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Individual Essay

Like most of my peers, I joined the teaching profession with some preconceived notions, to a certain extent based on observations of my teachers, both good and bad, and partly on my opinion of how things should be like in a perfect world.

Personal Philosophy

Every child having a sense of belonging

As a child, I have good memories of my experience and education in primary school. I studies at an all-girls school where corporal punishment was still used to punish disobedient pupils. I remember that my language teacher who was also the discipline teacher was very strict, but I also remember that I respected her to a great deal and so do most of my peers. I felt that in a way this had formed my initial notion about teaching where teachers are respected and should maintain a level of control in the classroom. However, I am glad that we have progressed from corporal punishment as a way to maintain order in our classrooms. There are many other ways in which the teachers can gain their students’ respect and keep their classrooms orderly. I believe that it is important for me to show genuine care for my pupils through the way I teach and in the time I devote to my pupils. I believe this kind of caring nature is bound to positively affect the pupils. I believe it is also important for me to create a positive atmosphere where pupils are encouraged to discuss questions. Pupils should not be afraid of making mistakes as they are treated as opportunities to explore misconceptions and not reflection of their abilities. School being their second home, it is important that my classroom is a place where it is safe for them to make mistakes, a place where differences are tolerated and compromised on.

Common sense and research tell us that students are more likely to cooperate with teachers whom they see as caring, trustworthy, and respectful (Weinstein, 2006 as cited in Weinstein, Romano, & Mignano, 2011). It is important to develop a supportive and respectful relationship with pupils not only to gain cooperation but also for them to be seriously engaged in learning, to share their thoughts and feelings, to take risks and to develop a sense of social responsibility. Thus, I need organise my classroom in such a way that my pupils will feel safe and cared for emotionally, intellectually and physically. I remembered conducting the ‘Heart-to-heart’ session with my pupils during my contract teaching and I find this very useful in getting to know the pupils better. Also, pupils were tasked to write at least one journal entry every week on something special. These activities has helped me to know my pupils better and are a great stepping stone to improve the teacher-student relationship. Thus, I hope to continue to implement them in my class in the future.

Focus on Students’ Strengths

What really triggers me to join the teaching profession was the weekly tuition session I volunteered for during my university days and continued to this day. Working for a non-profit community organisation gave me the best experience in social interaction and interpersonal skills that I would have not learnt of. I hoped my experiences and encouragement would help them find a clearer path to their interests in life and work, but I found that I learned so much from them about bravery, tolerance and ambition to succeed. It is really heart-warming to know that the boys are grateful for the help and support of volunteers and love to engage in learning and games. This gave me a completely new view of life, communities and education. There’s no doubt that I found great satisfaction in sharing and encouraging the boys but I was surprised by how enlightening and fulfilling the whole experience was. Thus, I believe that it is important for me to develop their full potential by guiding them in their route of discovery. As children are our future, it is crucial for me to allow them to express their opinions and nurture their own ideas. These reasons confirmed my decision that teaching was what I want to do in life.

At times, we need to tap into the life experiences of our pupils to discover what they can do beyond their academic achievements. As a teacher, I used to focus on what my pupils do not know or cannot do, and try to fix the problems. However, after going through the teaching experience and courses in NIE, I learned that responsible teaching also involves searching for strengths. This is important to develop the confidence and self-competency of my pupils (Lim, Thaver, & Slee, 2008). I will need to create opportunities for pupils to succeed while challenging them. I was told that we need to scaffold for pupils to understand the concept better but little did I know that these small successes will also lead to increased pupils’ confidence.

Engaged and Active Learning

During my contract teaching stint, I learnt that each and every individual student in the class had a different background and there is a great diversity in there. Each student had their unique learning style and abilities. Their family backgrounds ranged from lower to the top tier of society. I learnt that different stakeholders, i.e. parents, school, child and teacher, all play a part in nurturing students. The socio-economic class of students affected their abilities and academic success, and different family structures gave different levels of support. All these differences made me understand that when conducting lessons, I cannot expect all students to have the same experiences. Learning is superficial unless the pupils are actively engaged. Therefore, I will need to use different teaching strategies in my class such as questioning, collaborative learning, hands-on activities and experiential learning events that will encourage active and constructive learning.

However, conducting a class that actively engages the pupils require a lot of planning. Therefore, I need to ensure that I am well prepared by not only knowing the content knowledge but also the teaching objectives and strategies. The activities planned will also need to match the concepts, skills and goals of the lesson. When pupils are actively engaged, they focus on what is being taught and better process new information (Lorain, 2010). As pointed out by Tom Good and Jere Brophy (2008), when students must wait with nothing to do, there is a higher probability to result in undesirable behavior and a loss of valuable learning opportunities (Weinstein, Romano, & Mignano, 2011). Through the various courses in NIE, I have learned how to better prepare myself for lesson and designing activities that are able to develop pupils’ relational understanding. This course also discusses various cooperative learning strategies such as think-pair-share, round table, and jigsaw which I could apply in my classroom to promote active learning. Also, to ensure that the group activities are carried out successfully, I need to ensure that there are certain classroom rules and routines to keep the classroom running smoothly.

My Evolution as a Teacher-in-Training

Establishing Productive Learning Environment

One concept taught in this course that struck me most was the model for creating an inclusive learning environment which was adapted from Stice’s problem-solving model. This model helps me to understand and reaffirm some of the teaching practices which I have observed and learned during my teaching internship, relief teaching or contract teaching. The model aims to aid classroom learning environment that are not only academically inclusive but also socially.

Creating a conducive physical environment can influence the way teachers and students feel, think and behave (Weinstein, Romano, & Mignano, 2011).Thus, it is important for me to ensure that the physical furniture in my class are strategically arranged to suit the needs of the pupils. During my contract teaching, my teacher mentor created a reading corner at the back of her class with carpets and cushions for the pupils. I find this arrangement useful in managing the class. Once the pupils have completed the assigned work, they will proceed to the reading corner with a book and read silently. I felt that this has helped to inculcate in the pupils the love for reading. This also helps her manage the class and reduce unnecessary disruption when the pupils have completed their work. Occasionally on a rotationally basis, pupils are given 10 minutes break time where they are allowed to use the educational board games created. This encourages pupils’ self-directed learning as they explore different concepts in a fun and interactive manner. I have also learned that it is important to ensure that the notice boards are up-to-date with information and pupils work. Environment psychologists point out that the effects of the classroom environment can be both direct and indirect (Proshansky & Wolfe, 1974 as cited in Weinstein, Romano, & Mignano, 2011). For example, if pupils seated in straight rows are unable to carry on a class discussion because they can’t hear one another, the environment is directly hindering their participation. Students may also be affected indirectly if they infer from the seating arrangement that the teacher does not really want them to interact. Therefore, I need to be mindful on how my pupils are arranged in the class as it will send a message to them about how they are supposed to behave due to the link between classroom environment and student behaviour.

Through this course, I also learned that it is important to create a sense of belonging for the pupils by providing them opportunities to make decision on how they want the classroom to be such as giving them the responsibility to decorate the class or as simple as putting up pupils work.

Behaviour Management

Another aspect which I find very useful is the various behavior management models which teachers could employ. I understand there is no one size fit all solution to various issues a teacher might face in school and each model has its own pros and cons. It is therefore up to the teachers’ discretion to choose the model that best suit their teaching style and the class profile. Personally, the concept of taking ownership under inner discipline resonates with me. I believe that it is important for students to accept ownership of their problem. Students need to learn that they are capable of taking ownership of their problems regardless of age. As teacher, I must trust that they also are capable of taking full responsibility for the problems their behaviours can create, not because of fear but because it is the right thing to do.

Assertive Discipline is a direct and positive approach to make it possible for the teacher to teach and the students to learn. During my contract teaching, there were times when I felt I was unable to deliver the lesson properly due to poor class control and denied pupils the opportunity to learn. However, after seeking advice from the senior teachers, I made certain changes such as implementing the rewards and punishment system. As a result, I was able to deliver most of the lessons without much interruption. Students should be rewarded for good behaviour and punished fairly for bad behaviour. I think that having a short list of classroom rules posted in the class is beneficial. That way, from day one, they are aware of what is expected from them. However, it is necessary to exercise punishments with cautions to make sure students would not be more rebellious. I have also learned the various teaching style and I would prefer to adopt the democratic teaching style which the teacher provide firm guidance and leadership by establishing rules (Edwards, 2008). Pupils will then be taught how to establish an inner control that permits them to choose behavior compatible with their best interest.

I realized that teaching was indeed a calling. One needed a passion to teach and to make a difference in people’s lives. One had to follow their heart and not their brain to appreciate the true difference made by being a teacher because being a teacher was hard work with many untold roles. One had to be unafraid to admit that mistakes have been committed and constantly reflect on lessons conducted so as to continually improve.

Bibliography

Edwards, C. (2008). Classroom discipline and management (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Lim, L., Thaver, T., & Slee, R. (2008). Exploring Disability in Singapore. Singapore: McGraw-Hill Education (Asia).

Lorain, P. (2010). Teaching That Emphasizes Active Engagement. Retrieved May 1, 2014, from National Education Association: http://www.nea.org/tools/16708.htm

Weinstein, C. S., Romano, M. E., & Mignano, J. A. (2011). Elementary Classroom Management – Lessons from research and practice. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Presentation of the Issue

Banks are not being prepared for their client’s online bank accounts to under come frauds. Not all banks have good security systems and blame their clients with the benefit for thief.

An opportunistic thief who stole ? 14,000 from a woman’s bank account after she failed to log out of a public computer has avoided a jail term.? When the woman complained to the bank, they refused to reimburse her because of her “negligence” in failing to log off.?

The negative impact of this issue shows that, online banking fraud increased 55 percent to ?39 million in the first six months of the year compared to the same period a year ago, said Financial Fraud Action U.K.(FFA).? The main issue consumers have with online banking is security.? The head of the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation has stopped banking online after nearly falling for a phishing attempt.4

Positive impacts of using online banking are; elimination of paper?, cheaper than traditional methods, available 24/7 without the need of going out from home, fast payment for delivery services.

Technology Background of the Issue

E-banking includes the systems that enable financial institution customers, individuals or businesses, to access accounts, transact business, or obtain information on financial products and services through a public or private network, including the Internet.5 Hundreds of financial institutions offer online banking services, making it possible to pay bills, check account balances, and transfer funds using software.6

Customers access e-banking services using an intelligent electronic device, such as a personal computer (PC), personal digital assistant (PDA), automated teller machine (ATM), kiosk, or Touch Tone telephone.5 While the risks and controls are similar for the various e-banking access channels, this booklet focuses specifically on Internet-based services due to the Internet’s widely accessible public network.5 Failing to log off in public places, leads to online banking fraud. Only with the help of the court people can get their money back. The court heard that the woman had used the internet banking computer to transfer ? 1,000 from her account, then left believing she had logged out correctly.?

A widely know online banking fraud is phishing. In phishing scams, criminals send spam e-mails to their victims, hoping to track them into entering sensitive information such as usernames and passwords at fake Web sites.4 Phishing has evolved into a big problem, not just for banks, but for online retailers and even providers of consumer Web applications such as Facebook and Yahoo.4 Nonetheless, most bank security measures are defeatable if a person fails victim to a phishing scam and sends a fraudster their authentication credentials.?

Impact of the Issue

Online fraud increased very much over the last year. The rise in banking fraud comes as U.K. banks have taken more rigorous measures to combat online fraud.? While U.S. banks have often only require a log-in and password to get access to online banking, U.K. banks often have several more steps.?

The most known fraud is phishing. It has become widely popular not only present in online banking. People lose a great amount of money with this fraud, due to the fact that they are not aware there are the victims of phishing. If the fraud is small usually clients to do not recognize it, and it is harder to get their money back from the bank. Only if the phishing is done for a big scale of consumers, it can be identified by the bank software. FBI Director Robert Mueller said he has recently came “just a few clicks away from falling into a classic Internet phishing scam” after receiving an e-mail that appeared to be from his bank.4 “Far too little attention has been paid to cyber threats and their consequences,” Mueller said.4 “Intruders are reaching into our networks every day looking for valuable information.4 Unfortunately they’re finding it.”4

Another fraud connected with online banking is the usage of online banking on public computers. This increases the probability of online banking fraud. This was the case of the woman, whose money have been stolen by Max Glover, who observed her and transferred money from her account onto his. She later discovered that her account was overdrawn and that money have been transferred without her knowledge.?

But data such as log-in can be saved on the computer’s web site history in form of a cookie. A small data file created by a Web server that is stored on your computer either temporarily for that session only or permanently on the hard disk (persistent cookie).7 Cookies provide a way for the Web site to recognize you and keep track of your preferences.7

Although online banking should be secure it still contains many positive impacts. It is very ecological, due to the fact that paper is not used. It is cheaper than the standard bank account because the customer does not pay for the worker as he does everything by himself. It is easier and faster for buying products from the Internet. Online banking is available from every place on earth, 24/7, so the client does not need to look for his bank on holidays, but he can easily transfer the money.

Solutions to the Problem Arising

The problem of the woman in my article can be easily eliminated by not using online banking in public places. If there is such need, the customer should remember to log out and clear the history and the Internet.

The solutions arising from my issue, should be implied by banks. They should install better security software, so that online banking fraud will be eliminated or at least reduces. A U.K. security company is giving to banks, for free, security software that it says can block malicious software from manipulating online banking transactions or stealing data, even if the computer is infected.9

Online banking should be fast, easy and secure.8 Firstly and foremost, the site should be secure with strong validation process and data encryption.8 For example, NatWest- owned by the Royal Bank of Scotland Group- requires customers to enter their birth date plus a unique four digit code.? During the second step, a person is prompted to enter some digits of a separate four-digit PIN (Personal Identification Number), which is not the same as the person’s at ATM card.?

Even if banks install new security software, it won’t eliminate online banking fraud completely. This can only cause reduction, because hackers will unlock the codes to the online bank software. This will take time but as the new security system is created by human it can be unscrambled by them.

Bibliography

? http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/edinburgh_and_east/8017138.stm

? http://www.pcworld.com/businesscenter/article/173267/online_banking_fraud_in_the_uk_hits_a_new_high.html

? http://articles.moneycentral.msn.com/Banking/BetterBanking/TheTop10OnlineBanks.aspx

4 http://www.pcworld.com/article/173319/citing_cybercrime_fbi_director_doesnt_bank_online.html

5 http://www.ffiec.gov/ffiecinfobase/booklets/e_banking/ebanking_00_intro_def.html

6 Tomorrow’s Technolgy and you pg.164

7 http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=cookie&i=40334,00.asp

8 http://www.moolanomy.com/1817/best-online-bank-for-savings-and-checking/

9 http://www.pcworld.com/businesscenter/article/181310/software_shields_online_banking_on_infected_pcs.html

Autism Spectrum disorders

Introduction

Autism awareness in today’s society has moved from the shadow of shame and unknown to the forefront of research and education as an increasing number of children and people with Autism Spectrum disorders gain attention in every aspect of their everyday lives. This paper will attempt to explore the many faces of autism: identification, possible causes, treatment, societal reaction/interaction, the learning/teaching cooperative, and expectations for the future regarding this disorder in an ever evolving and expanding society.

What is Autism? How does it manifest? Are there specific characteristics inherent to the disorder? How was it discovered? Who gets it? How is it diagnosed? When? Has the cause been identified? Is it hereditary, environmental or societal? Is there a cure? What kind of treatment is available, and how has it changed since discovery of the disorder? Do autistic children face specific learning challenges? What teaching methods best reach autistic children? Are some methods more effective than others? Autism is very broad, far-reaching and involved, but herein I expect to go from a brief discussion of the broad topic to the specific: ‘How does autism affect the learning/teaching relationship between children and teachers?’

What is Autism?

Autism was first thought to be mental retardation or insanity. In 1943, Leo Kanner noticed that these children did not fit the pattern of emotionally disturbed children and instead recorded patterns of being slow learners. Hans Asperger, making similar discoveries, discovered what has come to be known as Asperger’s Syndrome – often used to label autistic people that can talk. Leo Kanner and Hans Asperger, working completely independent of one another, recognized autism for what it was: a developmental disorder that interferes with a child’s communication, social and interaction behavior. (Carew, 2009)

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD). It is a bio-neurological developmental disability usually appearing before the age of three, best known for impairing a child’s ability to communicate and interact. Life-long disabilities significantly impact several areas of development: communication impairments, social difficulty, sensory processing deficits and a need for solid routines within their lives. Characteristics of Autism manifests in a myriad of ways: delay in verbal development, a need to finish what they begin, a rather h3 resistance to change in daily routine, lack of spontaneity, distress at being touched and the ability to show any kind of emotion, as well as an inability to process and respond to humor.

There are five subcategories associated with ASD, each with it’s own distinctive and unique features: Autistic Disorder, Asperger’s Disorder, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder (CDD), Rett’s Disorder, and Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS). Treatment within each subcategory is as diverse and varied as the individual being treated, depending on the individual’s personality, unique symptoms and manifestation of autism.

How is it Diagnosed?

