over learners and policies over teacher effectiveness (Apple 2001, p. 182). As a result teachers are becoming “deskilled” and incapable of maintaining their own control over their effectiveness in the classroom (Hall 2004, p. 3). As this control subsides, therefore, teachers are leaving the profession due to frustration and an inability to maintain their professional capabilities in the schools. This knowledge provides evidence that the neo-liberalist policies that have been adopted in the United Kingdom are not achieving the end results as once forecast and that there is perhaps a need to reconsider these policies in order to ensure that teachers that are the foundation of education retain the skills and knowledge that is necessary to instruct society’s children.

Neo-Liberalism

Apple (2001) indicates that there was once a “classical liberalism” that existed in relation to the schools and those policies related to education that impacted teachers and students (p. 182). However, Apple (2001) states that as time has progressed the classical liberalism of the state policies has been altered toward a “neo-liberalism approach” (p. 182). According to Apple (2001), it is important to understand the differences between these two types of views of education because these differences are at the core of the educational issues that schools in many countries face today (p. 182).

Olssen (1996) defines classical liberalism in the schools as a method of “freeing those within the schools from state control” (p. 337). Olssen (1996), on the other hand, specifies that neo-liberalism supports the state’s role in controlling education by “creating a market…[that involves] the conditions, laws and institutions necessary for its operation” (p. 337). Apple (2001) argues that when an education “market” is, therefore, created it is a market that seems to suggest “individualization” (p. 182). However, the individualization of the market is subjected to the controls of the government and the policies that force parents, teachers and students to act in a certain manner, leading to the end results that the state intended from the start (Apple 2001, p. 182). This is because the actions of the entities connected to education are restrained by the boundaries set forth in the policies of the government and as those boundaries become more tightly fixed the actions of the parties are more predictable.

Choice and Influence on Teachers

Apple (2001) expands on this notion by examining the middle class in society (p. 182). Apple (2001) stipulates that when parents of different nations in the middle class are given the opportunity of school choice the government knows that those parents will naturally begin placing their own criteria and/or expectations on schools (p. 182). Consequently when parents are unhappy with the curriculum at one school the teachers at the school are forced to alter that curriculum in order to meet the demands of the parents or they will loose the students within that school (Apple 2001, p. 182). The loss of students within a school means the loss of government funding, the loss of jobs, the lack of teacher’s ability to provide resources and ultimately the loss of the school itself in the community. Therefore, as Apple (2001) indicates, the government policies may be suggesting that people have a greater choice; yet, what is actually occurring is a more significant control of schools through the ability of parents to actively use choice to influence curriculum in relation to the schools (p. 182). As parents influence how the curriculum is created, consequently, teachers are placed under greater scrutiny and are forced to expand their offerings in the classroom – even if these offerings include learning that the teacher is not knowledgeable or skilled in.

Brooker (2003) contends that the manner in which parents and private entities are capable of influencing the education of students is evident in the United Kingdom with the inclusion of computer technologies in the elementary classroom (p. 261). Over the past decade there has been such a significant increase in the demand for computer technology training of young students. Yet, those schools that do not conform to this expectation are loosing students (Brooker 2003, p. 261). In general this is because parents, manufacturers and the government insists that if children are not trained in the use of computers at an early age they will not be capable of competing with their peers or those in the outside world later on (Brooker 2003, p. 261). Yet, Brooker (2003) argues that technologies in the classroom has impacted teachers negatively due to the fact that many of today’s teachers are not skilled in the use of computers and they are not capable of acquiring the knowledge needed to instruct their students adequately (p. 261). This is because, in general, many schools fail to provide teachers with new training that will support the increase in the instructional scope and teachers do not have the ability to seek outside skill training and maintain their work schedule at the same time.

New Teacher Training

The concept of choice and control offered by the government is also being reflected in proposals by government entities associated with initial teacher training (Apple 2000, p. 1). Apple (2000) specifies that in the current educational climate what is being considered is the “deregulation” of teacher training as a means of promoting competition among institutions of higher learning (p. 1). Essentially what this causes to occur is that colleges and universities are freely allowed to choose their own approaches to teaching and teachers have the choice of training institutions that they prefer. However, as time progresses it becomes apparent to schools and the communities that support them which teachers are trained effectively and which are not (Apple 2001, p. 182). This occurs when standardized test scores are revealed from students, reflecting directly back on the teacher’s abilities to educate (Apple 2001, p. 182). As a result, when enough teachers from a particular institution are incapable of developing learners that can pass standardized tests that institution begins to realize a decline in enrollment (Apple 2001, p. 182). Although teachers in training are given the choice of schools to attend and colleges are given freedom in determining how those teachers are training, ultimately it is the governmental control of policies that impacts whether or not the institution of higher learning will survive and what curriculum will be used to teach teachers in society. In the neo-liberalist approach to education there is evidence that the freedoms that are being given to colleges and universities are instead tools that negatively impact teachers entering the profession, often with the new teachers being unaware that they are ultimately slated for failure before they even begin their careers.

Able Students

Ball, Bowe and Gewirtz (1994) stipulate that governmental control over education further impacts teachers and curriculum due to the fact that teachers and schools begin to attempt to avoid students with special needs and “seek out able children” (p. 19). This is because special needs students require a greater amount of teacher time, teacher expertise and teacher interaction with students that takes away from the teacher instructing “able” students who do not have special needs (Ball, Bowe & Gewitz 1994, p. 19). In England, Ball, Bowe and Gewitz (1994) state that this intent to encourage able students enrolling in schools by teachers and administrators is directly related to the “publication of performance indicators such as examination league tables” because schools find it difficult to explain that test scores may be low due to an abundance of special needs students (Ball, Bowe & Gewitz 1994, p. 19).

Yet, Gerwitz, Ball and Bowe (1995) further argue that control of the curriculum and teacher performance is also related to the students of different cultures (p. 6). For example, in England it is known that African American students traditionally have difficulties in the schools because of the large segment of this population that is impoverished (p. 6). Poverty is correlated to the abilities of the students, with those in the impoverished classes historically performing less successfully on standardized tests (Gerwitz, Ball & Bowe 1995, p. 6). Apple (2001), therefore, states that this causes teachers to develop curriculum that targets students who are more capable of learning and ignores those students that standardized testing was intended to support in the first place (p. 182).

Fragmentation

Allen and Ainley (2007) contend that as time progresses the governmental control over the curriculum in the schools is continuing to expand, impacting how teachers not only teach, but changing what is taught to students, causing a fragmentation of teacher control over their own labor (p. 1). An example of this exists within English schools as education reform is focused on vocational education for students beginning at age 14 (Allen & Ainley 2007, p. 1). According to Allen and Ainley (2007) the government came to the conclusion that there was a decline in students graduating from schools with marketable skills and this impacted their success after public schooling (p. 1). The issue, therefore, became less concentrated on a student’s ability to read, write and perform simple math and more on specifically training students to function in specific jobs once they have left academia (Allen & Ainley, 2007, p. 1).

Allen and Ainley (2007) indicate that this brings about two specific issues. First, while teachers in the United Kingdom have indicated that they do not support this policy, teacher organizations throughout the country have ignored teacher protests and called on educators to ensure that the policies are successful (Allen & Ainley 2007, p 1). Second, programs for vocational training are being largely created in schools that instruct low income or impoverished students, with those students in high performing schools working with a traditional curriculum (Allen & Ainley 2007, p. 1). What this means is that while governmental policies are once again suggesting that there is choice in relation to education, the policies are ensuring that only those choices that support what the government deems appropriate for education will be made (Allen & Ainley 2007, p. 1; Chitty 2004, p. 160). Furthermore, Murnane and Steele (2007) state that this causes teachers to be inundated with having to cope with a curriculum that is ever-changing and that they believe they no longer have control over (p. 15). As a result teachers are leaving the teaching profession in vast numbers and this is creating a greater shortage in the teacher workforce than ever before (Murnane & Steele 2007, p. 15).

Conclusion

Duggan and Pole (1996) suggest that the dissatisfaction in the teacher workforce began to be ever apparent in the 1990s (p. 139). Hall (2004) states that this is an issue that has increased over time because of policies such as “the Literacy and Numeracy Strategies in primary school and the Key Stage 3 Strategy in secondary schools”, as well as the inclusion of technologies and standardized testing that “constricts teachers” and their capabilities throughout the curriculum (p. 3). According to Hall (2004) the types of control connected to the schools and the deskilling of teachers are endless (p. 8; Appendix 1). Consequently there is an increased teacher workload, decreased teacher satisfaction and a reduction in the number of teachers that want to or are capable of instructing students in the manner in which government and/or society demands. For the future of education in the Western world this could mean that the attempt by government to regulate education and create more successful outcomes for students in England has the opposite effect, as is indicated by Hall (2004, p. 3).

