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Black Codes

Black codes were slavery just in a different name, before black codes there was slavery but black codes. Black codes were an attempt from the white’s to recreate slavery. Black codes were new because it limited the rights of black people and segregated them from the white. When slavery ended it gave the Freemans just a little bit of equality, they got just a little bit more choices about where they work and what they own. The short term impact was that it gave the Freedman’s limited rights and the long term “change” was equality, and after black codes segregation started.

Black codes were really bad but it was a lot better than what they went through which was slavery. Black codes gave more rights to black which was slowly and slowly starting to be taken away as southerners started inventing their own harsh black codes. “One by one southerners created their own black codes” (Perritano 21). African Americans were allowed to do things during black codes that they weren’t allowed to do in slavery which were things like they were allowed to own property, enter into contracts. Marry but not marry a white person because it was against the black codes and they would be sentenced to prison for life if they do so which did happen, and they were also allowed to sue in court, and also be sued. Although it was better than slavery it wasn’t enough because black code’s increasing and increasing, getting harsher and harsher.

“Black codes were essentially designed to return the social and economic order of the south to a facsimile of antebellum times” (Jones 93.)When they wrote the new laws they used the words slave or freedman’s replacing the word Negro. The laws were different in each state, “In writing the new laws, postwar southern legislatures often turned to the old slave codes” (Jones 93). Freedman’s weren’t allowed to do a lot of things such as own homes, land, or any kind of property. They weren’t allowed to marry a white person, it was forbidden. They had to move aside when a white women were on the sidewalk, They had to remove their hats when they were wearing it near a white person was near them, in their presence to show respect, They had to address white people appropriately, They didn’t have the right to hold a public office, they weren’t allowed to participate in riots it was illegal and police could even arrest them for just standing in groups, they couldn’t have public education. , they had to obey commands that white people gave to them “Illegal for freedmen to preach the gospel without a license” (Jones 94).They didn’t have the right to serve in jury. Any black found after 10 at night with a note were sent to prison. They weren’t allowed to sell liquor, or allowed to use offensive language or gestures, it was illegal. It was Illegal for them to carry firearms. Their kids didn’t have the right to go to public schools, in some towns they weren’t even allowed to own rooms. In South Carolina they couldn’t open a store unless they had a license that the judge gave them, most importantly, they weren’t allowed to vote and last but not the least they weren’t allowed to leave their plantations. The white’s just kept going with these codes because they believed in white supremacy.

There were a lot of punishments if the freedman didn’t follow the harsh codes that were stacked up against them. If the freedman’s didn’t follow the penal code they had to pay a fine, “If the freeman refuses to pay, he will be hired out to any white man who will pay” (Jones 94). If a freedman does marry a white person they’ll be sent to prison for the rest of their life. “If an apprentice escapes and is caught master may reclaim him” (Jones 94). Anyone who doesn’t follow the law was deemed a vagrant .All vagrants were fined up to $50 and jailed up to 10 days. If a white male employ’s or aids a freedman that ran that ran away, would have to pay up to $200 penalty. They would be imprisoned for selling things without permission. Employer was legally allowed to punish the freedman’s in anyway a parent would to their kid for example: beating, whipping, branding and etc.

Black codes only gave African Americans just a little, tiny bit of freedom the laws were different in each state and the black codes made it so that freedman’s had to work because in many states if you didn’t have a job you would be arrested for vagrancy. By 1866 black codes were suspended by federal officials who thought that these codes were too harsh and African Americans should have the same equality as the white’s. Segregation was a huge factor, segregation effected freemen hugely they didn’t have the same facilities the white people did such as the voting rights, they weren’t allowed to work in high level jobs, and public transportation, because they weren’t allowed to sit in the same places as white people. They weren’t allowed to eat in the same places as the white’s or drink in the same fountains that white people drank in. Segregation started after black codes because of the fact that whites didn’t like black having the same equality and opportunities as them. Even the schools were unfair, cause they went to separate schools in some schools only black’s were allowed and on some school only white’s were allowed. African children’s didn’t have the same opportunities for education as the white kids, whatever the white children’s had African kid’s had less or none at all because they went to separate schools, and white kids had more facilities and better education system than the black’s. “For 75 years southerners whites used these laws to bar blacks from restaurants, hotels, trains, and other places” (Perritano 24).Segregation was a separation of people from different racial group. Segregation was started by the white’s because they didn’t like African American’s having the same equal rights as them.

When the civil war ended and slavery with it black people didn’t know how to react, they had been part slavery for so long they didn’t know that, that day would come and they didn’t know what to make of it. They were very confused and didn’t know what to do. The African Americans were not only confused but also worried about whose going to feed them, and their children’s, where are they going to work, How are they going to live after slavery ended they got a lot more rights but at first they didn’t know what to make of it, what they should do, if they should enjoy that they’re now free or be worried about how they are going to live their new life.

Black people didn’t have the 3 main things they needed to have, which they got after segregation and black codes ended the 3 more important things are freedom because black wasn’t able to provide for themselves economically, they weren’t allowed to participate in things like politics, they were also not allowed to be with anyone or be in a relationship with anyone without the consent of their master. After slave codes ended freedmen were able to provide their families economically because they had freedom, they were free.

Black codes kept racism undead. Education was a huge factor because freedman’s wanted to learn, they wanted to be educated, and they were willing to learn for happiness. The freedmen’s had no way of doing anything they couldn’t even get a simple job to feed their family because of the way they were made, because of the color of their skin. Even though the African Americans wanted to study they couldn’t because they couldn’t do any more than agricultural work because that was their only task during slavery, and after freedom they still only knew how to do that. Freedman’s first needed to get educated than needed to get a home. Black people had so many different problems that they stayed in low class society for so long because of all the problems they faced but chance to get educated was given to the freedman’s later on, and it even provided free food and even helped newly freed slaves find jobs.

Black codes gave them more freedom but it only made their life harder because they had to go by the laws and if they didn’t there were tons of laws that were just plain unfair such as they could be arrested for vagrancy (being poor) or they would be commanded into involuntary servitude, and the Ku Klux Klan only made the freedman’s life even worse because they hung black black’s because they weren’t in agreement to slavery. The Ku Klux Klan supported white supremacy, anti- Semitism, anti- Catholicism, racism, anti-communism, and nativism. They got away with crimes to ethnic groups and didn’t get punished for it, not only that but they also attacked Jews, Catholics, and other groups. They would randomly take black guys or people walking and hang them; they would also injure people that spoke out against them. They would shoot at black people’s houses and cars that didn’t do anything. The Ku Klux Klan has done a lot of horrible stuff but they rarely got arrested, it was very difficult to find them. Their fear that they’re going to get caught made them never stay at a same place for too long. The Ku Klux Klan got weaker and weaker as years went by because freedman’s got stronger and stronger. As the years went by the police forces also got better, and stronger. Strangely, many tried to bring them back in power. However, the Ku Klux Klan never got strong as it was in the first few years when it started. The KKK dressed in white robes because white is the color of purity.

The KKK was trying to develop “100% Americanism”, which means they were against Catholics, Jews, blacks, immigrants, and unions. The KKK was trying to say that blacks cannot be Christians. They would burn the crosses to not disrespect but more like to say go Christianity, and sadly KKK’s are still around despite everything. The happiest day for African people/ freedman’s were when the segregation finally ended which was in July 2, 1964 they got better opportunities than they had, equal opportunities as the whites. Their kids had better education system because they were now studying in the same place as whites, their work they had better chances of finding a job now that they had equal opportunities they were paid the same amount plus things like eat they could eat in the same place as white people and drink in the water fountain that only white’s could drink in, they could sit in the bus. Last and definitely not the least they were now allowed to vote, which was the ultimate proof that African Americans had the same equality as the white people when they were allowed to vote.

From all the facts it’s a definite fact that best part of black codes was when it was over, and when segregation ended. Segregation was probably the biggest impact that happened to African Americans after slavery because after segregation was over so many newly freed slaves got freedom, and more importantly they got the right to vote, and they also got the equality they wanted and always dreamt for.

I have always had aspirations to be a Primary teacher. Although I am relatively new to the profession I am ]

However despite the challenges that face me I am trying to remain positive and make the best out of this situation

Before I started writing I felt the best start way to reflect on my practice was to conduct a …

SWOT

Analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities Threats) to analyse my CPD opportunities in a way to focus on my goals and reflect on my practice so far. (See Appendix 1) By doing this I was able to highlight what I believe to be important and factors that I would like to improve on. I will now look at the political issues affecting education in Scotland, current research and how each have had an impact on my own learning. From this I will then review my position and set my goals for the future.

The Political Position

Harold Wilson the former Labour P.M. once said:

“A week is a long time in politics”

First Minister Alex Salmond discovered to his dismay the meaning of this quote in the first week of December last year. On Tuesday the 1st December 2009 Fiona Hyslop was redeployed from her position as Education secretary marking the first change in the Scottish Government Cabinet since the SNP came into power over two years ago. (Swanson 2009) The question is what happened?

Alex Salmond made this decision only days after the Scottish government statistics showed a fall in teacher numbers of 1,348 over the past year, despite his plea to increase them. Fiona Hyslop has suffered a lot of criticism as education secretary the main reason being her failure to deliver the SNP’s biggest education pledge of lowering primary 1-3 class sizes to 18. The final straw was Ms Hyslop threatening to centralise education taking power away from local authorities. The opposition parties also threatened a “vote of no confidence” in the Education Secretary if the First Minister did not do something to deal with the situation- a threat that could not be taken lightly. (Macleod 2009)

By the 8th of December the SNP Government and the new Education Secretary Mike Russell faced its first challenge – an enquiry into the class sizes pledge a major part of the SNP 2007 manifesto was called into question of whether or not the pledge was deliverable in their time in office.

As if the current situation wasn’t bad enough on the 11th Dec 2009 the General Teaching council published their report of probationers gaining employment after their initial year and their findings were not encourage able. The report stated that out of teachers surveyed only one teacher in five (20.2%) gained a full time permanent job after completing probation this summer and a significantly greater number of new teachers more than 1 in 4 have been able to gain employment as a teacher at all. Commenting on this report EIS General Secretary Ronnie Smith said “The fact that so many of our newly qualified teachers are unemployed or under-employed on very patchy, short-term, contracts is a tragedy not only for these individual teachers but also for Scottish education and its pupils”. (EIS 2009)

Current Research and Personal Experiences

“Every aspect of being a teacher draws on both your professional and personal resources and values”

(Moyles and Robinson 2002 cited Asprey, Hamilton and Haywood 2002)

Watzke (2007) amongst others talks of stage theory in teaching stating that there are distinct changes in a teachers thinking throughout his or her career. Fuller (1969) was one of the first to comment on this matter and suggests that in the beginning teachers are not concerned about teaching but their own survival. This stage known as “self concerns” e.g.. Can they survive and pass their probationary year? Later in their career Fuller stated the focus is on “actual performance as teachers” calling this stage “task concerns.” This makes sense as it is only natural once you have confidence in yourself to then focus on improving your learning experiences. The last stage after successful teaching the focus then moves on to “having a meaningful and positive influence on their pupils” which is known as “impact concerns”. As teachers learn and grow in the teaching profession they learn what works and what does not and this is something that comes from experience therefore it makes sense to follow a path like Fuller suggested. All teachers are very different and each have their own unique “learning style”. However, one thing what I would hope all teachers would have a shared value is the belief that the children are the most important part of their job and is their job as teachers to get the best out of the children they teach.

As humans we all have our own values as individuals and as teachers. Eisner and Vallance (1974) talk of three main dimensions on which varied value positions are held. They suggest that that they are best represented as continua:

Individual society

This is the concept of whether education should be geared to meet individuals’ needs rather than educational terms being planned to meet the needs of the society.

values skills

This is the concept of whether education should focus on developing individuals’ sense of values in a moral ethical context, or on developing their skills.

adaptive reconstructive

This is whether education should prepare children to fit into the present society, or strive to change and in turn changing society.

( Eisner and Vallance 1975 cited in Pollard 2005)

By looking at these three dimensions, we can perhaps see where our own values fit in. Pollard (2005) like Watzke (2007) talks of how teachers change and adapt as they gain more experience throughout their career. Pollard (2007) uses this example; a newly qualified or student teacher may place their self at the “individual” extreme of the first dimension placing more importance on skills extreme and feel more comfortable with the “adaptive” extreme of the third dimension. However, as time goes on and more experience is gained opinions may change.

Being on supply I am able to see good practice in many different schools in my area. I also have the opportunity to be flexible and work in different establishments Nursery, Primary and the Additional Support Needs (ASN) sector. Working on supply you get to know particular schools and soon realise the schools that are nice to work in and the ones you may want to steer clear of. The question is how do we know this? What makes something feel like this?A I think what it comes down to is the culture of each individual school.

“Culture is both a dynamic phenomenon that surrounds us at all times, being constantly enacted and created by our interactions with others” (Schein 2004 p1)

Every organisation whether they realise it or not has their own unique culture. Being in so many different schools you come across just how different the working environment can be from school to school. The tricky part is being able to gauge the culture and act accordingly because what wouldn’t be an issue in one school could be in another. The most popular example is the staff room. If it is my first time working in a particular school you have to gauge the environment and try to follow suit for example the seating arrangements, the biggest mistake you can make is to sit on someone else’s seat if this happens you may either depending on the school get asked to move or be given the evil eye for the rest of the day. Another example especially in a big staffroom is when you sit down and other groups come in after and sit in little groups and you are left in the middle on your own twiddling your thumbs. To be on the safe side I usually wait until everyone is in the staffroom and then ask is it ok to sit in a particular seat. Sometimes you ask “Is it ok to sit here?”A To which the reply will be “Oh yes you don’t need to worry, we don’t have particular seats in here” but then you realise that every break time and lunch all of the staff remain in the same seats. Therefore culture is so in built they don’t even realise it’s there but from an outsiders point of view it is more apparent.

Once you’ve got your seat the next obstacle is talking to people. As soon as you walk in to a staffroom you can immediately sense the ambience, it is hard to explain but it is very apparent. As noted above you soon realise what schools you prefer to be in and those you aren’t as keen on, because in some schools you are “only the supply teacher” and you can sit and be ignored. On the other hand you walk in to some schools and you immediately feel a good atmosphere and although you still go through the same ritual in the staffroom asking where to sit you don’t feel as apprehensive as the staff talk to you and make you feel welcome and generally seem interested in you as a person.

