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This essay analyses the relationship between sport and media and how they affect each other in the modern world. It uses some practical cases to demonstrate what sport brings to media when sport enters into the media field and what media brings to sport when media come into the sports sphere. In addition, there will be a comparison between sports and media in the West and in China.

Background of sport and media

Regarding the development of sport and media, Real (1998:14) stated that “the world of sports in the age of mass media has been transformed from nineteenth century amateur recreational participation to late twentieth and early twenty-first century spectator-centered technology and business”. In the past, sport was just defined as a competitive and organized physical activity. Moreover, most participants consisted of sports enthusiasts and their purpose was to gain more happiness from sport. However, after undergoing more than a century of reform and changes, the present concept of sport now refers to other industries, such as media, economics and culture. In these industries, sport and media have an obvious ‘marriage’ relationship in global sport.

In terms of the media, it can be considered as a collective noun of diverse types of media (What is media, 2005). It contains many communicative paths in different fields, such as television, radio, newspaper and internet. Nevertheless, with the high speed of sport development and popularity, more and more people are beginning to focus on sport events and relevant sport industries. Due to the increasing number of spectators, media has become an indispensable pathway for the sports industry service whilst it is a good combination between media and sport. Actually, Schirato (2007:82) stated that “the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games presaged a development which is by now very familiar to us about the integration of sport into the field of the media”. Through the advocate of media, it promotes sports events throughout the world and possesses more kinds of new demographics.

Modern sport and media developed into the global

With more and more professional sport events and international level mega sport events held, the developing tendency of sport and media turns to globalization. One typical example is the modern Olympic Games; it attracts the attention of sports spectators worldwide because of the establishment of the Main Press Centre (MPC) and International Broadcasting Centre (IBC). Certainly, the game also can promote many modes of media transmission development, for instance newspaper sales, development of communication technology, increased radio, television ratings and advertising revenue (Schirato, 2007). Sports’ broadcasting is a necessary and essential element to stimulate the sport and media to come into a global period. Purchasing the TV rights is one of the best ways to expand global media coverage. It will give confidence and escalate the interest of sports events and sports clubs, meanwhile enhancing the price of sports events, sport merchandise sales, the benefits from advertisers and sport sponsor supporting. The final goal is to gain most money from these aspects. Ashutosh Srivastava (2007) as a CEO of Singapore-based MindShare Asia Pacific said that “there is no greater dramatic product like sports, it can have emotions running high and have people glued to the sporting action either on the field or on television sets”.

Under the global economics environment, sport and media are also entering into the time of commoditization and commercialism. Some sports clubs have begun to operate a business management model; they consider their professional sportsmen as commodities which can be traded with other sports clubs thereby obtaining the profit from the transfer fee. David Beckham is one of the biggest deals, his transfer fee touched ?24.5 million when he was sold from Manchester United to the Spanish giants Real Madrid (Beckham joins Real Madrid, 2003). Since the appearance of sports stars, some commercial businesses have developed, such as merchandising with reference to sports stars, souvenirs from the sports star’s club and some business activities using sports stars as an ambassador. All of these are so significant that sports clubs can better hunt for and extend their fans bases worldwide meanwhile in order to maximize their revenue.

The relationship of sport and media

Currently, sport and media can be called a perfect combination in today’s society. They have gone beyond simple reporting relationship between sport and media, and have formed a mutual promotion and common development of the situation. Sports and media now belong to a sunrise industry now. In the context of industrial cooperation this is inevitable and the outlook will be very good.

The relationship between sports and the media can be said to be long. When the ancient Greeks Feilibisi experienced a long run from the town of Marathon to Athens and declared a message of peace, it means sports and information dissemination had been linked inextricably. Furthermore, reporting entered the media stage, sports news was one of the main contents of the media. As early as 100 years ago, the United States sports journalist Pulitzer took the media to attract audience contact as one of the three magic weapons; the other two were scandal and sin (Wang, 2003). At the present day, his insight is even more confirmed. Not to mention the constant bombardment of sports coverage. Light from the endless landscape of sports newspapers and unlimited professional sports channels can be seen. Sport as one of the most common activities for entertainment, certainly can attract much attention, so the increasing popularity of the sports media is also a matter of course. However, the media which focuses greatly on sport, not only depends on this basic reason, but is also relevant with its own characteristics of sports reporting.

The first feature is sports reporting, sports news with fun, emotion and entertainment, as well as sports which are inseparable from its characteristics. On “Sports”, the dictionary has this explanation: An entertainment activity which requires physical strength, wisdom and skill of the game or sports, it requires physical strength more or less, according to the traditional form or set of rules, and sometimes as a career in outdoor or indoor. Sport, in itself (especially competitive sports), is a colorful process. Often, it makes the results unpredictable and fun. Therefore, spectators can watch sports away from the pressure of life experiencing physical and mental pleasure. Thus sport has become an indispensable part of people’s life. This reason is the most fundamental reason that people are fond of sports news, while also it is a fundamental characteristic of sports news.

Second, the coverage of the sports audience is extensive, which is unmatched by other news reports. Once addicted to sport, regardless of ethnicity, national boundaries, gender or age, this hobby can accompany people throughout their whole life.

Again, the content and style of sports coverage are free. One side is recreational sports coverage, it making far away from sensitive areas such as political ideology, so it has full coverage of space and the path of reporting. On the other side, sport is a common language around the world, just because of this commonality, so that people’s concern is not only limited to their domestic sports, but also throughout the world. For example, the soccer’s English Premier League, the NBA basketball and so on. This phenomenon which has now appeared in China is evident now, especially, sports reports. Concerning foreign competition, which outnumber domestic reports.

Finally, the modern media technology creates more sports reports, it includes a very strong sense of involvement, an sense of audience and provide a better reason for sports people to choose sport reports. Sports appreciation, audience participation and experience are the most common states of mind. With the increasingly sophisticated number of communication in the modern media, such as newspapers, magazines, text and pictures, television and radio live broadcast, these pathways enable the viewer experience without leaving home to enjoy the same scene of the warm atmosphere and the real picture or sound. Moreover, television has slow motion function; allowing viewers to appreciate details of the real world. Spectators can even be involved in the games directly through technological methods are participated in the quiz.

Generally speaking, all these reasons mean that regardless of the audience of sports report, the sport content, or the sport environment and other news reports, sport reports have their unique advantages in comparison with other reports, hence the prosperity of sports reports can be said to be inevitable. The relationship between sports media and sports is also logical and close. However, in recent years, we can easily find the relationship between sports and media is changing, not just reporting and being reported this simple rule. Media began to hold sport events, Bailey and Johnson, the world-renowned flying trapeze war is a typical example, actually it was held by television station; Another instance, in China the New People’s Daily sponsored an event named Tianyuan cup go game in a recent decade and has a great influence; In the western countries, the media magnate Rupert Murdoch’s Sky TV control the broadcast of English Premier League. The European Super League Group raised by the partners, media, and many famous football clubs in Europe are behind the network as a support, such as AC Milan support by Fininvest networks and Berlusconi’s media company, the Paris Saint Germain Club support by French cable television network and GANAN. To the extent of infiltration, media and Sport has been linked inextricably with each other.