The research indicates that the original intent of education to create students that were capable of being productive citizens after their educational careers ended became extremely complex when it was realized that Western students did not achieve at the same rate as Eastern students. Therefore, a neo-liberalist policy toward education by the government was adopted, suggesting that choice was available to parents, teachers and students and that a greater freedom in education would exist. Yet, the research also demonstrates that the idea of choice was restricted by the policies related to education that were adopted by the government and that these policies minimalized the choices that actually existed. Moreover, these neo-liberalist policies became so intricately woven within education that the choices made by those connected to education could be predicted and manipulated with ease. For teachers this has meant that they are overworked, under-trained and unprepared for the demands of the modern educational system and given few options as to how they can overcome these issues. This knowledge provides serious implications for the educational system because as teachers continue to become frustrated due to their increasing deskilled status they are leaving the teaching workforce. This knowledge provides evidence that the neo-liberalist policies that have been adopted in the United Kingdom are not achieving the end results as once forecast and that there is perhaps a need to reconsider these policies in order to ensure that teachers that are the foundation of education retain the skills and knowledge that is necessary to instruct society’s children.

Appendix 1

(Hall 2004, p. 8).

1. Regulated market control: metaphors of the market and consumer demand are imposed upon schools; success and profits go to those who best meet consumer demand. Teachers’ work is evaluated in terms of measured outputs set against cost. Competition is the key element in relations between schools. (Ball, 1994)

2. Technical control: this is embodied in structures rather than people – in, for example, notionally ‘teacher proof’ teaching materials and text books, and in specified competences (Apple, 1988, 1996)

3. Bureaucratic control: hierarchical power is embedded in the social and organisational structure of institutions – jobs are differently divided and defined, have different salaries, and supervision, evaluation and promotion arrangements. The potential for establishing a career operates as a control mechanism.

4. Corporate control: the focus of the institution is on economic rather than social good. A competitive ethos prevails. Managers focus on economic goals. The head teacher is perceived more as a line manager than as a first among professional equals.

5. Ideological control: hegemonic beliefs – for example, that a good teacher has certain characteristics – become part of the dominant ideology within schools. These ideas and beliefs are reinforced in pre-service and in-service training. Certain conceptions of teachers’ work become naturalised – for example, a move away from child-centred discourse to market based discourse.

6. Disciplinary power: Foucault (1977) shows how, by means of the technologies of power – hierarchical observation, normalising judgment and examination –individuals are ‘disciplined’ into ways of understanding their work. Minor procedures and routines are specified (times, dress, expected responses) in ways that become anonymous and functional within a school; teachers and others within the school regulate their own behaviours to meet these expectations. Smyth describes this as a ‘triumph of technique over questions of purpose’

Bibliography

Allen, M. and Ainley, P. (2007) Education make you fick, innit? London: Tufnell Press.

Apple, M. (2000). Power, meaning, and identity. New York: Peter Lang.

Apple, M. (2001). Markets, standards, teaching and teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education. 52(3): 182-207.

Ball, S., Bowe, R., & Gewirtz, S. (1994). Market forces and parental choice. In S.

Tomlinson (Ed.), Educational reform and its consequences (pp. 13-25). London: IPPR/Rivers Oram Press.

Brooker, L. (2003). Integrating new technologies in the UK classroom. Childhood Education. 79(5): 261-289.

Caldwell, B., and Hayward, D. (1998). The future of schools: Lessons from the reform of public education. London: Falmer Press.

Chitty, C. (2004). Education policy in Britain. London: Palgrave.

Duggan, R., and Pole, C. (1996). Reshaping education in the 1990s. New York: Routledge.

Gewirtz, S., Ball, S., & Bowe, R. (1995). Markets, choice, and equity in education. Philadelphia: Open University Press.

Hall. C. (2004). Theorizing changes in teacher’s work. Canadian Journal of Education Administration and Policy. Retrieved January 1, 2009, from http://www.umanitoba.ca/publications/cjeap/pdf_files/hall.pdf

Murnane, R., and Steele, J. (2007). What is the problem? The challenge of providing effective teacher for all children. The Future of Children. 17(1): 15-35.

Olssen, M. (1996). In defense of the welfare state and of publicly provided education. Journal of Education Policy. 11: 337-362.

Table of Contents (Jump to)

Introduction

Application

Core Technology

Competitors and Market data

Future trends and Conclusion

References and Bibliography

Introduction

The term Electronic-Technology (Also referred to Information Communication Technology) or E-Technology originates from the fact that most of these technologies are electronically facilitated. E-Technology has become a commonplace entity in all aspects of life (Carr, 2003). Across the past twenty years the use of E-Technology has fundamentally changed the practices and procedures of nearly all forms of endeavour within business and governance (Oliver, 2002). Every organisation is looking to use the numerous advantages offered by these new evolving technologies and enhance their organisational prospects, be it business houses (E-commerce), banks (E-banking), educational institutions (E-learning, E-Training) etc. For the purpose of this report we will concentrate on the educational use of E-technology in the form of E-Learning.

People have always had a need to learn from people who aren’t in their immediate vicinity (Dede, 1995). In the early days, for example, guilds provided opportunities to be trained by skillful teachers and learn from experts. People traveled great distances to learn from the best. Today’s technologies allow us to do similar sharing but at a distance. Early models of such learning were known as correspondence study and were text-based because books and paper were the technology that was available at the time. As technologies change and expand, the options for learning expand with them. Because of the ongoing technological evolution and progress, it can and will be harnessed for learning. These new technologies that can be used for learning purposes are collectively better know as E-Learning technologies.

There seems to be no agreement on a unified view on the definition of e-learning as per the literature. The author of this report will use the definition of e-learning as proposed by NCSA:

“E-learning is the acquisition and use of knowledge distributed and facilitated primarily by electronic means. This form of learning currently depends on networks and computers but will likely evolve into systems consisting of a variety of channels (e.g., wireless, satellite), and technologies (e.g., cellular phones, PDA’s) as they are developed and adopted. E-learning can take the form of courses as well as modules and smaller learning objects. E-learning may incorporate synchronous or asynchronous access and may be distributed geographically with varied limits of time.” (NCSA, 2000)

Applications

A growing body of research supports that E-learning technologies, if appropriately used in the classroom, may allow students to create knowledge in a creative way by giving them opportunities to explore, interact, problem solve, and collaborate (Clarkson et al, 1999). Kirschner and Selinger (2003. p.6) elaborates by mentioning that these technologies offer the potential to: meet the learning needs of individual students; to promote equality of opportunity; to offer high-quality learning materials; and to increase self-efficacy and independence of learning amongst students of all ages. In the U.K., the Department of Education and Employment (DfEE) now known as Department for Education and Skills (DfES), believes that ICT can provide new levels of learning support and mentioned that: “We believe the ambitious and imaginative use of technology will be a central element in improving personalisation and choice across the system” (DfES, 2004, p.88). Some of the widely used applications of E-Technology in the form E-Learning in an educational setting are given below.

Data – logging and Graphing: In data-logging activities, learners need only to make decisions about what parameter to measure, in a suitably designed experiment, and to select the appro­priate sensor, to be able to record high-quality data. Barton’s (1997) comparative study of graphing using computer and non-computer methods has highlighted the flexibility afforded by the computer approach. Real-time plotting has time advantages over manual methods, in particular in encourag­ing pupils to focus on trends and patterns rather than individual data items. Spreadsheets and other types of software that provide graphing facilities enable pupils to explore the presentation of data in different graphical forms, and to look for trends and patterns in data.

Obtaining and transmitting knowledge: The facility of computers to archive large quantities of information and to permit its ready retrieval was of potential educational benefit for conveying knowledge. Software that is designed to exploit these properties includes multimedia resources such as CD-ROM (O’Bannon, 1997) and web-based materials accessed through internet ‘browsers’ .

Presenting and reporting: The presentational tools provided by word processing, desktop publishing, web-based and other specialized presentation software offer pupils powerful tools for presenting and sharing their ideas with others. As well as deciding what information they may wish to report, pupils can decide on styles and formats for presenting their ideas. This allows for a degree of creativity and exploration in the search for the most appropriate and effective format. We believe that the creative processes involved in producing reports and presentations help pupils to develop and secure their understanding of science.

Core Technology

E-learning technologies are available in a variety of types and forms. Electronic learning has existed before the Internet came into existence. It was known as computer-based training (CBT), where training materials, some were even interactive, were stored in floppy disks and later in CD-ROMs (Schittek et al, 2001). The CD-ROM version still exists today. The current Web-based form of E-learning is merely an enhanced version, capitalising on the latest computer technologies to incorporate the capability of multimedia and global accessibility of the Web. The technologies could include hardware (e.g. computers and other devices); software applications; and connectivity (e.g. access to the internet, local networking infrastructure and video conferencing) (Toomey, 2001). The capacity of these new technologies to support learning in a creative way through experience of simulations, problem solving, investigating and handling information is considerable.

With E-Learning, there is opportunity for high level interaction among students, the lecturers and the computer-mediated material. Teaching is flexible because as it can be conducted synchronously or asynchronously, contact is dynamic and can be as variable as the student or the lecturer desires and communication can take place through a variety of modes, such as email, chat, bulletin boards, etc all facilitated by the computer this can be viewed as distributed learning.