Although I don’t currently have a base school I do have schools where I work in more often. One such school is the school I worked in during my probationary year. Looking back it is funny how your first impressions of a place can be somewhat different after you have worked in a place for a while. The dynamics of a place can be very different on the outside than they are on the inside. NEED TO ADD MORE HERE On the whole my probationary school is a very good place to work on and portrays an ethos of respect and supportiveness. During my time in the school I had two very good mentors who I could always go to when I needed help which was the case for most of the staff in the school. However, I found out very quickly who I could ask advice from and who not to bother. My class had a lot of problems and was one

Continuing professional development (CPD) is now an obligatory and accepted part in the contracts of all teachers who teach in Scottish schools. 35 hours worth of professional development activities is required over the course of the year. Teachers decide on what goals they would like to achieve over the school year and tailor this around what courses they will attend. With the advent of the Curriculum for Excellence (CFE) the Government is proposing CPD opportunities to be more specific and clearly linked to the priorities of the CFE. The biggest study carried out on CPD in the early stages of teachers career was by Draper et al., 1991, 1997, 1998 – “The “Scottish Study of Probationers: 1988-1991 and 1995 -1996”.A The research followed a group of teachers as they completed their probationary year. The researchers hypothesised the CPD would be at the fore front of the probationers activities and believed they would regard it as a priority. However, what they did find was probationer teachers stated that they spend more time proving to others that they could do their job rather than trying to further develop their practice. From a personal experience this is something that I myself can relate to. From the minute you walk into a school as a probationer you (unconsciously in some cases) are being judged for competency. This idea also ties in with Fuller (1969) first stage of self concerns teacher are concerned with their own learning and the thoughts of others around them. Draper et al also found that the teachers who completed their probationary year on a supply based method was more likely to threaten their development as they were not in the same place for any one time. Results showed that the second cohort 1995/96 was more satisfied with their professional development experiences than the first cohort 5 years previous to them. However, those teachers who completed their probationary year through short term contracts reported lower levels of satisfaction and perhaps have an impact on their practice in the future. As one of their participants in the study commented:

The effect of short-term contracts on initially keen and dedicated staff is disastrous. Morale, dedication and professionalism quickly evaporate’.
(Draper et al., 1997, cited in GTCS 2006)

This is not surprising as the chances of those teachers being in a position to partake in many CPD sessions are rather low as what school nowadays would fund a place on a course for example for someone who a) isn’t a permanent member of staff and b) probably won’t be in the school long enough for the training to benefit the school. Without a doubt this will have an effect on a teacher’s morale if little or no opportunities to develop present themselves. I myself find myself in a similar position a supply teacher the professional development opportunities are little or none.

(Draper et al cited in GTCS Research Jan 2006)

It may sound cliche but for as long as I can remember I have always wanted to be a Primary teacher. I applied for Primary Teaching in 6th year at school however I was not successful. Teaching for me at the time had been my only option and at the time I was devastated but soon realised that I could apply again. I then went on to complete a B/A honours degree in Psychology at the University of Psychology and then went on to the Post Graduate Primary course at the University of Paisley.

Looking at my strengths I believe teaching ICT seems to be one of them. ICT is something that I enjoy and is something that the children always respond well to. It comes very natural to me given the fact that I have grown up using computers. This is probably why the children enjoy it as they can see that is something I love doing and this in turn enthuses them. In my probationary school I led an in service on Activ Primary for my colleagues who were either new to the IWB (Interactive whiteboard) or were still puzzled after attending the course on Activ Primary. By doing this I felt good as it felt like I was giving back to the school by supporting colleagues rather than being supported all the time. Even now as a Supply Teacher I carry my pen drive around with me which has along with many other things ICT activities. Teachers in different schools often ask me where I get my resources most of which are from the internet. A recent example is an interactive advent calendar Power Point which I use with the children in the lead up to Christmas. Although I do feel that ICT is a strength of mine like everything else I am constantly learning new ideas and will continue to learn.

Looking at the SWOT analysis I have some experience using Active Learning in the upper school I would like to gain experience in using active learning in the early years. As a whole one of my goals is to try to keep abreast of current developments in early years education especially in light of the CFE. I recently was given the opportunity to attend an in-service in “Story Grammar” one of the schools in which I do supply in. I found this to be very interesting and very beneficial in the early years. By attending this course this prompted me to look more closely into the curriculum where Story Grammar came from “Key to Learning Curriculum” and I purchased the Curriculum book by Galina Doyla. I have tried to use some of the ideas from the book in my work in the Nursery. Obviously just now I only volunteer in the Nursery my first and foremost goal for the future would be to gain a permanent job in early years.

REFERENCE LIST

Asprey, E., Hamilton. C & Haywood.S (2002). PGCE Professional Workbook – Professional Issues in Primary Practice. Exeter: Learning Matters

BBC News. (2009). Demoted SNP education secretary endorses successor.

Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/8388141.stm).

Last accessed 4th December 2009.

EIS. (2009). Collapse of jobs for new teachers is damaging pupils’ education prospects says EIS. News release

Available: http://www.eis.org.uk/public.asp?id=431&dbase=3.

Last accessed 15th December 2009.

GTC SCOTLAND RESEARCH. (1996). Developing Teachers: A review of Early Professional Learning.

Available: http://www.gtcs.org.uk/Research_/publishedresearch_/CPDresearch/research_cpd.aspx.

Last accessed 20/12/09.

Macleod, A. (2009). Fiona Hyslop stripped of education role in SNP Cabinet. Available: http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/scotland/article6939026.ece.

Last accessed 10th December 2009.

Pigge, F.L. and Marso, R.N. (1997) ‘A seven year longitudinal multi-factor assessment of teaching concerns development preparation and early years of teaching’, Teaching and Teacher Education

13(2): 225-235.

Pollard, A, Collins, J, Maddock, M, Simco, N, Swaffield, S, Warin, J & Warwick P (2005) Reflective Teaching (2nd edition) London: Continuum

Schein (2004). Organizational culture and leadership. (3rd edition)

San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

SNP. (2007). SNP 2007 Manifesto. Available:

http://www.snp.org/node/13534.

Last accessed 11th December 2009.

Swanson. I. (2009). Fiona Hyslop sacked.

Available: http://edinburghnews.scotsman.com/politics/Fiona-Hyslop-sacked-as-Education.5871555.jp.

Last accessed 4th December 2009.

Watzke, J.L. (2007). Longitudinal research on beginning teacher development: Complexity as a challenge to concerns-based stage theory. Teaching and Teacher Education. 23 (1), 106-122.

Error CorrectionWhy Correction is Necessary

Correction is necessary. The argument that students just need to use the language and the rest will come by itself seems rather weak. Students come to us to teach them. If they want only conversation, they will probably inform us – or, they might just go to a chat room on the Internet. Obviously students need to be corrected as part of the learning experience. However, students also need to be encouraged to use the language. It is true that correcting students while they are trying their best to use the language can often discourage them. The most satisfactory solution of all is make correction an activity. Correction can be used as a follow-up to any given class activity. However, correction sessions can be used as a valid activity in and of themselves. In other words, teachers can set up an activity during which each mistake (or a specific type of mistake) will be corrected. Students know that the activity is going to focus on correction, and accept that fact. However, these activities should be kept in balance with other, more free-form, activities which give students the opportunity to express themselves without having to worry about being corrected every other word.

It is to S.P. Corder that Error Analysis owes its place as a scientific method in linguistics. As Rod Ellis cites (p. 48), “it was not until the 1970s that EA became a recognized part of applied linguistics, a development that owed much to the work of Corder”. Before Corder, linguists observed learners’ errors, divided them into categories, tried to see which ones were common and which were not, but not much attention was drawn to their role in second language acquisition. It was Corder who showed to whom information about errors would be helpful (teachers, researchers, and students) and how.

There are many major concepts introduced by S. P. Corder in his article “The significance of learners’ errors”, among which we encounter the following:

It is the learner who determines what the input is. The teacher can present a linguistic form, but this is not necessarily the input, but simply what is available to be learned.
Keeping the above point in mind, learners’ needs should be considered when teachers/linguists plan their syllabuses. Before Corder’s work, syllabuses were based on theories and not so much on learners’ needs.
Mager (1962) points out that the learners’ built-in syllabus is more efficient than the teacher’s syllabus. Corder adds that if such a built-in syllabus exists, then learners’ errors would confirm its existence and would be systematic.
Corder introduced the distinction between systematic and non-systematic errors. Unsystematic errors occur in one’s native language; Corder calls these “mistakes” and states that they are not significant to the process of language learning. He keeps the term “errors” for the systematic ones, which occur in a second language.
Errors are significant in three ways:

– to the teacher: they show a student’s progress

– to the researcher: they show how a language is acquired, what strategies the learner uses.

– to the learner: he can learn from these errors.

When a learner has made an error, the most efficient way to teach him the correct form is not by simply giving it to him, but by letting him discover it and test different hypotheses. (This is derived from Carroll’s proposal (Carroll 1955, cited in Corder), who suggested that the learner should find the correct linguistic form by searching for it.
Many errors are due to that the learner uses structures from his native language. Corder claims that possession of one’s native language is facilitative. Errors in this case are not inhibitory, but rather evidence of one’s learning strategies.

The above insights played a significant role in linguistic research, and in particular in the approach linguists took towards errors. Here are some of the areas that were influenced by Corder’s work:

STUDIES OF LEARNER ERRORS

Corder introduced the distinction between errors (in competence) and mistakes (in performance). This distinction directed the attention of researchers of SLA to competence errors and provided for a more concentrated framework. Thus, in the 1970s researchers started examining learners’ competence errors and tried to explain them. We find studies such as Richards’s “A non-contrastive approach to error analysis” (1971), where he identifies sources of competence errors; L1 transfer results in interference errors; incorrect (incomplete or over-generalized) application of language rules results in intralingual errors; construction of faulty hypotheses in L2 results in developmental errors.

Not all researchers have agreed with the above distinction, such as Dulay and Burt (1974) who proposed the following three categories of errors: developmental, interference and unique. Stenson (1974) proposed another category, that of induced errors, which result from incorrect instruction of the language.

As most research methods, error analysis has weaknesses (such as in methodology), but these do not diminish its importance in SLA research; this is why linguists such as Taylor (1986) reminded researchers of its importance and suggested ways to overcome these weaknesses.

As mentioned previously, Corder noted to whom (or in which areas) the study of errors would be significant: to teachers, to researchers and to learners. In addition to studies concentrating on error categorization and analysis, various studies concentrated on these three different areas. In other words, research was conducted not only in order to understand errors per se, but also in order to use what is learned from error analysis and apply it to improve language competence.

Such studies include Kroll and Schafer’s “Error-Analysis and the Teaching of Composition”, where the authors demonstrate how error analysis can be used to improve writing skills. They analyze possible sources of error in non-native-English writers, and attempt to provide a process approach to writing where the error analysis can help achieve better writing skills.

These studies, among many others, show that thanks to Corder’s work, researchers recognized the importance of errors in SLA and started to examine them in order to achieve a better understanding of SLA processes, i.e. of how learners acquire an L2.

STUDIES OF L1 INFLUENCE ON SLA

Various researchers have concentrated on those errors which demonstrate the influence of one’s native language to second language acquisition. Before Corder’s work, interference errors were regarded as inhibitory; it was Corder who pointed out that they can be facilitative and provide information about one’s learning strategies (point 7, listed above). Claude Hagege (1999) is a supporter of this concept and he mentions it in his book “The child between two languages”, dedicated to children’s language education. According to Hagege, interference between L1 and L2 is observed in children as well as in adults. In adults it is more obvious and increases continuously, as a monolingual person gets older and the structures of his first language get stronger and impose themselves more and more on any other language the adult wishes to learn. In contrast, as regards children, interference features will not become permanent unless the child does not have sufficient exposure to L2. If there is sufficient exposure, then instead of reaching a point where they can no longer be corrected (as often happens with phonetics features), interference features can be easily eliminated. Hagege stresses that there is no reason for worry if interference persists more than expected. The teacher should know that a child that is in the process of acquiring a second language will subconsciously invent structures influenced by knowledge he already possesses. These hypotheses he forms may constitute errors. These errors, though, are completely natural; we should not expect the child to acquire L2 structures immediately (p. 81).

In addition to studies of L1 transfer in general, there have been numerous studies for specific language pairs. Thanh Ha Nguyen (1995) conducted a case study to demonstrate first language transfer in Vietnamese learners of English. He examined a particular language form, namely oral competence in English past tense making. He tried to determine the role of L1 transfer in the acquisition of this English linguistic feature as a function of age, time of exposure to English, and place and purpose of learning English.

The influence of L1 on L2 was also examined by Lakkis and Malak (2000) who concentrated on the transfer of Arabic prepositional knowledge to English (by Arab students). Both positive and negative transfer were examined in order to help teachers identify problematic areas for Arab students and help them understand where transfer should be encouraged or avoided. In particular, they concluded that “an instructor of English, whose native language is Arabic, can use the students’ L1 for structures that use equivalent prepositions in both languages. On the other hand, whenever there are verbs or expressions in the L1 and L2 that have different structures, that take prepositions, or that have no equivalent in one of the languages, instructors should point out these differences to their students”.

Not only was L1 influence examined according to language pair, but according to the type of speech produced (written vs. oral). Hagege (p. 33) discusses the influence of L1 on accent; he notes that the ear acts like a filter, and after a critical age (which Hagege claims is 11 years), it only accepts sounds that belong to one’s native language. Hagege discusses L1 transfer in order to convince readers that there is indeed a critical age for language acquisition, and in particular the acquisition of a native-like accent. He uses the example of the French language, which includes complex vowel sounds, to demonstrate that after a critical age, the acquisition of these sounds is not possible; thus, learners of a foreign language will only use the sounds existing in their native language when producing L2 sounds, which may often obstruct communication.

STUDIES OF CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK

Corder elaborated on Carroll’s work to show that the most efficient way to teach a student the correct linguistic form is to let him test various hypotheses and eventually find the right form (point 6, listed above). In these steps, Hagege points out the importance of self correction (p. 82-83). According to Hagege, it is useful to always perform an error analysis based on written tests administered by the teacher, but without informing the student of the purpose of the test. On that basis, self-correction is preferable to correction by the teacher, especially if the latter is done in a severe or intimidating way. Self correction is even more efficient when it is done with the help of children’s classmates. According to teachers, the younger the children, the greater the cooperation among them and the less aggressive or intimidating the corrections. Hagege dedicates a section in his book to the importance of treating errors in a positive way. In this section, titled “The teacher as a good listener”, he notes that it is useless, if not harmful, to treat errors as if they were “diseases or pathological situations which must be eliminated”, especially if this treatment becomes discouraging, as occurs when teachers lose their patience because of children’s numerous errors. This, of course, does not mean that corrections should be avoided; after all it is the teacher’s duty to teach the rules of the L2. But the correction of every error as soon as it occurs is not recommended. The justification that Hagege offers is the following: the linguistic message that the child tries to produce is a sequence of elements which are interdependent; immediate corrections which interrupt this message tend to produce negative consequences, even to the less sensitive children; such consequences include anxiety, fear of making an error, the development of avoidance strategies, reduced motivation for participation in the classroom, lack of interest for learning, reduced will for self correction, and lack of trust towards the teacher. Esser (1984, cited in Hagege) also made a similar point: repetitive and immediate corrections, he noted, may cause sensitive children to develop aggressive behavior towards their classmates or teacher. Thus, Hagege concludes, correction must not be applied by the teacher unless errors obstruct communication. This is the main criterion for error correction (i.e. obstruction of communication) presented by Hagege; however there have been studies which examined such criteria in greater detail, such as Freiermuth’s “L2 Error Correction: Criteria and Techniques” (1997). Freiermuth accepts Corder’s view (point 6) and proposes criteria for error correction in the classroom. These criteria are: exposure, seriousness, and students’ needs.

In the case of exposure, Freiermuth claims that when a child creates language (for example, when he tries to express an idea by using a linguistic form he has not yet acquired), he will most likely make errors; correcting these errors will be ineffective because the learner is not aware of them. Thus, error correction would result in the acquisition of the correct form only if the learner has been previously exposed to that particular language form.