To help determine the difference between autism and mental retardation, a qualified professional will examine and score children who are suspected of having autism through a questionnaire based on direct observation by professionals and reports given by parents, family members, and teachers. This test is known as CARS (Childhood Autism Rating Scale) and was developed by Eirc Shopler, Robert Reichier and Barbara Rochen Reiner. (Schopler, Reichler, DeVellis, & Daly, 1980) CARS was published in 1980, but the development began a lot earlier, in 1966. A Study conducted by the University of Texas Health Science Center determined an accuracy rating of 98% in diagnosing children and showed encouraging results in diagnosing adolescents as well. CARS incorporates the criteria of Leo Kanner (1943) and Creak (1964), and characteristic symptoms of childhood autism. (Schopler et al., 1980)

The test focuses on 15 categories of behaviors, characteristics, and abilities and how the expected development is different than the actual development if autistic symptoms are present. The categories are: Relating to people, imitation, emotional response, body use, object use, adaptation to change, visual response, listening response, taste, smell and touch response and use, fear or nervousness, verbal communication, nonverbal communication, activity level, level and consistency of intellectual response, and general impressions. A child can score on a scale of one to four. Scoring a one meets a normal range for a child’s age and scoring a four means the child is severely abnormal. (Secor, 2009)

Who Gets It?

Although it is unclear how much of the surge reflects better diagnosis, recent data suggests a 10-fold increase in autism rates over the past decade. The journal, Pediatrics, released on October 5, 2009, reported one percent of U.S. children ages 3-17 have an Autism Spectrum disorder, a prevalence of 1 in 91. This is a dramatic increase from the 2007 report by the Center for Disease Control reported 1 in 150 children diagnosed with Autism. Boys are diagnosed four times more often than girls. There has been no connection established regarding socio-economic status, race or religion in identifying autistic individuals. (Kogan, 2009)

Cause of Autism

All over the world, researchers are working to find just what causes Autism. However no direct, specific cause of Autism has been determined, to date. The pressure to identify a cause is a top priority among researchers and it appears, due to the various levels of severity and combinations of symptoms, there may be multiple causes and scientific evidence suggests both genetic and/or environmental factors. Because of intense research, there are several specific claims that have been disproven.

Bruno Bettelheim, a once well-renowned child psychologist, blamed autism on parents, specifically mothers, claiming they did not properly bond with their children. There is no evidence to support that claim. Due in large part to Dr. Bernard Rimland, who has an autistic son, founded the Autism Society of America and the Autism Research institute. Dr. Rimland was instrumental in helping to determine autism as a biological disorder not a causal effect, ie., neglect, isolation, cold, indifferent or ‘bad’ parenting. He disproved the theory by defining ASDs as biological disorders, not emotional illnesses in his book, Infantile Autism: The Syndrome and Its Implications for a Neural Theory of Behavior (Rimland, 1964). However, Dr Rimland is a proponent of another high profile controversial claim suggesting vaccinations given to children during babyhood may be a cause of the disorder. Despite Dr Rimland’s advocacy and beliefs, this claim has little or no scientific backing. In fact, in a timely ruling Friday, March 12, 2010, the so-called ‘vaccine court’, a special branch of the U.S. Court of Federal Claims, found that the mercury-containing vaccine preservative thimerosal is not to blame for autism, and concluded the last of three cases on theories related to a vaccine-autism relationship. A 2009 ruling rejected a theory that thimerasol can cause autism when combined with the measles-mumps-rubella vaccine, which perhaps was based on a discredited medical journal article published in 1998 by British physician, Dr. Andrew Wakefield, linking a particular type of autism and bowel disease to the measles vaccine. The 2009 ruling predicated the dropping of a second case based on a theory that certain vaccines alone cause autism. Interestingly, in this third case, the court found that “none of the expert witnesses who argued mercury can have a variety of effects on the brain, offered opinions on the cause of autism in any of the three specific cases argued.” (Schmid, 2010)(emphasis added)

Two studies conducted by researchers at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia link specific genes to autism. “One study pinpoints a gene region that may account for as many as 15 percent of autism cases, while another study identifies missing or duplicated stretches of DNA along two crucial gene pathways. Significantly, both studies detected genes implicated in the development of brain circuitry in early childhood.” (Wang, 2009)

A specific connection between fragile x (FXS) and autism has also been found. Dr. Don Bailey , director of the Frank Porter Graham Institute, and colleagues found that in young boys with FXS, 25% met the criteria for autism using the (CARS). Their profile of behaviors was very similar to that of children with autism but without fragile X. Consequently, they also found that children with autism and FXS together, had a lower IQ than children with either FXS alone or autism alone. (Bailey, Jr., Hatton, et al., 2001)

Methods of Treatment

Since 1943, many ways have been developed to help the autistic child. Then, the famous Sigmund Freud discovered that parents who did not attempt to communicate with an autistic child saw no progress, while a close parent/child relationship seemed to cause the child to thrive and move forward. Although it lingered well into the 50’s and 60’s, Freud’s theory lacked two critical bits information: first, oftentimes the parent didn’t try to interact with the child due to the Autistic behavior; and second, in some cases it was a genetically inherited personality. For a time, children were removed from their home to see if they would recover although there was no clear-cut evidence of any value in future use of this method.

Due to research and study, it was found that facilitated communication could teach the child to communicate with the world; for example an autistic child could be taught to manage and control his emotions; a parent could help a child desensitize from the over sensitivity to sound.

Today, Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), Occupational Therapy (OT), Pivotal Response Training (PRT), Physical Therapy (PT), Sensory Integration Therapy, Floortime, and medications, all have a place in accepted scientific treatment. Alternative methods are also sometimes used. These can include Dietary intervention, Vitamins and Minerals, Social Skills Groups, Music and Art Therapy, and even Dolphin Therapy.

One of the most tried and true methods utilized today, Applied Behavior Therapy (ABA) is usually accompanied by Physical Therapy and Occupational therapy. As with any treatment there are good and bad points associated with each. ABA was developed by Dr. Ivar Lovaas and contains the B.F. Skinner’s theories on operant conditioning. This treatment includes rewards which may include toys or treats, for acceptable behavior. There is no punishment for wrong or incorrect behavior, however. There are a myriad of steps involved, and a fairly rigid structure to this method. ABA is very time-consuming and has shown many positive results.

According to some ongoing research, diet may be fueling Autism. There is convincing empirical evidence that special diets help autistic individuals. Karl Reichelt of Oslo has been a pioneer in this area for decades, showing the highly significant effects of removing gluten, gliadin and casein from the diets of autistic children. There are now about forty research studies in Norway, the U.K., Italy, and the United States supporting this finding. Special diets are, most often, hard to implement.

Eighteen research reports have been published since 1965, by scientists in six countries showing that about half of all autistic children and adults improve significantly when given large amounts of B6. Unlike drugs, B6 is a safe, natural substance that the brain requires. This vitamin, along with the mineral magnesium, is used in the production of serotonin.

In a comprehensive review of the neurochemistry of autism, published in 1990, Dr. Edwin Cook wrote, “The most consistent finding has been that over 25% of autistic children and adolescents are hyperserotonemic. However, after 29 years of investigation, the mechanism of hyperserotonemia has not been determined.” (Genetics, autism and priorities, 1997)

Teaching Methods

Autistic children all have specific learning challenges; however, the method of approach depends entirely on the child. When teaching an autistic child, environmental considerations, a set schedule and routine for the student and a visual structure the student can see clearly to enable them to understand what is expected of them, and when it is expected of them. No one method is necessarily better than another. Many of the various methods utilize the same basic principles needed to help focus and teach a child with autism.

An effective instructional strategy is one that incorporates structure, a communication system, sensory accommodations, individualized programming, inclusion, social integration and access to the general curriculum. It is important to find research-based methodology that has proven effective through application and data collection. This helps enhance the effectiveness and accountability of the program.

There are also different teaching approaches enabling students with this disorder to learn and function as well as any other student in the classroom. No one approach has proven more effective. However, Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related Communication Handicapped Children (TEACCH) (Shopler, E 1997) incorporates several methodologies and techniques into one program.

Developed in the 1970’s at the University of North Carolina’s School of Medicine, the philosophy behind TEACCH was: the environment should be changed to meet the needs of the students, not the students changed to meet the needs of the environment. Techniques are developed to meet the specific communication, social and coping needs of the student. The goal is to help students with ASDs learn functional skills so they can live productively and reach their full potential at school and home, and later in their community and working lives. TEACCH stresses the need for elements of behavioral and cognitive interventions, direct teaching of social skills, the need for structure, and the use of visual cues to show tasks to be done in work or play areas.

Another stand alone method of teaching, also one of the components within TEACCH, Structure-Positive-Empathetic-Low Arousal- Links (SPELL), emphasizes a clear routine and an atmosphere that helps maximize positive relationships and reduce anxiety while teaching children with ASD. This can be accomplished by trying to anticipate the experiences, settings, or problems the children may consider threatening. This methodology has been integrated into most of the centers run by the National Autistic Society.

Basic strategies need to be implemented inside a classroom to help transition students with ASD. These include:

A clear structure and daily routine
Use of clear and unambiguous language (not a lot of humor or irony)
Make clear which behaviors are unacceptable
Address the child individually
Provide a warning if there is an impending change in routine or activity switch
Know the student’s ticks and what ‘abnormal behavior might be
Specific teaching using photographs, video recording, how feeling are expressed and communicated so they can be recognized.
Regular opportunity for simple conversations to help increase the use of ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions
Use charts to record behavioral progress reinforcement

How Does Autism Affect the Learning/Teaching Relationship Between Children and Teachers?

Any teacher can get very frustrated with children in general, and if a disability is added to the equation, it can make for a difficult learning and teaching experience for both parties involved. It is important to remember what the student is going through and having to deal with. Patience truly is a virtue for the teacher, combined with empathy, understanding, encouragement and compassion.

Within any teaching strategy, to work and develop a method of structured teaching, there must be an understanding of the unique features and characteristics of the autistic child. A teacher must organize the child’s environment so the child is able to focus on relevant information and not be distracted by irrelevant things. The teacher must also develop appropriate activities to engage the student and not frustrate them. The instructor must also help the student understand what is expected of them so they do not have any disruptions to their routine or be inadvertently thrust outside of their comfort zone.

Despite a teacher’s best efforts to reduce the stress, anxiety and frustration of the environment, behavioral challenges will still arise, depending on the characteristics of the autistic child.

Conclusion

Autistic Spectrum Disorder has come out of the shadows and gained notoriety in today’s society through the actions of celebrities, organizations, and parents of autistic children as awareness of this increasingly prevalent disorder increases exponentially with research, education and mainstreaming. Since it was identified just a little over a half century ago, ASD has gained attention and momentum and tremendous strides in identification, possible causes, treatment, societal reaction/interaction, the learning/teaching cooperative, have provided lofty expectations for the future.

While teaching students with ASD is challenging, it can also be hugely rewarding. Teaching methods like TEACCH, which encompass the basic principles and techniques found to be most effective and least upsetting for the autistic child: consistency in a passive environment, an unvaried schedule and basic repetitive routine– enable teachers to help the autistic student learn and progress within a safety zone geared toward their own individual learning style.

Although there is no cure, there have been significant strides in identifying, developing and implementing new treatments every day. Children with ASD are often able to lead full, happy, and productive lives, interacting with society on their own terms. One can only hope that the strides of today will be not only matched but outpaced in the future as ASD becomes not a mysterious disorder of unknown origin, but a minor affliction overcome by millions, unidentifiable and without stigma in the mainstream world.

Bibliography

Carew, Betty. (2009, January 28). The History of autism. Retrieved from http://healthmad.com/children/the-history-of-autism/

Kogan, Michael, et al. (2009). Prevalence of parent-reported diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder among children in the US, 2007. Pediatrics, 10.1542(1522)

Schopler, E, Reichler, RJ, DeVellis, RF, & Daly, K. (1980). Toward Objective classification of childhood autism: childhood autism rating scale (cars). J Autism Dev Disorder, 10(1), 91-103.

Secor, M.L. (2009, january 6). Child autism rating scale. Retrieved from http://autism.lovetoknow.com/Childhood_Autism_Rating_Scale

Rimland, Bernard. (1964). Infantile autism: the syndrome and its implications for a neural theory of behavior. New York: Prentice Hall.

Schmid, Randolph. (2010, march 12). Court says thimerosal did not cause autism. Associated Press,

Wang, Kai, et al. (2009). common genetic variants on 5p14.1 associate with autism spectrum disorders. Nature, 459(528-533), Retrieved from http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v459/n7246/full/nature07999.html

Bailey, D. B., Jr., D. D. Hatton, et al. (2001). Autistic behavior, fmr1 protein, and developmental trajectories in young males with fragile x syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 31(2), 165-174.

Genetics, autism and priorities. (1997). Autism Research Review International, 11(2), Retrieved from http://autism.about.com/gi/o.htm?zi=1/XJ/Ya&zTi=1&sdn=autism&cdn=health&tm=27&f=00&tt=14&bt=1&bts=1&zu=http%3A//www.autism.com/ari/faq/faq_diets.htm

Exkorn, Karen Siff. (2005). The autism sourcebook everything you need to know about diagnosis, treatment, coping, and healing. New York, NY: HarperCollins.

Shopler, E (1997) Implementation of TEACCH philosophy. In D. Cohen and F. Volkmar (eds). Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders. New York: Wiley.

Autism Spectrum disorders

Introduction

Autism awareness in today’s society has moved from the shadow of shame and unknown to the forefront of research and education as an increasing number of children and people with Autism Spectrum disorders gain attention in every aspect of their everyday lives. This paper will attempt to explore the many faces of autism: identification, possible causes, treatment, societal reaction/interaction, the learning/teaching cooperative, and expectations for the future regarding this disorder in an ever evolving and expanding society.

What is Autism? How does it manifest? Are there specific characteristics inherent to the disorder? How was it discovered? Who gets it? How is it diagnosed? When? Has the cause been identified? Is it hereditary, environmental or societal? Is there a cure? What kind of treatment is available, and how has it changed since discovery of the disorder? Do autistic children face specific learning challenges? What teaching methods best reach autistic children? Are some methods more effective than others? Autism is very broad, far-reaching and involved, but herein I expect to go from a brief discussion of the broad topic to the specific: ‘How does autism affect the learning/teaching relationship between children and teachers?’

What is Autism?

Autism was first thought to be mental retardation or insanity. In 1943, Leo Kanner noticed that these children did not fit the pattern of emotionally disturbed children and instead recorded patterns of being slow learners. Hans Asperger, making similar discoveries, discovered what has come to be known as Asperger’s Syndrome – often used to label autistic people that can talk. Leo Kanner and Hans Asperger, working completely independent of one another, recognized autism for what it was: a developmental disorder that interferes with a child’s communication, social and interaction behavior. (Carew, 2009)

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD). It is a bio-neurological developmental disability usually appearing before the age of three, best known for impairing a child’s ability to communicate and interact. Life-long disabilities significantly impact several areas of development: communication impairments, social difficulty, sensory processing deficits and a need for solid routines within their lives. Characteristics of Autism manifests in a myriad of ways: delay in verbal development, a need to finish what they begin, a rather h3 resistance to change in daily routine, lack of spontaneity, distress at being touched and the ability to show any kind of emotion, as well as an inability to process and respond to humor.

There are five subcategories associated with ASD, each with it’s own distinctive and unique features: Autistic Disorder, Asperger’s Disorder, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder (CDD), Rett’s Disorder, and Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS). Treatment within each subcategory is as diverse and varied as the individual being treated, depending on the individual’s personality, unique symptoms and manifestation of autism.

How is it Diagnosed?

To help determine the difference between autism and mental retardation, a qualified professional will examine and score children who are suspected of having autism through a questionnaire based on direct observation by professionals and reports given by parents, family members, and teachers. This test is known as CARS (Childhood Autism Rating Scale) and was developed by Eirc Shopler, Robert Reichier and Barbara Rochen Reiner. (Schopler, Reichler, DeVellis, & Daly, 1980) CARS was published in 1980, but the development began a lot earlier, in 1966. A Study conducted by the University of Texas Health Science Center determined an accuracy rating of 98% in diagnosing children and showed encouraging results in diagnosing adolescents as well. CARS incorporates the criteria of Leo Kanner (1943) and Creak (1964), and characteristic symptoms of childhood autism. (Schopler et al., 1980)

The test focuses on 15 categories of behaviors, characteristics, and abilities and how the expected development is different than the actual development if autistic symptoms are present. The categories are: Relating to people, imitation, emotional response, body use, object use, adaptation to change, visual response, listening response, taste, smell and touch response and use, fear or nervousness, verbal communication, nonverbal communication, activity level, level and consistency of intellectual response, and general impressions. A child can score on a scale of one to four. Scoring a one meets a normal range for a child’s age and scoring a four means the child is severely abnormal. (Secor, 2009)

Who Gets It?

Although it is unclear how much of the surge reflects better diagnosis, recent data suggests a 10-fold increase in autism rates over the past decade. The journal, Pediatrics, released on October 5, 2009, reported one percent of U.S. children ages 3-17 have an Autism Spectrum disorder, a prevalence of 1 in 91. This is a dramatic increase from the 2007 report by the Center for Disease Control reported 1 in 150 children diagnosed with Autism. Boys are diagnosed four times more often than girls. There has been no connection established regarding socio-economic status, race or religion in identifying autistic individuals. (Kogan, 2009)

Cause of Autism

All over the world, researchers are working to find just what causes Autism. However no direct, specific cause of Autism has been determined, to date. The pressure to identify a cause is a top priority among researchers and it appears, due to the various levels of severity and combinations of symptoms, there may be multiple causes and scientific evidence suggests both genetic and/or environmental factors. Because of intense research, there are several specific claims that have been disproven.