It is general knowledge that the most widely used of the E-learning tools in the education sector is electronic communication tool (Email). Academic teaching staffs are making themselves available for 24 through the use of email and bulletin boards. Bates (2000) notes that the use of electronic communication for most lecturers actually increases their contact with students, which can be very beneficial for the students. Lecture notes and other teaching resources are placed on the internet for students to access, and linking useful web sites to these resources enables students to navigate through relevant resources. Academic staff also employs published classroom resources that are directly linked to the internet. Learning or Course management systems are used to create an online environment which houses a multitude of resources – such as course outlines, listed resources, internal email, bulletin boards, discussion forums, synchronous communication and so on. Presentation software’s (PowerPoint etc) are also being widely used to enhance classroom teaching. Compared to preparing a “Chalk and talk” lecture, the preparation of appropriate presentation software requires more time although it may save time in comparison to preparation of detailed overhead transparencies.

However, if one has to concur on a single technology that has resulted in the exponential growth of E-learning, it has to be the internet.

The World Wide Web has made it possible for people to access primary sources of information on demand. Mastery of this tool has become essential in order to gain access to an ever-growing body of recent and up-to-date knowledge available electronically. The rate of job change has also caused a rethinking of the skills required for lifelong learning, such as skilful use of ICT. The potential is there for these new technologies to attract a more competitive market, thus making the institution a more financial and viable entity (Bates, 2000).

Competitors and Market Data

Government along with Industry leaders have identified the potential of E-Learning and this is clearly evident from the amount of investment made governments and the companies. For example the UK government has, “Programmes to invest an additional ?81m over three years awarded from HEFCE and HEFCW have been earmarked to support central objectives of the DfES’s E-strategy, the Science and Innovation Investment Framework: 2004 – 2014, and ‘Reaching Higher’, the Welsh Assembly Government’s strategy for the higher education sector” (JISC, 2006). The following figure shows the amount that has been set aside for E-learning which is an around 20% increase from the previous investment.

The industry is not left far behind either. Organisations view learning increasingly as a competitive advantage rather than just another cost factor (Urdan & Weggen, 2000). The industry is to a greater extent divided in two major groups. One that provides centralised learning management systems (LMS) with the most commonly used applications and the other group of companies are the ones who provide bespoke E-learning systems as per the requirements of their clients. The ability to sustain and compete in this growingly competitive market is evident from the increasing number of mergers that we have seen in the past few years especially in the LMS sector. The following table shows a recent market state after the mergers and comprise of the big players in the LMS or E-learning sector.

Even though the bespoke E-learning market is growing every day the companies are not as big as the LMS vendors. However, this is a positive sign and it enables small sized organisations to integrate affordable E-Learning solution into their business provided by these companies rather then the ones provided by the LMS vendors which are hugely expensive.

Commercial and social impact

There is absolutely no doubt that these E-Learning technologies are having a massive impact at commercial as well as social level. Some of them are mentioned below:

Online Social Communities – The asynchronous and synchronous communication ability of E-Learning systems has enabled institutions to cater for a variety of users by removing the barriers of time and distance. Users who are normally geographically disadvantaged have access to a variety of educational resources not usually at their disposal (Bates, 2000). This, in a way has lead to the evolution of online social networks (‘Myspace’, ‘second life’ etc). These networks are having an enormous social impact on the society in a positive way to a greater extent. Social networks are playing a instrumental role in learning environments as a major conduit of resource and knowledge exchanges (Cho, Stefanone, & Gay, 2002) and as a source of social support and socialisation for distributed learners (Haythornthwaite, 2002). There are abundant discussions emphasising the value and the impact of social networks in the studies of organisational learning (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998), knowledge management (Cohen & Prusak, 2001), and distance learning (Haythornthwaite, 2002).

Pedagogical Improvement and staff renewal – Teaching staff are able to preset information using a variety of tools in order to better relate to the content to the concrete realities of a given field of study. Innovative hands-on learning experiences are also made possible for students through computer simulation software. Asynchronous communication technologies are used outside the classroom to enrich classroom learning through discussion groups, mentoring and coaching (Burg & Thomas, 1998). The challenge of teaching with ICT has led to revitalizing teaching practice for academic staff (Bates, 2000).

Cost-effectiveness – According to Chute, Thompson and Hancock (1999) the potential financial savings associated with E-learning can be significant when compared to traditional methods. E-Learning can improve the cost-effectiveness of the operation of educational institutions in variety of ways. One way is by the ability to reach different students and in greater numbers. Academic teaching staff can be freed from many routine activities by replacing certain activities with appropriate technology (Deden & Carter, 1996). Leading firms such as CISCO, Motorola, IBM and Ford are already reaping benefits associated with E-learning with some of them having cutting costs in the range of a whooping 30 to 50 percent (Greengard, 1999).

Future Trends and Bibliography

Although the growth of E-Learning is considerable there are those who are sceptical about its potential. Cuban (2001) argues that although governments are spending substantial sums of money to develop and implement educational policy to fund E-learning; research reveals that these new technologies are often oversold and underused (Cuban 2001, cited in Kirschner and Wopereis 2003). Also, with respect to E-Learning being a driving force behind educational innovation and reform, research indicates that ‘the role of E-Learning is not as profound as one would expect” (Kirschner and Wopereis 2003, p. 107). This may be because ‘ICT is too often used as a modern and efficient substitute for existing learning and teaching materials and seldom as a vehicle for innovation and transformation of education’ (Kirschner et al 1995, cited in Kirschner and Wopereis 2003, p. 107). This has prompted the government to shift its attention from technology to pedagogy as shown below.

Whether or not someone is keen on using technology for learning, the fact is that it’s here to stay. Technology has become an essential way to handle the education, training, and retraining needs of an expanding knowledge society. According to a recent report on job skills, 50 percent of all employee skills become outdated in three to five years. In addition, experts say the percentage of jobs that fit into the category of “knowledge workers” is rapidly increasing (Moe & Blodgett, 2000). Even jobs that were traditionally thought to require fewer skills, such as retail sales, now commonly require computer skills and the ability to keep pace with product changes. Many blue-collar workers regularly use computers and databases in their work. We simply don’t have the capacity to support today’s educational and training needs by using traditional methods alone.

References

Barton, R. (1997). ‘Computer aided graphing: a comparative study.’ Journal of Information Technology for teacher education. 6(1), 59-72.

Bates, A. W. (2000). Managing technological change – Strategies for college and university leaders. San Fransisco: Jossey Bass.

Burg, Jennifer J., and Thomas, Stan J. Computers Across Campus. Communications of the ACM 41, 1 (Jan. 1998), 22-25.

Carr, N.G., (2003). IT doesn’t matter. Harvard Business Review cited by McCredie, J., 2003. Does IT matter to higher education? Educause Review 38 (6), 14–22.

Cho, H. Stefanone, M. and Gay, G. (2002), Social information sharing in a CSCL community, Proceedings of 2002 ACM CSCL conference, Lawrence Elbaum Associates, Boulder, USA (2002), pp. 43–53

Chute, A,G., Thompson, M. M., & Hancock, B W. (1999). The McGraw-Hill handbook of distance learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Clarkson P, Dunbar A, and Toomey R (1999) ‘Whole School Reform and the use of ICT. An evaluation of the Navigator Schools Project’ (Cited in Toomey R (2001) Information and Communication Technology for Teaching and Learning. Schooling Issues Digest 2. Canberra: Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs.)

Cohen, D. and Prusak, L. (2001) In good company: how social capital makes organisations work, Harvard Business Press, MA, Boston (2001).

Dede, C (1995). The Transformation of Distance Education to Distributed Learning. [Online] Available http://www.hbg.psu.edu/bsed/intro/docs/distlearn/ [Accessed on 06/02/2007]

Deden, A. & Carter, V. (1996). Using technology to enhance students’ skills. New Directions for Higher Education, 96, 81-92.

DfES (2003) ‘Fulfilling the Potential’ Transforming teaching and learning through ICT in schools, available at http://www.dfes.gov.uk

DfES (2004), Five Year Strategy for Children and Learners, July 2004. http://www.dfes.gov.uk/publications/5yearstrategy/docs/DfES5Yearstrategy1.rtf

DfFE (1998) ‘Teaching: High Status. High Standards. Requirements for courses of Initial Teacher Training. Annex B: Initial Teacher Training National Curriculum for the use of Information and. Communications Technology in Subject Teaching” (quoted in Pachier N (1999) ‘Theories of Learning and ICT” in Leask M and Pachler N (eci) (i 999) Learning to Teach using ICT in the Secondary school New York: Routledge.

Greengard, S. (1999). Web-based training yields maximum returns. Workforce, 78(2), 95-96.

Haythornthwaite, C. (2002) Building social networks via computer networks: Creating and sustaining distributed learning communities. In: K.A. Renninger and W. Shumar, Editors, Building virtual communities: learning and change in cyberspace, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2002), pp. 159–190.

JISC, (2006), Annual Review of Joint Information Systems Committee, UK, Available at http://www.jisc.ac.uk/publications/publications/pub_ar06.aspx [Accessed on 07/02/07]

Kirschner P and Selingcr M (2003) “The state of affairs of Teacher education with respect to Information and Communication Technology” Technology Pedagogy and Education 12 / J / pp. 5-1

Kirschner P, Hermans H J and De Wolf H C (1995) ‘Onderwijsvernieuwing en Informatie Technologie (Educational Reform and Information Technology)’ (Cited in Kirschner P and Wopereis I (2003) ‘Mind tools for teacher communities: a European perspective’ Technology Pedagogy and Education 12 (I) pp. 105-124.