As regards the seriousness criterion, Freiermuth claims that the teacher must determine the gravity of an error before deciding whether he should correct it or not. Here Freiermuth sets a criterion which agrees with that of Hagege’s: “the error, he states, must impede communication before it should be considered an error that necessitates correction”. But what constitutes a serious error? Which errors are those which should not be corrected? As an examples of non-serious errors, Freiermuth mentions those errors which occur due to learners’ nervousness in the classroom, due to their stress or the pressure of having to produce accurately a linguistic form in the L2. These errors can occur even with familiar structures; in that case, they are not of serious nature and are similar to what Corder called “mistakes”. Here again we see Corder’s influence in error analysis, and in particular in the distinction between errors and mistakes. Freiermuth goes on to suggest a hierarchy of errors (according to seriousness) to help teachers decide which errors should be corrected: “Errors that significantly impair communication [are] at the top of the list, followed by errors that occur frequently, errors that reflect misunderstanding or incomplete acquisition of the current classroom focus, and errors that have a highly stigmatizing effect on the listeners”. He also clarifies what can cause stigmatization: profound pronunciation errors, or errors of familiar forms.

Another important criterion that must be considered by the teacher is individual students’ needs. The importance of this factor is mentioned in Corder, who in turn notes that this idea had been suggested previously by Carroll (1955, cited in Corder 1967) and Ferguson (1966, cited in Corder 1967). Each student is different and thus may react differently to error correction. We infer from Freiermuth’s claim that the teacher must perform two main tasks: first, assess some specific character traits of students, such as self-confidence and language acquisition capability. Freiermuth agrees with Walz (1982, cited in Freiermuth) that self-confident, capable students can profit from even minor corrections, while struggling students should receive correction only on major errors. This claim agrees with Esser and Hagege’s claim that repetitive corrections are likely to decrease motivation; it is reasonable to accept that students who lack self-confidence will be “stigmatized” to a greater degree than confident students.

The teacher’s second task, according to Freiermuth, is to listen to learners’ L2 utterances in order to determine where errors occur (i.e. which linguistic forms cause students difficulties), their frequency, and their gravity (according to the severity criteria mentioned above). Then the teacher can combine the outcome of these tasks and decide on correction techniques for individual students.

A different approach to error correction was suggested by Porte (1993), who stressed the importance of self-correction. Porte refers to Corder’s distinction of errors and mistakes and points out that many students do not know the difference. It is important, Porte notes, that students know how to identify an error in order to avoid it in the future. She agrees with Corder that it is more efficient for learners to correct themselves than be corrected by the teacher, and goes on to suggest a four-step approach for self-correction. This approach consists of questions that the teacher provides to students. After writing an essay, students should read it four times, each time trying to answer the questions included in each of the four steps. Thus, in each re-reading task (each step) they concentrate on a different aspect of their essay. In brief, the first task asks them to highlight the verbs and check the tenses; in the second task students concentrate on prepositions; the third task requires them to concentrate on nouns (spelling, agreement between subject and verb); finally in the fourth task students should try to correct potential personal mistakes. Porte also offers some clarification of what is meant by personal mistakes, in order to help the students identify them.

The studies mentioned above are only a few examples that demonstrate how S. Pit Corder’s work influenced the area of error analysis in linguistics. The concepts that Corder introduced directed researcher’s attention to specific areas of error analysis; they helped linguists realize that although errors sometimes obstruct communication, they can often facilitate second language acquisition; also they played a significant role in training teachers and helping them identify and classify students’ errors, as well as helping them construct correction techniques.

REFERENCES

Corder, S. P. 1967. “The significance of learners’ errors”. International Review of Applied Linguistics 5: 161-9.

Dulay, H., and Burt, M., “Errors and strategies in child second language acquisition”, TESOL Quarterly 8: 129-136, 1974.

Ellis, R., “The Study of Second Language Acquisition”, Oxford University Press, 1994.

Esser, U., “Fremdsprachenpsychologische Betrachtungen zur Fehlerproblematic im Fremdsprachenunterricht”, Deutsch als Fremdsprache, 4:151-159, 1984, (cited in Hagege 1999).

Freiermuth, M. R., “L2 Error Correction: Criteria and Techniques”, The Language Teacher Online 22.06, http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/97/sep/freiermuth.html, 1997.

Hagege, C. “L’enfant aux deux langues” (The child between two languages), Greek translation, Polis editions, Athens 1999. (Original publication: Editions Odile Jacob, 1996).

Kroll, Barry, and John C. Schafer. “Error-Analysis and the Teaching of Composition”, College Composition and Communication 29: 242-248, 1978

Lakkis, K. and Malak, M. A.. “Understanding the Transfer of Prepositions”. FORUM, Vol 38, No 3, July-September 2000. (Online edition: http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol38/no3/p26.htm)

Mager, R.F. “Preparing Instructional Objectives”, Fearon Publishers, Palo Alto, CA 1962.

Nguyen, Thanh Ha. “First Language Transfer and Vietnamese Learners’ Oral Competence in English Past Tense Marking: A Case Study.”, Master of Education (TESOL) Research Essay, La Trobe University, Victoria, Australia1995.

Porte, G. K., “Mistakes, Errors, and Blank Checks”, FORUM, Vol 31, No 2, p. 42, January-March 1993. (Online edition: http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol31/no1/p42.htm)

Richards, J., “A non-contrastive approach to error analysis”, English Language Teaching 25: 204-219, 1971.

Stenson, N. “Induced errors” in Shumann and Stenson (eds.), 1974, cited in Ellis (p. 60).

Taylor G., “Errors and explanations”, Applied Linguistics 7: 144-166, 1986.

Academic English Requirements:

University-Level Preparation Programs for International Students

Introduction

The issue of English language standards and the academic preparation programs of international students who must meet them has become an increasingly complex and controversial topic in education today. This paper will explore this issue in depth, focusing on the specific needs of foreign students at University level. It will do this by exploring the current literature and theories that dominate the field, including Computer-Assisted Language Learning, or ‘CALL’. Then it will discuss issues pertinent to planning and developing an effective language preparation program to address those needs

Current literature and theories

A number of theories are currently competing to dominate the field today. Among these are several entry level issues. Most professionals agree that some sort of preparatory training is absolutely necessary for first year University students of non-English speaking background (NESB). However, the agreement stops there, as they seem unable to decide on which of these programs is best.

One of these programs is focused primarily on teaching students only those English language concepts that are essential for them to be successful in attaining their academic degrees. Called ‘English for Academic Purposes’ (EAP), this plan, as the name suggests, zeroes in on those skills that best ensure academic success. Academic success here is defined solely by completion of a degree. This raises issues of its true long-term worth as a sustainable skill (‘Pathways’ 2004, 2).

Other plans include ‘English for Specific Purposes’ (ESP), which focuses on teaching students those aspects of English that will be most relevant their specialised professional projects. Alternate pathways to University level education are another option; this approach focuses on integrating relevant skills learned outside the academic setting in such a way that the student is given academic credit for them. A methodology similar to this is described by Sandra Elbaum in Grammar in Context: ‘Learning a language through meaningful themes and practicing it in a contextualized setting promote both linguistic and cognitive development’ (Elbaum 2005, xv).

The ‘Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol’ Model, also called the SIOP Model, focuses on what the authors refer to as ‘sheltered instruction’. It is an approach ‘that can extend the time students have for getting language support services while giving them a jump-start on the content subjects they will need for graduation (Echevarria et al. 2004, 10).

Computer-Assisted Language Learning

Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) was first used to assist in foreign language teaching in the 1960s. This was only at University level; it has since grown to include earlier grade levels as well. It has made drastic strides in development since its introduction (Warschauer & Healey 1998, 58).

CALL is described by Warschauer as having three primary functions: behaviouristic, communicative, and integrative. The first of these, the Behaviouristic, is the simplest model. In this mode, the computer functions primarily as a means of providing the learner with the appropriate educational materials. Essentially, this means that the computer functions in a tutorial capacity.

The second mode is called the Communicative mode. It is much more interactive and allows the learner a greater degree of choice and control in the methodology and level of study. Some examples of this mode include word processing functions, spelling and grammar checkers, and stimulating games such as Sim City (Davies 2005, par. 3; Warschauer & Healey 1998, 67).

The Integrative phase, the final and most recent, is also the most complicated and the most rewarding of the three. It offers a far greater degree of sophistication. It does this by combining both multimedia and internet technologies to offer a wide range of control to learners and teachers. Communication can be synchronous or asynchronous, eliminating scheduling conflicts as well as time zone differences. This also helps students to pace themselves according to their own learning needs. Finally, geographic distance ceases to be a barrier, allowing individuals to expand their social horizons as they exchange ideas with other members of the global community (Davies 2005).

Thus, the Integrative aspect of CALL offers such a wide range of options and challenges for second-language learners. However, the Integrative phase does invite criticism, particularly regarding foreign-language acquisition. For example, it can be said that language is basically a social activity. As such, the concept of truly learning one without face-to-face contact may seem prohibitive to some. It can also be argued that Integrative communication tends to isolate rather than draw people together, making the concept of global community seem more unattainable than ever.

Proposal for Course Layout

In order to plan an effective preparatory course for international students at this level of study, facilitators must be aware of the variety of material available for improving students’ language skill, not just one or two texts. The variety and options offered by University-level textbooks and accompanying tools seem endless. Although the standard grammar-based ‘traditional’ approach still forms the core of many methodologies, few programs base their programs on a single methodology.

Dana Ferris stresses the need to develop a comprehensive ‘error-treatment’ plan that directly addresses key issues regarding linguistic ability in composition and writing (Ferris 2002, 105). According to Ferris, teachers need to realize that ‘differences in students’ levels of L2 proficiency will affect both the number and type of errors that they make as well as their ability to process particular types of feedback’ (Ferris 2002, 56).

It is also vitally important to know the needs of the students in the class. This is a point that cannot be stressed enough: to effectively plan the class, instructors need to know the basic makeup of individual classes rather than design a curriculum that is based on theoretical conjecture. Use of multimedia and similar resources can greatly facilitate this process.

Another aspect to consider in designing a course is that fact that approaches to studying are different in different countries. For example, in the UK and most other English-speaking countries, students are expected to be very independent. International students should be made aware of the different levels of expectation, as well as strategies for learning to adjust and thrive in this environment. This theory is a key part of the theory of Lowes et al. in their guide for international students. Lowes and his partners are lecturers who have had several years’ experience teaching students at University in the UK. They include specific, real-life examples of the experiences they have had with students from different cultures and countries to demonstrate the relevance of their point.

Conclusion

It is clear that the issue of academic preparation programs for international students is complex and controversial. The trend today seems to be leaning heavily towards computer-assisted methodologies, which offer flexibility, convenience, and control for both students and instructors. There also seems to be an increasing awareness that general English-language courses need to be tailored to fit the specific needs of the students who take them, thus enabling them to concentrate on their primary courses of study.

By designing a preparatory course that considers the actual levels and the specific needs of international students, the lessons will address relevant issues—issues that will enable students to focus on their primary programme of study to successfully complete their degrees.

Reference List

Ascher, A.. 2004. Think About Editing: An ESL Guide for The Harbrace Handbooks. Boston, MA: Thomson.

Davies, G. 2005. ‘Computer Assisted Language Learning: Where are we now and where are we going?’ Accessed September 5, 2005.

URL: http://www.nestafuturelab.org/viewpoint/learn23.htm.

Echevarria, J., Vogt, M., and Short, D. 2004. Making Content Comprehensible for English Learners: The SIOP Model. 2^nd ed. London: Pearson Education.

Ediger, A. and Pavlik, C. 1999. Reading Connections: Skills and Strategies for Purposeful Reading. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

Elbaum, S. 2005. Grammar in Context. 4^th ed. Boston, MA: Thomson Heinle.

Ferris, D. 2002. Treatment of Error in Second Language Student Writing. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Lowes, R., Peters, H., and Turner, M. 2004. The International Student’s Guide: Studying English at University. London: Sage Publications Ltd.

‘Pathways to University Level Education’. 2004. Survey sponsored by Tertiary Sector Special Interest Group (TESOLANZ). Collated by Tricia Hewlett.

Accessed September 5, 2005.

URL: http://www.tesolanz.org.nz/Pathways Survey.doc

Warschauer, M., & Healey, D. 1998. ‘Computers and language learning: An overview’. Language Teaching, 31, 57–71.

Earlier in the history of electronic advancement, children in highly developed countries had learned to appreciate and use simple to complex electronic gadgetries but never understood basic principles behind them. Some knew how to assemble robots but could not understand how the motor or magnets in it work. In other words they learn to walk before they crawl.

Concerns have reached the classroom as today’s educational systems use more of ICT in teaching basic principles of English, Mathematics, and Science teaching. The question whether how much exposure and competence the pupils must have on certain science principles before they are exposed to ICT as a means of performing laborious, repetitive or more complex tasks is a challenge for educators of today. The schools and all education stakeholders must however understand that the uses of ICT tools are an advantage to both teachers and pupils.

Results of several studies conducted throughout the world revealed that the use of ICT greatly increased the level of learning and understanding of the pupils on the scientific principles being studied (Betts, 2003, Mistler-Jackson & Songer, 2000, Hogarth et. al, 2006).

In fact the ICT tools can even be use to demonstrate science principles in a safer way. For instance, teaching electricity principles to pupils can be both interesting and dangerous. But the advent of computer hardwares and softwares has made it more motivating and rewarding minus the hazards. Primary knowledge and skills about how electrical circuits work, how much power is required for certain types of lights, and others can be learned through simulation and not in actual exposure to real electrical circuits.

To determine if ICT is really needed for primary science education and understand when is the proper timing of its introduction into the learning process it is proper to understand first what ICT applications are necessary and how can they be integrated into the learning systems? What are the advantages and disadvantages of its applications?

Types of ICT learning tools in science

The use of ICT in teaching science for primary education came in various forms. Review of schools’ science teaching modules show the use of ICT hardwares and softwares to obtain and use science information, encoding of data, and creating presentations. Science information materials can be obtained from CD-ROM based encyclopedia and other e-books, journals, and articles, through a wide variety of Internet locations, and through local and international electronic library networks. There are a lot of word processing softwares that can be used to prepare science reports including customized programs for science report preparations. Data processing programs, spreadsheets, databases used for logging science data, processing them, and analyzing the results and its implications are already available for use.

Higher-level applications include the use of simulation programs to explain scientific principles and perform experiments in virtual conditions. There are experiments, which are impractical to conduct under normal conditions but can be simulated in computers to show the implications to let the pupils appreciate and understand. Example to this are CD programs that show what would happen if we walk on surfaces of different planets, what are the magnitudes of the gravity in Mars, Pluto, our moons, and others. Children can appreciate the effects through computer images animated based on the actual situation in the simulated locations.

Advantages of ICT science learning tools

The use of ICT tools has a lot of identified advantages over the use of conventional methods of instructions such as the traditional ordinary chalk and board and the pen and paper system. Several of these identified edge of ICT is discussed below.

In primary level ICT applications on data logging using sensitive probes to measure temperature, light, pressure, acidity, and other parameters increase the affectivity in data gathering and extend the range and accuracy of the observations. Ordinary tools used to gather these data such as thermometers, pressure gauges, pH meters or pH papers, and others require manual reading and data quality is dependent on the child’s skills and mode. The use of ICT based instruments has helped free the children from doing laborious task and repetitive works and focus their attention on analysing the meaning of the data.