Bruno Bettelheim, a once well-renowned child psychologist, blamed autism on parents, specifically mothers, claiming they did not properly bond with their children. There is no evidence to support that claim. Due in large part to Dr. Bernard Rimland, who has an autistic son, founded the Autism Society of America and the Autism Research institute. Dr. Rimland was instrumental in helping to determine autism as a biological disorder not a causal effect, ie., neglect, isolation, cold, indifferent or ‘bad’ parenting. He disproved the theory by defining ASDs as biological disorders, not emotional illnesses in his book, Infantile Autism: The Syndrome and Its Implications for a Neural Theory of Behavior (Rimland, 1964). However, Dr Rimland is a proponent of another high profile controversial claim suggesting vaccinations given to children during babyhood may be a cause of the disorder. Despite Dr Rimland’s advocacy and beliefs, this claim has little or no scientific backing. In fact, in a timely ruling Friday, March 12, 2010, the so-called ‘vaccine court’, a special branch of the U.S. Court of Federal Claims, found that the mercury-containing vaccine preservative thimerosal is not to blame for autism, and concluded the last of three cases on theories related to a vaccine-autism relationship. A 2009 ruling rejected a theory that thimerasol can cause autism when combined with the measles-mumps-rubella vaccine, which perhaps was based on a discredited medical journal article published in 1998 by British physician, Dr. Andrew Wakefield, linking a particular type of autism and bowel disease to the measles vaccine. The 2009 ruling predicated the dropping of a second case based on a theory that certain vaccines alone cause autism. Interestingly, in this third case, the court found that “none of the expert witnesses who argued mercury can have a variety of effects on the brain, offered opinions on the cause of autism in any of the three specific cases argued.” (Schmid, 2010)(emphasis added)

Two studies conducted by researchers at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia link specific genes to autism. “One study pinpoints a gene region that may account for as many as 15 percent of autism cases, while another study identifies missing or duplicated stretches of DNA along two crucial gene pathways. Significantly, both studies detected genes implicated in the development of brain circuitry in early childhood.” (Wang, 2009)

A specific connection between fragile x (FXS) and autism has also been found. Dr. Don Bailey , director of the Frank Porter Graham Institute, and colleagues found that in young boys with FXS, 25% met the criteria for autism using the (CARS). Their profile of behaviors was very similar to that of children with autism but without fragile X. Consequently, they also found that children with autism and FXS together, had a lower IQ than children with either FXS alone or autism alone. (Bailey, Jr., Hatton, et al., 2001)

Methods of Treatment

Since 1943, many ways have been developed to help the autistic child. Then, the famous Sigmund Freud discovered that parents who did not attempt to communicate with an autistic child saw no progress, while a close parent/child relationship seemed to cause the child to thrive and move forward. Although it lingered well into the 50’s and 60’s, Freud’s theory lacked two critical bits information: first, oftentimes the parent didn’t try to interact with the child due to the Autistic behavior; and second, in some cases it was a genetically inherited personality. For a time, children were removed from their home to see if they would recover although there was no clear-cut evidence of any value in future use of this method.

Due to research and study, it was found that facilitated communication could teach the child to communicate with the world; for example an autistic child could be taught to manage and control his emotions; a parent could help a child desensitize from the over sensitivity to sound.

Today, Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), Occupational Therapy (OT), Pivotal Response Training (PRT), Physical Therapy (PT), Sensory Integration Therapy, Floortime, and medications, all have a place in accepted scientific treatment. Alternative methods are also sometimes used. These can include Dietary intervention, Vitamins and Minerals, Social Skills Groups, Music and Art Therapy, and even Dolphin Therapy.

One of the most tried and true methods utilized today, Applied Behavior Therapy (ABA) is usually accompanied by Physical Therapy and Occupational therapy. As with any treatment there are good and bad points associated with each. ABA was developed by Dr. Ivar Lovaas and contains the B.F. Skinner’s theories on operant conditioning. This treatment includes rewards which may include toys or treats, for acceptable behavior. There is no punishment for wrong or incorrect behavior, however. There are a myriad of steps involved, and a fairly rigid structure to this method. ABA is very time-consuming and has shown many positive results.

According to some ongoing research, diet may be fueling Autism. There is convincing empirical evidence that special diets help autistic individuals. Karl Reichelt of Oslo has been a pioneer in this area for decades, showing the highly significant effects of removing gluten, gliadin and casein from the diets of autistic children. There are now about forty research st

Play is almost universally recognized as an integral factor in children’s learning and development. For example, Macintyre (2001, 4) quotes Isaacs’ 1933 description of play: Play is “the crucial component in children’s development,” and adds that everyone “concerned with young children” should “recognise and value the different kinds of understanding developed through play” (Macintyre 2001, 3-4).

Although different play activities promote children’s in different ways, Keenan (2002) identifies a number of areas of development that are impacted or enhanced by play, including cognition, language and communication, social, and emotional. The recent Curriculum guidance for children from three through the reception year (Foundation Stage) ephasizes learning opportunities and experiences ; for example, “the area of language and literacy was broadened to include communication and emphasized the importance of developing literacy through play” and “advocates play and exploration as a basis for literacy learning in the early years” (Miller and Smith 2004, 122). Within the Early Years curriculum, role play is an excellent example of a play activity that promotes many areas of development.

Before examining the ways role play promotes development in children, it is helpful to define both play and role play. Macintyre (2001, 3) defines play as activity that is enjoyable, gives pleasure, and undertaken by the player freely, that is, it can be abandoned at any time without blame. Play further has no preconceived outcome; the agenda can develop as play goes on (Macintyre 2001, 3). Additionally, play allows the player to develop skills which are important in non-play situations, such as development of social skills (Macintyre 2001, 3). Children around age three and four begin to enjoy imaginative role play in twos or small groups (O’Hagan and Smith 2004, 36).

As a particular play activity, role play is a type of imaginative play, where children assume roles outside their real world place. Role play allows children to construct proximities between themselves and others in their lives. Piaget’s theory of development contends infants first engage in pretend play around eighteen months, acting out imaginary activities and using real objects to represent imagined objects, such as pretending a television remote is a telephone (Keenan 2002, 123). Children may participate in limited role play at this point if directed by an older person.

However, cooperative role play, where children instigate their own roles and story line, are rarely undertaken by children before three years of age (Keenan 2002, 200). According to Vygotsky, children engage in pretend play roles beyond their current stage in life, such as taking on adult roles, such as a parent, teacher or doctor, or roles as adolescents or older children(Keenan 2002, 135). Through pretend play, children place themselves in a zone of proximal development, where they play at a level which is in advance of their real capabilities (Keenan 2002, 135)

Cognitively, role play promotes development in several ways. First, it allows children practice in ordering their thoughts and develop understanding. “Piaget believed that children were active agents of their own learning and that the major task for them was to develop an ability to organize experiences and learn from them in a way which enables them to make sense of the world (O’Hagan and Smith 2004, 10). Role play activities are “the highest form of symbolic play, encompassing two types of cognitive operation which are necessary for conservation, namely reversibility and decentration” (Umek and Musek 2001, 56).

Children are able to freely leave the roles they take on, as indicated in the free participation concept introduced in the definition of play above. This ‘reversibility’ indicates cognitively children are awareness that they can abandon their assumed role and return to reality at any time (Umek and Musek 2001, 56). The cognitive ability of decentration involves children’s understanding that the person in the role play scenario is really them, yet is also simultaneously the role undertaken (Umek and Musek 2001, 56).

Cognitively, this means children must “preserve the imaginary identity of toys or play materials despite the fact that they are perceptually and/or functionally inadequate (the issue being the conservation of identity)” (Umek and Musek 2001, 56). In such pretend play, “children learn that the objects they use can be separated from their normal referents, and that they can stand for other things” (Keenan 2002, 135). This object will typically be similar in some way, such as size or shape, to the pretend object in the role play, causing the children to practice analogous thinking skills where they related an item not available to them to another available object (Keenan 2002, 135).

The development of language and communication skills are recognized as “closely linked to children’s thinking and conceptual development” (O’Hagan and Smith 2004, 18). In addition to cognitive development, role play offers important development opportunities in the areas of language and communication. This can be intentional, such as when parents or other older players in the role play intentionally support vocabulary development by introducing names of things during the context of play (Keenan 2002, 154). However, the opportunity to talk and verbally interact with others in the role play further presents a powerful way of learning even when no intentional instruction occurs (O’Hagan and Smith 2004, 18).

In role play, children learn to use language as a form of symbolic representation, and also “communicate symbolically through dramatic play” (O’Hagan and Smith 2004, 25). Such symbolic play encourages the development of language comprehension (Umek and Musek 2001, 56). Fantasy role play encourages explicit and expressive speech due to its symbolic nature.

“Role enactment and the use of various objects have different functions in play and in real life, therefore the child-player-must define these symbolic transformations verbally, so that they have a clear (recognisable) meaning and are comprehensible to his or her playmates” (Umek and Musek 2001, 56). In this way role play promotes the communicative skills of its players. “The symbolic elements of fantasy play, like role and object transformations, enable the child to use lexicographic meanings and explicit speech” (Umek and Musek 2001, 56).

Socially, role play typically involves several other children and/or adults. Keenan (2002) discusses Parten’s theory that such cooperative play is “the most complex form of play,” as it includes behaviours such as social pretend play where children take on pretend roles (Keenan 2002, 200). The children involved in the role play talk to one another as part of the play, developing their imaginative situations in a co-operative manner. Umek and Musek (2001, 56) report Smilansky’s (1968) contention that role play activities promote the child’s social development.

“When children use role enactment, they have to reach a consensus about the play theme, the course of events and the transformation of roles and play materials. This can only be achieved when individuals transcend their egocentrism and develop the ability to empathise” (Umek and Musek 2001, 56).

Children further build relationships with the other children or adults with whom they play. Although such relationships are often temporary, such play causes children to “express a preference for certain friends and play regularly with them;” during the Early Years period “there is usually, but always, some preference for play with children of the same sex, but there is still a good deal of mixed play” (O’Hagan and Smith 2004, 36). Role players “share symbolic meanings with each other and assign imaginary roles in their pretend play,” both providing opportunities for social development (Keenan 2002, 203).

Co-operative pretend play also is usually based on the children’s understanding of the social rules of their culture (Keenan 2002, 135). Therefore, a child behaving ‘badly’ in the role play will be ‘punished’ by the child in the ‘parent’ role. Vygotsky held that as such role play “was an important context in which children learned about the social world” (Keenan 2002, 135). “Children’s play is constrained by the rules which guide behaviour in these roles, and, because of this, they learn about the social norms that are expected of people” (Keenan 2002, 135).

Role play can be an important component in children’s emotional development. Around eighteen months, “the increase in language and symbolic thought allows some feelings to be expressed through imaginative play” (O’Hagan and Smith 2004, 27). Prior to this children’s options were limited to physical displays such as crying, hitting, or facial expressions. This can promote children’s emotional development, as it allows them to learn to express their wants and needs, and become emotionally aware of the wants and needs of others.

For example, role play can allow children to act out their fears, such as going to the doctor or being punished (O’Hagan and Smith 2004, 36). These fears might develop from an experience the child has had, such as having a painful injection at the doctor’s office, or a perceived fear, such as concern over anticipated punishment.

Role play can also help chilren develop self-efficacy. Even young children have a strong desire to be right or successful, and will avoid areas where they expect to fail (Macintyre 2001, 4). However, “if children can try things with no fear of failure they are more likely to stretch out and tackle things they might otherwise avoid” (Macintyre 2001, 4). Since there is no defined end product, there is no fear or experience of failure. Children are empowered through the communication skills developed in role play, “as they can express their feelings freely, can negotiate their wishes and needs and develop self-confidence and self-esteem” (O’Hagan and Smith 2004, 18)

This self-efficacy can both be encouraged in actions and in emotional expression; role play teaches children healthy and appropriate expressions of emotion. O’Hagan and Smith (2004, 38) studied groups of young children who viewed adults handling a situation, with each group seeing a different emotional response. One group viewed the adults as dealing with the issue by becoming angry and physically aggressive, and were later observed to emotionally deal with a similar situation in a similar manner, i.e. with anger and physical aggression. O’Hagan and Smith (2004, 36) contend this reinforces Bandura’s claim that children learn from models in their lives, particularly those they view as similar to themselves, who have a nurturing relationship with them, or who they perceive as powerful and competent (O’Hagan and Smith 2004, 39).

Symbolic play, such as role play, “should certainly form an important part of the preschool curriculum but preschool teachers should bear in mind that the quality of a child’s play will be determined by general characteristics of development as well as by the play context” (Umek and Musek 2001, 63). In the classroom, role play can be encouraged through the use of story and related play objects. For example, reading stories that include a kitchen and having a play kitchen available encourages children to first repeat the story through role play, then diverge and develop their own story lines. O’Hagan and Smith (2004, 58) present a typical classroom element, a ‘home corner’ complete with dressing-up clothes and various objects for domestic play.

Role play can be used for many learning purposes, such as to reinforce desired behaviour or assess children’s understanding of material. A teacher is trying to encourage sharing amongst her pupils. In this scenario, the teacher could role play with the children, demonstrating and reinforcing that sharing is a desireable activity. The activity could then be extended, with children being allowed to continue the play without teacher involvement, by later drawing pictures, and/or talking about the role play in a circle time or similar sharing opportunity.

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Finally, role play can also enhance a teacher’s evaluation of children’s attainments, as the children will demonstrate their abilities in a number of areas during a typical role play activity. In practice, “children can achieve higher levels of individual cognitive functions (conservation, one-to-one correspondence, decentration) in their symbolic play than they demonstrate when the same mental operations are tested and measured in formal, non-play, situations” (Umek and Musek 2001, 64). As such, observations and assessment based on role play can be highly valuable in the classroom environment.

REFERENCES

Keenan, T. 2002. An Introduction to Child Development. London: Sage.

Macintyre, C. Enhancing Learning Through Play. London: David Fulton.

Miller, L. 2001. Shaping Early Childhood through the Literacy Curriculum. Early Years, 21(1): 107-116.

Miller, L. and Smith, A.P. 2004. Practitioners’ beliefs and children’s experiences of literacy in four early years settings. Early Years, 24(2): 121-133.

O’Hagan, M. and Smith, M. 2004. Early Years Child Care and Education: Key Issues. Edinburgh: Bailliere Tindall.

Discuss, evaluate and reflect upon the aims of assessment for learning in primary science, and consider strategies that may be employed to identify children’s strengths and weaknesses. Show how assessment information can be used to monitor children’s progress in science, and inform and develop quality teaching and learning.

Introduction:

Science became a core subject for primary schools in 1989 with the introduction of the National Curriculum. Primary Science has a broad agenda, an important element of which is the development of ‘scientific literacy’ in the population (Howe et al., 2005, p.5), the scientific understanding that should be part of everyone’s education. Teachers have a responsibility to ensure that children’s experiences in primary science are positive ones so that more children will undertake post primary science subjects. Assessment for learning, an important element of primary science, has come to prominence in educational policy because of its perceived potential to underpin lifelong learning (Black et al., 2006, p.120). Described as a teaching strategy of very high leverage (Howe, 2004, cited in Marshall & Drummond, 2006, p.133), assessment for learning allows teachers to track pupil learning and progress and plan quality teaching using appropriate strategies.

Aims of Primary Science Teaching:

Children have many ideas about the world and how it works before they come to school and experience science in the context of their everyday lives, for example most children will have some knowledge about plants and animals, or will understand that a lolly melts. The most important aim of primary science is to foster children’s appreciation of the world around us, to encourage a close observation of our physical environment, and to develop an understanding of how different aspects of it are related (Howe et al., 2005, p.6).

Views about science have changed in recent decades with a recognition that transmission modes for teaching in science are not appropriate (Gray & Bryce, 2006, p.171). A constructivist view of teaching science has been adopted which recognises that children learn best when they are able to construct new ideas and concepts from existing ones. In order to teach primary science effectively, teachers must have a sound subject knowledge and an appropriate understanding of these constructivist theories (Traianou, 2996, p.828). Key Stage one children, for example, learn a lot about science through play and ideas must be rooted in experiences that are meaningful to them. Effective learning in science cannot be facilitated by providing children with facts and information because:

Facts unrelated to concepts that children already have are meaningless and therefore of no use to them.
Children use their own ideas to construct understanding. While they may be able to recall answers, understanding only evolves out of their own experience.

(Harlen & Jelly, 1998, p.26).

Science is very much a process based subject in which learners develop their understanding of things around them by using and developing process skills (Harlen & Qualter, 2004, p.133). Effective assessment in science should be reflective of this by being an ongoing process in the classroom.

The Primary Science Curriculum:

One of the main ideas in the National Curriculum is that of scientific enquiry which is seen as learning about ‘ideas and evidence’ and three stands of ‘investigative skills’: ‘planning’, ‘obtaining and presenting evidence’ and ‘evaluating’ (Howe et al.,2005, p.8). Each strand consists of a number of processes which are to be taught through the subject areas of ‘life processes and living things’, ‘materials and their properties’ and ‘physical processes’. A practical approach to learning in science is vital for primary school children. The teacher’s role as learning facilitator centres on creating a rich and stimulating learning environment, allowing children to explore and test their ideas. At every stage in the science process, language skills can be developed to assist the learning of science and vice versa (Sherrington, 1993, p.206).Assessment begins from the beginning and it is useful to start science teaching with an activity to find out what children know about a topic before beginning teaching, paying particular attention to the language children use..

Assessment in Science:

Assessment is a process of deciding, collecting and making inferences or judgements about evidence of children’s learning and skills (Harlen & Qualter, 2004, p.121). One of the main conclusions arrived at by the Children Learning in Science Project (CLISP) is the importance of establishing whether children have any misconceptions about scientific concepts and addressing these before moving on. Effective assessment is therefore crucial for primary science as pre-conceived ideas can have an adverse effect on learning.