NCSA (2000), e-learning – A review of literature, National Center for Supercomputing Applications, Available at learning.ncsa.uiuc.edu/papers/elearnlit.pdf, [Accessed on 08/02/07]

O’Bannon, B. (1997) ‘CD-Rom Integration peaks student interest in inquiry’ Computers in the Schools 13 (3/4) pp. 127-134.

Oliver, R. (2002). The role of ICT in higher education for the 21st century: ICT as a change agent for education. Available online at: http://elrond.scam.ecu.edu.au/oliver/2002/he21.pdf. Accessed [08/02/07]

Schittek M, Mattheos N, Lyon HC, Attstrom R. (2001) Computer assisted learning. A review. Eur J Dent Educ. 2001 Aug;5(3):93-100.

Toomey, R. (2001). Information and Communication Technology for Teaching and Learning. Schooling Issues Digest 2. Canberra: Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs.

Urdan, T. A., & Weggen C. C. (2000). Corporate e-learning: Exploring a new frontier. WR Hambrecht Co.

CPPD
Introduction

Reflection has become a fundamental component of professional development of teachers and lecturers in the Further Education (FE) and Higher Education (HE) sector (Harkin, 2005). The lifelong learning sector can be seen to transcend both these paradigms and contexts of post-compulsory learning. This essay addresses some key elements of reflecting upon the experience of a teacher in Beauty Therapy within the lifelong learning sector, addressing the intersection between the personal and experiential and the theoretical/pedagogical aspects of the role and its function.

Teaching roles and context within the lifelong learning sector

Teaching roles within the lifelong learning sector seem to be related to the kind of teaching, the kind of subject, and the kind of learner (Zukas, 2006), a three-way relationship which I have observed to be perhaps more negotiated upon a day to day basis than founded in one single pedagogical theory or framework. It is notable that within the lifelong learning sector, there seems to be a crossover between the vocational type of education, and more traditional ‘teaching’, and in particular, these roles of ‘teachers’ are very much based on how best to meet student needs. Therefore, it seems that one element of the teaching role within this context is related to learning ‘on the job’ or learning through doing (Eraut, 2004), and the ‘becoming’ element of the process of ‘becoming’ a teacher in this context is a response to the demands of the job, rather than a formal process which prepares you to carry out the role. While this might run against the theories of pedagogy, being a much more personal take on what the teaching role is, it is based on perceptions of professional identity as well as an understanding of dominant concepts of the role in a formal sense (Beckett and Gough, 2004). Austerlitz and James (2008) describe the emotional journeys that students go through in further education as a process of cognition through which emotions help students to appraise situations and develop knowledge and understanding.

This may be an important perspective to consider within the lifelong learning sector, because of the range of types of students and types of subjects that are prevalent within this sector. There is no single student demographic, no single approach to pedagogy, no one-size-fits-all model of teaching and learning. Bathmaker and Avis (2005) carried out research into professional identity formation amongst trainee FE lecturers, and found that “rather than identifying effective processes of increasing participation in existing communities of practice, a strong sense of marginalisation and alienation amongst trainees was observed” (p 47). Bathmaker and Avis (2005) suggest that this lack of engagement in communities of practice is “detrimental both to trainees and experienced lecturers if they are to actively engage in building new forms of professionalism for the future” (p 47). I would draw from this the concept that formal training processes do not necessarily positively contribute to role formation, definition and professional identity, and that learning is much more experiential and interactive. Hagger et al (2008) support this view, and suggest that experiential learning dominates learning of this type.

Own teaching role and context within the lifelong learning sector

My own teaching role is to teach and support students to learn on two levels. The first is to learn the practical skills and abilities of the beauty therapy industry, so that they can become capable, effective practitioners. Beauty therapy is no ‘soft option’. In fact, there is a great deal of precision, dexterity and deeper learning involved in acquiring the skills to function as a therapist. The second element of the learning is for students to develop knowledge and understanding of the body, of health, of individuals and their holistic wellbeing, in order to contextualise the activities that they carry out within their roles, and to be able to provide suitable treatments, therapies and the like to appropriate clients. The third element of the role is to support students to develop the communication and interaction skills necessary to be able to bring together knowledge and practical skill into their own ‘professional role’ and identity, and work effectively as a therapist within a team. My role within this setting is to ‘teach’, but also to facilitate learning, raise difficult issues, support students to resolve complex questions, and act as a role model. Part of my role is to assess practical activities, and then provide feedback so that students can learn from their experiences and learn to improve their own practice through reflection and evaluation (Edwards and Nicoll, 2006; Solomon et al, 2006). My role also involves becoming more aware of the impact of my role on the students, and attempt to be as good a ‘teacher’ as I can be. More and more, however, my role involves other activities, including administration, engaging in marketing and recruitment activities, and looking for new topics and curriculum developments (Chivers, 2006).

Impact of own beliefs, assumptions and behaviours on learners and others

My own beliefs about learning affect not only the learners who I interact with, but also their interactions with others, particularly clients. I believe that my own actions, reflections, and the way I respond to emergent situations within the teaching context are likely to affect the students and how they learn as much as the formal, planned learning activities I provide for them. It is through reflection on my actions as a teacher that I have realised that reflection itself becomes a reflexive process, which changes the way I behave and react to students, which then changes their responses to me.

Austerlitz and James (2008) have developed a model which describes and captures PPD statements which are used in the further and higher education sectors (see Figure 1).

Figure 1 PPD Model (after Austerlitz and James, 2008).

A

Dominant emotion which is reported (or emotions)

B

Cause of the emotion (previous expectations, students’ goals, behaviour of others, issues of identity etc)

C

Object/focus of concern of the emotional response

D

Reported emotional intensity.

E.

The way the emotional response evolved.

F

Effects on aspects of learning.

This model encompasses many of my own beliefs about the ways in which students interact with their learning processes, and in particular, how they respond to my teaching and learning activities. Every aspect of learning must have an emotional element, and to exclude this from pedgagogical processes and theories is to overlook important aspects of how students learn and how they behave when applying that learning. Yet there is some evidence that current perceptions of teaching roles within the FE sector are also changing (Thompson and Robinson, 2008). I believe that the Austerlitz and James (2008) model could provide a means by which students could themselves identify the emotional elements of their learning and address this, through reflection, in proactive ways.

Impact of own professional, personal and interpersonal skills, including literacy, numeracy and ICT skills on learners and others.

I have used a range of teaching approaches, including some innovative use of ICTs, including using ICTs to make posters and mind maps, to encourage the application of new knowledge and exploration of complex situations. These have had a positive effect on some students who relate well to ICTs, particularly younger students, and have also helped students who are more visual learners. However, in relation to professionalism, I think it is my professional skills and experience which have positively impacted on students’ development of awareness and understanding of the complex interactions between beauty therapist and client. The current social construction of beauty, particularly in relation to ageing, raises issues about client experiences and emotional/psychological wellbeing (Paulson, 2008; Radley, 2000). Students need to understand the emotions and thoughts which underlie the desire that women have for the different kinds of beauty therapies, and be able to interact in a credible way with clients and meet their requests in appropriate ways. My own professionalism helps this because I set a good example, exemplify proper interactions, and support students to address often challenging issues such as intimacy, privacy, body-image and the like.

Conclusion

Overall, the most important aspect of my role as an educator is as a role model, and not simply as a role model of good communications behaviours or good practical skills, but as a questioning, reflective, responsibly practitioner, who sees clients as individuals, not just in relation to their treatments. It is important not to simply perpetuate traditional ways of working, but to question practice and the self in the professional context, and by acting as a reflective practitioner myself, I can encourage my students to develop similar skills and perhaps become better professionals because of it.

References

Austerlitz, N. and James, A. (2008) Reflections on emotional journeys: a new perspective for reading fashion students’ PPD statements. Art, Design and Communication in Higher Education 6 (3) 209 – 219.

Chivers, G. (2006) The work roles and development needs of vocational lifelong learning professionals in British higher education. Journal of European Industrial Training 30 (3) 166-187.

Zukas, M. (2006) Pedagogic learning in the pedagogic workplace: educators’ lifelong learning and learning futures. International Journal of Pedagogies and Learning 2 (3) 71-80.

How does a teacher identify the different types of learners in a language classroom and how best plan for this afterwards?

‘…plan, teach / act, observe and reflect…’

(Sue Davidoff and Owen van den Berg, 1990)

The Observation

My observation was undertaken at the British Council in Kuwait/Gulf Region^[ej1]. The observation class was of mixed nationality Arabic Language speakers at Intermediate level. There were twenty students in total, 80% males to 20% females. The class comprises of 30% students, 60% working or professional people & 10% homemakers & others. The age range is between 20 to 55 years. The class is halfway through a 6 months language course. I observed and was involved in a 90 minute lesson focusing on vocabulary, reading and speaking. At the end the teacher answered my prepared questionnaire (see Appendix)^[ej2].

The following essay consists of a brief theoretical, analytical and practical examination of learning styles and typologies in a language classroom and how best to plan for them. It includes an analysis of specific elements from the observed lesson (see Appendix for a transcript^[ej3]) put in the context of theory and intended future practise.