Win-win situation in the sport and media industry

In Western countries, the sports industry originated in very early time when it experienced several years development. The sports industry has become huge. The management of sport market is increasingly mature and the sports industry in many countries has become a pillar industry for their national economy. In U.S, the sports industry is one of the most developed industries. In 1999, the sports industry output value over the petrochemical, automotive and aerospace, primary metal and wood processing industry and other important industrial sectors current output in the same year. It ranks 11th in the national economy compared with other various sectors (Cheng, 2000); In Italy, “football industry” is the main body in the sports industry. It has belonged to the list of 10 national pillar industries in the late 80s; in the twentieth century, the United Kingdom Sports industry output value reached 70 billion pounds, also exceeded their output value of automotive industry and the tobacco industry. The government obtained revenue more than 2.4 billion pounds from the sports industry, it equivalent to the government appropriation funds five times. In 2001, the global sports industry output value has reached an amazing number was 400 billion U.S. dollars.

In sports as an industry, there is no doubt that profit is the first thing. To get more economic benefits, sports have to attract more viewers. Similarly, for the purpose of cost-effectiveness of the media, the news reports can be considered as an intermediate of their business products. As a matter of fact, this media product management will assemble the audience and their own pages or hours to sell them to advertisers, thereby, obtain more benefits from the revenue. In here, this sale is called the audience’s attention resources. The industrialization of sports and media, they has been put together by “attention” economy, to coexist and prosper simultaneously. Sport is deemed as the most important source for the media, also it can be said that media create the public market and the market returns are very essential support for the sport. On the other hand, sport requires accumulating popularity in itself, requiring to bonding degree, whilst it needs to own one professional skills and capabilities of specialized industry. In addition, it permits to have impact on the media industry. Consequently, the cooperation between the media industry and the sports industry is a natural, logical, win-win cooperation perfect combination. This kind of “attention economy” discards the previous simple relationship between reporting and being reported, close cooperation and common development in sport and the media (Yu, 2002).

In recent years, it can be said that western countries sports industry development nearly from the outset has branded a deep mark on the media. If develop one sport as an industry to, the first problem is the available development money. While, the media for the sports industry development contribution was stemmed from the Switzerland World Cup in 1954. The 1954World Cup in Switzerland created the first time television broadcasting for the World Cup football game. In view of the value of football, the game attracts some multinational companies’ participation, such as Coca-Cola and Kodak. It stimulated this sport—football and the football in the media development towards turn to prosperity. After this sport and media cooperation, The International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) has gained the current 200 counties members from the original six member countries, meanwhile FIFA also is the largest international federation.

In the early 1980s, the organization of America National Basketball Association (NBA) still was a heavily indebted organization and nearly closed down. But when Stern took office, he convened a group of experts in the field of law and television; meanwhile he set up the television and media communications department. This step made NBA enter a successful and new era. In the end of 1980s, the NBA TV sales have been accounted for more than 55% of total revenue. In addition, with each new contract signed with NBA, their revenue could increase more than 50%. On March 11th 2004, American Broadcasting Corporation (ABC), ESPN Sports Television Network, America Online and Time Warner announced that they have jointly bought the television rights of America Basketball League (NBA) in next four years. This total contract value reached 2.64 billion U.S. dollars and it created a new record of NBA television broadcast fees.

The Montreal Olympic Games in 1976 and the Moscow Olympic Games in 1980 all lost every cent invested; therefore it was announced that the model of government funding to host the Olympic Games would stop. Up to 1984, Los Angeles was the only bid city to host the Olympic Games. The American businessman Ueberroth did not apply money from the government. He just relied on 700 million U.S. dollars from raise financing. For this reason, the Los Angeles Olympic Games could be considered as single-handedly organized. More importantly, this game made 215 million U.S. dollars net profit in the end (Kotler, 1993). This kind of mode from individual person to sponsors of the Olympic Game was called “Uederroth mode”in the further years. In this mode, the Olympic television broadcast rights had the most opportunities to gain profit from it. According to China Daily, one popular foreign newspaper in China, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) announced the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) spent 22 billion U.S. dollars to win the TV rights for the 2010 Winter Olympic Games and 2012 Summer Olympic Game in the United States on June 6th in 2003. In 1995, the NBC spent 15 billion U.S. dollars to bid the television broadcast rights for 2006 Turin Winter Olympic Games in Italy and 2008 Beijing Summer Olympic Games. The Moscow Olympics hold in 1980, the TV revenue was 87.9841 million U.S. dollars. The TV rights sales, TV advertising auction, and the income of commercial sponsorship all of these were take up more than 90 percent of the Olympic Game (Kotler, 1993).

The common development space of sport and the media

With the progress of social civilization, sport has become an essential part of modern life. The relationships of media and sport have been reached an unprecedented level. Especially in the field of television, due to commercial packaging, it enhances the sports games entertainment and extends the range of sports audience that attracts more people who rarely or never participate in sports. Under this background, the sport governing bodies have to upgrade the issue of TV broadcasting to a high degree of strategic development of sports.

Accordingly, the sports media are developing continuously. In U.S, there are more than 1500 TV stations, nearly 12,000 local radio sports programs by broadcast, and the sports programming audience who watching 179 hours in average in a year. Focus on print media, according to the data of SRDS market research firm, in 1996 the United States more than 1,500 daily and 7,500 weekly newspapers, majority of its have their sports pages. In addition, there have 19% of the total number of news journalists for sports report. Particularly, the three major U.S. television networks: American Broadcasting Company (ABC), Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) and National Broadcasting Company (NBC) for the competition, including the Olympic Games broadcast rights and other attention-grabbing battle, at the same time some rising stars such as the Fox Broadcasting Company (FOX), United Paramount Network (UPN), Warner Brothers network (WB) and ESPN sports channel involved. In 1995, only three European broadcast sports television network now has more than 20 sports channels, they kept broadcast the live of sports programmed and sports video to 150 million cable channels and satellite households (Samuelson, 1992).

Conclusion

Regardless of the media industry or sports industry, its development are still just beginning, its potential of development and profit margins are enormous. Because of these, it attracts more eyes from investors to invest the sport and the media industry in the future.

In China, the most obvious example is the Chinese Football League. In 2003, China Football League title sponsorship fee was touched 140 million yuan (Jinghua Newspaper, 2003). Moreover, more and more domestic enterprises have invested in football and the amount of annual money increasingly. Shide is one famous Group in China, its investment in football more than 100 million in each year. Meanwhile, China’s basketball, volleyball, table tennis, chess and other sport events are also have been launched the operation of commercial club system, this point attracting more investments. Therefore, both domestic and foreign researchers have described these two industries perfect combination is a sunrise industry, and they confirmed that this industry will have a prospect development in the future.

The sports and media are all built on the attention economy and are called sunrise industry. Not only they have common platform for cooperation, but also they own the same market for future development. As a result, whatever in terms of capital investment or consider its own development, it can described as a “marriage made in heaven.” Especially China’s successful bid to host the 2008 Olympic Games; it is a great opportunity to accelerate the development of the whole Chinese sports media and sports industry.

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The FIFA World Cup, which is known as football world cup or mainly just world cup, is a worldwide football competition. Only the men’s national teams take place in this world cup which is held every four years since it started at the year 1930 except in 1942 and 1946 because of the World War II.

32 teams participate in the current format of the world cup tournament in a certain nation which is chosen by votes. The tournament lasts for about a months and this stage is called the world cup finals. Teams begin to compete to book a place in the tournament for like three years before it starts. This stage is called qualification stage. The World Cup is the most widely-viewed sporting event in the world, with an estimated 715.1 million people watching the 2006 final.