There are two main areas in assessment, formative and summative. Formative assessment, an ongoing process for the teacher, provides immediate evidence of learning and should be used to inform planning for teaching. Gathering information about learning and giving feedback while it is in progress has been seen as a crucial aspect of teaching since the Task Group on Assessment and Testing (TGAT) report was published in 1988 (MacGilchrist et al., 2006, p.84). It has a number of strengths because of its focus on learners and how they learn.

Summative assessment is generally administered to gather evidence of learning at the end of the teaching period. It has often been criticised as failing to take a holistic view of the learner. A comprehensive science programme will incorporate both elements but the formative assessment will be of most use to the teacher on a day-to-day basis.

The Purposes of Assessment:

Assessment is a statutory requirement for teachers. Section 3.2 of the Requirements for Qualifying to Teach has a range of requirements in respect of monitoring and assessment, among them that teachers ‘monitor and assess as they teach, giving immediate and constructive feedback to support pupils as they learn. They involve pupils in reflecting on, evaluating and improving their own performance (TTA, 2002, p.11).

Assessment enables teachers to ascertain how effectively children have been learning in science. It has a number of aims including:

To help children’s learning by identifying what they are making good progress with and areas in which they need further support.
To summarise achievements at certain times.

(Harlen & Qualter, 2004, p.124).

This has important implications for primary science teaching in light research suggesting that children have many misconceptions in respect of scientific concepts. Harlen and Jelly have reported that misconceptions in science arise from:

Attributing an effect to a particular feature and not having an understanding that a number of factors may be operating.
A lack of awareness that there may be more than one explanation.
Not understanding science vocabulary.
Insufficient opportunity to test ideas and discuss findings.
A lack of access to alternative ideas that might provide a better explanation.

(Harlen & Jelly, 1998, p.24).

Effective assessment can address this by being an integral part of activities, with teachers constantly seeking information that enables them to support learning and give appropriate feedback. The teacher can then diagnose learning responses and needs, and note the progress that is being made (MacGilchrist et al., 2006, p.85). Formative assessment methods have received attention in recent years, being more suited to achieving the goals of:

Learning with understanding
Understanding learning

highlighted by the Assessment Reform Group as being crucial in the aim to equip learners for a place in a rapidly shrinking world and changing society (Assessment Reform Group, 2006, p.8).

Methods of Assessing Children’s Progress in Science:

A substantial amount of learning in science occurs outside school, being accessed through field trips, zoos, science museums etc. (Braund & Reiss, 2006, p.214). Because of this teachers must have a range of ways of gathering evidence to assess pupil learning and understanding and be able to use this as the basis for subsequent teaching.

Methods that the teacher can use include:
Observing children as they work- the teacher can gauge learning by listening to the ways in which children work their way through an activity, with particular attention to their use of scientific vocabulary. The language used by the children is a very good indicator of their understanding. Open-ended teacher questioning gives children opportunities to express their ideas and develop them. Research shows that where correct scientific language is taught, children develop more accurate scientific concepts (Sparks-Linfield & Warwick, 1998, p.128).
Studying children’s work in relation to a task – drawings, reports and written work. For this to be most effective, it is important that the task requirements are clear. For example, if the aim is to assess children’s understanding of the structure of a flowering plant, it is important that the children are not simply asked to draw a flower, but that the task requires the parts to be labelled or indicated in some way.
Administering tests related to the learning activity.
Having a plenary session where the children can talk about what they think they have learned from a task or activity.
Involving Children in the Assessment Process:

Central to formative assessment is the idea of involving children in their learning. Black and William found that self and peer assessment in children as young as five was successful in raising achievement (Black & William, 1998). The effectiveness of involving children in the assessment process stems from an understanding that children learn most effectively when they have opportunities to build new ideas on existing experiences. For this approach to be successful, it has to be carefully planned for by the teacher. The children need a clear understanding of the learning intentions of a lesson to be able to assess if they have achieved them.

The teacher must be very explicit, particularly in relation to processes within science. If it is not clear that the learning intention is process based, children tend to focus on their answers rather that the methods used for obtaining them. Harlen & Qualter point out that when children understand what they should be doing and how well, they are in a position to share in deciding the next steps to be taken (Harlen & Qualter, 2004, p.179). This approach does not suggest a lack of rigour in terms of assessment, the ultimate decisions in the management of which are teacher directed.

Assessing Children’s Process Skills:

Children use the process skills they have developed when they engage with tasks. Teacher observation is very important here but it is important for teachers to be aware that some types of behaviour are more indicative of learning than others and to be able to differentiate between them. The teacher needs to consider what would indicate that a child is employing a particular skill, for example observation. In this case the teacher might look for evidence of the child paying attention to detail, really exploring an object. The degree to which a particular skill is being employed will also be different for older and younger children. With younger children it is most important to develop positive attitudes to science and to give children opportunities to be scientists through access to a range of science equipment and to nurture correct use of scientific vocabulary.

Using assessment to improve learning in science:

Evidence gathered by the teacher must be used to make judgements regarding the effectiveness of the learning. This process can be enhanced by discussion with the children. Harlen and Qualter have identified three reasons for using assessment to help learning in science:

Knowing what ideas learners bring to new experiences and how these ideas develop during their activities is central to learning through enquiry. Using assessment as part of the teaching means that information can be collected about progress towards goals. If activities provide opportunities for skills, understanding and attitudes to be developed, then they also provide opportunities for these to be assessed and for the information to be used to help learning.
Widely accepted theories of learning emphasis the role of learners in constructing their own understanding, the constructivist approach. Formative assessment involves children in recognising where they are in progress towards goals and in the decisions about what their next steps are and how to take them.
There is firmly established evidence that when the key components of formative assessment are practised, levels of achievement are raised.

(Harlen & Qualter, 2004, p.132).

Assessing Children’s Ideas in Science:

Children have many ideas about science when they start school. It is important to establish what these are and plan teaching accordingly. Discussion is extremely important in primary science and teachers must create a climate in which children can express ideas with confidence. Keogh and Naylor have pointed out the importance of this:

If we want children to ‘think out loud’, to be creative in their thinking and to argue about alternative possibilities, then we need to provide the kind of learning environment in which they feel comfortable to do that. They need to know they can make mistakes or give wrong answers and still feel good about themselves. (Keogh & Naylor, 2004, p.18). Scientific language should be introduced when appropriate and in contexts that allow children to develop an awareness of the different meanings that words may have in everyday and scientific contexts.

Using Assessment to Inform Teaching:

Children’s ideas, whether in oral or written form, often give an indication of experience or skills that are lacking. This is an important consideration when planning teaching. When children are displaying a lack of experience, it is necessary to provide experiences for them. For example, organising a trip to the local park to investigate living things. Children often have ideas about science which may not reflect reality and can be difficult to change. In this case it is necessary to scaffold and model alternative explanations for children. It is important that teachers use assessment information and evidence to address any misunderstandings or misconceptions that children may have. The strength of formative approaches to assessment is that difficulties can be addressed in the short term before misconceptions are too well cemented.

Conclusion:

The Government believes that primary education is about;

‘Children experiencing the joy of discovery, solving problems, being creative in writing, art and music, developing their confidence as learners and maturing socially and emotionally’ (DfES, 2003, p.4). Discovery and problem solving are central to science teaching and an effective programme for assessment can be used to facilitate this by enabling teachers to plan and devise lessons accordingly. Research has shown that implementing the essential features of formative assessment in classrooms leads to gains in achievement that are greater than those of equivalent groups where formative assessment is not practised (Harlen & Qualter, 2004, 137).

Marshall & Drummond have pointed out that assessment for learning demands a high degree of organisation in the classroom if it is going to help pupils become independent learners (Marshall & Drummond, 2006). It is essential that teachers feel sufficiently confident in respect of subject knowledge pertaining to science and plan interactive lessons for children that mirror the interactive nature of assessment for learning.

In science learning children must begin with what they know. The teacher must therefore employ a range of strategies for gathering this information and must apply it to subsequent teaching. This can lead to quality teaching and learning in science and to positive experiences for children and their teachers.

References:

Assessment Reform Group (2006) The Role of Teachers in the Assessment of Learning. retrieved from www.assessment-reform-group.org – 18.01.07.

Black, P., McCormick, R., James, M. & Pedder, D. (2006) Learning how to learn and assessment for learning : A theoretical inquiry. Research Papers in Education, 21, 2, 119-132.

Black, P. & William, D. (1998) Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education, 5, 1, 7-74.

Boyle,B. & Bragg, J. (2006) A Curriculum Without Foundation. British Educational Research Journal 32,(4), 569-582.

Braund, M. & Reiss, M. (2006) Validity and Worth in the Science Curriculum: Learning School Science Outside the Laboratory. The Curriculum Journal, 17, 3, 213-228.

Buldu,M. (2006) Young Children’s Perceptions of Scientists: A Preliminary Study. Educational Research, 48, 1, 121-132.

Bullock, K. & Muschamp, Y. (2006) Learning about learning in the primary school. Cambridge Journal of Education, 36, 1, 49-62.

Cameron, L. (2002) Metaphors in the learning of science: A discourse focus. British Educational Research Journal. 28, 5, 637-688.

Carr, J. J. (1993) The Art of Science: A Practical Guide to Experiments, Observations and Handling Data. San Diego:HighText Publications.

Cheney, A., Flavell, H., Harrison, C, Hurst, G. & Yates, C. (2002) Thinking Through Science. London: John Murray Publishers

Clarina R.B. & Koul, R. (2006) The Effects of Different Forms of Feedback on Fuzzy and Verbatim Memory of Science Principles. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 76, 259-270.

Coles, M., Gott, R. & Thornley, T. (1988) Active Science: Teacher’s Guide. London: Collins Educational.

Department For Education and Skills (DfES)(2003) Excellence and Enjoyment. London: DfES.

Driessen,G., Smit, F. & Slegers, P. (2005) Parental Involvement and Educational Achievement. British Educational Research Journal, 31, 4, 509-532.

Gray, D.S. & Bryce,T. (2006) Socio-Scientific Issues in Science Education: Implications for the Professional Development of Teachers. Cambridge Journal of Education. 16, 2, 171-192.

Harlen,W. (2001) The Teaching of Science in Primary Schools. London: David Fulton Publishers.

Harlen, W. & Jelly, S. (1998) Developing Science in the Primary Classroom. London: Longman.

Harlen, W. & Qualter, A. (2004)(4^th edition) The Teaching of Science in Primary Schools. London: David Fulton Publishers.

Hollins, M. & Whitby, V. (1999) Progression in Primary Science: A Guide to the Nature and Practice in Key Stages 1 and 2. London: David Fulton Publishers.

Howe, A., Davies, D., McMahon, K., Towler, L. & Scott, T. (2005) Science 5-11: A Guide for Teachers. London: David Fulton Publishers.

Jenkins, E.W. (2006) School science and citizenship: Whose science and whose citizenship? The Curriculum Journal, 17, 3, 197-211.

Keogh, B. & Naylor, S. (2004) Children’s ideas, children’s feelings. Primary Science Review, 82, 18-20.

Kennedy, J. (Ed.) (1997) Primary Science: Knowledge and Understanding. London:Routledge.

Layton, D. (1973) Science for the People: The Origins of the School Science Curriculum in England. London: Allen and Unwin.

Lunn, S. (2002) ‘What We Think We Can Safely Say…….’: Primary Teachers Views on the Nature of Science. British Educational Research Journal, 28, 5, 649-672.

MacGilchrist, B., Myers, K.& Reed, J. (2006) The Intelligent School. London: Sage Publications.

Marshall, B. & Drummond, M.J. (2006) How teachers engage with assessment for learning: lessons from the classroom. Research Papers in Education, 21, 2, 133-149.

Mintzes, J.J., Wandersee, J.H. & Novak, J.D. (2005) Assessing Science Understanding: A Human Constructivist View. San Diego: Elsevier Academic Press.

O’Hear, P & White,J. (1993) Assessing the National Curriculum. London: Paul Chapman.

Osborne, R, & Freyberg, P. (1991) Learning in Science: The Implications of Children’s Science. Auckland: Heinemann.

Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. (QCA)(2000) Standards at Key Stage 2: English, Mathematics and Science: A Report for Headteachers, Class Teachers and Assessment Co-Ordinators on the 2000 National Curriculum Assessments for 11 Year Olds.

Rubie-Davies, C., Hattie, J. & Hamilton, R. (2006) Expecting the Best for Students: Teacher Expectation and Academic Outcomes. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 429-444.

Sherrington, R. (1993) Science and Language in R. Sherrington (Ed.) ASE Primary Science Teachers’ Handbook. Hemel Hempstead: Simon and Schuster Education.

Sparks-Linfield, R. & Warwick, P. (1998) Use of Language Across the Primary Curriculum. London: Routledge.

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Tymms,P. (2004) Are Standards Rising in English Primary Schools? British Educational Research Journal. 30, 4 ,477-494.

Von Secker, C. (2004) Science achievements in social contexts: Analysis from National assessment of educational progress. Journal of Educational Research, 98, 2, 67-78.

Ziman, J. (2000) Real Science: What it is and What it Means. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES FOR PLANNING AND ENABLING LEARNING

TASK 1
Learning Styles

Learning styles impact on every aspect of our lives: how we gather information, how we use it and how we link it together are all determined by our learning style.

Nicholls & Le Versha 2003, p. 57

Learning styles, or cognitive styles, refer to how individuals learn in different ways and are of particular importance to teachers who wishes to create inclusive and effective learning situation. Learning styles are divided primarily, but not exclusively, into the three groups of visual learners, aural learners and kinesthetic learners. Whilst the first group learns best by seeing information, such as on the board or visually demonstrated, the second group takes in information aurally and needs to hear what is happening. The third group understands best in a hands-on, tactile manner such as holding the materials or practicing working with them. The importance of catering for learning styles links to the importance of understanding how best to cater for cognitive development. Learning style research has its roots in the humanistic social constructivism generated by Vygotsky and his follows. Here the stress is on the interaction of socio-cultural factors in the development of the individual and it is easy to see how necessary it is to make information available to students at a number of levels and thereby take into account their individual approach to learning.

Motivation

Motivation is a complex area and can have a huge impact on learner achievement and behavior which means that motivational teaching strategies need to be carefully considered. Extrinsic motivation is essentially a behaviourist concept in that certain behaviours are encouraged by rewards, ranging from praise to money. The use of extrinsic motivation in teaching corresponds to Pavlov and Skinner’s early work in that the reward is used to induce certain behaviours, such as praise for completing a test resulting in a positive approach to the next text. Intrinsic motivation is more of an internal driving force that may come from factors as diverse as curiosity to enjoyment. It could be argued that promotion of the former concept tends towards competition whilst the latter is more focused on individual achievement through improvement. Competition is often seen as a negative and seen as ‘undermining student motivation’ (p. 275) in that it de-motivates those who consistently fail as well as providing little incentive for those who already make the grade. Therefore, to encourage and inclusive approach means providing sources of motivation that best suit the student but always aim to achieve intrinsic, progress based achievement.

Low Literacy

At a more pragmatic level, the impact of low literacy (and numeracy) upon student’s confidence and learning can be enormous. Whatever the cause, be it students with English as a second language, or those struggling with work that is beyond their emotional age or cognitive stage, it is essential for the teacher to assess literacy levels through a diagnostic assessment and plan accordingly. It may be that students metalinguistic (how language works) awareness can be built up using the subject, such as working through an understanding of acids and alkali’s as they relate to beauty treatment. The use of IT as well as text to develop literacy has also stimulated a vast body of research (e.g. Larson & Marsh 2005). This area deserves far more attention than the brief mention given here, but it is also an area that may benefit from an action research approach whereby the literacy strategies of the class are assessed, observed, analysed and acted upon in an ongoing reflective cycle.

Classroom Environment

The learning environment and its impact upon students have also generated a considerable body of literature. Whilst Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs (1970) looked at a generic sequence of responses to environments, a more holistic understanding of the environments that affect a student’s learning have been studied by those such as Bronfenbrenner (1998) who conceptualized a variety of ecological systems, from the micro to the macro. The microsystem involves the individual’s direct interactions with other individuals whilst the macrosystems take into account the socio-cultural values and ‘norms’ (Krause et al. 2003, p. 264) . The classroom environment not only needs to provide a safe, secure and supportive atmosphere, it also needs to provide an inclusive setting for all individuals which means taking factors such as gender, race, ethnicity, age and stage etc into consideration. Alongside these runs the teachers own teaching styles – permissive, authoritative or authoritarian (Whitton et al. 2004, 185) – and how they respond to the students.

Effective Planning and Intelligence

If the goal of teaching is to provide learning environments that work for all students, then clearly planning is an integral element. To take one part of the teaching cycle, planning, is to look at one aspect of this vast area. In a constructivist paradigm, planning needs to both develop knowledge and play to students strengths. Rather than look at this structurally, as in planning using cooperative groups, whole class or individual working, this section considers interpretations of intelligence such as Gardner’s multiple intelligences (Krause et al 2003, p. 201) and Sternberg’s triarchic model of intelligence (ibid p. 202). As with learning styles, failure to plan effectively in order to encourage a range of cognitive strengths may act as disincentive. Sternberg differentiated between analytic, creative and practical intelligences and suggested applying these to the curriculum. They provide a useful strategy for inclusive teaching.