To support the lesson, the teacher used the white board, an overhead projector with one transparency and three handouts. Whole class work focused on provision of vocabulary and contextualisation of the material. The material was real and relevant to contemporary interests and cultures. The teacher used discussion starters to motivate and encourage student interest and involvement (as Allwright and Bailey advise, 1991) Responses were elicited from the class and supported through teacher modelling of pronunciation and writing on the white board. Individual work was limited. The teacher had established small groups (three to four students) aimed at balancing ethnic background and gender.

Research shows the importance of understanding and catering for different learning styles and cognitive strategies. When a learning style is not catered for, the student can easily become ‘bored and inattentive, do poorly on tests, get discouraged about the course, and may conclude that they are not good at the subjects’ (Zhenhui, 2001). Various parameters have been constructed for defining student’s preferred way of learning, such as Knowles (1982) concrete, analytical, communicative and authority-orientated learning styles (cited in Richards, 1994). Another defines the groups as auditory, visual and kinaesthetic learning styles (Krause et al, 2003, pp154-155) whilst figure 1 gives a representation of student and teacher inter-reactions dependent on learning styles. Some researchers such as Richards (1994, pp.59-77) consider an individuals culture as vital to understanding learning styles. Ladson-Billings (1995) advocates a method of Culturally Responsive Teaching which integrates cultural points of reference through out the learning process. Others disagree (Kubes, 1998, cited in Krause) and cite more universal forms of learning.

This class was both interested and engaged in its learning. However, during the interview, the teacher expressed a wish that there was more time for individual tailoring. The teacher acknowledged that this would better cater for the range of learning styles. More concrete resources (actual materials eg fruit, etc) and increased use of visual aids (magazines, more transparencies, laminated pictures) may also help to convey understanding and increase retention.

Two ‘tests’ were used during the class – one was a linking exercise and one a reading exercise. The teacher finished the lesson with each student expressing an opinion on an article using the lessons language. Whilst these were not formal tests, they involved assessment strategies. As Nunan points out (1990, p62) assessment contributes part of the information for student evaluation. As this infers, the tools for student assessment, be they observational, formative or summative, need to balance with an understanding of the ‘bigger picture’. For example, the goal may be to allow students to understand, practise and develop their own language and learning strategies (see Hismanoglu’s exploration of Language Learning Strategies, 2000) – be they direct or indirect strategies (Oxford, 1990, p9). Most students require clear and precise scaffolding (Vygotsky, in Krause, 2003, pp60-65) to develop their metacognitive practises for making meaning. Assessment can act as a benchmark to the success of the learning process and show the teacher areas that need to be covered again or in a different way.

There is no space here to do full justice to the impact of the learning environment upon students yet it needs inclusion for a balanced understanding of students learning styles. Suffice it to say that, as Nunan and Lamb say (1996), the teacher needs to aim for a safe, positive and progressive environment that encourages student participation, thinking and risk-taking. Much as assessment is an end result of reflection upon what one wants to define, the learning environment should be based upon a thorough understanding of theoretical aspects. For example, traditional teaching methods tended towards a unitary approach to intelligence. Contemporary theories, such as Gardner’s work on multiple intelligences (cited in Krause et al, 2003) allow for the inclusion of variable factors that define a student’s strengths and weaknesses. Many agree with Wilson’s (1998) assertion that Gardner’s MI theory helps teachers create“…more personalized and diversified instructional experiences” and develops “empowered learners” (http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/mi/wilson1.htm)

Figure 2. Adapted from Huitt, 2004, http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/regsys/maslow.html

This holistic approach agrees with an understanding of other influences upon learning, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs for example (see Figure 2), or Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems theory. These ‘ecological’ factors encourage more integrated forms of assessment and are particularly useful in understanding various forms of ‘washback’ (see Cushing Weigle, 2002) that may result. Other more structured tests such as the Myers-Briggs Type Indications Survey, (Myers & McCaulley, 1985) may also have their place.

The teacher used gender and ethnic background to balance the groups. The groups worked well together in a pro-social manner. However, Woods encourages conscious examination of an educators own attitudes, especially when the may cause subconscious actions and opinions to form (Woods, 1996). Should the two parameters of gender and ethnicity become constraints, then they are not valid means of group construction. Sometimes is appeared that not all group members contribute in their cooperative learning. However, research has shown that even those who do not appear to be so communicative do benefit to a degree from the listening and processing that this format provides. It may be that they are better at working individually and as such should have the opportunity to do so.

The teacher used elements of the 3 P’s approach – presentation, practise, production. However, as the lesson transcript shows, the language was expanded in what became more of a Harmer-style engage – study – activate method.

I would like to list the implications for my own teaching under the following points:

Use a wide range of teaching strategies and styles to ensure comprehension eg support spoken material with writing on the white board, leave the transparency up on the overhead projector, bring in concrete materials, provide visual clues, model your required responses, “set short, realistic goals and review and recycle often.” (Antonaros, 2005 ), role play, use song.
Use methods according to the area you wish to cover, the materials you have prepared and present concisely and precisely. If the area is suited best to direct instruction then use it, if student-centred instruction or co-operative groups then vary accordingly. Motivation and interest are paramount, but sound understanding is the goal.
Prepare your materials so that they are interesting, real, relevant, encourage thinking whilst supporting language development.
Take an action research approach to (for example Wright’s, 1987, 2005) to develop a thorough understanding of my students learning and cognitive styles and my own attitudes.
Use active listening to understand, modelling to improve and discussion to encourage communication
Use teacher modelling strategies to develop the student’s autonomous language learning skills as exemplified by Lowes and Target (1998) in Helping Students to Learn.
Providing a positive learning environment where mistakes are not derided
Assign homework that re-caps and therefore re-enforces the issues covered in the lesson.
Ensure equity in communication – make sure everyone has a chance to speak.

“Every teacher who has taught a group of grown-ups knows that some individuals may be reluctant to speak, especially when they realize or assume that other students are more fluent.”

(Turula, 2002)

References

Allwright, D. & Bailey, K. (1991). Focus on the Language Classroom. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Antonaros, S. (no date) Looking Inside and Out for the Answer to Motivating Our Learners http://www.tesolgreece.com/nl/75/7505.html) Accessed 7^th February 2006

Davidoff, S., & Van Den Berg, O. (1990) Changing Your Teaching. The challenge of the classroom. Pietermaritzburg: Centaur Publications

Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of Mind. New York: Basic Books,

Harmer, J (1998) How to Teach English. Harlow, UK: Longman

Hismanoglu, M. (2000) ‘Language Learning Strategies in Foreign Language Learning and Teaching’, The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VI, No. 8, August 2000

Knowles, L (1982) Teaching and Reading. London, UK: National Council on Industrial Language Training.

Krause, K., Bochner, S., & Duchesne, S. (2003) Educational Psychology for learning and teaching. Southbank, Victoria: Thomson.

Kubes, M (1998) Adaptors and innovators in Slovakia: Cognitive style and social culture. European Journal of Personality, 12(3), pp.187-198

Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). But that’s just good teaching! The case for culturally relevant pedagogy. Theory into Practice, 34(3), 159-165.

Lowes, R. & Target, F. (1998). Helping Students to Learn. London: Richmond.

Malamah-Thomas, A. (987). Classroom Interaction. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Nunan, D., & Lamb, C. (1996). The Self-Directed Teacher. Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press.

Oxford, R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. New York, USA: Newbury House Publishers.

Richards, J.C., & Lockhart, C.L. (1994). Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Richards, J.C. & Nunan, D. (eds.). Second Language Teacher Education. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Turula, A (2002) Language Anxiety and Classroom Dynamics: A Study of Adult Learners. Forum English Teaching Online, US Dept of State, Vol. 40 (2). http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol40/no2/p28.htm#top

Wilson, L (1998). What’s the big attraction? Why teachers are drawn to using Multiple Intelligence Theory in their classrooms? http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/mi/wilson1.htm Accessed 7 February 2006

Woods, D. (1996) Teacher Cognition in Language Education. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press

Wright, T. (1987). Classroom Management in Language Education. Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan

Wright, T. (1987). Roles of Teachers and Learners. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Zhenhui, R. (2001) ‘Matching Teaching Styles with Learning Styles in East Asian Contexts’, The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VII, No. 7, July 2001

Websites

Matching teaching styles: http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Zhenhui-TeachingStyles.html accessed 3 February 2006.

Language Learning Strategies: http://iteslj.org/Articles/Hismanoglu-Strategies.html accessed 3 February 2006

Maslow’s Heirarchy of Needs, Huitt, 2004, http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/regsys/maslow.html. Accessed 7 February 2006

Language Teaching http://www.ittmfl.org.uk/modules/effective/6a/paper6a4.pdf accessed 5 February 2006

How to teach a dog to Stay

Training a dog involves the positive strengths and encouragement. To train a dog to stay when commanded is a useful advantage in many situations. It requires proper time, patience and determination though it is a simple process. This type of behavior of the dog is beneficial to the dog’s owner. When the dog gets over excited or does not behave properly, then the owner can settle his dog by commanding him to stay.