The use of networks through Internet, intranets, e-libraries, and other ICT medium widened the pupil’s access to information and even brought him to places virtual which cannot be accessed easily with conventional means without ICT. Children can access information from libraries in other European, American, Asian, and other countries around the globe without leaving the classroom.

Simulation software used in science learning provides higher achievements of students than those not using the simulation, with girls achieving equally with boys (Huppert, 2002).

The use of ICT in the classroom makes as much demand on teachers’ understanding and mediation as non-computer activities; however it speeds up the process and makes use of class times more efficiently by eliminating board works as replaced by computer presentations. Illustrations and examples are more realistic with use of virtual replica of real world figures like plants, animals, and objects.

ICT has really made learning more fun and exciting and even made to raise the enthusiasm of the pupils as learning is made easy and enjoyable just like games.

Disadvantages and problems

Just like any other promising technologies the use of ICT has perceived problems in education and in application to teaching-learning in particular. Several reports and reviews enumerated these problems which can be grouped into: teacher related, facility related, and learner related.

As far as the teachers are concerned, review of Hogarth, et. al (2006) revealed some of those involved in utilizing ICT in science classes have doubts over the value of ICT in promoting learning in science lessons. This is caused by the fact that many ICT resources have no clear rationale for their inclusion in teaching. The worst case is that some teachers lack adequate training to handle ICT programs and if they are trained they lack the time to plan for effective use of ICT in their lessons. Some teachers lack confidence on the effectiveness of some hardware and software used in the process while others felt threatened by the presence in the classroom of a new, powerful source of information. Yerrick & Hoving (1999) also reported that despite similarities in teachers knowledge on ICT the implementation of ICT programs differ with teachers which could have been affected by the school’s and teacher’s practices.

In relation to facilities, Hogarth, et al. (2006) reported there are planning difficulties associated with banks of networked computers being located centrally in rooms which had to be booked in advance for the instructional purposes. These are caused by shortage of computers and other hardware and the lack of technical support. Materials in CD-ROMS and websites used in science researches must be controlled to conform to standards. Proliferation of non-approved materials in CDs and online can be a threat to performance and the quality of primary science learning.

On the part of the pupils the use ICT, which speeds up the processes may cause learning disparities across different types and learning capacities of pupils especially in the heterogeneous classes wherein fast learners are merged with medium and slow learners.

The Importance and Timing of ICT programs in science learning.

It has been properly illustrated above that advantages of using ICT in primary science education outweighs that of the disadvantages and that problems identified from different settings can be solved with proper planning and coordination among stakeholders.

Whether or not to adopt ICT programs to improve the learning of process skills among primary science pupils is already out of question. The question would be how much exposure to theories and learning the principles of science process skills the learners need before they are exposed to ICT applications. Is it necessary that theories must be learned first before application, or the other way around?

The answer requires common sense and areas of concern must be dealt in a case to case basis. There are process skills that require just basic competency such as data encoding, internet browsing, CD-ROMS access. But there are skills that require just theoretical knowledge before ICT applications are used. Graphing is one particular case. To understand the graph, pupils must be taught how it is done and how to anaylyse them.

But there are cases when innovativeness and flexibility on the part of the teacher is a better judge. To site an example in most cases pupils are taught about the basics on the physico-chemical properties, such as those mentioned above (temperature, pressure, pH, etc) and what these things are all about before they must be exposed on how to obtain the measurable properties whether conventional of through ICT. The use of ICT here just replaces the conventional which at this age are really outdated. But try to think that other teachers uses unique methods of presenting situations first via simulation software or even data logging programs to spur curiosity among pupils before discussing in depth the concepts behind them. Concepts such as magnetism, the earth, and others can be treated this way. Unless properly regulated, a teacher has the leeway to use his styles in order to achieve the learning outcomes. As a matter of fact, “who discourages innovation?”

Conclusion

We have lived into the Third Wave, the Information Age, and no one can argue about that. Whether we like it on not everyone even those who are out of school are exposed to ICT in everyday lives from the TV, the microwave ovens, the heaters, the street lights and everything. These electronic gadgets which have ICT software integrated in them confront us without any advance or basic knowledge about the theories behind them. The fact is everything can be learned if one desires. So if you are tasked to know how to operate a microwave oven you don’t have to understand how the microwave works on the food. But if you want to know about it you have the prerogative to learn. The point is as long as the basic requirement is satisfied then let the children use ICT to learn more.

References

British Educational Communications and Technology Agency (Becta). 2004. Moving on: The role of ICT in pupil’s transition. Millburn Hill Road Science Park Coventry CV4 7JJ

Information and communication technology in primary schools The Annual Report of Her Majesty’s Chief Inspector of Schools 2004/05. Retrived on Jan 4, 2008 from http://live.ofsted.gov.uk/publications/annualreport0405/4.1.6.html

Betts, S., (2003). Does the use of ICT affect quality in learning science at Key Stage 3? Studies in Teaching and Learning, pp. 9-17.

Hogarth S, Bennett J, Lubben F, Campbell B, Robinson A (2006) ICT in Science Teaching. Technical Report. In: Research Evidence in Education Library. London: EPPI-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, Institute of Education, University of London.

Huppert, J. (2002). Computer simulations in the high school: Students’ cognitive stages, science process skills and academic achievement in microbiology. International Journal of Science Education, 24 (8), pp. 803-821.

Mistler-Jackson, M., Songer, N.B., (2000). Student motivation and internet technology: Are students empowered to learn science? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37 (5), pp. 459-479.

Yerrick, R., Hoving, T., (1999). Obstacles confronting technology initiatives as seen through the experience of science teachers: A comparative study of science teachers’ beliefs, planning, and practice. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 8 (4), pp. 291-307.

E-Learning Students Education

Abstract: With the enormous spreading of e-learning over the last 15 years, quality of e-learning has been often criticized and tied up to poor provision. It has become important for higher education institutions to show the ability to provide high quality programmes. A variety of perspectives on what should be considered when evaluating the quality of e-learning. Some studies have addressed this topic from a more comprehensively view while other have looked at single perspective. This study aims at exploring this subject to develop a framework of critical factors necessary for the evaluation of quality in e-learning system, and to explore the relevancy and importance of the E-learning in Saudi Arabia. Accordingly, the literature of this topic was reviewed thoroughly to identify the factors that constitute the evaluation framework and 12 factors have been addressed. The empirical research was lying on a methodological quantitative approach where data was collected from learners in Saudi Arabia based from their experience in E-learning.

Introduction

Nowadays, higher education is experiencing big challenges driven by many emerging trends, among which is the introduction of means of online learning. Accordingly, many universities all over the world are taking different moves to cope with the new requirements; some universities were established as purely online learning providers, other conventional universities launched new online programs, and some introduced online learning programmes to enhance some of their already existing programs.

E-Learning redefines the teaching/learning processes and the overall learning environment. It change the old university system to a new set of practices by introducing significant changes in the roles of its main key players; learners, faculty members and the institution as an entity (Mendenhall, 2001).

The change which e-learning brings to higher education accompanied by its vast spreading as an accepted learning delivery mode has been always questioned by its components who tie this type of learning to poor quality. Therefore, studying the different aspects of evaluating the quality of e-learning has been rising as an issue that worth researching and enhancing (Kistan, 2005; Wirth, 2005).

A big range of perspectives on what factors to address when evaluating the quality of e-learning has been developed. Nevertheless; most of those studies either addressed few factors to a single aspect or dimension (Ally, 2004) or addressed multiple aspects but without looking at the e-learning institution comprehensively (Cohen and Ellis, 2004).

In view of the lack of a holistic framework of factors to evaluate the quality of e-learning programs; this study aims hopefully at contributing to the body of knowledge in E-learning practice.

Research objective:

The main principle of this study is to evaluate the quality of e-learning through investigating the related critical factors that been identified by researchers and practitioners in this field. It also intends to study the importance of such framework in the e-learning practise in Saudi Arabia.

The study aims also at understanding how the key learners and faculty members differ in perceiving the importance of such factors on impacting the quality of an e-learning program?

Research Question:

The research intends to answer in broad perspective the following questions as well:

What are the factors which are affecting the quality of e-learning?

In this question the researcher are trying to address the quality factors which affecting the success of E-learning in Saudi Arabia based on 12 factors have been address from the literature.

How can we increase the e-learning practice in Saudi Arabia?

The second question are to know what is the best way to increase the number of E-learning practise in Saudi Arabia and what do the learner think based on their experience.

Dissertation structure:

This dissertation includes six chapters in addition to its introduction. Below is a brief description of each:

Chapter two; outlining the background information of the research to puts the reader into the perspective of this study. The chapter includes a discussion of the emerging trends in higher education that have pushed for the introduction of e-learning and discusses broadly the quality issue in this type of learning.
Chapter three; covers the literature review of the e-learning, i.e. critical factors for evaluating the quality of e-learning programs. The chapter starts with identifying the distinctions between e-learning and traditional education, discusses in details the definition of the “Quality” concept in higher education generally and in e-learning in specific.
Chapter four; Cover the research methodology such as the process of data collection and analysis which will be used.
Chapter Five; we will be describing and analysing the data and presents the data gathered. Results of the analysis are then discussed.
Chapter six; this chapter summarizes the study, lay out the conclusion and ends up with recommendations for future research.
Bibliography
Research Methodology:

In this study the researcher are going to collect his data by quantitative method where a questionnaire will be designed based on the factors which have been discovered from the literature review and then will be sent to random group in Saudi Arabia. The Data later on will be analysis to show the result and the findings.

Saudi Arabia Background:

Saudi Arabia which is the birth place of Islam and home to Islam’s two holiest places in Mecca and Medina is located in the Middle East bordering the Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea. The king’s official title is the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The modern Saudi State was founded in 1932. It is a large Middle Eastern nation that ranks as one of the world’s leading producers of petroleum, and exports more oil than any other nation. The government is monarchy type and the monarch is both the chief of state and head of government and administratively it is divided into 13 provinces and the constitution is governed according to Islamic Law. The country’s legal system is based on Sharia law and several secular codes have been introduced. Commercial disputes are handled by special committee.

Saudi Arabia has an oil based economy with strong government controls over major economic activities. It possesses more than 20% of the world’s proven petroleum reserves. It not only ranks as the largest exporter of petroleum, but also plays a leading role in OPEC. The petroleum sector accounts for roughly 75% of budget revenues, 45% of GDP, and 90% of export earnings. It is believed that about 40% of GDP comes from the private sector and roughly 5.5 million foreign employees play an important role in the Saudi economy, particularly in the oil and service sectors.

The researcher have carried this research in Saudi of same reason which we are going to describe them in details as

The access: as the research is a Saudi nationality and have good access to the people in Saudi Arabia where he can collect more information and find a good respond rate than carrying a research in any other place.
The Language: The research are multi language as he can speak Arabic Mother tongue and English so he will not face any problem to collect the data
The Information: The researcher understating the situation in Saudi Arabia so he can do good research and will not spend too much time to understand the situation and cultural factors.
The Organisation of the Education System in KSA

The education system in Saudi Arabia has five divisions. They are: kindergarten for children from three to six years old, elementary (6-11), intermediate (12-14), secondary level (15-18), and university level (typically 19-24, depending on the subjects studied, and the form of higher education). The secondary stage is the final phase of general education in the Kingdom. It is a three-year period, following on from the intermediate stage. Students are admitted to this stage if they have obtained the intermediate stage certificate. Normally students follow secondary stage education between the ages of 16 and 18 years. This stage is considered the most important period in the general education ladder because students who successfully complete this stage are eligible to join any higher education institution.

The administration of the education system in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is highly centralised. All educational policies are subject to government control and supervision by the Supreme Council of Education. Textbooks and teaching tools are uniform throughout the Kingdom. The four principal authorities responsible for education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are: the Ministry of Education; the General Presidency for Girls’ Education; the Ministry of Higher Education; and the General Organisation of Technical Education and Vocational Training.

Conclusion

In this chapter we have gave a sample overview about the research and what are the reason to carry this research as there are a lack in understand the practice of E-learning program in Saudi Arabia and the research are trying to develop a good understanding to this n the information of other study have carried in similar field ay of the Success factors of the quality for E-learning in Saudi Arabia. Also in this chapter we have describe the dissertation structure and the research question which are going to measure what are the main factors for the success of learning Quality. Finally the Saudi Background have been analyse to give the reader the information to understand where the study have carried on and why.

Chapter Two
Introduction:

The main objective of this chapter is to put forward the point of view of this study by laying out its background information. The chapter starts with presenting the emerging trends in higher education that have lead to the introduction of e-learning. It then continues by explaining the quality issue associated with this type of learning. The chapter also includes an overview of the background information about the e-learning in Saudi Arabia.

Education An overview:

According to a recent publication by the UNESCO, the education sector in general comprised of all of it’s constitutes including the higher education is experiencing new trends that exert on it new pressures and challenges (Hernes, 2003).

Those trends are either classified under demography such as the continuing grow and increase of population, particularly young populations, migration between countries, increase of life expectancy, or are due to globalization where nations in general and learners in particular flow across borders without limits, allowing learners to have easy access to the best universities in the developed countries. Finally and perhaps the most important trend, is the knowledge growth accompanied by advanced information and communication technologies which have changed forever the way information is obtained, stored, used and displayed.

Despite the divide between one country to another, or within the same country, more knowledge development opportunities have been created. Information technologies offer the possibility of modularization and customization of education through the use and re-use of learning objects focusing on learners, possibility of engaging learners more than ever and therefore changing the role of the faculty from a teacher to a facilitator.

In response to the challenges described above, the growth of e-learning programme with its different modes in higher education is apparent and best reflected by the increasing number of e-colleges or e-universities, or the increasing number of higher education institutions that introduced e-learning programs and definitely by the growth of enrolment rate among learners.

A study of e-learning in the United States in 2005, suggested that e-learning is penetrating the higher education institutions both in size and breadth and that e-learning is part of the mainstream of higher education. Figures of the study showed that sixty-five percent of schools offering graduate face-to-face courses also offer graduate courses online. Sixty-three percent of schools offering undergraduate face-to-face courses also offer undergraduate courses online. Among all schools offering face-to-face Master’s degree programs, 44% also offer Master’s programs online. Among all schools offering face-to-face Business degree programs, 43% also offer online Business programs. The same study showed an increase of around 20% of learners’ enrolment rate compared to the previous year (Allen and Seaman 2005).

For different reasons, those statistics do not seem to be applicable to other countries. The USA is certainly the world’s largest provider of e-learning; however the market for e-learning and lifelong learning is also growing in Europe. Moreover, The Arab world, which represents 5 per cent of the world’s overall population, has entered the 21st century with a striking statistics which shows that it has only 0.5 per cent of the worlds Internet users, which obviously impacts number of its e-learning initiatives and enrolled learners in such type of learning systems (UNDP, 2002).

Using Computers in Learning:

These days, computers have become important educational tool kit. Many educational organizations and training centres rely on it to deliver information and learning knowledge. However, using computers in education has a long history and it has deep-rooted in the field. The idea of using computers in training first appeared during World War 2, in that the US military trained farmers to use weapons and other equipment via this systematic approach (Horton, 2000).