TASK 2
Engagement Theory

Whilst this has its roots in distance learning and the use of IT (Kearlsey & Shneiderman 1999), the premises upon which it is based appear particularly useful to effective, inclusive planning. One of the primary principles is to plan for authentic learning through student interaction and provision of meaningful tasks. Secondly, this is essentially a constructivist approach aimed at enabling the individual’s translation and internalization of knowledge through guided progression to various zones of proximal development. Thirdly, in common with situated learning, engagement theory is underpinned by a wish to create learning experiences that intrinsically motivate through exposing students to real-world problem solving situations. The levels of engagement also relates to inclusive planning for learning styles and multiple intelligences.

With regard to planning for engagement, lessons need to include a range of teaching strategies such as questioning, reasoning, analysing, creating and judging. This involves creating practical, curriculum linked situations and designing the lesson around them. For example, one lesson may involve a scenario, analysis of that scenario, role play of the events, creating alternatives and assessing final comprehension. This methodology allows for an inclusive approach designed to allow information to be made available to students in a variety of ways and formats.

Principles of Empowerment

This is also a somewhat generic principle yet it applies to teaching very successfully. One of the underlying goals is to set students up for success by ensuring the tasks are age and stage appropriate and that they stretch the student towards their zones of proximal development whilst ensuring successful outcomes. Another aspect of this principle is that students take responsibility for their learning. Ownership of one’s development has been shown to be a powerful motivator and motivation is recognised a key element to learning.

Motivation resides entirely in the person motivated. It can be inspired and encouraged by others but not given.

Leamnson 1999, p. 54

A third element of this principle refers to student choice. Whilst the learning requirements remain the same, the choice of learning strategy, resource use and methodology may be used to allow students to choose their favored approach.

Planning to empower students and therefore engage them in their learning once again means catering for all learning styles and planning for choice. Working in the area of Beauty therapy allows for considerable choice of approach and lends itself to practical training. This does mean that resources and activities have to be well structured and planned before implementation but it also means students can find a number of ways of achieving the required learning. A criticism is that students will not be required to use their less favoured approach and thereby develop areas they feel less confident in.

TASK 3
Reflection

I find that catering for all learning styles is a far more complex area that needs more consideration. For example, at one level catering for learning styles means providing information in a way that an individual can take in. However, at another level, it also requires a more holistic overview that takes into consideration the students socio-cultural values and ‘norms’. Therefore, integrating this overview within my planning cycle requires several considerations. For example, it requires the allowing of space and consideration for analysing and assessing the student’s background knowledge, understandings and value systems. This will strengthen my understanding of how best to communicate with individual students and support their own sense of value and security within the classroom. It is anticipated that this approach will allow for a better consideration of student comfort and perceptions of security through providing familiar formats and establishing a comfort zone. As Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs showed, it is difficult for students to function psychologically at a higher level if they do not feel safe and secure within their environment. Therefore, when planning, I intend to not only cover the various learning styles but to integrate this with socio-culturally and linguistically inclusive practice. Depending on the situation, this can be as diverse as providing materials in more than one language or selecting cooperative groups with common understandings. This is not to say that the expectations will be lessened. These need to be clearly established and provide the working format for the students. For example, they will be expected to achieve certain goals and be able to effectively communicate or demonstrate their learning.

Catering for learning styles is an inclusive strategy as is that of catering for different students cognitive strengths. Consideration of practical application of strategies that include the diversity of multiple intelligences appears to be somewhat over-whelming. Sternberg’s triarchic model (Krause et al. 2003, p. 202) simplifies this into a planning procedure that endows each subject with an analytic, creative and practical component. This is particularly helpful for the beauty industry as it encourages an all round interaction both with the information, the practice and the people concerned. As a practical vocation, beauty requires strong communication and practical skills and the tendency is to stress this practical element. However, Sternberg reminds us that a triarchic approach is more inclusive and works better for a wider range of people. I would like to bear this in mind when planning my lessons and appreciate that this will demand constant assessment and reflection in order to be at its most effective.

Professional development

The following is a professional development plan involving some of the primary issues looked at in this essay. It is very much an overview and the course titles are purely to provide direction rather than actual titles. It is anticipated that this will change as the reality of working within specific scenarios provides the benefit of experience. This table is also specific to the area of inclusivity and its associated planning. There are many other areas that would also benefit my practice.

Professional Development Plan

GOALS

COURSES

EXAMPLE THEORIES

PROVIDERS

DATE

Improve Instructional Process

Theory into Practice

Learning styles
Engagement and Motivation

Improve inclusive planning

Cultural inclusivity
Curriculum links

How to Apply Theory to Improved Practice

Catering for Learning Styles

How to Empower and Motivate Students

Planning to include cultural diversity – setting expectations and treating diversity positively

Assessment for Planning

Curriculum correspondence with inclusive teaching practice

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

HUMANISM AND BEHAVIOURISM

Vygotsky’s social constructivism

Piaget’s age and stage theories

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences

Sternberg’s triarchic model of intelligence

Weiner’s attribution theory

Bandura’s behavioural theories of learning

Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory

Erikson’s psychosocial development stages

NB there is considerable interaction between the theories/principles listed here and the list is by no means exclusive.

References

Bronfenbrenner, U. & Morris, P (1998) ‘The ecology of developmental processes’ in R M Lerner (Ed) Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development, 5^th Ed., pp. 535-584, Wiley: New York

Kearsley, G. & Shneiderman, B (1999) ‘Engagement Theory: A framework for technology-based teaching and learning’, accessed 28^th September 2008, http://home.sprynet.com/~gkearsley/engage.htm

Krause, K-L., Bochner, S. & Duchesne, S (2003) Educational Psychology for teaching and learning, Thomson: Southbank, VIC.

Larson, J. & Marsh, J (2005) Making Literacy Real: Theories and Practices for Learning and Teaching, Sage: London

Leamnson, R (1999) Thinking about Teaching and Learning, Stylus

Maslow, A (1970) Motivation and Personality, 2^nd Ed., Harper & Row: New York

Nicholls, G. & Le Versha, L (2003) Teaching at Post-16: Effective Teaching in the A-Level, AS and GNVQ Curriculum, Kogan Page: London

Pressley, M. & McCormick, C (2007) Child and Adolescent Development for Educators, Guildford Press: New York

Whitton, D., Sinclair, C., Barker, K., Nanlohy, P. & Nosworthy, M (2004) Learning for Teaching, Teaching for Learning, Thomson: Southbank, VIC.

1.0 Introduction:

This paper explores an ongoing debate in the educational field; should all students with Special Educational Needs (SENs) be included in mainstream educational provisions? To fully understand the issues involved, the paper will begin with an introduction to SEN and historical developments that have shaped SEN as we know it today. An investigation into inclusion will follow evaluating current issues that will help to determine whether inclusion for all SEN is possible or not. An analysis of SEN pupils will highlight strategies that may allow teachers along with organisation to implement inclusion along with its limitations. A conclusion will finalise the paper evaluating key findings.

2.0 Special Educational Needs (SEN) – An Overview

In order to assess whether students with SENs should be included in mainstream educational provisions, one must first understand what SEN means. Under the 1944 Education Act, children with special educational needs were categorised by their disability defined in medical terms. This meant that some children were considered to be ‘uneducable’ and pupils were labelled into categories such as ‘maladjusted’ or ‘educationally sub-normal’ and given ‘special educational treatment’ in separate schools.

The Warnock Report in 1978, followed by the 1981 Educational Act, radically changed the conceptualisation of special educational needs. It introduced the idea of special educational needs (SEN), ‘statement’ of SEN, and an ‘Integrative’ – which later became known as ‘inclusive’ – an approach based on common educational goals for all children regardless of their ability or disabilities: namely independence, enjoyment and understanding. For purpose of this paper the definition proposed by The Special Educational Needs Code of Practice (2002) is taken into account stating that children have SEN if they have a learning difficulty that calls for special educational provisions to be made for them. However, the difficulty with such definition, and the issue arising from The Warnock Report, was the unforeseen consequence that the term SEN has become to be the name of a single category which has led to some conflicting issues. Quarmby (2006) reiterates that government has been using it as if it is the same problem to include a child in a wheelchair and a child with Asperger’s, and this is conspicuously untrue

This category within the SEN umbrella help to understand students with special needs, and ascertains the fact that certain students may need different special educational provisions to be made for them. But whose responsibility is it to provide the necessary provisions for students to learn?

The paper asks a deliberate straight forward question – should all students with SENs be included in mainstream education? If yes, does this mean mainstream schools would be expected to include pupils with Cognitive and Learning Needs; Behaviour, Emotional and Social Development Needs; Communication and Interaction Needs and Sensory and/or physical needs? At what level do we need to include them? Is it just sharing time, socialising, sharing tasks or is it the active participation in-class activities following the same curriculum. This leads to the unenviable task of evaluating inclusion.

3.0 Inclusion

Over the last 30 years, policies about ‘integration’ and subsequently about ‘inclusion’ have been the subject of much controversy. Much has been written about efforts to include pupils identified as having special educational needs (SEN) in mainstream schools and classrooms. Inclusion reflects the idea that it is not for SEN children to be somehow fitted in or integrated into the mainstream but that education as a whole should be fully inclusive of all children (House of Commons Report, 2006). Until the 1990’s the term inclusion was rarely used and instead we referred to ‘integration’ or ‘mainstreaming’ meaning the placement of pupils with disabilities or special needs in mainstream schools. Integration was the term first introduced in the 1978 Warnock Report referring to the concept of integrating children with SEN into a common educational framework. There were different integration, from full-time placement in a mainstream classroom (functional integration) to the placement of a pupil in a special class or unit attached to a mainstream school (locational) (Hegarty, 1991). The aim to end ‘segregation’ was gathering momentum and from a human rights approach, it was certainly a requirement. However, there was often little difference between locational integration and a traditional special school, which can be seen as equally segregating experiences (Jupp, 1992). Indeed, even pupils placed in mainstream class may be isolated from their peers, particularly if they work with a support worker in one-to-one sessions for the majority of each day. ‘Integrated’ placements, therefore, still leave many pupils ‘segregated’ (Harrower, 1999).

Partly for this reason, the term ‘inclusion’ came to describe the extent to which a school or community welcomes pupils identified with special educational needs (SEN) as full members of the group and values them for the contribution which they make. Their diversity of interests, ability and attainment should be welcomed and be seen to enrich the life of the school. In this sense, as Ballard (1999) argues, inclusion is about valuing diversity rather than assimilation.

This general movement towards inclusion was also (In addition to The Warnock Report) strongly influenced by the Salamanca Statement (UNESCO, 1994) which had a major impact on shaping policy developments in many different countries. In England this is evident in various government initiatives since the late 1990s including, for example, the statuary Inclusion Guidance (DfES, 2001a), the Special Educational Needs and Disability Act (DfES, 2001b) and the ‘Removing Barriers to Achievement’ strategy (DfES, 2004) each providing a further impetus towards inclusion (Hick et al, 2009).

Overall, after an extensive literature review it was evident that three main strands have developed relating to inclusion. One is about equal opportunities and right to education for all. It argues that any form of segregation on the basis of disability or learning difficulty is morally wrong (Jordan and Goodey, 1996; Lindsay, 2003). A second strand is based on a re-conceptualisation of the special needs issue as part of the process of school improvement (Ainscoq, 1999). This idea is based on the argument that it is the structure of schools as organisations rather than differences between individual pupils that creates special educational needs (Tomlinson, 1982). The third strand of literature has been concerned with questions of pedagogy. Though some have focused on the development of inclusive practice from the outset (Forest and Pearpoint, 1992), others have considered whether or not teaching practices and methods can be implemented in mainstream schools and classrooms in order to meet the challenge of inclusive education (Cook and Schrimer, 2003). Inclusive practice’ is therefore concerned with actions and activities that staffs in schools do that give meaning to the concept of inclusion. These 3 main strands will be used as a framework in deciding whether students with SEN should be included in mainstream education provision.

In addition it is essential to understand and apply the SEN Code of Practice principles that support inclusive education as a framework in achieving inclusion. The five fundamental principles that support inclusive can be observed in Table 2:

As with any change, the inclusion of all students with SENs in mainstream education provisions may bring both ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ impacts within schools and pupils.

3.1 The ‘Good’ and the ‘Evil’

Although inclusion is seen as a very positive strategy by some, it is considered idealistic and impractical by others. Some critics have argued that inclusion happens at the expense of good and appropriate education for the other children in the class; in other words, if a student with special needs is taught within a mainstream class, they might need extra attention from the teacher, or may be disruptive or difficult in class, and this could harm other children’s education. On the other hand it can be argued that the other children in the class benefit a great deal from working with students with special educational needs and that inclusive education helps to remove stereotypes and ignorance.

It is also argued that children with SEN are better off in segregated classrooms as this enables them to gain social support from others with similar difficulties. It also allows opportunities to concentrate specialist teachers and resources in one place. The objection to this is that the disadvantage of keeping children with certain difficulties together is that it makes it harder for them to integrate fully into society once they leave school.

3.2 Inclusion in Practice

The Government recognised the barriers to inclusion that exist in schools in its statement in 2004(DfES, 2004) and set out a proposal about how the barriers should be tackled. OFSTED, in its report in 2004, found that more mainstream schools saw themselves as inclusive, but only a minority met special educational needs very well. Members of the SENCo Forum responded to the Government’s Special Need Action Plan by stating that schools would have to provide much higher level of flexibility in the way that learning and teaching take place, if the aims of inclusive education are to be realised (SENCo Forum, 2003). In addition, MacBeath et al (2006) concluded that some of the problems in schools attempting to implement inclusion were that the current education system itself made it difficult to implement inclusion.

Gillinson and Green (2008) argue that it is essential to regard children and young people themselves and their parents as normal practice. They conclude that the issue is not about treating everyone as the same- what is important is that everyone should be treated equally. Gross (2001) also comments that what young people most want is the right to belong. Belonging brings along a morale issue with regards to inclusion. It is therefore imperative to understand what characterises these pupils with SEN and understand better what makes them unique.

4.0 Special Educational Needs Pupils

At heart of all the discussion are the actual pupils who suffer special needs. In light of the extensive research, proposals by government, frameworks and guideline and committee reports one inevitably raises the question of their effectiveness. Are mainstream schools performing? Are pupils experiencing inclusive education? Are these guidelines and proposals effective? Unfortunately the overall answer may be unsatisfactory. The Audit Commission found that the vast majority of permanent exclusions in the 22 local authorities surveyed related to pupils with SEN: 87% of exclusions in primary schools and 60% of exclusions in secondary. In addition, pupils with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism and mental health problems made up significant proportions of these pupils.

At this stage one wants to highlight that it is not the purposeful intention to only focus on pupils with Autistic and Social, Emotional, and Behavioural Difficulties but data does demonstrate that with regards to inclusion of sensory and/or physical needs pupils, some success in mainstream education provisions are beginning to develop. The House of Commons Report (2006) cites the Disability Rights Commission (DRC) recognising, “there has been major progress in providing disabled children and young people with more equitable educational opportunities and a steady improvement in educational outcomes, which show a faster annual increase in achievement of GCSE grades A-grades, A-C and equivalent over the last six years by disabled people than non-disabled people” In addition, the Disability Rights Commission (DRC) highlights that not all disabled pupils and students have learning difficulties. Similarly, pupils and students deemed to have learning difficulties or SEN are not disabled.

In light of the above finding, as well as the overwhelming data demonstrating that the majority of the of exclusion in primary and secondary are pupils suffering from ADHD and autism, specific effort has been given to address the inclusion of these in mainstream educational provisions. In addition, the Gibraltar Educational Schooling Structure limits the contact of mainstream teachers with pupils with severe/profound and multiple needs, as well as multi-sensory impairments. These pupils enrol in special school environment. Being exposed to pupils with ADHD and autism (in the organisation) will also aid in supporting some answers with research evidence. Increasing knowledge in these groups will also is beneficial for CPD purposes.

5.0 Behaviour, Emotional and Social Needs and Autism

Young people with emotional and social development difficulties and autism are the fastest growing categories of SEN. This is having repercussions for schools, and more so for pupils. In addition as the parent representative group Network 81 describe: “the lack of understanding of conduct disorders, behavioural, and emotional needs is quite unbelievable. Many children are labelled as ‘naughty’, ‘badly brought up’, and ‘defiant’ by teaching staff who group all ‘bad’ behaviour together”. This serves to highlight a possible issue where pupils are being misunderstood and labelled by those who may impact significantly their future – teachers.

Furthermore, The House of Commons Report (2006) states ‘it is widely recognised that there is a strong correlation between exclusions and children with SEN-particularly those with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties and autistic behaviour’. The Committee finds it unacceptable that such a well known problem continues to occur and quite frankly from a teacher point of view, one can only agree. This indicates that schools need better guidance and staff training, particularly with Autistic and social, emotional, and behavioural difficulties. This leads to the inevitable argument on whether SEBD pupils should be included in mainstream educational provisions. In order not to fall into the generalisation trap, one has focused on the main groups of exclusion at the current moment. These are pupils suffering from ADHD and autism. An evaluation of the 3 strand mentioned prior will determine whether inclusion should be possible or not.

5.1 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

ADHD has been a topic of heated discussion within the educational world. For some, it is considered to be a medical condition, characterised by inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity (APA, 2000). However, according to others (e.g. Humphrey, 2009) there has been no biological marker identified that can reliably distinguish between children with and without the condition. Estimates though suggest that between 2% and 6% of students are affected by ADHD (Cooper, 2005) and still growing.