Only seven nations won the World Cup title of the last 18 tournaments. Brazil who won the title five times are the only team to have participated in all the tournaments held so far. Italy won the World Cup title four times and are the current holder of the title. Germany won this title three times, Argentina twice and one title for each of Uruguay France and England.

The last World Cup tournament was held in Germany in 2006. The next World Cup will be held in South Africa, between 11 June and 11 July 2010, and the 2014 World Cup will be held in Brazil.

1990 FIFA World Cup Italy

West Germany won FIFA World Cup title for the third time in 1990 as they defeated Argentina in the final 1-0 in Rome. This win made them revenge their defeat by Argentina in the final 4 years later. This victory was really important for Franz Beckenbauer as he won this title as a player and later on he won it as a coach. He was the second person to do this.

The 1990 tournament finals set a first of its type record with only 2.21 goals per match, but definitely there was so much color and drama. The first match of the tournament witnessed a huge unexpected surprise which was a dramatic one, with Cameroon beating Argentina at a magnificently revamped San Siro. Roger Milla the Cameroonian player enjoyed his finest moments. This made people believe that Cameroon might actually do something memorable in this tournament.

This was the second time for Italy to host the FIFA World Cup. 56 years after their 1934 triumph on its lands, they hosted a successful tournament on its own soil. 10 stadiums around the peninsula were repaired to host the finals while two vast new arenas were built in Turin and Bari.

1994 FIFA World Cup USA

The USA hosted the FIFA World Cup 1994 which was one of the very successful tournaments ever which ended with Brazil celebrating their first title after 24 years since they last won it in the year 1970. The final was disappointing for many fans as it was a draw with no goals and it was settled with penalties as Brazil defeated Italy, but that didn’t affect the previous entertainment in the previous matches.

141 goals were scored in this tournament which was the highest number since 1982. The first surprise was Bulgaria surprising the whole world by beating Germany on the way to the semi-finals. Diego Maradona tested positive for drugs and was expelled from the tournament, his team, Argentina, following suit soon after by losing a five-goal thriller to Gheorghe Hagi’s Romania.

There was some drama also in this tournament. Colombia defender Andres Escobar scored an own goal against the US that eliminated Colombia from the tournament was then murdered for what he did. That match guaranteed for the Americans a place in the second round where they lost to Brazil 1-0.

1998 FIFA World Cup France

France where Jules Rimet who is the father of FIFA World Cup was born finally won the title for itself on its own lands in the summer of 1998. It was a memorable summer for the champions of the world as they won the title after suffering semi-final defeats ten years ago. Not only that, but this tournament was the biggest ever.

The 16th FIFA World Cup expanded the number of teams from 24 to 32. Expansion of the number of teams meant that more teams from Africa, Asia and Northern America will take places in the tournaments. South Africa, Jamaica and Japan qualified for the first time ever this year. The 32 teams were divided into 8 groups each containing 4 teams and the 8 groups were spread all over but the starting match and the final were played in le Stade de France. In this stadium Brazil the holders of the 1994 World Cup played the opening match against Scotland where they won 2-1.

France won the title in a dramatic final against Brazil where they won with three goals where two of them were scored by the legendary Zein El-Din Zidane and the match ended 3-0 for France.

2002 FIFA World Cup Korea/Japan

The 2002 FIFA World Cup which was hosted by a new continent was played in Korea/Japan. This tournament was full of surprise from the beginning till the end where strong teams unexpectedly lost to weaker teams. But the final match was of no surprises as it included two of the strongest teams, Brazil and Germany. Brazil conceded their 5th title and won 2-0 against Germany.

Ronaldo who didn’t participate in the final of 1998 against France was the hero for Brazilians as he scored the two goals that earned Brazil their title in Yokohama against Germany. He scored eight goals in this tournament which was the highest number of scored goals in one tournament after Gerd Muller’s ten goals in Mexico 1970.

After thirty days of drama where Strong teams lost to weaker ones and un-predicted victories and losses, the final was somehow familiar as the Yellow-shirted South Americans lifted the World Cup high in the sky for the fifth time. It was the first time for Asia to host a World Cup final and by Brazil achieving their fifth title they set a record of capturing a title from every continent that hosted the finals.

2006 FIFA World Cup Germany

Italy won the FIFA World Cup title in 2006 after their amazing teamwork. With the final witnessing some drama as the magnificent Zidane was shown a red card after hitting Marco Materazzi with his head, Italy was rewarded the title after a 1-1 draw in the full time and extra time, then beating France in the penalty shoot-outs.

The thirty days of amazing football in Germany was not only witnessed by 3,359,439 spectators who attended the matches in 12 amazing stadiums but also approximately 30 billion viewers from all over the world. They all witnessed an amazing 64-match, 147-goal marathon.

Zidane’s return to his amazing form with France helped his team to beat Spain and Brazil on the way to Berlin where the final was hosted. At the age of 33 he earned the Adidas Golden ball as the best player in this tournament and scored in the final against Italy after 8 years of scoring twice in the final against Brazil. But there was no happy ending for him as he was dismissed in the final for the famous fight with Materazzi.

Germany 2006 had the lowest goals average since 1990.

The FIFA World Cup is the most important sports tournament after the Olympics. It is viewed by all sexes and all ages where children, men and women watch it with pleasure. Some feel happy and amazed at the end as some feel depressed but it’s of no second thinking that all the viewers all over the world enjoy it and are amazed by the magnificent football played in the World Cup by the best players of the world. Either it is teamwork or self-skills, it is wonderful.

It is the kind of sport and tournaments that gathers all the people under one aim which is enjoying football.

Introduction

Athletes are consistently looking to find an edge over competitors and improve their personal performance. A study by the IAAF found that 82% of 400 metres athletes questioned were using additional dietary supplements, so accurate research is very important (Maughan et al., 2007). Athletic performance can be affected by muscular fatigue as the required power output of a muscle is no longer being achieved (Fitts 1994; Spangenburg et al., 1998). One of the mechanisms put forward for fatigue occurring in muscle is due to acidosis (Jones et al., 1977; Verbitsky et al., 1997) although the majority of this research was conducted before the affects of inorganic phosphate where known or considered (Phillips et al. 1993). Inorganic phosphates increases during exercise, this increase prevents the required cross bridges being available for higher intensity exercise, thus reducing force production (Westerblad et al. 2002).

Linderman, (1991) explains how during anaerobic exercise, lactic acid is produced faster than it can be removed by muscle tissue. Because of this, a decrease in pH levels occurs called acidosis , increasing H+ concentration, and thus affecting energy systems . Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) ingestion prior to performance has been shown to affect the onset of fatigue, which has been put down to enhancements in endogenous H+ buffering capacity (Horswill, 1988). NaHCO3 ingestion acts as an alkalising substance, increasing pH levels before exercise, potentially delaying acidosis (McNaughton, 1992). A more recent study by Robergs et al. (2004), explains how this acidosis theory might not be relevant due to lactate being unable to release protons. Exercise duration of 60 to 240 seconds, seems to be affected by NaHCO3 performance (McNaughton, 1992, McNaughton et al., 1999; McNaughton and Thompson, 2001), but much of this research has been completed in a laboratory on a cycle ergonometre. The 400 metres, is an event that induces high levels of acidosis, recently a relationship between increased acidosis and an decrease in athletes running velocity, particularly over the last 100 metres has been seen (Hanon et al., 2010).