The first real use of the computer in educational organizations was seen in the 1960s, when the University of Illinois together with the Data Corporation, developed the PLATO system. PLATO is a system which enabled the learning and understanding of complex subjects. Apple’s Macintosh and Microsoft Windows operating system have since provided a standard platform on which programmers can develop training programs (Horton, 2000)

Definition of E-learning:

E-Learning refers to the employment of information and communication technologies to support the development and delivery of learning in academic and professional development institutions. E-Learning is used widely with other terms such as online learning, technology-mediated learning, web-based learning, computer-based learning, etc.

several definitions of e-learning has been developed reflecting the diversity in its application, used tools and associated technologies, whatever definition was used, the meaning of e-learning always contains two fundamental terms; Learning and Technology. In a way or another, all definitions of e-learning indicate the learning that takes place with the support of multimedia objects, the internet and technological applications as a delivery mode. One of the highly used definitions of e-learning as:

“Education via the Internet, network or standalone computer; it refers to using electronic applications and processes to learn, where communication device have been used and content is delivered via the Internet, intranet/extranet, audio or video, TV and CD-ROM, DVD etc as appropriate” (LTSN Generic Centre, 2004).

A latest definition that uses the terminology of E-learning higher education has been defined by Ally (2004) as:

“The access of the Internet to use learning material; to interact with the content, instructor, and other learners; and to obtain support during the learning process, in order to obtain knowledge, to construct personal meaning, and to develop from the learning experience”.

According to Horton (2000) “E-learning is defined as instruction delivered on a computer by way of CD-ROM, DVD, Internet, or intranet with the following features:

Includes content related to the learning objective.
Uses instructional methods such as example and practice to help the learner.
Uses media feature such as words and pictures to deliver the content and methods.
Builds new skill and knowledge linked to individual learning goals or to improve organizational performance”
Feature of E-learning:

Eaton (2001) outlines that e-learning is characterized with the following features:

Computer-mediated classrooms: faculty members and learners communicate through the computer means making face to face interaction less frequent;
Separation in time between communications: communication between faculty members and learners can be also in asynchronous modes;
Availability of services online: learners are not only provided by online learning experience but also with online services such as advising, registration, and library services.
Distinction between e-Learning and Conventional Education:

To understand the quality of e-learning requires full understanding of how this type of learning differs from the conventional style of education and the changes it brings to higher education institutions. This section presents in a broad perspective the distinctions between e-learning and traditional education which shape higher education nowadays. Such distinctions will be taken into consideration when materializing a definition for quality in e-learning, and deciding what to be taken into consideration for evaluating the quality of this type of learning.

The following areas were highly repeated in the literature as key distinctions between e-learning and traditional education:

Educational Changes:

McLaughlin and Oliver (2000) believe however that the new technologies have positive impact on the learning environment where more choices for forms of learning are provided to faculty and learners. This includes the delivery and presentation of content in more flexible and variety of modes, the provision of interactivity, engagement, communication, feedback, communication and collaboration tools. Weller (2000) sees that those types of new choices will facilitate the quick use of courses for easier customization and individualization resulting in more satisfied learners.

Change in Faculty Roles:

With the growing amount of knowledge and information every day, and the availability of an huge amount of content over the internet, faculty members will not continue to be seen as the source of knowledge, instead, according to Cashion and Palmieri (2002), faculty members are expected to direct learners where to find the most relevant knowledge and provide them with tools that teach them how to learn.

Different Types of Learners:

Oblinger and Oblinger (2005) have referred to young learners of today as the “Net Generation” who grew with familiarity with technological products and facilities. Internet access, computer and electronic games have been a daily activity of learners’ lives. Learner’s todays have different expectations with respect to their learning styles; they prefer to experience things instead of reading or hearing about them, they expect immediate response to questions or actions, they appreciate interactivity and dialogue (Pashuk, 2005). Learners of today consider themselves as customers who demand to be served high quality services. They have consumers’ attitudes towards their academic program and any of its services (Wager, 2005). E-Learning institutions should be arranged to different types of learners, not only in their preferences and expectations but also in their level of variety.

Change in Administrators’ Role:

Administrators of an academic institution are usually referred to as staffs who are not participating in direct teaching or research work, their role is usually to assure that the institution’s systems are running properly. Administrators are responsible to create, maintain and improve an environment that helps learners and faculty achieve their academic goals. Administrators of an e-learning institution can be involved in selecting, orienting and preparing qualified faculty for courses, administer and manage the technological facilities at the institution, provide different types of faculty and learners support from the technical helpdesk, library services, financial aid, etc. Administrators can also be involved in the planning, quality assurance, performance management of an activity to help the institution serve its learners better (Williams, 2003).

Reliance on Infrastructure:

Although e-Learning is basically about learning rather than about technology; the technological infrastructure of e-learning programs is still the critical and primary component of the education systems, e-Learning is characterized by its high independence on the validity, and reliability of its infrastructure which have the role of facilitating and providing accessibility of the learning/teaching process and its support services between faculty members and learners (Pashuk, 2005).

Institutional Demands:

E-Learning institutions must set up their systems, policies and procedures to deal with issues like data security from both internal and external threats as well as copyrights from the learners, faculty and the institutional perspectives. Developing a high quality online course will not only require the intellectual contribution of faculty members, it rather involves other key team members from the same institution or from partnered institutions. Copyright issues are usually linked to revenue sharing models, especially when the course developers are contracted or granted any incentives (Mendenhall, 2001).

Advantages of using E-learning Methods.

As we know, traditional education requires effort, time and money that lead to some difficulties in achieving the goals of learning. On the other hand, e-learning contributes to the spread of knowledge among people around the globe by easy, fast and comfortable means that helps people to attain their personal learning objectives. As a result, several educational organisations have proceeded along the e-learning approach to facilitate and improve the process of learning. In this section, several advantages of using an e-learning approach will be discussed. The author has divided the advantages into two main categories, advantages for learners, and advantages for instructors.

Advantages for learners. According to Mayer (2003) he has conclude the common advantages that learners can gain from e-learning. The following list illustrates the main advantages for learners:

“Learners can get the best tuition available “

The extensive popularity of e-learning programme makes learning more flexible and gives freedom to learners to choose the best course which fit their needs.

“Training time”.

Web-based and media training are available 24 hours a day and 7 days a week which allows learners to study when they need it without any conditions or constraints. They do not need to wait for tuition sessions or specified time to attend.

“Learners set the schedule”.

Learners can study at their own time and they can take as many lessons as they need depending on their time and their schedule. For example, some of them may wish to study full-time while others want to study a few hours a week.

“Learners get access to the instructor”.

Communication with the tutor(s) through web based e-learning systems can be more helpful than the traditional classroom approach.

“Training adapts the learner’s style”

Many different learning styles can be integrated within an e-learning environment and the learner is able to adapt his or her style or series of styles which they prefer and in the way they feel is most efficient.

“Learners get quick feedback”

There is no need to wait while for the results and degree of the course, the results can be obtained immediately.

“Learners treated more equally”

A degree of anonymity is ensuring, therefore personal characteristics are not considered.

“Saves time and money for learners”

Hidden costs are eliminated in that here are no travelling fees, parking charge, etc. It is also efficient for time in that almost all the time is used on learning and no time is wasted on travelling.

“ Produces positive effects”

Learners are constantly improving their other skills, such as computer skills, internet technologies and how they apply the skills in their jobs.

Advantages for Instructors, According to Mayer (2003) the most common advantages for instructors can gain from e-learning are:

“Tutors can teach anywhere”

Tutors are able to teach the course from any location. All they need is connection to the internet.

“Tutors travel less”

Almost all the time is spent on publishing, planning, designing, producing the courses with no time wasted on travelling to attend the class.

“Course can be dynamic”

Tutors have the opportunity to deal with course stuff at any time and in any place such as Office, home etc.

“Tutors save time”

Time spent in preparing the course material such as handouts, having course paper printed are eliminated.

Conclusion

In this chapter we have cover a wide range on academic study to understand this subject as starting with the definition of E-learning and what do we mean by E-learning, followed by another important part which is what are the deferent between E-learning and the Conventional education. Also the researcher has included brief explanation about the history of E-Learning and the feature of E-stand its practise.

Moreover, We can see based on the literature there are many advantage of E-learning for the learner for example he can study from anywhere and at any time which are the flexibility of E-learning and also there are an advantage for the instructor as he also can teach from any place and with flexible time schedule.

Chapter three
Introduction:

In order to understand what constitutes quality of e-learning and the critical factors that should be addressed when evaluating this type of learning; an understanding of the distinctions between e-learning and traditional education need to be attained. The first section of this chapter is dedicated therefore to explore what changes has been brought to higher education by e-learning. This chapter includes a review for the literature to explore what has been recognized by the researchers and practitioners of this field as key factors that affect the quality of e-learning programs and institutions and therefore should be used to evaluate this type of learning.

A list of highly rated and most repeated factors was then generated and categorized to form the basis for a comprehensive framework intended for evaluating quality of e-learning programs which will be used later in the empirical research.

Quality in E-learning:

Defining quality in e-learning and what should be considered when evaluating the quality of e-learning has been developed during the last 15 years. Despite the important contribution of each of those studies, a complete framework for evaluating the quality of e-learning couldn’t be addressed. Developed frameworks either describe the quality of e-learning program with an importance on the classroom environment only or overlooked some important aspects such as the impact of the institute on the quality of E-learning programs (Cashion and Palmieri, 2002).

E-Learning has been set by governing or accrediting bodies which have developed quality standards, principles or frameworks. Such standards however, were developed to help institutions plan for their E-learning (Cashion and Palmieri, 2002) or as a self assessment tools, so they usually address in general perspective academic standards, quality standards, standards of competence, organizational standards and service standards (Harvey, 1999).

According to Vlasceanu et al (2004), the definition of quality in a higher education institution differs with the changes in:

The interests and needs of a range of types of stakeholders.
The institution’s inputs, processes, outputs, purpose, mission and set of goals.
The kind and attributes of the academic world.
The historical involvement and development of higher education

Revisiting the changes that e-learning brought to higher education especially to the role of its fundamental stakeholders; learners, educators and administrators, it perhaps becomes logical when we look for a definition of Quality as a concept, to consider these stakeholders first. For this reason, a growing literature in the field of e-learning tends to define Quality of e-learning programs as the degree to which principal stakeholders? needs and expectations are consistently satisfied, referring to the learners and educators (Kistan, 2005).

Success factors

Critical success factors (CSFs) are key areas of performance that are essential for the organisation to accomplish its mission (Rockart, 1979). Managers implicitly know and consider these key areas when they set goals and as they direct operational activities and tasks that are important to achieving goals. However, when these key areas of performance are made explicit, they provide a common point of reference for the entire organisation. Thus, any activity or initiative that the organisation undertakes must ensure consistently high performance in these key areas; otherwise, the organisation may not be able to achieve its goals and consequently may fail to accomplish its mission. The term “Critical Success Factor” has been adapted for many different uses. Familiarity with the term is often presented in the context of a project or an initiative. In this context, CSFs describe the underlying or guiding principles of an effort that must be regarded to ensure that it is successful.

The Clarity of course goals

Not surprisingly, there has been consensus in the literature that in order to assure the quality of the teaching/learning process; designing a course should start with explicit outcomes that identify the expectations from learners and faculty from the very beginning. Learning outcomes which usually drive the effectiveness assessment process of courses should be also challenging and linked directly to the institution overall goals and objectives. (Mayer et al 2000) faculty members have to adjust course content by selecting appropriate learning styles to achieve course goals and learners’ needs.

Inter

Teaching techniques and their effectiveness in developing ‘accelerated learning’ within UK schools and colleges

Table of Contents (Jump to)

1. Research Background

2. Literature Review

3. Aims & Objectives

4. Research Methodology & Analysis

References and Bibliography

1. Research Background

The author of this report was taught using the traditional methods of teaching throughout the student life. The author came to know about a technique known as brain gym through an acquaintance and became aware of such techniques. This encouraged the author at a later stage to develop an understanding of accelerated learning and to see if it was considered effective by practitioners. Consequently, the author decided to base the dissertation on this topic within the context of English primary schools and colleges. After initiating the research the author realised that there was so much more to the topic of accelerated learning, and that there were numerous techniques associated with it that claimed to improve student’s learning. Hence the idea was to base the work on finding out how popular these teaching techniques were in relation to others and whether traditional teachers considered them effective.

2. Literature Review

There is a huge amount of literature surrounding accelerated learning theory and different teaching techniques that claim to help develop student’s learning. In this section the author will make reference to a variety of techniques that are linked to accelerated learning theory but will discuss their perceived effectiveness in different situations while conducting the detailed literature review. While doing the complete literature review he author will also explore the current literature that describes the brain’s structure and how learning occurs, in order to help the reader’s understanding of how these various teaching technique help learning.

Student centered education allow student to develop their real abilities by not distorting learning: this philosophy does not support traditional teaching techniques. The idea was originally conceived by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in 1762. It was thought that we should not focus on what information to teach students (primarily student’s), but teach subjects and skills in accordance to what natural talents a student possesses. The student will then develop in to a life long learner as each of them develops through stages (Sutherland, 1988). This idea has been associated with current educational policy that encourages us to become life long learners. Learning is not just about academic knowledge but is an experience that should be positive if it is to be effective. The author will now cite some of the techniques that were identified during the preliminary literature review.

Brain gym is one such technique that is used to promote learning and is supposed to be effective when used with academic skills. Brain gym is used in educational kinesiology (Edu-k). There are three main types of activity that promote different processes: Crossing the midline – essential for writing and reading, Lengthening activities – helps in expression of stored memory, skills such as test taking, speech and writing, Energy exercises – helps to decrease stress and fatigue, increases the flow of energy around the body (Magidson, 2004, p.2). The ability to cross the midline refers to an individual being able to cross and use both hemispheres at once, where different types of information can be processed and moved from left to right and right to left. Some scientists suggest that this process is a key skill required for academic success (Dennison et al 1994). Brain gym activities have been created to help learners cross the midline in order to help improve co-ordination, breathing and stamina, enhance vision and hearing and improve spatial awareness (Cohen et al 2002). Skills that may improve include short-term memory and concentration (Drabben-Thiemann et al, 2001). There is some criticism of the technique because any form of physical activity seems to create a relaxed state (Adey et al, 2002).

Target setting has been used to help individuals learn more effectively by organising information in to sections in the form of a target to be achieved. It is supposed to help the learner make sense of information and feel as if the task can be achieved in small steps. The brain stores information, and then retrieves it when appropriate in the form of memory. The short-term or working memory has limited capacity, compared to our long-term memory that is much greater (Prashnig, 1998). Learning tends to be more effective when spread out over a period of time with numerous revisits (Long, 2000). Target setting should review work regularly and be connected with other work if it is to enhance long-term memory; this requires consistency and the allocation of time to ensure the technique is effective. Like a placebo, if success is created in learning it is likely to be recreated in a similar experience (Stockwell, 1992). Target setting is suggested to be difficult to use in practice because the system is time consuming to set up (Naughton et al, 2001).

VAK input technique uses different methods to present information and various activities to engage the student’s attention; depending on the way they prefer to process information. There are allegedly different types of learners: visual, auditory and kina-esthetic (Smith 1996). Neuro-lingusitic programming research has implied that in a class there are a certain percentage of learners who prefer one of the three types of input. Approximately 29% of learners prefer visual input methods, 34% auditory and 37% are kinaesthetic learners; teachers also subconsciously teach using their preferred method of input (IAL 2000).