From a mainstream school provision, and more so from a teacher’s perspective, it is generally accepted that students with ADHD are considered among the most difficult to include effectively. Lack of knowledge about disorder end up with teacher’s frustration towards students (SCOtENS, 2008). It is therefore important to consider what we mean when we say we are helping to ‘include’ them. Mainstream teachers report a lack of appropriate training as a key barrier to success in this area (West et al, 2005). If inclusion means meeting the child’s needs in mainstream schools and settings, have the child views sought and taken into account and having full access to a broad, balanced and relevant education as suggested in The Special Educational Needs Code of Practice (2001), then it must go beyond general questions of the presence of children with SEN in such schools, and as Norwich and Lewis (2005:2) explain, ‘we need to address the question of classroom teaching and curriculum in considering inclusion and inclusive practices’.

There is the suggestion that the needs of such learners dictate that they require distinct kinds of teaching in order to learn the same content as those without special needs. If not, pupils with ADHD are more likely than others to experience social isolation, with fewer reported friendships and greater levels of rejection (Bagwell et al, 2001) inevitably leading to disruptive behaviour. Norwich and Lewis (2005) argue that pedagogic needs can be addressed by thinking about the needs that are specific to all; thinking about those needs that are specific to a certain group (such as students with ADHD); and thinking about those needs that are unique to the individual. The strategies are based upon the principle that by creating a better fit between the school environment and the student, we are creating opportunities for pupils to succeed. The question now lies in determining whether these strategies can be implemented in mainstream provisions and whether they will conflict with good and appropriate educational strategies that other children in the class already experience.

Students with ADHD often experience difficulties in mainstream classrooms and schools because the emphasis on meeting common needs mean that their specific group needs are not being addressed (Cooper, 2005). However, these common needs may come about due to the National Curriculum. One of the major concerns about the National Curriculum has been that it does not address the breadth of education necessary to meet children’s and young people’s educational needs. So is the curriculum in its present form a contributory cause of poor behaviour? A further concern about the National Curriculum is the current approach to assessment. Research from the perception of students themselves suggests that many experience ‘confusion, anxiety, blame and guilt’ (Hughes, 2005) in relation to their education, which is not exactly surprising considering the struggles they need to deal with.

However, as a mainstream teacher, one is fully aware that change in the National Curriculum cannot be proposed and overcome easily therefore an alternative strategy must be investigated to create a better fit between school environment and the student. The strategy may lie in pedagogy.

In achieving the necessary ‘learner aware pedagogy’, the problem for the classroom teacher concerned with the SENs of a pupil lies in identifying the ‘nature’ of the learning difficulty or disability, and assessing the implication for its consequences (Levine, 2002b). The Special Educational Needs Code of Practice refers to the ‘awareness’ as the point at which a teacher has a ‘concern’ about an individual pupil (DfES, 2001). A crucial prerequisite for any teacher’s subsequent decision for action is a clear understanding of the ‘nature’ and the ‘consequences’. It is important then to recognise that a given ‘learning difficulty’ or ‘disability’ may or not ‘prevent or hinder’ an individual from making use of ‘educational facilities of a kind provided in schools’ (Education Act, 1999). Once the teacher is aware action may take place to meet their needs.

Pedagogy takes an important role as it represents the interaction between the learner and the teacher with respects to curricular aims and objectives. This issue therefore concerns the central operation in education, and, in principle, should specify the optimal circumstances in which successful learning and teaching can take place Research into the typical learning styles of students with ADHD suggests that they learn more effectively when they are able actively to experiment and are presented with concrete examples that are visual in nature (Cooper and Ideus, 1996). In addition, students with ADHD are said to be somewhat verbose, talking at inappropriate times; an aspect that can be exploited by designing lessons that allow increased opportunity for verbal participation. Research also shows that this kind of approach can lead to decreases in disruptive behaviour (Levine, 2002b). This strategy will welcome pupils with SEN as full members of the group and will help to value them for the contribution they make. This will develop their feeling of belonging and their ability to participate in a mainstream school environment. Better staff-student relationships and a positive classroom ethos is also said to be essential when dealing with pupils with ADHD. Such a change may be difficult to achieve but recent research by Ghanizadeh, Bahredar and Moeini (2006) demonstrated that more tolerant and positive attitudes towards students with ADHD are associated with levels of knowledge of ADHD among teachers. This suggests that training to increase teacher’s knowledge of ADHD may need to be a priority if inclusive practice is to consolidate.

Breaking down tasks into small, manageable chunks will also facilitate to accommodate the shorter attention span of such students. In addition by highlighting key information where possible will help students who experience difficulties in selective attention (Levine, 2002a). Over time, students can be taught to practise drawing focus to key information themselves (Humphrey, 2009). These strategies are said to help to create a better fit between the class environment and the students and are things that staffs in school do that give meaning to the concept of inclusion. However, many of the strategies proposed are appropriate and should be an integral part of any lesson regardless whether children with SEN are present or not.

Another approach as a tool to promote and achieve inclusive practice is what Humphrey (2009) refers to as Cognitive-behavioural approach. Cognitive-behavioural approaches emphasise the use of reinforcement principles to alter thoughts or cognitions related to ADHD behaviours. Simple examples of the application of such techniques in the classroom include teaching children to use self-testing strategies (e.g. when reading, students are encouraged to stop at key points and ask themselves questions about what they have just read) and use self-reinforcement (such as giving themselves praise for achieving targets, such as staying on task for a period of time). A review of cognitive-behavioural approaches by Ervin, Bankert and DuPaul (1996) concluded that they can be successful in achieving behaviour change, but they are more effective when combined with behavioural contingencies in the natural environment.

Startling statistics show that up to 75% of students with ADHD are prescribed stimulant medication, with Ritalin being the most important commonly used drug (Department of Health, 2003). If specialist knowledge and understanding is important in promoting inclusive practice, teacher’s knowledge with regards to the use of medication within this group is essential. It is crucial for teachers to understand the role it plays in student’s lives, and the implications it may have for education. Teachers may take an active role here in monitoring the effects of medication observed in the classroom (Cooper and Ideus, 1996). Having an understanding of the effects of stimulant medication will enable the teacher to plan for specific pedagogical strategies in a way that takes these factors into account and allow full access to education.

Stimulant medication takes effect very quickly, but its influences may not last throughout the school day. For instance, their effect on behaviour (in terms of activity levels) typically lasts longer than its effects on cognition (in terms of attention). As a result, even though students may not be up and out of their seats or blurting out answers, they may still not be accessing the curriculum because they are struggling to maintain their focus on the material presented. In addition, even though medication may be effective in managing the core difficulties experienced by those with ADHD, it is less useful in alleviating ‘secondary’ problems such as social isolation and academic underachievement (Dogett, 2004), therefore limiting the active participation of the child in both class and school environment.

In addition, inflexible staff and lack of inventiveness in some schools have been reported by OFSTED (2004) as factors affecting the development towards effective inclusion. From a personal perceptive ine can concur with OFSTED;s statement. Within ones organisation, teachers overall consensus is one of frustration and guilt when dealing with pupils with SEN in not being able to help them. An SEN register is distributed to every teacher with pupils name and their areas of need well into the 1st term. This result with the teacher suddenly realising that pupil ‘X’ and pupil ‘Y’ might be experiencing a range of difficulties due to their needs not being taken into account, resulting in disruptive behaviour. In addition, an organisation where teacher’s SEN knowledge and understanding is limited brings in another issue. Teachers find themselves wondering what can be done to help these pupils with limited success. Within the organisation there is a SEN Coordinator position, but in the past, when approached and asked for am expert opinion, the answer was ‘you can look it up in the internet and find out further information’. This barrier is significant as Wedell (2008:131) rightly states “Consultation with the school’s SENCo may be required, and this may extend to the involvement of support services from outside school, as indicated in the successive stages of the Special Educational Needs Code of Practice’ all in effort to make sure the students actively belongs and participates in mainstream school settings. This is currently non existent within the organisation. Furthermore, learning support classes are timetabled for children with SEN, but these take form more as a homework club rather than a structured learning support session. Teachers have no influence in what get taught in these classes resulting in the possibility of pupils doing something that not necessarily links with what is being taught in mainstream class. The students find themselves in an inclusive mainstream setting in curriculum subjects and in a segregated setting with regards to learning support. This may result in confusion and frustration, especially with pupils who are said to benefit from being provided with a clear structure to each day lesson and task. With regards to medication, throughout the 4 year career in teaching, there have been a number of students diagnosed with ADHD. However, up until today, there is no awareness or knowledge whether they were on medication or not. Overall, within the organisation it is clear that it is unrealistic to expect teachers and other members to be able to properly fulfil requirements such as differentiating the curriculum for all children, including those with SEN, without receiving the appropriate support and training to enable them to do so. In some cases as mentioned above, the teacher may require a detailed knowledge of child development psychology to equip them to do so to the greatest effect and of equal importance, to understand why the pupil acts and behaves the way they do.

5.2 Autistic Spectrum Disorders

According to Jordan (2008:1)’ education can be, and perhaps should be, an effective treatment’ for autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) in the sense that, there is so much that individuals with ASD have to learn that is just intuitively grasped by the non-autistic, learning may best be enhanced through high-quality teaching.’ But education is more than just another treatment. It is the way that citizens are taught the values, understanding, knowledge and skills that will enable their full participation in their community in a way that welcomes full their values and contributions they make.

The first battles for those with ASD were fought for the same purpose as the battles for any special educational need: the right to be included at all. As with SEN there was recognition that degree of autism can occur across the full ability range. ASD inclusion has been based on the entitlement view of education as the only way of becoming a full member of society. The bases of most programmes for inclusion for pupils with ASD were not inclusion at all, but form of integration (Jordan and Powell, 1994). As previous research demonstrates (Ainscoq, 1999) the issue with regards to ASD pupils has been that the content and the teaching approaches of the National Curriculum in mainstream schools were not changed to accommodate children with ASD It was assumed that the content was of equal relevance to all children, requiring modification and ‘breaking down’ curriculum content into smaller steps (which is often effective for some children with learning difficulties) is not appropriate for children with ASD, where the development and learning patterns are different.

There is even problem with the main purpose of mainstream education, which in terms of inclusion, is surely to gain from co-operative and collaboration with typical peers. Yet many of the supports to enable inclusion of children with ASD serve to make the child more isolated from peers, and support assistance are seldom given training (or a role) in enabling such children to have positive contact with their peers (Jordan, 2008), thus being more an organisational constraint rather than a pupil’s. Jordan (2008) also state that is a child is different, or has ‘special needs’, extra resources are provided to enable the child to have access to other children, even though the success of those resources in bringing that about has never been tested. So is inclusion possible for pupils with ASD?

In order to include ASD students there needs to be a flexible education system. Teachers must know about learning and teaching and about the diversity that exists in teaching. If educators teach in a way that attains diversity, then more children with different SEN will be able to manage in mainstream settings becoming full members of the group. This will also benefit disruptive students and those with ADHD, dyslexia and so on. Once again the statement made by OFSTED (2004) that effective inclusion was frustrated by rigid timetabling and inflexible staffing is relevant. Rigid class grouping is associated with high pupil-teacher rations, which clearly make it difficult to give personal attention to individual pupils. In addition, successful learning opportunities in inclusive settings will require radical school reform, changing the existing system and rethinking the entire curriculum of the school to meet the needs of all children (Mittler 1994), what Norwich and Lewis (2005) explain as the curriculum dilemma. In addition, and similar to ADHD, the current approach to assessment needs to be addressed if inclusion is to prosper as the House of Commons Report for Children, Schools and Families (2008:3) reports that:

“we find that the use of national test results for the purpose of school accountability has resulted in some schools emphasizing the maximization of test results at the expense of a more rounded educational for their pupils”

Inevitably, one must be aware that there will be some individuals with ASD whose autism is so severe that they will need specialist support, but that does not need to be in a segregated setting if inclusion is desired. Resources based are the best model (Hesmonghalgh and Breakley, 2001), where the child with ASD belongs to his peer group teacher but has support staff with expertise and a ‘haven’ in which to recover when needed (Jordan, 2008). This is a perfect example on how a child with SENs may have their needs met in a mainstream provision (following point 1 of the SEN Code of Practice) and is not segregated.

Pupils with severe ASD will need special support and it is here where there is a role for specialist schools. Special schools should be seen as centres of excellence, pioneering new ways of working with ASD and dealing with the most extre

The effect of age on adult’s rate of achievement in learning second language

1

Abstract

This study investigated the effects of age on adult’s rate of achievement in learning second language in the case of grammar,and pronunciation. Age is one of the most important and affective factor which causes many differences in both second and first language learning. When the brain is more developed so it is better for learning second language and also adult?s capacity for learning and memory is higher than children. Results show that adults are able to produce grammatically correct sentences compared with children but as they become older they get into some problems in communication. Asher and Price figured out a fact that the younger a child had been when entering the United States, the higher the probability of a native like accent(Asher and Price, 1967, p. 83).

Review of literature

This article provides a selective overview of theoretical issues and empirical findings relating to the question of age and the rate of aadult?s second language acquisition. Many empirical researches were done on the rate of second language learning and overviews of this research can be found in Asher and Price(1967), Susan Oyama (1982), Fathman (1989), Falasca (2001),Dekeyser (2002), Dunkel and Pillet (2008), Johnson and Newport (2008),and Bista (2008).

Methodology

This paper studied the effect of age on adult’s rate of achievement of grammar,and pronunciationin learning second language. This research was done by studying previous related research which is done by famous researches. Information gathered from articles , books and internet sources. This paper has collected the best papers related to the effect of age on adult’s rate of achievement of grammar, and pronunciationin learning second language. the following pages review more than 10 studies that are theoretically and practically studied the relationship between age and on adult’s rate of second language acquisition.

Adults as learners

There are many definitions of the adults as learners ,different authors focus on different perspectives.

Knowles (1980), forexample, identified the following characteristics of adult learners:

• adults are autonomous and self-directed; they need to be free to direct themselves

• adults have accumulated a foundation of life experiences and knowledge that may include work-related activities, family responsibilities and previous education

• adults are relevancy-oriented; they must see a reason for learning something

• adults are more problem-centered than subject-centered inlearning

• adults are motivated to learn by internal factors rather thanexternal ones

( Merriam&Caffarella, 1999,p 65)

Many of adult second language learners pay more attention on learning grammar ,they believe in the significant relationship between grammatical accuracy and effective communication. They pay much attention to grammar because of doing office work and studying in abroad. They think by having proficiency in grammar part they will have a better social acceptance by native speakers. Adults are more aware of grammar points which they are using, that?s why they can get these points and use them.

Huangdid a research and in his study 118 Mandarin-speaking immigrants in the United States and 24 English native speakers as the baseline comparison group participated. The grammar knowledge estimated by a grammaticality judgment task. The findings showed thatthat post-puberty learners acquire second language better than pre-puberty learnersespecially in grammar part.His findings showed the method of teaching, amount of instruction and also length of residence have significant effects on learning grammar.

Results revealed that adults had less difficulty in adapting to task. They are faster and made fewer mistakes, this will cause them to learn faster. And children made more mistakes at the early stages of learning.

Asher and Price ( 1967) have carried out an experiment with96 students from the second, fourth and eighth grades of a school and 37 undergraduate students from a college. The subjects did not have any previous knowledge of Russian, the targeted language. After three short trainings conducted in Russian language, the results showed that the eight graders performed significantly better than the second graders and the fourth graders. They also noticed a consistently positive relationship with advancing age because of above average mental ability of the adults (p.76).

A study which is done by Robert Dekeyser(2002)suggested:”adult learners are more successful in learning grammar than the early-age learners”(p.14). Learning grammar is sometimes abstract, that?s why it is hard for children to get the point. Most of the time, children memorize it.The findings show that grammar is somehow boring for adults but they get to this conclusion that learning grammar is necessary and effective. Adults are more reliance on writing and they know about the value of grammar in writing, so they get it more serious.

Researchers of SLA interested in assessing phonological skills of learners suggest a common belief that younger learners acquire a native like accent in the target language. Dunkel and Pillet compared the proficiency in French between elementary school pupils and beginning students of French from the university. They found that the younger learners’ pronunciation was better than that of the older ones. However, in both written and aural tests, the university students had better performance than the younger ones.(Bista,2008, p.8)

Asher and price examined acquisition of pronunciation of 71 Cuban immigrants to California. The subjects were of aged groups from seven to 19 years. The majority of them had been in the United States for about five years. They concluded that “not one of the 71 Cuban subjects was judged to have American native pronunciation” (Asher and price, 1967, p. 83). They also figured out a fact that the younger a child had been when entering the United States, the higher the probability of a native like accent.

In the study which is done by Susan Oyama (1982) 60 maleItalian immigrants were studied .They were at the age of 6 to 20 when they had come to the united states. Susan Oyama pointed out that the age is an important factor in order to have a native like accent. She declared that the younger the better in having an acceptable accent. She also pointed out her results about listening comprehension as follows:

…those subjects who began learning English before age 11 showed comprehension

score similar to those of native speakers, whereas later arrivals did less well; those

who arrived after the age of 16 showed markedly lower comprehension scores than

the native (Oyama, 1982, p. 23).

Susan Oyama suggested (1982):”The young learners are considered fluent in communication of the second language and achieve native like accent .Learners after the age of puberty do not acquire native like accent of a second language but have complex learning pattern.Research suggests that children and adults L2 learners pass through different developmental states “( p 12).

Johnson and Newport ( 2008) found:” native-like language abilities and the performance levels are lower in older children than younger in a study of forty-six Chinese and Koreans speakers”(p.13).