Effective training can be provided to the dog in a calm and quiet location so that the dog can concentrate on the owner’s training without any distraction. Do not try to train your dog when he is in the excited mood.

The first thing to start with the training is to make your dog sit and get its attention towards you. Do not provide any reward to the dog before the training. Once the dog is seated in front of you, just say the word “stay”. After sometime, move to the side of the dog and behind the dog but do not move away from your dog. If your dog does not move then offer him a treat. You can try to go a bit away from the dog. But, he gets up from his place and moves around you, then place him in the original location and command him to sit. Repeat this process until the dog gets seated in his position even if you move away from him. In the initial stage, let your dog sit only for 15 to 20 minutes.

Once the dog continues to sit and stay at the same place even if you are moving, then proceed further to the next step. Now start increasing the distance from the dog. Instruct the dog to sit at the same place as before and you try to move some yards away from your dog. Reward the dog as before if he does not move from its position. Start increasing the time as the dog understands the command to stay. Train your dog in such a way that he will remain in the seated position without a move when you are out of that room for some time.

Here are some additional tips with basic techniques to successfully train a dog to stay. During the training session of a dog, you should remain generous in treating your dog as well as in giving the rewards. Try to keep the sessions of small duration at least in the beginning. You can take several sessions in a day of 10-15 minutes. Instruct your dog by making it as a game. The dog cannot immediately understand your commands. So, if it does not perform up to your mark, then instead of punishing him, just do not reward him. Remember that not to provide any kind of training when the dog is in dangerous situation or any bad circumstances. Try to get him out of that situation and make him feel relax by diverting his mind in playing his favorite games.

Teaching involves a fine balance between what legislature states should be provided for students and the creativity of each teacher. Today, the way which these two elements work together to serve students best will be examined along with a talk about how maths toys can assist us in our work. The curriculum guidance for the foundation stage was distributed to schools with nursery and reception classes. This guidance includes six areas of learning which form the basis of the foundation stage curriculum. These areas include personal, social and emotional development; communication, language and literacy; mathematical development; knowledge and understanding of the world; physical development; and creative development. These six areas were created so that practitioners can effectively meet the needs of a diverse student population with a variety of needs. The hope of all practitioners who follow the curriculum guide is that all individual children’s needs are met, whether it is that a child needs increased individualized assistance or is in need of a gifted program.

Principles of the curriculum guidance direct all individuals who interact with children to help facilitate learning in various environments. Doing so causes greater understanding between both school personnel and caretakers. In effect, it also allows the teacher to better understand the needs of the family, thus, reduces various forms of exclusion. For instance, if the family has another child at home with special needs who is immobile; teachers are better able to understand why parents are unable to come to every school program (Curriculum guidance for the foundation stage, p.12).

The curriculum guidance format also heavily emphasizes the need for practitioners to focus on children’s individuality and emphasize what is unique and special about each child. In some instances, we as teachers become frustrated with unique personalities or the different methods some children use to understand curriculum. However, the curriculum guidance specifically says that we should embrace these idiosyncrasies. In line with this idea is another point made in the curriculum guidance documentation. It states that “no child [is] excluded or disadvantaged because of ethnicity, culture or religion, home language, family background, special educational needs, disability, gender or ability”. Instead, it goes on to say that practitioners should learn more about each child’s ethnic, faith and cultural heritage and home experiences so that they can be used to create an environment of familiarity for the child. For instance, a familiar custom can be employed within the classroom to increase familiarity for one child while teaching multiculturalism. It is amazing how little familiar notions such as this can promote not only comfort in a new environment but can also facilitate increased self-confidence (Curriculum guidance for the foundation stage, p12-14).

Every Which Way We Can: A Literacy and Social Inclusion Position Paper discusses policy, school, home and community issues relating to children’s literacy and learning. The authors discuss the many ways children can have access to literacy and education so that no child is excluded from receiving a strong education. They also discuss the importance of involvement in policymaking and how there is much work to be done in this area to advocate for inclusion (Bird and Akerman, 2005).

The DfES regarding Excellence and Enjoyment is another document that specifies best practice in education with children. This article states that an effective combination for learning includes elements of both excellence in teaching and enjoyment in learning. Excellence in teaching includes challenging yet engaging teaching, while enjoyment comes from the child being given the opportunity to engage in learning in the mental and physical environment that suits him best. If a child is very playful, then play could be a useful tool in teaching him. If he learns best with visual tools, he can be given the option to pictorially draw out a solution (DfES Excellence and Enjoyment, p.6-8).

Excellence and Enjoyment also charges practitioners to “take ownership of the curriculum, shaping it and making it their own”. This is encouraging to hear, especially because a curriculum is already set and a teacher sometimes feels that room for creativity is limited. However, when we hear that we can take ownership of the curriculum and mold it through a practitioner’s creative and playful eyes, it feels as though there is great possibility to generate other ideas from it.

Another important aspect of effective implementation of the Curriculum guidance is of course practitioners who truly understand curriculum requirements and have the ability to effectively implement them. Not only is it important that practitioners understand the curriculum, but that they also understand a child’s development in midst of the curriculum. This is a very significant point and the rest of the presentation will be focused on how curriculum and child development meet to produce a fruitful and educationally creative environment for children (Curriculum guide for the foundation stage, p. 13-15).

It is well-documented that children learn best when they are manipulating objects or participating vibrant discussion. Play and discussion are key factors in learning. Through play and discussion, children make great discoveries, are allowed to create hypotheses that may or may not always be correct and explore new ideas. There is a freedom and carefree attitude in play that allows creativity to flow naturally. The practitioner’s role then, is to gently guide the play and discussion without overtaking it.

Play becomes vital, particularly when working with children on the curriculum guidance point, Mathematical Development. Creative and unique methods must be employed in teaching young ones. There are currently hundreds of toys available on the market that aid in learning various school subjects. Many of them are focused around mathematical concepts and learning. Various maths toys stress different functions, whether it is addition, subtraction, or even just learning the maths symbols (Perry & Dockett, 2001, p. 1-3).

Toys in learning become a common language between teacher and student. They are indispensable in the learning environment and can be utilized in several different ways. For maths particularly, many toys can be created right in the classroom without few or no materials. For instance, the class could sing a number song together. The class could also make shapes with pencils and glue. While applying the glue, children could count the number of pencils being used. There are many examples such as these that could facilitate mathematical development. The important part of utilizing toys is to present the toy or game as engaging and fun. This should not be a difficult task to do, being that children already have a propensity to be drawn to toys (Perry & Dockett, 2001, p. 1-3).

Some toys are available for free online while others could become quite expensive. Many could easily be created in the classroom or at home. Some examples of online games include Numeracy Powerpoints, Number Poem and Five Little Ducks. These games do not require payment or any materials. Most of the games available online are placed there by parents and teachers who have utilized these games and found positive results (Brooker, 2003, p. 4; Conoley et. al., 2006, p47-48).

It is important to take some aspects into consideration when looking for educational maths toys. Most importantly, question whether the toy is really teaching the child about maths. Sometimes, although toys are geared toward children, they are not attractive to children. Second, make sure that the toy is suitable to the age range you are working with. Question whether it encapsulates the mix of children in your classroom. Will the child struggling most be attracted by this game? Will the advanced child be bored? Third, can the child recreate the game at home or in other environments? Every parent cannot afford some of the toys on the market. Therefore, it is important to consider whether parents can recreate it. If this is not possible and you would like to continue to use the game at school, are there other games that parents can create at home for the child that can assist in learning? In considering parents’ financial limitations, you can accommodate them in other ways and still ensure that all students are learning the same concepts (Brooker, 2003, p. 4). This type of questioning, by the way, is an example of using the inclusion framework at all times when working with students. As long as we as professionals continue to always think and play, we allow this same mind frame in our students.

References

Akerman, R. (2005). NRDC Policy Paper 2 – Every Child Matters: A response from the National Literacy Trust. www.literacytrust.org.uk/socialinclusion

Bird, V. and Akerman, R. (2005) Every Which Way We Can: A Literacy and Social Inclusion Position Paper, London: National Literacy Trust.

Brooker, L. (2003).Integrating New Technologies in UK Classrooms: Lessons for Teachers from Early Years Practitioners.Childhood Education, (79).

Conoley, J., Moore, G., Croom, B., Flowers, J. (2006). A toy or a teaching tool? The use of audience response systems in the classroom. Techniques: Connecting Education and Careers, 46-48.

DfES (2003). Excellence and Enjoyment.

Perry, B. & Dockett, S. (2001). Playing with maths. APMC, 6(2).

QCA (2003). Curriculum guidance for the foundation stage.

http://www.everychildmatters.gov.uk

Introduction

The following study is designed to be a very brief introduction to one distinct area of the Foundation Stage Curriculum. It would be impossible to fully discuss all the issues which have been raised by my study, nonetheless, it will attempt to provide a succinct introduction to each of the main points.