The traditional assumption that learning is more effective in a quiet atmosphere has been challenged by research conducted in to the effects of music on learning. Research in New Zealand implied that 40% of high school students preferred noisy environments to silent ones (Prashnig, 1998). When this technique is used in lessons it appears to stimulate activity in both hemispheres (Schuster el al, 1986). Educators need to be trained on what type of music has different effects on the state created in learners, if this technique is to be used (Northumberland LEA, 2004).

Teachers tend to use a mixture of approaches depending on the situation in which they teach. Some are considered more effective than others, although each technique usually derives from a specific theory. There is an increasing amount of research being conducted on how we learn and what techniques may help. However one must remain cautious about how we apply these finding, because each one is dependent on the circumstances in which it was created.

3. Aims & Objectives

The primary aim of the research is to find out the different teaching techniques that are used and to determine if those associated with accelerated learning theory are popular, together with how effective they are in developing students learning. Additionally this dissertation will also provide with accurate, up-to-date, research-based information about possible future trends in accelerated learning techniques. And lastly, this research will try to provide possible suggestions and recommendations to be considered for the improvement of such techniques to develop ideas for further research in this context.

To summarize some of the questions that will be addressed through this research are as follows:

What teaching techniques are used to develop student’s learning?
The need for such techniques to be used?
Effectiveness and implications of such techniques?
What are the possible alternatives?
Student involvement in the use of such techniques?
4. Research Methodology & Analysis

A collection of methodologies will be used to carry out this research. Both primary and secondary data will be collected for this purpose. The secondary data will comprise of data from literature reviewed from books, journals, Internet and the annual reports of the institutions while the primary data will take the form of information/results collected from the case study and questionnaire. The researcher has chosen the Case study and Survey strategies for the research. Both of them are common and popular strategy in educational research.

“A case study is a detailed examination of one setting, or one single subject, or one single repository of documents, or one particular event [Bogdan and Biklen, 1982].” Case study approach is categorized as ‘Non-Participant’ qualitative research. Therefore, the first stage of research will comprise of short listing of the educational institutions where the case studies will be carried out. The first criteria will be selecting those institutions that employ accelerated learning techniques. Educational institutions with traditional setting will also be included in the case study for comparative analysis.

Survey research is one of the most widely used forms of research among the educational researchers. It involves researchers asking a large group of people questions about a particular topic. All surveys possess three basic characteristics: (1) the collection of information (2) from a sample (3) by asking a question. A survey can be carried out by conducting interviews with individuals or groups and use of questionnaires. In the second stage of the research the researcher will use a detailed questionnaire, testing quantitatively a much larger sample of teachers. Based on the initial literature review the author will prepare a preliminary questionnaire which be circulated to a small sample. Based on the results of the initial response the questionnaire will be refined and will be sent to a much larger sample.

Research analysis will be done based on the method proposed by Hycner (1985). According to him, the analysis requires the researcher to read the transcripts; identify themes; confirm the accuracy of the interpretation and produce a final summary. Thus the information will be analyzed accordingly and a brief summary will be prepared.

References

Adey, P. Robertson, A. Venville, G. (2002) ‘Effects of a cognitive acceleration programme on Year 1 pupils’ British Journal of Educational Psychology 72 (1) pp.1-25

Bogdan, R. and Biklen, S. (1982). Qualitative Research for education. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Brain Gym International (ONLINE www.braingym.org).

Burns, N., & Grove, S. K. (1997). The practice of nursing research. Conduct, critique and utilization. Philadelphia: W.B.Saunders.

Cannell, C. Fowler, F. J. Kalton, G. Oksenberg, E. Bischoping, K. (2004) ‘New quantitative techniques for presenting survey questions’ in Bulmer M (ed) Questionnaires Volume IV Eondon: SAGE Publications Etd.

Cohen, I. Goldsmith, M. (2002) Hands on how to use brain gym in the classroom Ventura: Edu-Kinesthetics Inc.

Dennison, D. Dennison, G. (1994) Brain gym teacher’s edition revised 2? ed. Califonia: Edu-Kinesthetics Inc.

Dennison, G. (2001) “Brain gym for preschoolers in a Headstart Program” USA: Brain Gym International (ONEINE http://www.braingym.org/).

Drabben-Thiemann G Hedwig D Kenklies M Yon Blomberg A Marahrens G Marahrens A Hager K (2001) ‘The effects of brain gym on the cognitive performance of Alzheimer’s patients’ Brain Gym Journal XVI (1) pp.10, USA: Brain Gym International (ONLINE www.braingym.org).

Hycner, R H (1985) “Some guidelines for the phenomenological analysis of interview data,” Human Studies 8, 279-303

International Alliance for Learning (IAL) (2000) Spirit of accelerated learning; unity, self systems and society Atlanta: Teach America Cooperation.

Long M (2000) The psychology of education London: RoutledgeFalmer,

Magidson E L (2004) “Educational kinesiology and brain gym”. Creative Counseling Consulting (ONLINE http://members.aol.com/braingym/bg.htmr).

Naughton G M Rolfe S A & Siraj-Blatchford I (2001) International Perspectives on theory and practice Buckingham: Open University Press

Northumberland LEA (2004) The thinking classroom Northumberland: LEA (ONLINE http://ngfl.northumberland.gov.uk/).

Prashnig B (1998) The power of diversity – new ways of learning and teaching Stafford: Network Educational Press Ltd.

Schuster D H Gritton C E (1986) Suggestive accelerative learning techniques London: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers. “

Smith A (1996) Accelerated learning in the classroom Stafford: Network Educational Press

Stockwell T (1992) Accelerated learning in theory and practice Liechtenstein: Druckerei Gutenburg AG

Sutherland M (1988) Theory of education Harlow: Longman

The effects of ESOL teaching on learners in relation to social integration, identity and social cohesion
Introduction

This paper will investigate the affect that current ESOL teaching practice can have in terms of impacting on a variety of diverse groups of learners. It is important to consider that ESOL provision is taught across a number of disciplines and exists in various capacities within colleges, community settings, in the workplace and even prison and detention centres. The types of learners undertaking ESL courses represent a rich mix of backgrounds and come with a number of incentives to learn English. For the benefit of focusing on an area that is potentially vast in its research, this dissertation will concentrate predominantly on the UK systems and the teaching of diverse communities that represent different ethnicity, cultural background and citizenship.

Breaking the Language Barriers published by the DfES in 2000 documents the findings of a report into ESOL provision in the UK and identifies a number of issues that needed addressing. The report categorizes ESOL students into four types of learner:

Settled communities
Refugees and asylum seekers
Migrant workers
Partners and spouses of students.

(DfES, 2000)

From these categories they determined that a great many ESOL students particularly refugees and asylum seekers experienced a range of problems including; financial, legal, social, physical and mental issues and clarified that they were marginalized, often excluded and living in poverty, subject to frequent discrimination and racism.

(Sourced from: http://www.niace.org.uk/Projects/esol-enquiry/documents/ESOL-Committee-Issues.doc, Date accessed, 21/11/08

What the report also highlighted was the variable levels of teaching ability, which has been attributed to the shortage of adequately trained teachers, the lack of use of the learners’ first language as a learning resource and the lack of support for students with special learning needs. (Sourced from: http://www.niace.org.uk/Projects/esol-enquiry/documents/ESOL-Committee-Issues.doc, Date accessed, 21/11/08

The way in which the link between social cohesion and teaching can be made is perhaps best summarised by the work of Dagenais et al in Intersections of Social Cohesion, Education, and Identity in Teachers, Discourses, and Practices. There paper examines the debate surrounding government policy on promoting social cohesion. It exemplifies programmes in Canada where local and national schools and teachers work with professional agencies to develop policy directives that are geared around building social cohesion practices within a bilingual and multicultural framework. Dagenais et al took this developmental work a stage further by undertaking teacher-researcher collaboration to determine how teachers utilize both their own cultural backgrounds as well as their student’s backgrounds in order to achieve an inclusive classroom setting. Teachers were seen to adopt learning techniques which were innovative in their ability to incite inclusion. Consequently the research project concluded that teachers have the ability to help inform policymakers, researchers and other learning practitioners about the link between ‘identity, language and education implicated in social cohesion projects’

(Dagenais et al, 2008)

The link between social cohesion and teaching is not a modern concept. Historically it has played a significant role from the mid nineteenth century to the present day. Jewish settlers arrived in Victorian London and were assisted by voluntary organisations and a small series of published self-help texts. The next wave of refugees came about from those fleeing persecution in the Spanish Civil War and to escape Nazi Europe. It was during this time between the 1930’s and the 1950’s that the Berlitz guide and the linguaphone emerged. Over the next couple of decades following the post-war immigration to the UK the government began to respond as to local education authorities and the birth of the official ESOL teacher came about during the 1960’s. (Sourced from: http://www.niace.org.uk/publications/C/CriticalHistory.asp, Date accessed, 22/11/08) Ten years later and the Russell Report was published. The Russell Report of 1973 was to ‘prove a milestone in adult learning in the UK’. With Russell emphasising the special needs of adults and the necessity to provide for them by developing a variety of courses at different levels.

(Sourced from: http://www.niace.org.uk/Publications/R/Russell.asp, Date accessed, 22/11/08). This was an important decade again in terms of refugees entering the UK from Latin America, Uganda, Cambodia and Vietnam. The 1980’s witnessed the abolition of the Industrial Language Training and adult and community education was experiencing one of its most vulnerable periods. But at the same time other community languages were being recognized.

During the 1990’s there was a significant move towards recognizing ESOL which was positioned within the newly established Adult Basic Skills Strategy Unit within the central government education department. (Sourced from: http://www.niace.org.uk/publications/C/CriticalHistory.asp, Date accessed, 22/11/08) Today this exists as The Skills for Life Strategy Unit which is based in the Department for Innovation, Universitiesand Skills and has been operational under its new identity sinceNovember 2000.

The Unit works in tangent with other partner organisations including the Prison Service, Qualifications and Curriculum Authority and the Learning and Skills Development Agency in addition to voluntary and civil service. Its main objective is to take forward the Government’s Skills for Life agenda. In short it encourages continual improvement with literacy, languageand numeracy skills both at a national and local level. The Skills for Life Strategy Unit is categorized thus:

Access and Inclusion
ESOL Policy
Learner Achievement
Learner Engagement and Communications
Level 2 and Level 2 PSAs
Migration Strategy
Quality and Teacher Education
Workplace Engagement and Public Sector

(Sourced from: http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/readwriteplus/who_we_are, Date accessed, 22/11/08)

It is from the perspective of the twentieth century that this paper will scrutinize the historical relationship between ESOL provision and the wider community including its modern day responsibility to contribute to the framework of social cohesion and inclusivity.

Chapter one will concentrate on the existing evidence to suggest that there is a definite need to enhance current learning experiences for those people in society who may be at risk of exclusion or requiring greater understanding of their social, political and cultural background where the teaching of the English language is concerned. Recent research and investigative projects working with minority groups and diverse learners will be explored for consideration in the broader argument to suggest legitimizing these theories.

Chapter two will then examine what is currently being achieved in relation to forward thinking and strategic change taking into consideration the moves by government and learning bodies to begin the process of applying new curriculum and teaching developments that respond to the needs of a wider community of learners.

Chapter One: Identifying problems and issues amongst learners and tutors

The purpose of this chapter will be to outline an indication of the types of problems that exist for a variety of people in terms of how they are taught ESOL, to identify the characteristics and needs of the learners by way of case studies and examples. Consequently the teaching methods, ESOL curriculum and identified issues in these areas will be analysed.

The perceptions of English Language teaching vary greatly between different societies in accordance with their demographic, political situation and the sanctioned education systems of the country. For example in the United States second language tuition is considered the medium through which non-English speaking children are fast-tracked into English in the shortest amount of time, with little scope for quality of provision. (Julios, 2008)

To give another example, Pacific communities born into New Zealand life are currently facing a crisis with ESL provision in that while English is important to them economically and socially they are being denied their ancestral culture by losing their language and until further research has been carried out in this field it is feared the long-term issues of the teaching of English to Pacific ESL learners will remain problematic.

(Sourced from: http://www.clesol.org.nz/2008/CLESOL08SaturdayAbstracts.pdf, Date accessed, 21/11/08)

It is not just basic fundamental issues relating to culture or quality of teaching practice, other complications arise when learners have other specific learning needs which can further limit their academic success on an ESL course. For example individuals may experience low levels of literacy, no formal educational background or unfamiliarity with the standardized Roman-script. Recent studies in the UK reveal that within a cross- section of ESOL classes. ‘59 per cent of learners have had 11 or more years of

Education, with 23 per cent having more than 15 years in education. Males were more likely than females to have no qualifications 37 per cent compared with 32 per cent of females’. (DfES, 2005) Some of these individuals may be survivors of torture and trauma as well as being older in years and require more time and attention in the classroom. The educational researcher McPherson determined that ‘classes formed on the basis of a range of characteristics which indicate a slow pace of learning, will often result in such a disparate group that their different language and literacy needs will not be effectively met.’ (Hinkel, 2005)

Refugees, asylum seekers and migrant workers as well as established settled communities want to learn English. Amongst these individuals there exists a huge diversity as well as some obvious common themes like those already touched upon. All of which bring with them a set of needs and different expectations as to what students require from a course of ESL teaching. Their backgrounds and life histories are often complicated. A number of ESOL Pathfinder projects were commissioned in 2002 across ten locations in England with the intention of contributing to the Government’s Public Services Agreement Target to ‘improve the literacy, language and numeracy levels of 2.25 million adults between the launch of Skills for Life in 2001 and 2010’ (DfES, 2005)

The ESOL initiatives were evaluated later that same year and stressed the diversity of learning characteristics within this sector, with interesting figures emerging about the slightly increased numbers of women than men undertaking the courses. This suggests that there may be a number of challenges for women trying to support their children at home. Gender in itself is another significant point of interest in this study as many women can be believed to have lived in England for a number of years and have never learnt the language or only speak elements of it, these women are often most recognized in Pakistani and Bangladeshi communities where they have very different cultural responsibilities and therefore less opportunities to attend beneficial ESL courses. (Heath and Cheung 2006) In particular women who are asylum seekers or refugees can experience tremendous isolation and feel restricted with access to health services, not being able to speak the language as well as being potentially more vulnerable to abuse or violence from a cultural perspective. The ESOL evaluation revealed that almost half of all learners were less than thirty years of age emanating from a broad sphere of ethnic origin. This ethnic breakdown included White and other students totaling 16 per cent, African, 15 per cent, Pakistani, 13 per cent and Other Asian 13 per cent.