In another study, Fathman (1989) tested oral proficiency in English on 20 children and 20 adults in a formal setting in Mexico. Their finding also brought a similar conclusion that the children scored better in English pronunciation than the adults but the adults scored better than the children in syntax(p.32).

Learning and technology

As we know adults are more capable to use technology in order to improve and using technology can help learners to study faster, especially adults. Integrating technology in instruction for adult Englishlanguage learners may offer the flexibility to extend that available in a formal program and thus increase opportunities for language and literacy learning(Cummins, 2007, p. 26).

Adult learners access to online learning more than others. Online learning is entirely Internet-based. This opportunity ables English learners to learn anywhere,any time.

Electronic tools and internet which is used in teaching and learning motivate students to learn and become actively independent learners, this will happen for adults more than children. As we know adults have more problem in communication but internet can provides learners with opportunities to reinforce their learning skills, self-assessment, and their communication with the world.

Some other effects of aging on learning:

1.as people become older they eyesight will become weak and this will affect the capacity for learning of the adults

2.changes in nuclear family roles,changes in other family roles and changes in work roles will affect on adults learning(Falasca, 2001, p.3)

3.Motivation to learn: Adults can be ordered into a classroom but nobody can force them to learn. Any adults who see a need or have a desire to know a new thing seems more successful.

A group of researchers including Singleton and Oyama believed that the young learners have higher learning potentiality than the adults whereas Johnson and Newport, Dekeyser, Asher and Price, opined the opposite. Thus the results of this study in general support that younger adults are better learner especially in pronunciation and there is a high level of opportunity to achieve to native like accent but we should consider that the amount of repetitions and also the length of resistance have much effect on having native like accent, on the other hand older adults are better in understanding grammar. When the brain is more developed so it is better for learning grammar, this is because of the fact that adult?s capacity for learning and memory is higher than children .

The findings showed that that post-puberty learners acquire second language better than pre-puberty learners especially in grammar part. In learning grammar, there is a consistently positive relationship with advancing age because of above average mental ability of the adults. Learning grammar is sometimes abstract, that?s why it is hard for children to get the point. Also all of the tools which is available in the market, sources which is available in the internet, and software can help a lot older adult than younger adult in learning second language.

We should consider that the main problem of adult is that in most cases they can not become lifelong learners.Age is not everything in second language learning. However, factors related to the age, for example the learning opportunities, the motivation to learn, individual differences, and learning styles, are also important determining variables that affect the rate of second language learning in various developmental stages of the learners.

References:

Asher, J. J., & Price, B. S. (1967). The learning strategy of a total physical response: Some age differences. Child Development, 38, 1219-1227.

Bialystok,E.(1997).The structure of age: In search of barriers to second language acquisition. Second language research,13(2),116_137.

Bista,K.(2008).Age as an effective factor in second language acquision. The journal of English for Specific Purposes World.Issue 5 (21).Retrieved fromwww.esp-world.info/Articles_21/Docs/Age.pdf

Birdsong, D. (2006). Age and second language acquisition and processing: A selective overview. Language Learning, 56 (1), 9-49.

Cummins, J.(2007). Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the optimum age question and some other matters.Working Papers on Bilingualism, 19,197-205.

DeKeyser, R.(2002).The robustness of Critical Period effects in second language acquisition. Studies in second language Acquisition,22(4),499-533.

Fathman, A. (1989). The relationship between age and second language productive ability.

Issues in second language research. London:Newbury House, 15-23.

Falasca,M.(2001).Barriers to adult learning.Australian Journal of Adult learning.Volume56,number3,November2011. Retrieved from http://www.ajal.net.au/barriers-to-adult-learning-bridging-the-gap/

Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E.L.(2008).Critical Period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on acquisition of English as a Second Language. Cognitive Psychology. 21,60-99.

Klein, W. (1986).Second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Oyama, S. (1982).The sensitive period and comprehension of speech. In Krashen, S., Scarcell, R. & Long, M. (Eds.), Issues in second language research. London: Newbury House, 39-51

Singleton, D. (2002).The age factor in second language acquisition (2nd ed.). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

To what extent can teachers make provisions for pupils with ADHD (Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity?Disorder) in the mainstream classroom?

CONTENTS (JUMP TO)

Section 1: Referenced Extracts

Section 2a Part One: Analysis and Critical Evaluation of the Issue

Section 2b Part Two: Examination of the Practical Implications for Primary School Teachers

Section 3: Copies of Extracts

Section 4: Bibliography Sources and Further Reading

Section 1: Referenced Extracts

(1) Quarmby, K. (Tuesday 6 December, 2004) Rebels without a Cause: Children with Behaviour Problem are Increasingly Diagnosed with ADHD, in, Education Guardian, pp.1-3

(2) The Disorder named AD/HD: What we know (2004) National Resource Centre for AD/HD: Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity?Disorder (CHADD; http://www.help4adhd.org/en/about/what/WWK1.pdf , p.2

(3) Rafolovich, A. (2005), Exploring Clinician Uncertainty in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity-Disorder, in, Journal of Sociology of Health and Illness, Volume 27, Number 3 London: Blackwell, pp.306?310

(4) Northen, S. (Friday 26 November, 2004), Feed your Head, in, The Times Educational Supplement, p.3

(5) Spencer, T. et al (1995), A Double-Blind Cross?Over Comparison of Methylphenidate and Placebo in Adults with Childhood Onset Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity-Disorder, in, Archives of General Psychiatry, Volume 52, pp.434-443

(6) Education Guardian Opinion (Tuesday 10 October, 2006), p.4

(7) Handy, C. and Aitken, R. (1986) Understanding Schools as Organisations London: Penguin, p.13

(8) Chowdhury, U. (2004) Tics and Tourette’s Syndrome: a Handbook for Parents and Professionals London and New York: Jessica Kingsley, p.115

(9) Raphael Reed, L. (1995) Reconceptualisng Equal Opportunities, in, Griffiths, M. and Troyna, B. (Eds.), Antiracism, Culture and Social Justice in Education Stoke?on?Trent: Trentham, p.88

(10) Guiding Principles for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Attention?Deficit Hyperactivity?Disorder (2006), Presented by the Attention Deficit Disorder Association (ADDA); http://www.add.org/pdf/GuidingPrinciples021206Rev[1].pdf , p.2

(11) Jones, A. (August 2004) Clinical Psychology Publishes Critique of ADHD Diagnosis and Use of Medication on Children, in, Psychminded Website; http://www.psychminded.co.uk/news/news2004/august2004/Clinicalpsycholgy

(12) Swanson, J.M. and Castellanos, F.X. (2002) Biological Bases of ADHD – Neuroanatomy, Genetics and Pathophysiology, in, Jensen, P.D. and Cooper, J.R. (Eds.), Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: State of the Science Kingston: New Jersey, pp.71-72

(13) ADHD: Strategies for Primary School Teachers; http://premium.netdoktor.com/uk/adhd/living/school/article.jsp?articleIdent=uk.adhd.living.school.uk_adhd_xmlarticle_004691

(14) ADHD in the Classroom – What Helps; http://www.adhd.com/educators/educator_communication_difficulties.jsp

(15) Selikowitz, M. (2004) ADHD: the Facts Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.154

(16) Stein, D.B. (1999) Ritalin is not the Answer: a Drug-Free, Practical Programme for Children Diagnosed with ADD or ADHD New York: Jossey Bass Wiley, Preface

Section 2a Part One: Analysis and Critical Evaluation of the Issue

The issue of ADHD is one of the most pressing contemporary concerns within the broader educational sphere of making adequate provisions for children with learning difficulties. With the help of scientists and the media, ADHD has been transformed from a relatively unknown illness of the brain to a well known national problem for thousands of schoolchildren. The increase in awareness has been accompanied by a steep rise in the number of children being diagnosed with the disease. “The National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) estimates that as many as 500000 children in the UK may have ADHD and, of these, as many as 100000 may be seriously affected.”(1) Unbelievably, this figure amounts to approximately one in twenty of all British schoolchildren. With figures constantly on the rise and awareness increasing in tandem, it is clear that ADHD is, at the beginning of the twenty first century, a highly important concern for any mainstream primary school teacher.

In comparison to other behavioural problems experienced by young people, the illness is relatively new (at least in terms of its recognition from psychiatrists and general practitioners) and, as such, often causes confusion and misunderstanding when the issue is raised in the classroom. Tourette’s syndrome, for example, has a ten year advantage over ADHD in terms of public awareness and forthright medical opinion. Moreover, the illness is also notoriously difficult to accurately quantify with rather ambiguous symptoms like ‘inattentiveness’ and ‘a lack of concentration’ used as precursors to a diagnosis of attention?deficit hyperactivity?disorder. ADHD is consequently considered to be a highly controversial illness that has the medical community split over whether it is a disability in the traditional sense or whether it is a neurological malfunctioning on the part of the child or individual in question. This is not an easy problem to solve not least because of the scarcity of medical facts.

Indeed, the medical facts that are known are somewhat ambiguous and rely heavily on subjectivity rather than objectivity, which would bequeath an improved perspective for scientists and teachers alike. It has, however, been concluded that the illness begins no later than the age of seven and patients who are first diagnosed as ADHD sufferers in adulthood must have displayed the core symptoms from the age of seven to receive treatment for attention?deficit hyperactivity?disorder – this places the issue directly within the realm of the primary (as opposed to the secondary) school teacher as the first tell-tale signs must be evident before the age of seven (year three).

It is therefore prudent to detail these core symptoms of the disease so that the primary school teacher may be in a position to offer better advice to parents and doctors as to the condition to one of their pupils. For this, analysis must turn towards the USA, which is the leading country in terms of diagnosing, treating and including children with the illness in national classrooms. Thus, according to the American National Resource Centre for AD/HD, symptoms can be split into two separate categories (2). The first category comes under the heading of ‘inattention’. The chief features of this are:

Making careless mistakes in homework, in class and in other related activities. Failing to pay close attention.
Difficulty maintaining attention during work or play.
Appearing as if not listening when clearly being spoken to.
Failing to follow simple instructions in class.
Have difficulties with organisation.
Avoiding work with a sustained amount of mental excursion, such as homework or tests.
Loses things.
Easily distracted.
Forgetful in daily activities.

The second category used for ascertaining the most visible symptoms of ADHD comes under the heading of ‘hyperactivity-impulsive behaviour’. The core features of this particular behavioural manifestation are:

Constant ‘fidgeting’ in class with hands or feet. ‘Squirming’ in chairs.
Running or climbing at inappropriate times.
Has difficulty remaining seated.
Difficulties in maintaining silence during quiet play times.
Failing to wait for turn in class.
Interrupting teachers and fellow pupils at inappropriate times.
Act as if they are on a ‘motor’.

It is immediately evident from just a brief overview of the symptoms that ADHD is open to a wide variety of claims of inaccuracy with regards to diagnosis as well as excessive interference on the part of parents, teachers and the state, which has made the cause of children with learning difficulties a chief domestic policy since the end of the twentieth century. Sceptics naturally point to the many years before ADHD became a well known disorder (during the 1980s’) as evidence that the illness has been blown out of proportion (help groups, on the other hand, say this is merely evidence of the way in which the illness has been avoided by education professionals for so long.)

Furthermore, according to an empirical study compiled by Adam Rafolovich (3), even doctors retain strong reservations about diagnosing a child with ADHD on the grounds of the fertile ground for misconception that exists with concerns to the symptoms highlighted above. For instance, there can be little doubt that there is a very fine line between defining a child as ‘clinically inattentive’ and simply viewing that same child as lazy and disinterested in the subject matter at hand. Likewise, the same problem persists with any variety of the core symptoms of ADHD, which are often too close to everyday behavioural disorders that should be expected in children as young as seven or eight. Once again, it is not difficult to understand the sceptic’s point of view, especially when considering that the modern variation of schooling is a lot more pupil friendly than was the case forty or fifty years ago.

Psychiatric experts and doctors are likewise divided over the best means of treatment available to children who have been satisfactorily diagnosed with ADHD. In the 1990’s, medication was seen as by far the most viable route to inclusion in the classroom with the ‘wonder drugs’ Ritalin and Concerta witnessing an explosion in sales at this time. Prescriptions for these two drugs have leapt from 6000 in 1994 to around 345000 by 2003. This marked increase is testimony to the way in which ADHD has become a serious problem for all mainstream teachers, particularly those who work in primary schools. In addition, there have been grave concerns voiced by doctors, parents and teachers regarding the moral aspect of prescribing a child as young as five or six a powerful, sophisticated neurological drug that alters the way the brain perceives key data. Young people’s brains do not fully develop until well into adolescence and often beyond; thus, the risks in having children become dependent on medication at such a young age should be obvious to all concerned. Moreover, as Stephanie Northen (4) points out, the fact that ADHD is seen as a biochemical imbalance in the brain requiring a pharmaceutical treatment while, at the same time, dyslexia is seen as a solely educational problem that has no connection with the brain, severely tests the rationale behind the way that the illness is currently being classified and treated. In many cases the difference between the two is only the opinion of a teacher, doctor or mental health observer.

On the whole, however, medication has proved to be a success in young children with ADHD at least in terms of lessening the tendency for public outbursts and school time tantrums. Research conducted by the MTA Co?Operative Group at the end of the twentieth century discovered that approximately 70 to 80% of school children with ADHD reacted positively to psycho stimulant medications. Significant academic improvement has likewise been noted with an increase in attentiveness in the classroom, compliance on group related tasks and a greater accuracy evident in homework, coupled with a decrease in activity levels, impulsivity, negative social behaviours in groups and verbal hostility (5). The implications of medication and the effects that this can have on a child who displays the key symptoms of inattention, impulsivity and hyperactivity will be discussed in greater detail in Part Two of the discussion, but, at this point, the important point to note is the relatively high level of success of prescription drugs in the effort to minimise the negative

The other major option with regards to effective treatment is the option of psychotherapy involving a mental health expert and groups of child sufferers of ADHD. Utilising a form of cognitive behaviour therapy, qualified experts are able – over time – to challenge the way in which children react to certain environments and situations – those situations that had previously led to evidence of what are considered to be the core symptoms. ADHD ‘coaches’ also help the child to prioritise, organise and develop interactive skills that will lessen the chances of that child experiencing a sense of social exclusion. There are also a number of problems with this kind of therapy not least the obstacle concerning the considerable costs incurred via employing a mental health professional in the current NHS climate. Theory and practice therefore still stand some way apart when it comes to the ideal means of treating children with ADHD faced with the reality of NHS staff shortages and a scarcity of private sector mental health experts who concentrate solely on children with learning difficulties.

There is also the significant problem of stigmatisation when a child is diagnosed and then treated for ADHD or, indeed, any other mental health problem. To understand the severity of the issue, one need only look at the way that the adult labour force in the UK discriminates against employees who have a mental health issue in order to understand the way in which playgrounds can become a source of intensive bullying, especially below the age of eight according to the Guardian Education Opinion in October 2006 (6). When one considers the fact that schools are, according to Charles Handy and Robert Aitken (7), not at all dissimilar to adult commercial organisations, it becomes even more clear that bullying and peer pressure are significant issues when it comes to schooling children with learning difficulties and behavioural problems, which ADHD obviously entails. As Uttom Chowdhury declares, the more a child stands out as different from his or her classmates “because of associated behaviours such as impulsivity, poor handwriting and academic difficulties” (8) the greater the likelihood of bullying and social exclusion. Primary school teachers would have a pivotal role to play in the cessation of bullying on the grounds of a mental illness, in addition to maintaining an effective social balance within the classroom. Furthermore, a pupil who suffers from ADHD is bound to display signs of low self esteem, regardless of bullying in the playground or peer pressure within the classroom. Low self esteem – combined with the unpredictable side effects of the medication as well as mitigating factors that may be occurring at home, means that the task of a mainstream primary school teacher is made all the more time consuming.

It can be seen that attention?deficit hyperactivity?disorder is not only a highly topical issue that is bound to increase in significance in the coming decades, but that it is also a highly problematic area of debate for public education and child welfare due to the ambiguity that resides at the heart of the diagnosis of the condition. While there are a number of tell?tale signs that a child may be suffering from ADHD there are also any number of alternative reasons as to why a student appears to be veering away from the carefully constructed consensus of a primary school classroom. Ultimately, some children would just prefer not to be in school at all. With this in mind, it is prudent to turn attention towards the implications for teachers who wish to advance the governmental policy of social inclusion in the classroom by understanding how ADHD can be married with an award for Quality Teacher Status.