The correlation noted by Hanon et al. (2010) and the enhancements in accessible technology, has lead to the development of this research study, with its purpose to test the hypothesis that NaHCO3 supplementation can affect athlete performance times in the 400 metre event, and delay the fatiguing effects of acidosis over the final fatigue affected 100 metres.

Methodology

A group of 8 male and 1 female healthy junior elite athletes, from 1500 metre, 500 metre and cross country athletic disciplines took part in the study. The participants characteristics were, (Mean ± SD) age 19.3 ± 1.3 years, mass 63.2 ± 6.1 kg. The study was ethically approved by the university’s ethics committee and all participants completed and signed informed consents forms after being explained the full study.

Familiarisation commenced 48 hours before testing and involved running the 400 metre flat out with a 2 metre rolling start, an overall 400 metre time and 100 metre split times were measured for baseline analysis.

The study used a blind cross over design, with each participant testing twice, once with NaHCO3 supplementation and once with a placebo. As similar studies has used, (Hunter et al., 2009) 300g per kg of bodyweight of NaHCO3 for each participant was used, mixed with 750ml of water and an unfamiliar tasting cordial , a placebo of 750ml of water and cordial was used and a further 250ml of water was available for athletes. A warm up of 800 metres jogging and stretching was implemented. Each participant was required to run a 400 metres sprint as quickly as possible, with a 2 metre rolling start. An overall time and 100 metre split times were recorded using light gates positioned at each 100 metres and the start/finish line on a UK athletic certified track. A washout period of 48 hours was used between tests.

Statistical analyses

The statistics software, SPSS for Windows (Chicargo, IL) was used to compare the overall performance times in each of the 3 trails, a repeated measure ANOVA test was used, this was followed up by a Pairwise Comparison (Bonferroni) test, to check for type 1 errors. Paired t-tests were then used to assess difference between conditions over the last two 100 metre split time. A significant statistical value of P ? 0.05 was set.

Results

The ANOVA, found no significant difference (P = 0.135) between, baseline testing, placebo conditions and NaHCO3 supplementations affect on 400 metre performance. Post hoc Bonferroni) tests revealed although no significant differences between sodium bicarbonate vs. placebo (P = 0.100) and sodium bicarbonate vs. baseline testing (P =0.299), supporting the ANOVA findings. A significant difference in 400 metre time was seen in the baseline vs. placebo test (P = 0.027).

The paired samples t-test comparing time from first split to the finish between Sodium Bicarbonate and placebo trials, found no significant difference, reporting a P value of 0.499. A non significant P value of 0.319 was found when the t- test tested increases in time from 200 metres to 300 metres between the sodium bicarbonate trails and the placebo trial. Comparing the difference in slow down over the 300 metre to 400 metre split, the paired sample t test showed a significant difference, with the P value being 0.042 when the sodium bicarbonate trail and placebo trials were analysed. Showing during the sodium trial, athletes slowed less when compared with the placebo trail.

Discussion

The main purpose of this study was to determine whether NaHCO3 ingestion prior to anaerobic exercise, delayed acidosis and enhanced performance over 400 metres. The results of the ANOVA revealed there were no significant differences (P = 0.135) between the baseline, placebo and NaHCO3 conditions. After completion of the Pairwise Comparison, a significant difference (P= 0.027) was seen, when the baseline and placebo tests where compared. This result could be down to the placebo affect discussed by Beedie and Foad (2009), it is a psychological phenomenon, dependant on participant expectations.

NaHCO3 ingestion did not significantly improve performance times over 400 metres, a P value of 0.100 from the pairwise comparison, confirms this when the placebo and NaHCO3 supplementation conditions are compared. Concurrently, Tiryaki and Atterborn (1995), found NaHCO3 did induce alkalosis but it had no significant effect on performance. This may add weight to the argument by Westerblad et al. (2002) who explain inorganic phosphates affecting fatigue rather than lactic acid. These findings are not concurrent with many other research studies who found NaHCO3 ingestion prior to intense exercise, enhanced performance (Hunter et al., 2009; Hanon et al., 2010), Figure 1. Below shows how although not significant, some difference was seen between the mean values, leading to the requirement of further data analysis of the 100 metre split times.

The last 100 metres of the 400 metres sprint, is the point at which fatigue is most likely going to affect performance due to acidosis (Hanon et al. 2010). The significant difference in performance times seen when NaHCO3 ingestion and placebo were compared (Figure 2.), supports past findings by Goldfitch et al. in 1988, who found 400 metre racing times enhanced when NaHCO3 was ingested prior to performance. This could be because, induced alkalosis which increases the muscle fibre conduction velocity, which consequently through the rate of force decline being reduced enhances the working muscle fatigue resistance.

The significant P = 0.042 value, was unanticipated as overall times were not significantly reduced after NaHCO3 ingestion. This result could be evidence to show NaHCO3 supplementation might be better suited to longer distance sporting disciplines. A study by McNaughton and Cedaro (1991), supports the idea of NaHCO3 ingestion induce alkalosis, finding more metres rowed during 360 seconds of work, there are concurrent finding from McNaughton and Thompson (2001) found more work completed in the alkalinizing agent data was compared with a placebo data. This finding goes someway to supporting use of NaHCO3 prior to anaerobic exercise.

In summary, NaHCO3 supplementation may have some affect of performance. The affect may be more prevalent and advantageous in longer durations of exercise, as it may be that the body’s natural H+ buffer mechanisms can deal with exercise induced acidosis during short durations. Future studies in this area should consider using larger participation groups as a limitation of the study was limited participation numbers, which did not give an accurate representation of population. Research should concentrate on finding the point where buffering systems can no longer naturally handle the accumulation of H+, and fatigue begin to occur due to this. NaHCO3 affect at this point and beyond can then be further researched. Future studies can then determine what types and length of exercise the alkalinising agents might affect, so supplementation could be used in a practical setting.

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1. Introduction:

I would to start by introducing one of the most famous sports around the world; furthermore, it is currently one of the most played sports around the world. This sport is called Basketball, and it is team sportin which two teams of five players try to score points by throwing or “shooting” aballthrough the top of a basketball hoop while following a set ofrules.

While competitive basketball is carefully managed, basketballhad been developed for casual play. Competitive basketball is primarily an indoor sport played on carefully marked and maintainedbasketball courts, but less regulated variations are often played outdoors in both inner city and rural areas

TheNational Basketball Association(NBA) is an exciting men’s professionalbasketballleague inNorth Americawhich consists of thirty different teams, where twenty-nine are located in theUnited Statesand only one inCanada. The NBA is one of the fourmajor North American professional sports leagues, which includeMajor League Baseball(MLB), theNational Football League(NFL), and theNational Hockey League(NHL).

The league was created inNew York Cityo n June 6 ,1946 as theBasketball Association of America(BAA).The league adopted the name National Basketball Association in 1949 after merging with the rivalNational Basketball League(NBL). The league’s several managements are directed out of its head offices located in theOlympic Towerat 645Fifth Avenuein New York City.

Section 2: NBA Regular seasons

After the summer Holiday, teams organize training camps in late September. Training camps are opportunities for players to practice , locate the team’s strengths and weaknesses, prepare the players for the challenging regular seasons, and determine the 12-man active roster (and a 3-man inactive list) with which they will begin the regular season. After training camp, a series of preseason games are held. The NBA regular season starts on the last week of October. During the regular season, each team plays 82 games, 41 home and 41 away. A team faces opponents in its own division four times a year (16 games), teams from the other two divisions in its conference either three or four times (36 games), and teams in the other conference twice (30 games).