The Learner Survey revealed over fifty-four different first languages spoken by learners. Half were married or living with a partner and one in six were living away from their partner who resided outside of the UK. (DfES, 2005)

The 2008 NIACE report – ESOL: the context and issues also corroborates this evidence and adds that students of English are learning for a variety of purposes which include securing or progressing into long-term employment, supporting their children, being able to access services, being able to integrate more into their surrounding community and aspiring to embrace the British culture and British political systems. (Sourced from: http://www.niace.org.uk/lifelonglearninginquiry/docs/Jane-Ward-migration-evidence.pdf, date accessed, 21/11/08

Most recent studies reflect the need to improve on the way in which ESOL is delivered and encouraged for the benefit of the inclusion of a variety of needs and abilities. It is clear however that this issue has been apparent for a number of years which makes the prospect of re-developing curriculum provision and teaching methods in this complex area of teaching particularly difficult. ESOL has inherently adopted a style which serves a purpose, designed for the masses often to be delivered and completed within a limited timeframe. In 1989 a study of 13 Adult Education ESOL centres across the UK were investigated focusing on bilingual migrant learners. This early analysis captured the attitudes and motivations of these learners and emphasized their desire to maintain their mother tongue and heritage whilst being taught the language and customs of their new host country. (Lal Khanna, et al, 1998)

One of the most interesting and informative research projects to date in this area is reflected in the Adult Learners’ Lives (All) working with people who are learning within adult literacy, numeracy and ESOL groups to understand and appreciate their concept of the learning experience in relation to their wider lives; covering the regions of Blackburn, Lancaster and Liverpool. As part of this initiative a recent commissioned piece of research was carried out amongst ESOL students who were enrolled on an evening class at Blackburn College. The findings of this report share some of the most important data in existence relating to primary first hand interviews with students.

The outcomes reveal both positive and negative opinions relating to ESOL provision, which essentially can be interpreted in both a positive and negative light.

The participants believed that more than anything their work experience had provided them with the best opportunity to encourage their learning of the English language an was much less restricted that the classroom. For many this was their only chance to utilize the language outside of the classroom. The learners were critical about the amount of provision available and found it affected their learning capabilities. One participant in particular, Mahmood found that working all day and then studying English in the evening prevented him from finding a vocational course in a different practical subject that could increase his chances of gaining better employment.

In terms of issues relating to their background and culture, many familiar examples of diversity were apparent across the group as were their complex needs and considerations. Frederick carried the scars of war in his country and suffered considerably both physically and psychologically. Despite this his motivation levels were extremely high.

Iqbal came to England in order to be with his new wife. The transition from his old life and professional career had left him very dissatisfied. Proving earlier references to gender and cultural relationship issues Ammara was studying at degree level and had been instructed by her husband to discontinue with it. This had repercussions on here work life which she had to compromise with and learn English accordingly.

Below are some of the edited extracts detailing the participant’s interviews taken from this report.

Frederick’s story:

‘Frederick came to England for the reasons above and more. He arrived in England with nothing. He didn’t have permission to work, couldn’t speak the language and had no friends or networks. His first step of integration in to the country was his attendance on an ESOL course at Blackburn College. Despite his desperate situation he was anxious to start again and enrolled almost immediately upon his arrival in Blackburn. Although he was aware of the importance of learning English he found the classes very difficult at first: “It was my first time, the first time it was so difficult.” In spite of his worries he continued the classes and vastly improved his English during his first year here. Also significant was the beneficial effect ESOL classes had on his social life. He made many new friends, who helped ease the loneliness of living in a new country, and gave him an extra chance to practice his English.’

Ammara’s story:

‘Ammara sees a close relationship between education and work. She clearly perceives education and training as a stepping-stone into work. She has shown that she is quite adept at completing courses and using the obtained qualifications to find work. Her biggest problem is language related. She had quite a good decent overall level of English when she arrived in England particularly with regards to reading and writing. Due to the high level of education she obtained in Pakistan she was able to complete the courses she took here easily because she had a good level of literacy skills in English. The language issues she is facing these days arise from her limited oral grasp of English and this appears to be most noticeable to her in her working life.

With regards to work and language, Ammara feels she can manage but feels she regularly encounters difficulties. She has numerous concerns about language. She feels very unconfident about her use of grammar and structure when she is speaking. She believes that despite having a good knowledge of English, her speaking ‘imperfections’ lead to a barrier to her professional development. She also thinks that what she describes as a limited vocabulary is a barrier to communication and explanation. This has various implications for Ammara in the workplace. Because she lacks confidence she believes that her language prevents her from using her initiative at work, and so she ‘keeps quiet’. “sometimes I know somebody is wrong and even if the person is senior, I can explain but I just kept quiet because I feel like everyone is picking on me.” She also thinks that people’s perceptions of her professionally will change just because of her language problems.’

Mahmood’s story:

‘While he was waiting for the Home Office to grant him permission to work, Mahmood was unemployed for six months. He used this time to start English classes and familiarise himself with his new country and surroundings. Upon receiving his ‘leave to remain’ and permission to work from the Home Office he got a job at a sewing factory in Blackburn, where he still works. His role is to sew medical paraphernalia such as bandages and neck braces. He says that initially he found this job quite easy, as he was able to use the skills and experience gained from his sewing job in Afghanistan. He does however worry about his future. He says there is little chance of promotion in this job and therefore he is keen to look for different work. He has started to think about a change.

When asked about his future ambitions with regards to work, Mahmood says he would like to do a building job. He thinks that this will be difficult for him to achieve because he doesn’t feel he has enough experience. He doesn’t feel that the experience he gained from his sealing job in Afghanistan will be of use to him here, as he believes that methods of building vary from the two countries. Mahmood is aware that he will have to do a course to help him achieve his aims, but has little knowledge about the courses available to him and thinks that it will be difficult to do a part time course, work full time and continue with his English classes.

Mahmood believes that his job in England has had a positive impact on his language. He gets indirect language support from his work peers: “and if I’ve got any problem with any word, pronunciation they will help me.” He is able to use informal English at work in a mostly friendly atmosphere. He is also positive about the support he has gained from his boss with regards to his language. He says that right from the start of his employment his boss encouraged him to attend English classes. If overtime clashes with his twice weekly evening English class then his boss is always flexible, he will say, “OK you don’t have to work you go to college.” Mahmood is extremely aware of his language needs and is very motivated to improve. He told me that he uses friends at work to practice language covered in class, and his level of motivation can be seen in his 100% attendance in English class and the huge improvements he has made over the last two years.

(Sirling, 2005) Accessed from: http://www.literacy.lancs.ac.uk/workpapers/wp08-esol-blackburn.pdf

What is visibly obvious here are the feelings, aspirations and characteristics of a group of learners who may well require much of the special attention to teaching that this paper is attempting to argue. Although an already fairly advanced English language speaker, Ammara could like so many others at that level benefit from tutoring in just a few specific areas of English acquisition and at a time of the day when she does not have to juggle her family and several other jobs.

And we see with Frederick that despite finding it hard to study and adjust to the cultural and social restraints of a new country he has actually achieved a sense of community and belonging by way of attending ESOL classes.

It is clear that it must not be assumed that all migrant peoples, asylum seekers and diverse ethnicities should be labeled marginalized and socially excluded as there are many who do not experience this type of isolation. Nonetheless it is dependant on the type of teacher, classroom environment and delivery techniques which need to be made consistent in their quality and accessibility.

Returning to Jane Ward’s ESOL into Context paper, she is very specific about the issues relating to the shortage of specialist ESOL teachers which impacts on the overall quality of provision across the UK with long waiting lists and minimized teaching time occurring in a number of venues offering ESOL tuition in urban areas. Rurally too where many migrant workers are being placed on entry to the country there is an inadequacy where teaching experience and expertise to deal with theses communities exists. Ward also stresses that in rural areas ‘learners accessing vocational programmes too often encounter subject tutors who have little awareness or training in language learning.’ (Sourced from: http://www.niace.org.uk/lifelonglearninginquiry/docs/Jane-Ward-migration-evidence.pdf, date accessed, 21/11/08

Chapter Two: Solutions and future provision

Just as the former chapter dealt with the identification of the problems and consequences of inadequacies with ESOL teaching in respect of achieving a holistic and inclusive approach, this chapter will seek to establish potential solutions and recommendations for taking forward initiatives for future change within the current ESOL sector. This will be achieved by way of exploring current government objectives and responses to recent research which has exposed the levels of insufficient delivery within the sector.

In 2003 the National Research and Development Centre for Adult Literacy published a comprehensive review of recent research projects carried out in the field of Adult ESOL. In particular that which ‘focuses on learners who need English for the UK workplace, for study in further and higher education and for living in the community. The review mainly concentrates on research that has taken place in the last 15 years and it has attempted to include all of the research that has been carried out within the UK. As most of this has been fairly small scale or not directly concerned with pedagogy, research that has been carried out in the USA, Australia, Canada and Europe is also included and its relevance to the UK context is discussed.’ (Sourced from: http://www.nrdc.org.uk/content.asp?CategoryID=424&ArticleID=353, Date, accessed, 22/11/08)

The recommendations that emerged from this review have been summarised below:

It is recommended that a large scale study of actual practice in different settings is carried out. Alongside this larger study there should be a number of smaller ethnographic studies of good practice in ESOL classes, covering: learners with little prior experience of the written language; bilingual literacy provision; workplace courses; and language support on mainstream courses. The aim of these studies is to provide accounts that can be disseminated to other practitioners.

There should be ongoing research into the relationships between teaching and learning in formal contexts. This could be based around a programme of practitioner research, with support from established researchers. This research should explore:

specific classroom tasks to address issues of accuracy and fluency in the spoken language
an investigation of different media of learning, including written materials and new technology
learners’ discursive experiences and practices outside the classroom, and how classroom practices can take account of them
learners’ expectations and learning strategies.

And that primarily there is a need to track learners in terms of their learning ability and experience (both in and out of the classroom) as well as gleaning specific information relating to them as individuals, the key aims being to determine:

learners who arrive in the UK with professional qualifications and experience, but low levels of English
learners whose first language is an English based Creole or dialect
learners with trauma.

(Sourced from: http://www.nrdc.org.uk/content.asp?CategoryID=424&ArticleID=353, Date, accessed, 22/11/08)

This is a refreshing indication that learning practitioners are now heavily involved in a dialogue that recognises both the necessity to investigate further into the practices of ESOL and its students nationally. This also compliments the Government’s new commitment within its ‘Community Cohesion and Migration, 2007-08’ report which makes recommendations as well as recognising localised ‘Further Education Colleges, as the centres of ESOL training in the front-line for new arrivals, in particular as they are often the first official agency encountered.’

The report goes on to clarify that teaching staff working within ESOL should be providing ‘support and help to new arrivals and referral to other agencies’. The Government continues in its conviction for change by allocating funding to this area of support. (House of Commons Report, 2007)

This is however not sufficient action for many academics working in the field. As Linda Morrice demonstrates in her paper Lifelong learning and the social integration of refugees in the UK: the significance of social capital. Morrice challenges the UK Government on its recent measures to account for the inclusion and integration of refugees in the face of an increasing migrant population. She refers to the learning issues of refugees and argues that current education systems and opportunities do not adequately address the issues that they face and declares rather that ‘for refugees to become integrated and useful members of society requires a shift away from the present focus on formal, individualised education provision to a greater recognition of informal and social learning opportunities’. (Morrice, 2007)

Alongside this “Discourses on social cohesion widely acknowledge that public education systems provide critical contexts for constructing social cohesion among their diverse communities” (Dagenais et al, 2008 p 85). What this seems to show is that ESOL provision to date may be serving the political ends of British society by covert mechanism of social control.

In her paper Action Research: Exploring Learner Diversity Pam McPherson carried out a class-room project in an Australian adult migrant English language class. It succeeded in profiling as well as discovering the learning needs of disparate learners. She trialed a number of teaching exercises and different learning techniques from course design, resources and even the room layout.

In terms of responding to students with limited formal education and low levels of literacy, she suggested the following actions should be taken and integrated into ESOL courses:

Assessment and referral schemes that can identify special needs at entry into the programme
Bilingual assistance for course information, goal clarification, language and learning.
Low intensity courses
A teaching methodology that has explicit goals, the development of language learning strategies and spoken and written language for community access
Teachers trained to identify special needs and develop appropriate strategies to meet them.
Recognition within the certificates in spoken and written English in order to achieve language goals related to settlement needs and the need for further education and training. (Hinkel,2005)

McPherson also recognises a specific type of approach for asylum seekers and those who have experienced trauma and the tortures of War. That their physical, Social and psychological needs require specialist attention. Assuming that many of these individuals are likely to feel overwhelmed, out of control as well as possessing memory loss and poor concentration it is likely that they will have difficulty with the amount of control and concentration that is associated with language learning. (Hinkle, 2005) Perhaps a solution might be to make ESOL classes more flexible and the level of participation and communication compliant with the needs of the students. Many of McPherson’s findings inspired the government in Australia to make significant changes to their systems of resettlement and language instruction.

What then have the g

1a How can the curriculum offer and delivery vary according to the education and training context or purpose?

The education and training context in this instance varies according to community outreach venues, specifically chosen to reach the parents of children needing ESOL teaching, who have low levels of first language literacy and so require potentially different means of supporting language learning. Different approaches to curriculum design are going to influence how the teacher develops the syllabus or the scheme of work, because this will affect how they select each topic to be taught, how sequence topics and themes, language stages, based on whether this is a process or product based syllabus, notional/functional syllabus, Communicative Syllabus, Top-based syllabus.^[1] For example, a content-based syllabus, based maybe on grammatical structure, would be organised according to sequencing structures, while a communicative syllabus might be more functional or based on identified needs.

Syllabus design is one of the means by which teachers can approach the process of facilitating language learning^[2]. However, in language teaching, syllabus design has been largely neglected. Curricula are ways of organising learning, indicating lesson content and learning progress, while syllabuses are much more concerned with what actually goes on in the classroom, forming part of ongoing development, review and refinement of the syllabus^[3] to meet the needs of the learner while satisfying the requirements of the institution or awarding body. Syllabus design is the selection and grading of content, and is argued to also relate to the selection of tasks and materials^[4]. Because of the complexity of language learning, selection of tasks and selection of content may be different than in other types of learning.^[5] “Lesson planning involves reinforcement with frequent feedback on learning, delayed feedback, allowing trial and error, and praise, marks and prizes.”^[6] All of these means of ordering learning are focused on what and how the ESOL student will learn.^[7]

In this context, the focus is on ESOL Keeping up with the Children – Family Learning, and so the curriculum is designed with this in mind, but the needs of learners in ESOL can vary, including a more academic approach, such as ESOL in FE^[8], or intensive ESOL training for Job Search, or Vocational ESOL (eg ESOL embedded in something else, like Catering). This would then require a more functional syllabus which would be focused much more on vocabulary, and schemes of work would take this into account, practicing key elements of communication rather than simply grammar. Dynamic language learning is more complex than simply the repetition of sounds, words and sentence structures, and so the communicative approach may be much better suited.^[9] However, all of these approaches could also potentially serve to help ESOL students integrate into the social world as well.^[10]

However, the syllabus design and development in this case is also constructed within the requirements of the awarding body, thus requiring that students learn sufficient and in the right manner to meet the assessment requirements, and develop a general English vocabulary which covers personal details and experiences, work, education & training, housing, family and friends, health, transport, weather, buying goods, leisure, UK society. The scope of such learning is significant, and cannot all be developed in one term, but the provision of vocabulary lists, and the implementation of constructive methods of learning can be built into the syllabus to allow for ongoing linguistic development which builds upon learning session by session.^[11],^[12]

1b How might the different approaches to curriculum design you have outlined influence the outcomes for individuals and groups?