Section 2b Part Two: Examination of the Practical Implications for Primary School Teachers

Section 3.2.4 of the Standards for the Award of Qualified Teacher Status declares that teacher should, “identify and support more able pupils, those who are working below age-related expectations, those who are failing to achieve their potential in learning, and those who experience behavioural, emotional and social difficulties.” Clearly, therefore, with regards to pupils with ADHD, the most pressing concern for primary school teachers is the need to maintain a healthy social balance within the classroom without ostracising the child with the learning difficulty. Inclusiveness must consequently be the teacher’s main priority if they are to fulfil the most basic precept of the QTS. “All children need someone to mediate their learning, but sometimes this feels especially true for children with special educational needs.” (9)

This is a tried and tested educational tightrope that cannot be replicated in a college classroom, in an academic book or in an education?specific journal. Rather, this challenge can only be met through experience. This is, of course, not to state that there are not certain features and attributes that the teacher can learn so as to be in a more advantageous position to deal with potential sufferers of ADHD. The most obvious place to begin would be the acquisition of help from a more experienced teacher – one who hopefully has coped with the demands of teaching children with learning difficulties beforehand, even if the difficulty in question is not ADHD. This would equip the recently qualified primary school teacher with the ability to deal more efficiently with children in the classroom who have already been diagnosed with the illness as well as those pupils that have yet to be diagnosed but who are nonetheless showing a variety of signs of ADHD. This is an important point because, according to the ‘guiding principles for the diagnosis and treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity?disorder’, ADHD should be “suspected but never presumed.” (10)

Section 2.4.1 of the Standards for the Award of Qualified Teacher Status states that: “they [the qualified teacher] understand how pupils’ learning can be affected by their physical, intellectual, linguistic, social, cultural and emotional development.” With regards to pupils with ADHD, this would involve the ability to liaise with the child’s parents. This has two obvious benefits. The first is to better understand the child’s home life, which experts agree is a vital factor in the formation of the disease, especially if said home life is noticeably chaotic, abusive or violent. “More regard should be given to a child’s social circumstances, experience and history in understanding their behaviour.”(11) Secondly, research has indicated that there are certain generic attributes of ADHD that run through families, which makes the issue of maintaining an effective, coherent working dialogue with the parents of ADHD sufferers all the more imperative (12). Although the illness is inherently complex, involving a cross?over of many genes, there is a strong likelihood that one of the parents will also show signs of ADHD, making empathy with the child easier in the process.

The Standards for the Award of Qualified Teacher Status also require the primary school teacher to be able to effectively plan lessons for all pupils in the class. Moreover, as of January 2002, a revised SEN code of practice dictated that “all teachers are SEN teachers.”(13) Clearly, children with learning difficulties pose unique problems for the planning of lessons, none more so than those pupils with ADHD, which is an inherently disruptive and anti?social illness. Communication between the teacher and the student (not to mention communication between the student and his classmates) is therefore a major problem. Fortunately, there are a number of study aids that are available for teachers to consult. For instance, the official ADHD website in the US offers invaluable advice on how best to manage children with the illness in a classroom setting (14). The following constitutes a small extract of what the organisation considers to be useful information for educators. It should be interpreted as an Individual Education Plan (IEP):

Refrain from ‘popping’ a question which requires a speedy answer.
Give the student extra time to answer questions. For example, use up time by writing on the blackboard.
Speak slowly and provide information in small units. This is especially helpful in the classroom.
Reinforce verbal instructions and lessons with written materials, or by writing on the blackboard.
Work closely with the student to determine and accommodate his or her individual needs.

There are likewise a number of books that have been published in recent years that are a source of encouragement for primary school teachers. Mark Selikowitz, for example, gives advice on the structural planning of the classroom for students with ADHD: “the child with ADHD should be seated at the front of the class near to the teacher’s desk. The old idea of putting the ‘naughty’ child at the back of the class…is totally inappropriate if the child has ADHD.” (15)

Teachers must also be constantly aware of the dangers inherent in educating children who are prescribed powerful doses of medicine. In his critique of the culture of prescription drugs prevalent in the USA and the UK, David Stein warns of the side?effects of Ritalin, which include insomnia, tearfulness, rebound irritability, personality change, nervousness, anorexia, nausea, dizziness, headaches, heart palpitations, and cardiac arrhythmia. (16)

Finally, in accordance with Section 3.3.1.4, tutoring a child with ADHD allows the qualified teacher to test their ability to effectively manage instances of bullying and harassment. Where a child with ADHD is concerned, bullying is especially relevant due to the potentially volatile outbursts of the child in question as well as taking into account the reaction of those classmates who do not understand ADHD. As is the case when constructing an IEP, the primary school teacher must be able to use common sense in order to properly tailor classroom and playground management for the specific needs of the child in question. No two ADHD sufferers are likely to display the same characteristics of the disease.

Section 3: Copies of Extracts

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26 November 2004 – Times Educational Supplement – Feed Your Head

By Stephanie Northen

You are what you eat, according to an Oxford University scientist who is spreading the message that diet is the key to behaviour, mood and learning. Monty Python had a phrase for it: “And now for something completely different.” “That’s what it’s like for me addressing an education conference,” says Alex Richardson. The Oxford University scientist gets plenty of practice at public speaking. Recently she has given the keynote speech at the York festival of food and drink, talked about fish at London’s Royal Institution, and briefed Scottish MPs on autism. And what is she telling them? That what you eat affects how you learn, how you feel and how you behave. For Dr Richardson, who has spent the past decade studying the issue, the links between a healthy diet and a healthy brain are obvious. Yet many people still need persuading. “People ignore the brain,” she says. “But isn’t it obvious that, without the right nutrients, your brain, as well as your body, is not going to function properly?” Initially concentrating on the role of fish oils in treating dyslexia (see below), her work has broadened to cover the influence of diet on learning, mood and behaviour. In 2003, she co-founded the Food and Behaviour Research Group to spread the word and share the work. Over those years she has learned to control a deep-seated impatience with the kind of muddled thinking that once assured her dyslexia didn’t exist. Judging by her list of speaking engagements, she is winning the argument. It has not been easy. Money is often in short supply, as is open-mindedness. “My work bridges health and education and has huge implications for both. But when it comes to education, many people feel threatened by anything biological. They try to dismiss it as irrelevant.” Dr Richardson, the daughter of two teachers, is familiar with the workings of the education world. As a student, she reached what many would consider the top of the pile, graduating in politics, philosophy and economics at Oxford. Yet her success unsettled her. “I found it easy to play the exam game, yet I never got any satisfaction from it because I wasn’t engaged with the subjects.” She remembers an end-of-year exam. “It was on French political history. I had done nothing, but a kind soul brought me his essays at 9am, for the exam starting at 9.30am. I read, read, read and absorbed, went into the exam, let it all out, and I did fine. But it was so unsatisfying, and so unfair.” This sense of unfairness has been a powerful influence on Dr Richardson, now a senior research fellow at Mansfield college. It affected her career choice, or lack of one. “I graduated during the first Thatcher government, the time of yuppies and everyone for themselves. Most people who did PPE at Oxford disappeared to the City to make lots of money. Their golden hellos made me think, ‘Goodness! A salary like that for someone I’ve seen in the pub for the past three years’. Is that really the value society puts on first-class degrees? But I could never see myself in that kind of environment.” Instead, she slipped into the kind of teaching work that abounds in Oxford. She got a job at a tutorial college, otherwise known as a crammer. “If both your parents are teachers, the one thing you decide you are not going to be is a teacher. It was ironic that I found myself drifting that way, but I thoroughly enjoyed it.” Soon she added a PGCE to her degree, eventually ending up at a tutorial college in Stoke-on-Trent. There she met Michael. The boy was clearly affected by dyslexia, but Dr Richardson had been told by her teacher trainers that such conditions did not exist; they were merely middle-class excuses for failure. Dr Richardson taught Michael A-level economics, and one day asked him to come up with a plan for an essay on international trade, a kind of mind map showing how the issues related. The result, she says, was breathtaking. “If a finals student at Oxford had produced this it would have been impressive. Everything was there and how it related to everything else. It was stunning; he’d covered his entire sheet of A4. I was awestruck.” Michael got a D, while another student with little understanding of economics, but a talent for words, was awarded an A. “I thought this was outrageous; in terms of understanding, reasoning and ability to grapple with issues, the result should have been the other way round.” For Dr Richardson, the dyslexic boy’s struggles exemplified what was wrong with the education system. “I’ve always been rewarded for being able to play the exam game and here I was coming across people who made me feel humble. They’d been dismissed as lazy, careless and stupid. But they were battling, trying to find some way to show their ability to get a passport to anything other than the lowest grade of job or future. “This motivated me to do what I would never have thought possible, to go back to college and do a PhD. I recognised that anyone who understood dyslexia would understand the whole of the human mind and brain. It isn’t just to do with reading and spelling, it permeates the whole of somebody’s thinking and perceiving and learning style.” In 1987, she got a job in the dyslexia research clinic at Oxford’s physiology laboratory. Her work focused on the links between physiology and psychology, studying the biological underpinnings of personality traits. Then in 1995 she read a research paper in a medical magazine. A few dyslexic adults, treated with essential fatty acids found in fish oils, had been cured of their night blindness. It was a turning point. While acknowledging the many factors that influence a child’s development, she says it is just daft to deny the role of nutrition. She points out that huge numbers of youngsters have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and dyslexia. “ADHD is seen as a biochemical imbalance requiring a pharmaceutical approach, so the answer is to treat it with drugs. Yet dyslexia is regarded as an educational problem to do with reading and spelling, and nothing to do with the brain.” Her exasperation is palpable. She feels as strongly about junk food, the “nutritional nightmares”, being peddled to children. “Headteachers say they would like to get rid of the vending machine, but the children know they can forget breakfast and buy a fizzy drink and a chocolate bar at school. Teachers know how this can affect behaviour.” Dr Richardson is aware that vending machines pay teachers’ salaries. “But if diet plays the role it appears to in shaping behaviour, learning and mood, it is a false economy. You can’t let them eat junk and expect it not to backfire and cause more expense.” She is a forceful campaigner, driven by a sense of how unfair life can be. A better diet seems little to ask for children, especially those with special needs. “There is nothing to compare with realising, from the moment you arrive at school, that you struggle with things other children find easy. How are you going to preserve your self esteem? What are you going to do to try to cope with this frank injustice?” Dr Richardson is working hard to help. She says it’s payback time for the ease with which she sailed through the education system.

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Rebels without a cause Children with behaviour problems are increasingly diagnosed with ADHD. But their parents often struggle to get them the education they need. By Katharine Quarmby Tuesday December 6, 2005 The Guardian James Steele, aged 10, from Bermondsey, south London, has seven doses of Ritalin a day to control his behaviour. On one of his first days at Southwark Park primary school, he stripped off naked and was chased round the school by two teachers. His mother, Julie Clapp, had to give up work to cope with him. “It’s been a nightmare,” she says.

“He would crawl over desks, start climbing on equipment in the classroom,” says Angie Sharma, acting headteacher. “Then at one point he opened the window and stood on the ledge. The whole school was in a panic. We seriously thought we might have to exclude James. It was extremely difficult for the teacher to teach to the national curriculum when James was running out of class, refusing to co-operate.”

Before he joined the school, he had already been kicked out of nursery. The school begged Southwark council for help and, at the age of seven, James was diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and given a statement of special educational need. A team of experts assessed James, including the school’s special educational needs co-ordinator, an

Primary Science Task

Introduction

It is important that assessment in primary science is linked to learning outcomes if it is to be successful (Hudson, 2005). It is therefore important that all primary teachers in science understand the learning outcomes which are appropriate to their year, and that learning activities and assessments are based on that. Most children in year 4 at school would be expected to be working between levels 2 and 5, although most children would only be expected to reach level 4 by the age of 11 (DirectGov, 2008). Here a set of activities based around circuits are discussed in terms of how they allow for development in Sc1 Scientific Enquiry and Sc4 Physical Processes skills.

Assessment of Sc1 and Sc4 Skills

In order to ensure appropriate development through both Sc1 and Sc4, it would be considered preferential to change the order of the learning activities. The first activity which would be approached would be that of the safety session. This would be approached first due to the importance of approaching safety considerations before approaching any practical activities utilising electricity. This activity is not only considered crucial to safety, but presents a good introduction to circuits, as the learning objectives would be considered to be at level 2 (L2) of Sc4. For example discussion of the differences between mains and battery electricity corresponds to pupils being able to compare the way in which devices work in different electrical circuits (QCA, n.d.). The learning outcomes of this activity, being able to record the characteristics of the devices using mains electricity, would also be at L2 of Sc1, which states that pupils should be able to describe observations using simple scientific vocabulary.

The second activity approached would be that of looking at drawings of circuits. This is an important step before practical work with circuits as it may address some of the gaps in knowledge of circuits which may be present in children of this age (Glauret, 2008). The learning objectives and the activity itself allow for development from L2 of Sc 4 to L3. For example while knowing that a circuit needs a power source means that pupils are able to compare the way in which devices work in different electrical circuits (L2), it could also be developed so that pupils are able to discuss cause and effect (L3). The same could be said of the knowledge that a complete circuit is needed for a device to work. The actual activity itself, in which children look at drawings of circuits and decide and explain which will work and which will not could be performed at L2 of Sc1, where pupils are able to observe and compare objects and events, and say what is expected. It could however allow for development to L3, where pupils are able to use their knowledge and understanding of physical phenomena to link cause and effect in simple explanations. By asking children to design a circuit which will work, record it, and annotate it, this is however only tackling L1 of Sc1 in terms of notation, where pupils are able to communicate their findings in simple ways (QCA, n.d.). Although not specifically addressed in this learning activity, it may also be useful to include some discussion in pairs or small groups. This is due to evidence that vocalisation of scientific concepts may help with development of scientific vocabulary (Mercer et al., 2004). This may then assist in developing from being able to communicate findings in simple ways (Sc1 L1) to using simple scientific vocabulary (Sc1 L2) and beyond.

Using the third activity, in which pupils test their ideas about what make good conductors would allow for further development of Sc1 and Sc4. For example the learning objective about how to find out which materials allow electricity to pass through them could be approached from L1 if suggestions are actively offered to the pupils (Sc1 L1), or could be developed through the L4 if pupils are given freedom to design their own approach with lower levels of guidance. The learning objective relating to the development of the knowledge that some materials are better conductors of electricity than others relates to both L3 and 4 of Sc4. This involves development from being able to use knowledge to link cause and effect to being able to use knowledge to create generalisations. This development is also addressed by the objective that pupils are able to use results to draw conclusions about which materials conduct electricity. This objective also addresses development of L3 to L4 in Sc1 in that pupils develop from being able to provide explanations for their observations (L3) to pupils being able to relate their conclusions to patterns in their data and scientific knowledge. The specific learning outcomes of this activity would be that pupils would be able to use equipment to make observations, by being able to construct a circuit to test which materials let electricity pass through (Sc1 L2) and that they would be able to provide explanations for their observations by explaining that with some materials the bulb did not light because the circuit was not complete (Sc1 L3). This may even be developed through to Sc1 L4, where pupils begin to relate their conclusions to patterns in their data and scientific knowledge, if pupils are able to relate their findings to other sources of information.

Rather than approach it as a separate activity, it would be better to incorporate the activity of making simple switches here, as it too relates to conductors and complete circuits. As such, it does not particularly offer further development of any of the learning targets, so does not warrant investigation as a separate session.

As a development of the third activity, it then makes logical sense to proceed to discuss the uses of metals and plastics as conductors and insulators. This would lead to the development of Sc1 L4 if pupils were not previously able to relate their own work to outside information. This also includes exploring secondary sources, which can also be developed from L2 of Sc1 to L4, depending on the sophistication of sources used and what is done with the information. For example using the information to explain why metals are used for some purposes and plastics for others indicates being able to link cause and effect in simple explanations (Sc4 L3), although if pupils are also able to make generalisations about physical phenomena and use physical ideas to explain, then this may indicate development to L4.

The final activity in the paper would be included last, as this is generally a culmination of the information gathered to this point, and offers development of Sc1 and Sc4 to L4. For example making predictions about what will happen indicates that pupils are able to make generalisations and use physical ideas to explain simple phenomena (Sc4 L4). Deciding how to change the brightness of bulbs and speed of a motor in a circuit also shows that pupils are able to decide on an appropriate approach towards answering a question and also able to vary one factor while keeping the others the same (Sc1 L4). Designing their own experiment also indicates that pupils are able to describe physical phenomena, for example how a particular device may be connected to work in a circuit (Sc4 L4). This type of self-directed activity may also be essential for some young children in developing scientific confidence (Glauert, 2005). Finally, a self-directed activity at the end of the series of sessions also allows for a better assessment of progress through the levels, as it allows for complete flexibility as to how much assistance is given in the task, thereby allowing for a better assessment of competency.

Conclusions

By utilising the appropriate activities from those given, it is possible to allow for development of both Sc1 and Sc4 right through from level 2 to level 4, which is appropriate for this age group. There is also some degree of flexibility in the levels which the selected activities could be approached from to allow for individual achievement levels within the class. The sessions lend themselves to culmination in a self-directed session, which allows for more accurate assessment of levels within Sc1 and Sc4.

References

DirectGov (2008) National curriculum teacher assessments and key stage tests. DirectGov. Available [online] from: http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Parents/Schoolslearninganddevelopment/ExamsTestsAndTheCurriculum/DG_10013041 [Accessed 22/08/2008].

Glauert, E.B. (2005) Making sense of science in the reception class. International Journal of Early Years Education, 13(3), 215-233.

Glauert, E.B. (2008) How young children understand electric circuits: Prediction, explanation and exploration. International Journal of Science Education, DOI: 10.1080/09500690802101950.

Hudson, P.B. (2005) Analysing preservice teachers’ rubrics for assessing students’ learning in primary science education. Proceedings Australian Curriculum Studies Association. Available [online] from: http://eprints.qut.edu.au/archive/00002102/ [Accessed 22/08/2008].

Mercer, N., Dawes, L., Wegerif, R. & Sams, C. (2004) Reasoning as a scientist: Ways of helping children to use language to learn science. British Educational Research Journal, 30(3), 359-377.

QCA (No date) Attainment targets for science. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. Available [online] from: http://curriculum.qca.org.uk/key-stages-1-and-2/subjects/science/attainmenttargets/index.aspx?return=/key-stages-1-and-2/subjects/science/keystage2/index.aspx%3Freturn%3D/key-stages-1-and-2/subjects/index.aspx [Accessed 22/08/2008].