The NBA is also the only league that regularly schedules games onChristmasDay.The league has been playing games regularly on the holiday since 1947,though the first Christmas Day games were not aired on television until1983.Games played on this day have featured some of the best teams and players.

In February, the regular season comes to a short stop to celebrate the annualNBA All-Star Game. Fans vote throughout the United States, Canada, and even on theInternet, and the players with the top votes at each position in each conference are given a starting spot on their conference’s All-Star team. Coaches vote to choose the remaining 14 All-Stars. Afterwards, Eastern conference players face the Western conference players in the All-Star game. The player with the best performance during the game is rewarded with aMVP (Most valuable player) award. Other events during theA All-Star stop include the Rookie Challenge, where the top rookies and second-year players in the NBA play against each other in a 5-on-5 basketball game; furthermore theSkills Challenge, where players compete to finish an obstacle course including shooting, passing and dribbling in the fastest time. There is also the Three Point Contest, where players compete to score the most amounts of three-point field goals in a given time, and theNBA Slam Dunk Contest, where players compete to dunk the ball in the most entertaining and exciting way according to the judges.

Around the middle of April, the regular season ends. As soon as the season ends, votes for individual and team awardswell begin. TheSixth Man of the Year Awardis given to the best player that was not in the startup line but was later substituted in the game. TheRookie of the Year Awardis awarded to the best first-year player. TheMost Improved Player Awardis awarded to the player who had shown the most improvement from the previous season. TheDefensive Player of the Year Awardis awarded to the league’s best defender. TheCoach of the Year Awardis awarded to the coach that has made the most positive influence into a team. TheMost Valuable Player Awardis given to player who had proved the most valuable for (his team) that season.

Section 3: NBA Playoffs

NBA Playoffs begin in late April, with eight teams in each conference going for the Championship. The three division winners, along with the team with the next best record from the conference are given the top four Positions. The next lower four teams in terms of record in the season are given the lower four position.

This is how they organize it: There are 30 teams divided into two conferences, the east and west. Each conference has a division of 5 teams each. The top team from each division and the next 5 teams from each conference regardless of division make the top 8 teams from each conference. Then they get positionedA much like most other sports, the top team gets the worst qualifying team (1st versus 8th) and the second best gets the second worst, and so on. They play a round of best-of-seven, meaning technically they will play seven games against each other and whoever ends up with the most wins advances to the next round. Of course, after one team wins 4 games, there’s no use to play out the entire 7-game series so it is the first team to win 4 games that get to move to the next round. Furthermore, the team with the best regular season record in the league is guaranteed home court advantage in every game it plays in the playoffs.

The final playoff round, a best-of-seven series between the victors of both conferences, is known as the NBA Finals, and is held every year in June. The victor in the NBA Finals wins the Larry O’Brien Championship Trophy.

Each player and major contributor to the NBA season, including coaches and the general manager on the winning team, receive a championship ring. In addition, the league awards aBill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Awardto the best performing player of the Season.

Section 4: conclusion

As a conclusion, Basketball is an outstanding game where people all around the world can enjoy regardless of whether they are poor or rich, young or old, or even with different skin color. It is a wonderful game that knows no boundaries towards evolution in which any person could come up with new styles and skills that could be played in the friendly games and tournaments. The NBA’s style of playing the game has changed dramatically through the years and it was all thanks to the people who have passion for the game.A A

Many critics and fans around the world call theNBAgreatest show on earth. No other league around the world brings what the NBA’s game has brought every season. The greatest plays, games, dunks, players and passion for the basketball are the reasons why the fans keep watching the games. The NBA is the basketball league which helped in the evolution of the sport. It had created many chances and opportunities for skilled and determined players around the globe to prove themselves in front of crowd and the whole world. It also gave them the dream that they would pursue in order to achieve greatness. For me it is the best sport I ever played.

The Changing Role of SportIntroduction

The purpose of this report is to look at the history in sport. This report will research the changing role of sport between 19th – 21st centuries and look at the participation levels from an historic and modern view. This report will also look into sociological theories including the Figurational and Conflict theory and apply these to the history in sport.

Changing role of sport

Throughout human history games and sports activities have always been integrally related to the social, political and economic relationships between people in any given society (Coakley 1994).As the relationships changed and power has shifted there have been changes in the organisation and meanings of games and sporting activities.In prehistoric times physical activities were directly tied to the challenge of survival and the expression of religious beliefs (Guttman, 1978).People hunted for food and sometimes used their physical abilities to defend themselves or establish status and power among others (Coakley 1994).Social inequalities have always had a significant impact on how sport activities are organized and play in any situation.

Games in ancient Greece were held in the interest of young males from wealthier segments of society. As the popularity of the games started to grow, contestants from different cities started to compete (Baker, 1982). The outcomes of organised games took on political implications beyond the events themselves athletes were recruited from the lower classes and paid for their participation (Miller, 1991). Where these games were held and the date they were held on were also linked to religious beliefs. According to Crowther (1996) this showed games as brutal and dehumanizing events such as people with limited physical skills and dull minds took part. This lead Crowther (1996) to believe that the dumb athlete emerged long before college scholarships. Activities engaged by Greek women children and elderly were included in festivals but were never incorporated in the Olympic Games. However when woman did participate in the Olympic Games, their sexuality was questioned by many (Kidd 1984). Even though women from wealthy families did start to take part in these games, the events were limited and women’s achievement were not promoted and publicized.

Roman sports emphasised mass entertainment. Participants in these events were usually slaves, condemned criminals or gladiators. Slaves were coerced into jeopardising their life to battle with one another or wild animals (Plass, 1995). Condemned criminals were dressed in sheepskin and thrown into the stadium with partially starved animals and Gladiators were trained for preparation (Plass, 1995). These organised events were sometimes connected with religious rituals. To show power within the society the emperor would pass fruit, bread or raffle tickets around the stadium to keep spectators from getting hostile and starting riots (Coakley, 1994). According to Baker (1982) these events achieved two purposes (1) entertainment and while at the same time (2) disposing of the socially undesirable (thieves, murderers and Christians). Romans were criticised for these events as tactless activities, devoid of any cultural value. This criticism was based on the idea that no good could come out of these events during which people from different social classes were mixed (Plass, 1995). Women were forbidden to participate in event but unlike the Greeks women were aloud in the stadium to watch events (Coakley, 1994).

Sporting activities in Europe during the middle ages clearly reflected gender and status differences in medieval societies (Reeves, 1995). The peasants played highly localised versions of folk games in the connection with seasonal events in village life (Ziegler, 1993). The knights engaged in tournaments and jousts while other members of the upper class including the clergy used their resources to develop sporting activities to occupy their leisure time (Coakley 1994). This pattern continues through the renaissance and parts of Europe. However the Protestants reformation tended to generate negative attitudes about any activities interfering with work and religious worship. The impact of these attitudes was felt most sharply by peasants who seldom had the resources to avoid the restrictive controls imposed by government.