Rationale

I have chosen to research the Designing and Making aspect of Knowledge and Understanding of the World from the Foundation Stage Curriculum (DFES 2000, 91). I have chosen this particular area of Learning because I feel that I have had limited experience of teaching Design and Technology at any point in the Primary age range, and as such wish to develop extend and develop my understanding through further research. The Foundation Stage Curriculum could be considered to be the basis for all other learning throughout a child’s life, and as such a thorough grounding in teaching and learning Knowledge and Understanding of the World, should provide a sound basis for teaching Design and Technology in other phases of the Primary school, as this quote demonstrates:

‘In this area of learning, children are developing the crucial knowledge, skills and understanding that help them to make sense of the world. This forms the foundation for later work in science, design and technology, history, geography, and information and communication technology (ICT).’ (DFES 2000, 82)

In addition to the reason given above, I am also unsure how to best support a child as they develop designing and making skills at such a young age, with regard to providing them with a wide range of opportunities, yet taking health and safety into consideration.

‘Understanding design work will come from using a variety of joining methods and materials,’ (DFES 2000, 82), yet how should these methods be taught to best effect? It is also difficult to know which specific designing and making skills will be useful to the child, and what range of skills should be taught to the child. Should each child be taught a range of skills which are specific to them?

My final reason for choosing to study this particular aspect of the Foundation Stage Curriculum has been derived from looking at the Ofsted Subject Reports for 1999-2000 (Ofsted 2000). ‘In one quarter of schools standards and the quality of D&T have risen markedly since the previous inspection, but in one school in six D&T provisions have deteriorated,’ (Ofsted 2000, 1), this shows that although the provision of design and technology has improved in a quarter of our primary schools, it has either stayed the same, or deteriorated badly in three quarters of primary settings. This would seem to support the assertion that the provision of good quality design and technology teaching and learning, should be of paramount importance to out schools, starting with facilitating children as they access the Knowledge and Understanding of the World portion of the Foundation Stage Curriculum. A solid base on which to build, as discussed above, should ensure that children are better placed to access the design and technology curriculum as they progress through school.

Evidence

The following is a summary of the evidence collected concerning the teaching of designing and making skills in the Foundation stage settings of two different Primary schools. The schools will henceforth be referred to as School A and School B.

School A is a large Primary school with an integrated Foundation Unit. The majority of the staff in the Foundation Unit are ‘High/Scope’ trained and as such the setting follows the High/Scope daily routine, as outlined by Hohmann and Weikart (2002, 151-165).

‘In the High/Scope approach to early childhood education, adults and children share control. We recognize that the power to learn resides in the child, hence the focus on active learning practices. When we accept that learning comes from within, we achieve a critical balance in educating young children. The adult’s role is to support and guide young children through their active learning adventures and experiences. I believe this is what makes our program work so well.’

(Hohmann and Weikart 2002, 3)

The above quote neatly summarises the main reasons which prompt different settings to adopt a High/Scope or ‘active learning,’ approach to the Foundation Stage Curriculum, the main idea being that children learn best from first hand experiences and from self-generated learning opportunities. This idea is further supported by the Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage, for instance, ‘they learn effectively by doing,’ (DFES 2000, 82).

I observed a plan-do-review session, as part of the daily routine at School A. During such sessions the children choose where they wish to work, for example in the water area, and formulate a plan which they will execute once they start work in their chosen area. Following the main, ‘doing,’ part of the session the children are encouraged to ‘review,’ what they have done and comment on the relative success or failure of the plan. In this way the children are encouraged to learn from their mistakes, and also to gain encouragement from their successes, (Hohmann and Weikart 2002, 167-243).

I observed one child during the aforementioned session, Child A, and followed her through the entire process. She had planned to work in the construction area with the large bricks, and had decided to build a boat. Before beginning work she collected a piece of paper and a pencil and sat down to plan her boat. Child A worked for some time on this design before starting work. She used the large bricks to build her boat and then started to collect other equipment from around the setting to place ‘onboard,’ including large quantities of plastic food from the role play area. When asked about this Child A explained that she was going on a long journey and needed to take lots of food with her. During review time Child A explained to the rest of her group and the adults who were present, that she felt she had successfully carried out her plan, however, she would have preferred to build a boat that would float. The class teacher explained to her that this might be possible in the following plan-do-review session. Indeed for the following session, the teacher collected lots of materials, such as plastic bottles and corks to give Child A the scope to build her own floating boat:

‘When adults seek out and support children’s interests, children are free to follow through on interests and activities they are already highly motivated to pursue. They are also willing to try new things and to build on what they are already doing.’

(Hohmann and Weikart 2002, 55)

The evidence outlined above shows a good example of how children can be supported in developing their own designing and making skills, and indeed can be highly motivated to do so. Child A was given the opportunity to meet an early learning goal through the medium of play:

‘Provide opportunities for children to practise their skills, initiate and plan simple projects and select, choose and devise their own solutions in design and making processes….’

(DFES 2000, 91)

In School B, I was able to observe the teaching of designing and making skills in a completely different way to that outlined above. I observed a Reception teacher leading a planned lesson in which the aim was for each child to produce a money box. The children were taken in small groups to sit with a classroom assistant to make their money boxes, while the rest of the children played. The children were asked to assemble the net of a box, which had already been cut out for them, by gluing the flaps and sticking them together. They were then permitted to decorate their boxes as they chose. It was difficult to assess whether any true learning had taken place during the lesson as the children were all producing exactly the same piece of work, and in many cases much of the actual assembly work was carried out by the teaching assistant.

School B does not appear to have embraced the key features of the Foundation Stage Curriculum as outlined by Tassoni (2002, 1) in Appendix I, as such the children are unlikely to meet the Early learning goals for designing and making skills, one of which is detailed above (DFES 2000, 91). They would benefit from developing a child initiated approach to teaching design and technology in the early years, as advocated by the High/Scope approach (Hohmann and Weikart 2002) and the Foundation Stage Curriculum (DFES 2000). It is obvious from the evidence given that no real learning took place in the design and technology lesson which was observed in School B. Such a directed activity can leave no room for the child’s initiative and the development of their individual designing and making skills.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the evidence outlined above has led me to conclude that designing and making skills can be best taught through child initiated learning. The adult can support the child’s learning by providing further opportunities and materials once they have highlighted the child’s own interests. A directed approach to teaching design and technology in the Early Years does not follow the guidance given in the Foundation Stage Curriculum (DFES 2000), and as such should have no place in our schools as it does nothing to further the children’s learning. I now feel more confident that I would know how to approach the teaching of designing and making skills if placed in a Foundation Stage setting.

Appendix I

‘Key Features of the Foundation Stage:

Recognition that young children need to learn through practical experiences rather than being taught.
Play is emphasised as the vehicle of learning for children.
The importance of working from children’s interests and needs is highlighted.
It is the first curriculum in England to cross the divide between pre-schools and schools.
Personal, social and emotional development of children is recognised as providing the backdrop for other learning.
The role of parents is promoted as that of being an equal partner.’

(Tassoni 2002, 1)

Bibliography

DFES (2000) Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage London: Department for Education and Skills.

Hohmann, Mary and Weikart, David P. (2002) Educating Young Children London: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation

Ofsted (2000) Ofsted Subject Reports, 1999-2000: Primary Design and Technology (D&T) London:Ofsted

Tassoni, Penny (2002) Planning for the Foundation Stage: Ideas for themes and activities Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers

The question, ‘Why Teach Mathematics?’ as put forward by Ernest (2000), is one without a straightforward answer. Ernest (2000) outlines many difficulties which must be overcome if mathematics is to be taught effectively, namely the wide-ranging and complex aims of school mathematics (Ernest 2000, 7). The debate continues to rage in the columns of the broadsheets, as to whether the mathematics teaching in this country is effective and indeed whether or not it meets the needs of an increasingly complex society. Furthermore, as propounded by Ernest (2000), should the learners themselves be allowed to opt in or out of mathematics learning by choice?

The first issue to be discussed is the mathematics curriculum itself. Ernest (2000) recognises four main aims for school mathematics and, therefore, the curriculum:

‘1 To reproduce mathematical skill and knowledge-based capability;

2 To develop creative capabilities in mathematics;

3 To develop empowering mathematical capabilities and a critical appreciation of the social applications and uses of mathematics;

4 To develop an inner appreciation of mathematics – its big ideas and nature’

(Ernest 2000, 7)

These four aims represent the need for a demanding and comprehensive curriculum. The mathematics curriculum has undergone radical changes in recent years, most notably with the introduction of the National Numeracy Strategy in 1998 (DfES 1998). This was followed in 2006 by the renewed Primary Framework for Mathematics (DfES 2006), its aim ‘to support and increase all children’s access to excellent teaching, leading to exciting and successful learning,’ (DfES 2006, 1). Throughout the new framework there seems to be an increased emphasis on problem solving (using and applying) and calculating skills, seemingly in accord with Ernest’s views on the matter, particularly in terms of developing creative abilities in mathematics. The renewed framework for mathematics places increasing importance on developing practical skills and, ‘providing real experiences, context and meaning,’ (DfES 2006, 13), seemingly in line with Ernest’s views.