The kinds of outcomes which relate to the curriculum here include looking at what skills, vocabulary and language structures will have been learnt in the different educational settings or contexts^[13]. For example, the work or occupational based ESOL courses will be limited to the kinds of vocabulary which relate to work activities and practices, and will be quite specialised, while the kinds of programmes which are to do with family learning are likely to relate more strongly to more practical language which can be used in the home and in key scenarios such as learning how to communicate with school teachers and other people about the child. But over-defined objectives can limit learning, rather than support the dynamic forms of learning which are often more suited to ESOL.^[14] One of the problems is that the primary contexts for learning, particularly if they are very specialised, such as the occupational learning context, or even learning English as a tourist, can lead to bad habits, because language learning is a process of developing attitudes and habits.^[15]

Thus the habits that have been developed in one context, may benefit or hinder the use of language and the learning and development of further language skills in another setting. However, supporting a degree of learning awareness and self-direction in learning is important, and depending on whether the curriculum is didactic or communicative, this could be more easily achieved or else become more difficult. A communicative approach is much more focused on the needs of the learner, and so is more dynamic, and more likely to foster self-direction in language learning. ^[16] Self-direction and the identification of structural regularities in language, such as learning applied grammar, can be enhanced by more directed learning approaches, or by a mixture of content-focused syllabi and communicative approaches^[17], which has been the author’s experience in their current context. Despite the strengths of different approaches, the context of learning is very significant in how and how well students learn.^[18],^[19] However, language learning curricula, and the impacts of different approaches to teaching and learning, are still relatively poorly researched, and it would be useful to have more, diverse research and case studies which identify what kinds of approaches have been proven best in which settings.^[20], ^[21]

References

Armitage, A., Bryant, R., Dunhill, R., Hammersley, M., Hayes, D., Hudson, A., Lawes, S. (1999) Teaching and Training in Post-Compulsory Education, Open University Press.

Brillinger, K. (2003) From Theory to Practice: Creating Intermediate ESL Reading Materials Based on Current SLA Research and Theories, Newsletter of the Association of Teachers of English as a Second Language of Ontario, 29(3), 1-6

Burns, A. (2006) Surveying landscapes in adult ESOL research, Linguistics and Education, 17, 97–105

Curzon, L. B. (1997), Teaching in Further Education: an Outline of Principles and

Practice, (5th ed.). London: Cassell.

Dagenais, D. Beynon, J. and Mathis, N. (2008) Intersections of Social Cohesion, Education, and Identity in Teachers, Discourses, and Practices Pedagogies: An International Journal 3 (2) 85 – 108.

Ewald, J.D. (2004) A classroom forum on small group work: L2 learners see, and change, themselves. Language Awareness 13 (3) 163-179.

Ferris, D.R. (1994) Lexical and syntactic features of ESL writing by students at different levels of L2 proficiency. TESOL Quarterly 28 (2) 414-420.

Lochtman, K. (2002) Oral corrective feedback in the foreign language classroom: how it affects interaction in analytic foreign language teaching International Journal of Educational Research 37 (3-4) 271-283.

Long, M. (1996) The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In Ritchie, W. and Bhatia, T. (eds) Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (413-468) San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Morgan, B. (1997) Identity and intonation: linking dynamic processes in an ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly 31 (3) 431-450.

Morrice, L. (2007) ‘Lifelong learning and the social integration of refugees in the UK: the significance of social capital’, International Journal of Lifelong Education, 26(2), 155-172

Reece, I. and Walker, S. (2000). Teaching, Training and Learning: a practical guide.

Sunderland: Business Education Publishers.

Roberts, C. & Baynham, M. (2006) Introduction to the special issue: Research in adult ESOL, Linguistics and Education, 17, 1-5

Rogers, A. (1996), Teaching Adults, 2nd edition, Buckingham: Open University Press.

Widodo, H.P. (2006) Approaches and procedures for teaching grammar. English Teaching: Practice and Critique. 5 (1) 122-141.

Zamel, V. and Spack, R. (2006) Teaching Multilingual Learners across the Curriculum: Beyond the ESOL Classroom and Back Again. Journal of Basic Writing (CUNY), 25 (2) 126-152.

1

Teaching English in Saudi Arabia – The Cultural Context
Introduction

In this essay, I aim to examine the cultural context predominant in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) in so far as it might affect effective teaching and learning styles and strategies in the EFL classroom.

My interest in this topic is grounded in the reality of the post-9/11 world where the Western world has been pitted against the Arabic world as if there is a great social, cultural and religious divide that might never be bridged – or so the message in the media goes. This poses a great challenge and temptation for EFL teachers working in or curious about the region.

The KSA makes for a particularly interesting study into how the local cultural and religious context might impact on successful English teaching and learning, because of the Kingdom’s “politically sensitive geography” (Marcinkiewicz, 1995). The holy cities of Mekkah and Madinah are situated right within its borders and the KSA has thus “undertaken a protectoral role in religion.”

It follows then that the Islamic religion is not only the most pervasive aspect of local culture, impacting directly on teaching method and content, it is also a significant motivating force for KSA learners who are “intensely religious, Islam having a strong influence on their minds and hearts.” (Al Haq and Smadi, 1996). It can thus be expected then that the religious dynamics in the KSA will “cause friction in the classroom” (Traynham, 2006). With Islam being the “strongest denominator” of students in the KSA (Kniffka, 1996), cultural awareness must inform any teaching methodology in order to achieve successful outcomes.

Outline of essay

I will introduce the cultural context underpinning effective language teaching and learning and give a brief background of the history of English instruction in the KSA as a way of introducing the larger historical and cultural context in which English-language instruction occurs. I will next consider some of the specific sociocultural and sociolinguistic issues that impact on the learning styles and strategies preferred by students and teachers in the KSA. Referring to the relevant literature, I will suggest connections between the local cultural context and the effectiveness of learning and teaching methods and strategies employed. Finally, I will conclude that while the local culture affects both students and teachers – and teachers must respond to this at the practical and theoretical levels – teachers must, at the same time, avoid overgeneralizing about cultural and religious factors and understand that each and every classroom exhibits a unique dynamic between a given set of individual students and their teacher and that, in fact, in many cases a universal education culture exists in all EFL classrooms regardless of social and cultural geography and context.

The cultural context underpinning effective language teaching and learning

In the past decade the concepts of context and culture have become increasingly more important in the literature on language teaching (Byram and Grundy, 2003). This is due to the increased acknowledgement of the significance of socio-political factors in teaching and learning and of the perception of learners as social beings who respond to learning a new language with “feelings and identities” (p. 1). In language teaching, cultural context is “usually defined as a/the culture associated with a language being learnt” (p. 1).

As far as the English language is concerned, English has been taught in the KSA ever since the Kingdom was established, in 1932 (Al-Seghayer, 2005). The explosion of economic activity within the oil industry resulted in rapid development of English language programs in the 1970s, so that Saudis could successfully communicate in English with imported manpower and outside interests. Today, English is used as the major medium of instruction in universities where science, medicine, engineering and technology subjects are taught. English instruction begins in elementary school and is centralized and controlled by the Ministry of Education. Despite the ever-increasing importance of English in Saudi Arabia “as an essential vehicle for personal and national growth,” (Al-Seghayer, 2005, pp129), the system still fails to produce a satisfactory level of English language proficiency in Saudi learners.

This seems to be an incongruous result, considering that the socio-cultural motivations for learning English are quite significant. Al Haq and Smadi (1996) find that a good knowledge of English rewards with social prestige and is considered to be a kind of duty to help Saudi Arabia advance economically, culturally and religiously at both the Islamic and international levels. With English being the lingua franca, in so far as technology and the sciences are concerned, Saudi citizens see English as a vital tool in advancing in this modern world.

But this might be part of the problem. The English language – as the bearer of the goods of technology and science – necessarily comes with Western culture. Languages are expressions of national, historical and cultural identities. Languages are also “ideological because they are associated with aspirations of unity, loyalty and patriotism,” and “social because they are perceived as symbols of status, power, group identity, and belonging,” (Wesche, 2004, p. 279). As such, there is a fear in the KSA that the “use of English entails Westernization, detachment to the country, and a source of corruption to […] religious commitment.” (Al Haq and Samdi, 1996, p. 308).

The sociolinguistic features of the English language – the grammar, phonetics and vocabulary – necessarily impact socio-affectively on the society of EFL learners (Khuwaileh, 2000, p. 287) wherever they might be situated in the world. In the case of Saudi Arabia, English language instruction often relies on Western cultural content that conflicts with Islamic culture and ideals. For example, Traynham (2006) explains how many EFL textbooks contain vocabulary – dating, alcohol, music, dance – that is offensive to Saudi students and to the Islamic faith.

Khuwaileh (2000) also found similar sociolinguistic obstacles and cultural barriers when learners in an English for Science and Technology class refused to write on topics that included “taboo vocabulary” such as, AIDS, sexual diseases and contraception (p. 286), because for one student, at least, “religion,” “honor” and “politeness” were more important than gaining the certificate in English. Khuwaileh concluded that, unless modified, “course material rich in taboo content can significantly hinder the learning process.” (p. 287) Moreover, in a study of EFL textbooks – largely those written by non-Saudis and non-Muslims – used to teach freshman English in Saudi Arabia, Alhaidari (2003) found that they contained images and vocabulary “that clashed directly with Islamic and Saudi cultures.”

These issues might seem easily solved, if common sense prevails even before theoretical and pragmatic considerations are examined. Offensive material should be avoided by designing unique material adapted to the socio-cultural reality of the student group. Even so, the pervasive presence of the textbook as the “dominant tool in teaching” holds a “powerful influence” over both cognitive and affective factors in individual students (Alhaidari, 2003, p. 3). Cultural revulsion towards a given text might impact on a student’s attitude to authority (in this case, the English language and English teacher) and on a student’s attitude to how important a text might be. A negative response, which is likely to be expected, will surely result in “learning difficulties, probably lost teaching objectives and, consequently, useless curricula.” (Khuwaileh, 2000, p. 287).

Cultural issues in Saudi Arabia affecting effective language learning strategies

For all of these reasons, awareness of cultural issues is not only beneficial, but a necessity, and Kniffka (1992) stresses that EFL instructors need to increase their level of expertise in cultural awareness and teaching language within a cultural context. Cultural awareness begins with the understanding that culture is a concept that concerns the role of the individual in the “unending kaleidoscope of life situations of every kind and the rules or models for attitudes and conduct in them” Oxford (1996, p ix). Context includes the beliefs, perceptions and assumptions that directly influence two things: language learning styles (the general approaches that guide learning) and language learning strategies (the specific steps or techniques used by learners).

Of the six types of learning strategies – cognitive, metacognitive, memory, compensatory, affective and social – outlined by Oxford (2003, pp. 12-15), studies (introduced below) find that Arabic students tend to use cognitive and metacognitive strategies with greater frequency, and socio-affective strategies with lesser frequency, though students also exhibit an optimistic flexibility toward using a wide range of learning strategies.

Abu-Ghararah (1996) found that “a wide variety of learning strategies were used” even while the majority of the EFL students surveyed in three public schools in Madinah “tended to use more cognitive strategies […more] than socio-affective strategies […] in acquiring English as a foreign language” (p. 6). Abdan and Almuarik (1992) also found that students exhibited a preference for multiple learning styles. In fact, gender and subject major, in their study, made no difference at all to their preferences. Riazi and Rahimi (2005) similarly found that while their Iranian student subjects used metacognitive strategies “at a high frequency,” overall they were “ medium strategy users.” This can be extended to Saudi Arabia, because both Arab countries have a “similar history, culture and language” (p. 282).

These studies show that students regularly “combine all the learning orientations.” Riazi and Rahimi (2005, p. 110) suggest that this openness and flexibility results from a “specific philosophy of life” where “a human being can only be perfect, when he studies all of the sciences and arts.”

Reasons pointing to more frequent use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies might be that these strategies offer students direct ways to control learning and are strategies that can be employed in private study, rather than in group situations, which seem to be less preferred. Another factor suggested was that these students might not have much exposure to English in social situations so as to “pick up” the target language “unconsciously.” Reasons pointing to the minimal use of other strategies might be, apart from cultural background, “improper teaching,” and again lack of exposure to English in a native environment with native speakers.

For Riazi and Rahimi, at least, it is up to the English instructors to introduce other strategies by discussing them with their students and providing appropriate opportunities to develop and use those “neglected strategies” (p. 123). To this end, Zaid (1996) evaluated the methodological preferences of teachers in an English department at a major KSA university and found that the overall preference was for a communicative style of teaching. This is interesting when considered against the findings of Riazi and Rahimi (2005, p. 103) where social learning strategies were the least frequently used strategies of EFL students. In fact, Khuwaileh (2005, p. 282) also concluded that social strategies, such as group work and openly expressing opinions in the classroom are “culturally bound practices which seem to hinder English language learning.” Zaid (1996) warns against teachers developing “personalized theories” of teaching when it might result in a “methodological gap” between what they are doing in the classroom and what program administrators – working within the socio-cultural framework of the KSA – expect. Personalized teaching might also result in a preferential gap between how the teacher prefers to teach and how the students prefer to learn.

Good practice then is clearly a collaboration between program administration, teacher preference, and the expectations of students as a group and as individuals. “Individual” is stressed here because, as Oxford (2003, p. 16) emphasizes, a teacher needs “adequate knowledge about their individual students’ style preferences” in order to provide the most effective classroom instruction. The literature examined in this essay, while clearly suggesting learning trends and preferences based on cultural background, also suggest an openness and flexibility in the learning strategy preferences of Saudi, and other Arab, students. In fact, the impact of culture is often found to be influenced by other factors, such as individual personality traits (Oxford, 2003), gender, as well as motivation (Kaylani, 1996, p75). Individual learners who are more motivated – regardless of cultural background – will use a wider range of learning strategies thus ensuring greater success in their learning (Oxford, 1996a, p118). This may further imply that students may successfully adjust preference and expectation if a teacher introduces new activities “on trial” (Tomlinson, 2005), in the first instance, and only incorporate lesser used strategies should students find them useful and enjoyable.

In fact, Tomlinson (2005) suggests that while learners may well have expectations based on cultural norms and experiences, the level of innovation introduced by any given individual teacher into the EFL classroom may have the effect of creating a new and unique to the classroom “temporary culture.” Tomlinson finds that even in significantly different cultural contexts, “educational cultures seem to be remarkably similar” (p. 139), what he refers to as a “universal” education culture. He calls it a Tomlinson seeks to stress the “teacher’s attitude” in response to the perceived cultural context in which they work and warns against the “dangers of cultural overgeneralization.” He concludes that teachers should remember that in a classroom teachers teach to a “class of diverging individuals rather than to a convergent group of cultural stereotypes.”

Conclusion

In conclusion then, the sociocultural and religious context in the KSA clearly influences teaching and learning. Teachers should not only be aware of the cultural context in which they teach and but this context should directly inform their choices of method and materials. However, teachers should avoid, on the one hand, making methodological choices based on overgeneralizations and preconceived ideas about how cultural issues influence their students, and on the other hand, should also avoid personalizing their methodology to suit their preferences and ideology. Methods and strategies employed in EFL instruction should always be negotiated anew between the teacher and the group of individual students. And all of this, of course, within the general framework of the sociocultural and religious dynamic prevalent in the KSA.

References

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