During the early days of the industrial resolution the influence of the puritans faded in both Europe and North America but the demands of work and the absence of spaces for play generally limited sport involvement to the wealthy and people in rural areas (Coakley 1994). This pattern began to change in the United States during the middle to the late nineteenth century, when the combined influence of labour unions, progressive legislation and economic expansion lead to the creation of new ideas about the consequences of sport participation. However, opportunities for involvement were primarily shaped by the needs of an economy emphasizing mass production and mass consumption. It was this context that people shaped what now is referred to as organised and competitive sport (Coakley 1994). To this present day it is part of a young child’s day to do one hour of physical activity and the government expect this to be high quality physical activity that produces young people with the skills, understanding, desire and commitment to continue to improve and achieve in a range of health-enhancing activities (BUPA, 2007). ACSM recommend that adults should do moderately intense cardio for 30 minutes a day, 5 times per week; alongside 8 to 10 strength training exercises with at least 12 repetitions of each exercise, twice a week (ACSM, 2007). Men and women in this current society are recommended to do the same amount of exercise or to take part in all sports they desire to.

The Difference in Sport

There are many changes that has made in sport through the decades. The first change is that sport is not directly link to religious beliefs or rituals. Religious beliefs are important to people’s lives however sport is now seen as an entertainment rather than worship and participants take part for personal gains rather than appeasement of god. The next difference to be found is that anybody can participate in an event or sport if they want to. Regardless, who they are and where they came from, their sex and race. Every contestant should face the same set of competitive condition. This is still a current issue in modern society however the issue is being controlled. In modern sports there are games such as boxing and martial arts however they are no games where participants fight to death or fight for survival like the prehistoric, Greek and Roman times, events that these are not part of society anymore. Elias and Dunning (1971) investigated into early Greek and Roman sports. The purpose was to find just how different the sport-like activities are between the people of the early stages in civilizing process and nation-state formation process. They found that Greek combat sports were all direct training for warfare involved in much higher levels of violence and open emotionality than sport today. Elias suggested that internalized inhibitions against physical violence were also lower and associated feelings of guilt and shame correspondingly much weaker.

Guttman (1978) found that within his comparison of sport from the past showed that organised, competitive sports to this present day have unique characteristics. He found that there are seven interrelated characteristics Secularism, Equality, Specialisation, Rationalisation, Bureaucratisation, Quantification and Records. From this study Guttman (1978) found that most of the Greek, Roman, Medieval and Renaissance did in some way adhere to these characteristics however not all of them did. One or more of these traits have characterised the sport forms of previous historical periods, but until the 19th century never have all appeared together in a single sport form. This does not mean that modern organised competitive sports are superior to the games and activities of the past. It means that they are different in the way that they are organised. These seven characteristics are not found in all modern sports however sport are social constructions and many people seek alternatives to the organized competitive sport in which these seven characteristics exist.

Sporting activities have never been so pervasive and influential in the lives of people as they are in many societies; never before have people had so much leisure time and never before have physical activities in any form been so closely linked to profit making, character building, patriotism and personal health (Coakley 1994). Organised sports have become a combination of business, entertainment, education, moral training, masculinity rituals, technology transfer and declaration of political allegiance. Although sports are contests in which people seek physical challenges and exciting expressive experiences seldom available in the rest of their lives (Coakley 1994). Overall all these things have made organised, competitive sports important social phenomena in the past and present. Most individuals do not do much of their favourite activities as often or as intensely as they would like, but there are some groups who are multiply constrained and they are also afflicted with below average health, diet, housing, education and job prospects (Collins 2003). Whereas leisure facilities, public and voluntary services, are over used by those with above average incomes (Collins 2003). The problem with the 21st century is that there is an increase in social breakdown, stress, depression, drug abuse, suicide, decay of communities, rural decline and loss of social cohesion (Trainer 2003). The rich, who do the top managerial and legal work for the corporations and the professionals are rapidly increasing their wealth, have no interest in change (Trainer 2003). Damage is being done to social cohesion, public spirit, trust, good will and concern for public interest (Trainer 2003). Society is made up of competitive, self interested individuals all trying to get rich. There is no concern for the welfare of all; there must be a considerable collective social control, regulation and service provision to maintain public institutions and standards and to reinforce the sense of social solidarity whereby all are willing to contribute to the good of all (Trainer 2003).

In historic times only the rich had a lot of leisure time therefore had plenty of time to participate in an activity whereas the lower class had to work most of their time as they did not get paid much so they did not have time to exercise. The only time that the lower class could exercise would be at festivals and holy days as they were used as village activities or if they were paid to compete in the games. Most sports in historic times were sports that not all generations could take part in for example, fox hunting and hunting for food. In present times factors that affect people participation are peer pressure from people involved in their lives. This is especially in children, if they take part in a sport that their friends don’t, the child may not want to go to the sport because they are missing time to be with their friends. The child may become uninterested in the sport as they grow older or parents pushing a child to do something may make the child rebel and not do the activities that the parents want them to. Factors that affect adults could be that they are at the peak stage and cannot go further, they may not have the time to commit due to family reasons, and they may feel singled out if they join a new exercise class. The biggest factor that will stop a person from participating in sport is any medical problem they may have. The medication they take to help with their condition may have side effects that can stop a person from participating in an activity.

Theoretical approach

There are two sociological theories that can be used to look at the history of sport, Conflict and Figurational theory. Coakley (1994) stated that the conflict theory focuses on how sport are used by powerful people to promote attitudes and relationships enabling them to maintain their power and privileges. An example of this power would be in the roman events, the emperor would pass fruit and bread around the stadium stop spectators becoming hostile. This power controlled the way the spectators acted at these sporting events. In roman times, sport was an emphasis of mass entertainment; this was to ignore the problems within society such as social, economic and political. The goal of most conflict theorists in sociology is to bring about the development of a humane and creative society so that sports can become sources of expression, creative energy and physical well being (Coakley 1994). The conflict theory contributes little to the understanding of the dynamics of gender and intergroup relations apart from their connection with class relations (Coakley 1994). Even though sports are sometimes used as instruments of economic control and expansion in society, it must also be recognised that sports can personally empower activities and sites for resisting and even transforming the way social life is organized (Coakley 1994). However Figurational theory looks how society has become civilised. This focuses on the relationship between power, behavior, emotion, and knowledge over time. Elias (1987) stated that the main objective for Figurational sociologist was to encourage sociologists to think processually by studying social relations as emerging and contingent processes. Figurations should be studied as interdependent relations which are continually in flux that shifts and transforms in patterns of social bonding that can be identified in all patterns of development. Moreover Elias believed that it is possible to discern such shifts because interdependence is neither arbitrary nor random. The individuals and groups that make up specific figuration are interconnected by a multiplicity of dynamic bonds (). Marxists however tend to stress the importance of economic relations in social bonding. Figurationalists suggest that the importance of economic relations is likely to vary from one situation to another and that in some situations political and emotional bonds may be equally or more significant (). The concept of the social bond is intended to reinforce to two edged character if figurations which may be both enabling and constraining (Rojek, 1985). A central dimension of figurations or dynamic interdependency ties is power, conceptualized not as a substance or property possessed by particular individuals and groups but as characteristics of all human relationships (Elias, 1987). Power is always a question of relative balances, never and absolute possession or absolute deprivation, for no one is ever absolutely powerful or absolutely powerless. Neither is the balance of power between groups in a society permanent for power balances are dynamic and continuously in flux (Coakley and Dunning, 2000). To use a theory for history in sport the Figurational theory would be more appropriate as it looks at the civilization of society and focuses on balancing history and structural analysis. It also looks at how sports have become more developed, for example, rules and regulations have become strict to provide an equal opportunity for participants to win. Figurational theory also shows how sports reflect the civilization process, whereas the conflict theory leads people to see sports simply as reflections of the economic forces operating in society. The conflict theory is all about deviance in sport and how people rebel against the rules. An example of this is the drug abuse in sports, the athlete chose to do it but they know that there are consequences if they are caught.