Consequently, it would seem that the current mathematics curriculum is headed in the ‘right’ direction. Indeed current classroom practise is a far cry from the traditional mathematics lessons of the past. Teachers are encouraged to think of the needs of all their learners through using a variety of different interactive teaching strategies. Children are challenged and supported to make progress at a differentiated level. Indeed classroom practitioners are expected to include sophisticated differentiation into their short term planning. This should surely mean that the standard of mathematics within schools is improving. This would also seemingly be at odds with the suggestion put forward by Ernest when he asks, ‘should the same curriculum be followed by all?’ (Ernest 2000, 8). This would imply that if the same curriculum is followed by every pupil, the needs of every pupil are not being met. However, this is not the way that mathematics should be dealt with in the classroom, as summarised by Wain:

‘The degree to which the teacher retains control of what the learners do each lesson and the extent to which the learners can choose the next task vary…but typical of all is that learning is individualized to a very great extent, although often within a group setting. Whole-class teaching is, in general, not used, or used sparingly, and each pupil is engaged in a learning process that is unique to him or her.’ (Wain 1994, 136)

The view that modern teaching methods have improved the standard of mathematics learning in this country is not, however, the opinion commonly put forward by many of today’s journalists. Chris Woodhead of the Sunday Times (August 26^th 2007) recently reported that an insufficient number of pupils are obtaining A*-C grades at GCSE level, despite the fact that pass rates are higher than ever:

‘Last year 45.8% of students achieved five A*-C grades including English and mathematics in the GCSE examination: 54.2% did not. This annual statistic is one that the government was long reluctant to release. In that English and maths are of such crucial importance, it is the only statistic that matters.’ (Woodhead 2007)

These figures would seem to suggest that the teaching of maths in this country, and perhaps the maths curriculum itself is in someway failing the young people who sit their GCSE mathematics examination every summer. However, A*-C are not the only pass grades, and this figures could, therefore, be construed as misleading. Institutes of further and higher education do seem to place emphasis on successful candidates having the required A*-C grade in mathematics, however, is this the most useful way of assessing how successful an individual will be at higher levels of study, particularly when that individual may not be continuing their mathematics education beyond GCSE level? Indeed Ernest puts forward the idea that, ‘mathematical attainment is mistakenly identified with intelligence and mental power and used to grade and select persons for various forms of work, including professional occupations, as well as in terms of suitability for higher education,’ (Ernest 2000, 8).

Consequently it would seem that too much emphasis is placed on achieving desired grades in mathematics at GCSE level. However, the view of employers and those of higher education institutes is unlikely to change until public opinion is revised, after all, ‘Yes 98% of candidates are awarded some sort of grade, but everyone knows that any grade below a C is worthless in the real world,’ (Woodhead 2007).

This argument would seem to lead into another suggestion by Ernest (2000, 8), concerning the viability of the current arrangements for teaching mathematics to five to sixteen year olds in a modern environment, ‘Requiring learners to study mathematics from the age of five to 16 years is less easy to justify if mathematics is not as useful as is often assumed,’ (Ernest 2000, 8). This could be taken to mean, is mathematics as necessary as we think in order to survive and progress in today’s society? It could be proposed that any number of professions, or avenues of employment, do not require the individual to have mathematical knowledge in order for them to execute their duties successfully. Consequently, it could be argued that individuals should be allowed to, ‘opt out altogether,’ (Ernest 2000, 8), if their chosen career path permits it. The difficulty with this route would be deciding at what point in their education the individual should be allowed to opt out of their mathematical instruction.

On the other hand Orton (1994, 14) expounds at length on the importance of mathematics in the world today:

‘The indisputable fact is that mathematics is vital to the maintenance of satisfactory living standards. It is mathematics which underpins the science and technology that support modern society. It would seem to be a legitimate aim for educators to wish that pupils will come to an understanding of how society works, and this implies an understanding of how mathematics provides support’ (Orton 1994, 14).

Consequently, it could be said that regardless of whether or not we need mathematics for our employment, it is essential for survival in the modern world. At its simplest level individuals needs a knowledge of money and monetary systems to survive in today’s world, something that is addressed by mathematics teaching. At a more advanced level, as technology advances apace, the individual needs to be equipped to operate it in a variety of different occupations. However, is the mathematics curriculum preparing the individual for this adequately?

Another question to be considered as part of this debate is, ‘where does mathematics teaching end, and information and communication technology (ICT) teaching start?’ There is surely considerable overlap, and when considering Orton’s (1994, 14) point above, this must be taken into account, indeed the teaching of mathematics must have considerable overlap with a number of different subject areas if it is to be effective. This is a view put forward by the renewed mathematics framework, which places emphasis on the importance of, ‘making links between curriculum subjects and areas of learning,’ (DfES 2006, 13). Making meaningful links between other subject areas and mathematics could make what is learned more valuable as it becomes ‘real’ for the learner.

Ernest puts forward the idea that, ‘it is an unhappy learning experience for almost half of the population,’ (Ernest 2000, 8), referring to the experience of learning mathematics which five to sixteen year olds undergo. This would seem to be supported by current research, which indicates that students are reluctant to carry on their study of mathematics beyond GCSE level. Doctor Richard Pike of The Royal Society of Chemistry said in an interview with BBC News:

‘Schools and students are reluctant to consider A-level mathematics to age 18, because the subject is regarded as difficult, and with league tables and university entrance governed by A-level points, easier subjects are taken.’

(Doctor Richard Pike, BBC news 2007)

This would seem to suggest that mathematics at A-level is considered too difficult and insufficiently interesting to tempt students to continue their studies after GCSE level. It also implies that schools and further education institutes are foregoing this more traditional subject in favour of more popular subjects. Doctor Pike also claims that because of this drop in the number of students taking A-Level mathematics, there has been a knock on effect for students wishing to study science at university:

‘Increasingly, universities are having to mount remedial sessions for incoming science undergraduates because their maths skills are so limited, with many having stopped formal lessons in mathematics two years earlier at GCSE level.’ (Doctor Richard Pike, BBC news 2007)

If the fact that students are no longer choosing to take their mathematical studies forward into A-level can have such a knock-on effect on their university studies, surely it could be argued that giving students the opportunity to ‘drop’ maths earlier in their education could have even greater implications. Pupils need to be fully aware of all implications before making choices about their A-Level studies. It would seem that thought should also be given to making the prospect of studying A-Level mathematics more attractive to both students, and educational establishments.

The concept of making mathematics more ‘attractive’ to the potential A-Level student, takes us back to the discussion we started about the curriculum. It also links into Ernest’s thoughts on appreciating mathematics for its own sake. He discussed appreciating the social role mathematics plays, and has played in the past, (Ernest 2000, 7). Perhaps by incorporating the history of mathematics into pupils’ education it may give them an increased appreciation of the subject itself:

‘The appreciation of mathematics as making a unique contribution to human culture with special concepts and a powerful aesthetic of its own, is an aim for school mathematics often neglected by mathematicians and users of mathematics alike.’ (Ernest 2000, 7)

This would suggest that this aspect of mathematical education would be a valuable addition to the mathematics curriculum. Ernest also says that it would be a mistake to confuse an appreciation of maths with ability, as the two don’t necessarily go hand in hand. It is quite possible to develop an appreciation of maths without having an innate ability in the subject (Ernest 2000, 7). Indeed developing an appreciation for mathematics itself, may lead to an increased interest in the subject, consequently this may lead to an improvement in mathematical ability, as interest can be a key factor in children making academic progress.

In conclusion Ernest (2000) makes a number of interesting points in attempting to answer the question, ‘Why Teach Mathematics?’ Despite the improvements made to the mathematics curriculum, and the teaching of mathematics, in recent years, there does not seem to have been a sufficient improvement in the number of pupils achieving A*-C grades at GCSE level. There has also been a knock-on effect on the number of pupils taking mathematics at A-Level and beyond, perhaps due to lack of interest, or perhaps due to the difficulty of the subject. Institutes of further education also seem reluctant for their pupils to study mathematics at A-Level. Ernest also puts forward the suggestion that pupils should be permitted to choose to what point they continue their mathematics education, however, this could also have multiple implications. It has been argued that a sound mathematical knowledge is essential for living and working in the world today, despite the fact that many occupations do not necessarily require the individual to have any formal mathematical qualifications. Ultimately a mathematical education would seem to be a necessity for pupils in full time education, however, the way in which it is taught should be constantly reviewed in order for pupils to gain the full benefit of what they have learned. It is the responsibility of educators nationwide to ensure that pupils have a rich and varied mathematical experience, and that they themselves see the importance of teaching mathematics.

Bibliography

BBC News (2007) www.news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/6588695.stm, date accessed 27.08.07

DfES (2006) Primary Framework for literacy and mathematics. London: Department for Education and Skills.

DfES (1998) The National Numeracy Strategy. London: Department for Education and Skills.

Ernest, Paul (2000) Why Teach Mathematics? in Bramall, S and White, J (Eds) Why Learn Maths? Bedford Way Papers London: Institute of Education

Orton, Anthony (1994) Aims of Teaching Mathematics in Orton, Anthony and Wain, Geoffrey (eds) Issues in Teaching Mathematics. London: Cassell.

Wain, Geoffrey (1994) Learning Styles and Teaching Mathematics: Towards Open Learning in Orton, Anthony and Wain, Geoffrey (eds) Issues in Teaching Mathematics. London: Cassell.

Woodhead, Chris. (2007) The GCSE’s Failure www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/education/article2326707.ece, date accessed 27.08.07