Conclusion

Overall this report has found that there have been many changes to sport through the centuries, rules and regulations, type of sport played and why sport is played have all changed. It has also been show that participation in historic time was events that the hole village or town attended, whereas in modern games and events people participate for personal gains. For a theoretical application the more appropriate theory has been show to be the Figurational theory as it shows how sports have become more developed via rules and regulation.

Technological development is becoming more and more essential in sport competition. Technological development refers to the development of techniques or appliance which can improve the quality and magnificence of the sport competitions. However, there could be some difference between different countries; it may depend on the level of the countries’ development. There are three main aspects revealing that technological development has revolutionized sport competitions. Firstly, the development of telecommunications promotes the globalization of sport competition. Secondly, the use of electronic appliance helps to reduce controversy and ensure the fairness of the results in the competition, such as auto-timing system. Moreover, the improvement sport equipments and analyzing system has become necessary for enhancing the performance of athletes.

One of the most dramatic revolutions in sport completion is caused by the developments in new technologies of mass communication, especially the development of Internet and satellite television, which are allowing the sport competitions to be publicized around the world much more quickly. As an example, mega-events such as the Olympic Games can be regarded as a ‘media-events (D. Rowe, 2004, 166). According to Roche, the 1936 Berlin Olympics was the first Olympic Games to be radio broadcast to the world; and it was also the first major sport event to be televised, although it was only available in the city of Berlin at that time due to the limited local cable system. Nowadays, the universality of the Internet and television are most effective to the globalization of the sports competition, however, turning the sport competition into global event. Referring to the television, Horne and Manzenreiter indicate that the estimation of 3.9 billion television audiences had watched parts of the 2004 Athens Olympic Games, and 40 billion which are cumulative television audiences, contributing to a increase of 27% over the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. Moreover, Horne and Manzenreiter also indicate the 2002 FIFA World Cup staged in Japan and South Korea, 41000 hours of programming were provided in 213 countries and about 28.8 television audiences of this event, even more than that in Olympic Games. From this situation, there is no doubt that the development of telecommunication provides a much larger stage for the sport competitions, and makes the sport competition become a global history.

In the sport competitions, the quality of the athletes is the most important factor in determining their performance. Analysing the movements of athletes could be the effective method to increase the possibilities of championship in the sport competitions; for instance, analyzing the movement or posture of an ice-skate athlete could help the athlete to maximize the speed and overcome the shortcomings. However, the details of the movements cannot be easily seen because the unassisted eye functions at the speed of 1/340th of a second exposure time; fortunately, the

Like many other sports, table tennis began as a mild social diversion. Descending from lawn tennis to badminton to the ancient medieval game of tennis. Table Tennis likely began as a social hobby in England toward the end of the 1800’s. These early pioneers may have referred to their sport as gossima, flim-flam, or ping-pong. The game became a huge fun event after the name Ping-Pong, the noise made by the ball striking the table, was introduced by J. Jacques & Son. It became very popular in England under its present name “Ping-Pong.” (Hickok)

By the early years of this century, Ping-Pong had already acquired some of its present day complexities, but it was still used by many as an after-dinner amusement game rather than a sport. Dining-room tables made up some of the early equipment that was used. Several different every-day objects were used to play the sport. They used a line of books as the net; rackets were lids from empty cigar boxes, and then a little later, parchment paper stretched around a frame created a paddle. The ball would be either a ball of string, or perhaps more commonly, a champagne cork or rubber ball. The game underwent a few changes in England in the next few years. One person introduced a celluloid ball to the game, while another added pimpled rubber to the wooden paddle. These additions were used by many and advanced on by others. Some box sets can still be bought from Milton Bradley. (Bradley)

The game was very popular in Central Europe in 1905 to 1910, but even this was a modified version that was introduced to Japan, where it later spread to China and Korea to become a huge popular sport in these countries. (Museum) The Japanese dominated the sport for much of the 50s and 60s. But in the 60’s and 70’s, the Chinese soon caught up with the Japanese. China alone has dominated the sport for much of the time since then, especially after Table Tennis became an Olympic event in the 1980’s. For a reason unknown, the Chinese took table tennis as their national sport. And most other countries can’t really touch them in skill. Alone from China four of the top ten from both male and female live here including number one. Now other nations such as Sweden and South Korea have joined the top ranks.

For a while in Europe, it lost its fun and became very unpopular to play. Then in the early twenties, it regained its popularity and became a sport. In 1926 the International Table Tennis Federation, ITTF, was formed. By that time it had adopted its new name of Ping-Pong, while also being called table tennis. It started to become so popular that organizations and federations developed and rules and regulations were made. (Museum)

Over the next sixty years, table tennis developed into a major worldwide sport. Today it is said that a rough 30 thousand people play competitively, and another million to 2 million play in household rooms and garages. Although it has became faster and harder to play, the game itself has not lost its “gentleman’s” sport aura. One major concern that the ITTF has always insured that table tennis remains a contest of human skills. Also, they are very concerned with technological developments, which add a new factor to the game like the spin and speed of a paddle or bat, do not give too great an advantage to the players who get to use these developments. Therefore, equipment specifications are carefully laid down, and rigorously enforced. (Museum)

Other changes like lowering of a net, is a big rule that shouldn’t be broken. Rules preventing excessive advantage being gained by the server-were introduced in the thirties, and only minor changes are made from time to time. Changes to the rules of the sport can only be made only at the ITTF’s Biennial General Meeting. These changes are never made without the agreement of a substantial majority of the hundred members in Associations represented at the BGM. In this vote everyone is equal. This is kind of like the UN Security Council too, if they want to veto a rule or movement, just one person can stop the rule or movement.

Modern table tennis at a high rank is as rigorous as any sport in its demands for the highest degree of physical fitness and mental concentration. Very physical and arduous training to develop natural skills for the sport usually attains this. Fred Perry in 1928-29 became the World Men’s Singles Table Tennis Champion, and then in the following years he became a champion at Wimbledon. Many say he moved to the tennis court because his reactions got slower. But it is certainly true that no other sport requires faster reactions and more delicate muscular co-ordination than ping-pong. (Museum)

According to a PBS article: One of the first public hints of improved U.S.-China relations came on April 6, 1971. This happened when the American Ping-Pong team in Japan for the 31st World Table Tennis Championship, received a surprise invitation from their Chinese colleagues for an all-expense paid visit to the People’s Republic. Time magazine called it “The ping heard round the world.” On April 10, nine players, four officials, and two spouses stepped across a bridge from Hong Kong to the Chinese mainland, ushering in an era of “Ping-Pong diplomacy.” They were the first group of Americans allowed into China since the Communist takeover in 1949.(Dean)

In table tennis there are very many different strokes, different swings, and different stances. I, myself as a ping-pong player, use the shake-hand grip. I use this grip for very many reasons. One reason would have to be that it feels the most comfortable to me. It feels way more natural and comfortable rather than the pen-hold grip. I have a lot more speed and control when I hit a hard move or hit. Another reason is because if someone hits the ball really fast back to me, then I am ready and I can hit back a very fast stroke back. In this style I can hit a backhand or forehand as fast as my body will let me. Also when I use this grip I can hit the ball to any spot on the table. When I use the pen-hold grip, I can’t usually hit the ball where I want to.

In table tennis, professionals play with either the shake-hand grip or the pen-hold grip. I myself use this grip. I have more control and more speed when I use this style. The shake-hand grip is appropriately named because you hold the paddle as if you were shaking someone’s hand, with your index finger extending over the bottom part of the rubber on the backhand side and your thumb slightly touching the rubber on the forehand side. (Bradley, Milton)

The pen-hold grip is also appropriately named because you hold the paddle just like a pen, only grasping the paddle at the top of the handle. Because of this, people that use this grip get a paddle with a more comfortable handle to use this grip.

The wrist flick is almost always done from the backhand side. The opponent usually does it to return a serve or to return a ball hit very short and low. (Bradley)

The counter is used against topspin balls, which you have no time to loop. This stroke requires very little forward arm motion, but it is extremely important that you angle and position your paddle correctly. If it is hard topspin, you must angle your paddle downward, so the ball is forced not to pop up when you hit it. If it is soft topspin, do angle your paddle so it’s nearly facing the opponent. If hitting either a backhand or a forehand, the paddle should only move forward about a foot during the complete shot. (Bradley)

All in all, ping-pong has a long history of ups and downs. It started in the end of the 1800’s and has since then become very popular. From all countries there have been many people that have played their way to the top of ping-pong history. There are a lot of different strokes and spin moves in the game of ping-pong. There are two main grips, pen-hold grip and shake-hold grip which are used in all games of ping-pong.

Works Cited:

Deen, Alfred. “History of Table Tennis.” PongWorld. 2000. PongWorld. 31 Jan 2008 .

Hickok, Ralph. “Table Tennis.” Hickok Sports.com. Monday, 17-Dec-2007 11:26:23. Hickok Sports. 4 Feb 2008 .

International Table Tennis Federation museum, “The History of Table Tennis.” Robbins Table Tennis Specialties. 2007. Robbins Table Tennis Specialties, Inc.. 31 Jan 2008 http://www.robbinstabletennis.com/history.htm

ITTF Museum. “A Comprehensive History of Table Tennis.” ITTF Museum. ITTF Museum. 4 Feb 2008 .

Milton Bradley, “The History of Table Tennis.” Table Tennis History. Fortune City. 4 Feb 2008 .

Willcox, Isobel. Acrobats & Ping~Pong. 13438. New York: Dodd, mead & Company, 1981.

Abstract

Fencing is a high intensity sport involving dynamic movements which expose the musculoskeletal system to high impact forces that may lead to overuse injuries. One of the most frequently used high impact movements is the lunge. With many different types of sports footwear available providing different levels of midsole cushioning, selecting the most suitable for a sport may be a factor in preventing the onset of injury. The aim of this study was to investigate the magnitudes of the transient axial impact shock experienced at the tibia between traditional fencing shoes and standard athletic footwear during the impact phase of the fencing lunge. Peak tibial shock was measured in 19 male fencers in 4 different footwear conditions using an accelerometer placed on the distal aspect of the tibia. The standard footwear resulted in significant reductions in peak impact shock in comparison to the traditional fencing shoes. Thus the reduction in impact shock found suggests that running or squash specific footwear may reduce overuse injury occurrence. However, despite this, the majority of participants indicated that they preferred fencing specific footwear for fencing. The results of this study suggest that there is justification for a re-design of fencing shoes.

Introduction

Competitive fencing (foil, sabre and epee) has experienced a rapid increase in participation rates during the past decade (Harmer, 2008). The sport places unique demands on the athlete and is characterised by asymmetry and the incidence of rapid motions which have the potential to generate large forces (Geil, 2002). In particular, the frequently used lunge which is the basis of most attacking motions is a high impact movement (Kopetka & Stewart, 2005).

The expansion in participation combined with the biomechanical demands of the sport has led to enhanced awareness of the incidence of injuries associated with fencing. Nonetheless, prospective, epidemiological studies of the incidence of repetitive strain and overuse injuries in fencing are scarce. As a result, it is difficult to draw dependable conclusions regarding the etiology of fencing injuries and their prevention based on impartial information (Roi & Bianchedi, 2008). However existing studies indicate that overuse injuries account for approximately 30% of injuries that interfere with training (Carter et al., 1993). The majority of injuries are confined to the lower extremities (e.g., stress fractures, impingement enthesopathies of the patellar tendon and tibia and plantar fascia) associated with fencing (Harmer, 2008, Wild et al., 2001; Zemper & Harmer, 1996) characteristic of dynamic activities involving high velocity change in momentum actions (Harmer, 2008).

No apparent data has been published providing information regarding the total number of lunges executed during a competitive bout. However, Roi and Bianchedi (2008) suggest that there are anywhere between 66 and 210 attacks (depending on the weapon) during a competition, which given the lunge’s function as the most common attacking mechanism, it appears that fencers will be regularly subjected to the impact forces imposed by the lunge.

One of the characteristics of the foot impacting the surface during a lunge is a rapid change in velocity of the foot and this velocity reaches zero upon foot placement in a short period of time (Whittle, 1999). This impact leads to the transmission of an axial transient shock wave through the body and carries with it the potential for injury. It is important to recognise that loading is necessary for maintenance of cartilage, bone, and muscle health (Stone, 1988). An optimal loading window for tissue strength can be characterized by frequent impacts of certain magnitude, duration, and frequency. Movements beyond the optimal loading window can lead to the breakdown of body tissue and overuse injuries (Hardin et al., 2003).

The magnitude of the impact shock is commonly measured using accelerometers. Accelerometers are traditionally placed onto the skin overlying the tibia to quantify the transient impact shockwave during motion. Despite the consensus that soft tissue interferes with the acceleration recording of underlying bone, the utilization of skin mounted devices is considered appropriate provided they are lightweight and rigidly attached to the overlying skin (Shorten and Windslow, 1992). This method has been used to examine the cushioning properties of athletic footwear (Lake & Greenhalgh, 2005) and better differentiates between impact conditions compared to data acquired using a force platform (Lafortune & Hennig, 1992). The high impact nature of the lunge implies that the lower extremities may be at risk from overuse injuries.

To date there is no information available regarding the potentially detrimental effect of the impact accelerations experienced during this movement. However, epidemiological studies suggest that a relationship exists between the magnitude of the transient shockwave and the etiology of a number of lower extremity overuse injuries (Nigg & Segesser, 1992). Therefore with a significant number of lunges being undertaken by a fencer and the potential connection between the magnitude of the impact shockwave and the incidence of overuse injuries makes it important to investigate the shock attenuation properties of fencing footwear.

The 1992 U.S Fencing Association review of the factors that may contribute to fencing injuries indicates that of the three primary areas for prevention, deficient equipment and facilities may be responsible for as many as 28% of the injuries associated with fencing, with ineffective footwear forming a significant component (Carter et al., 1993). The review noted problems with fencing shoes citing inadequate cushioning as well as the lack of footwear designs that could shield against the high impact nature of the sport, particularly lunging. To reduce injury, Zemper and Harmer (1996) have suggested a redesign of fencing shoes.

The primary function of athletic footwear as described by Stacoff et al., (1988) is to provide shock attenuation. The properties of athletic footwear have been linked to the prevention of overuse injuries. With many different types of sports footwear available providing different levels of midsole cushioning, selecting the most suitable for a sport can be vital in preventing the onset of injury. Fencing equipment retailers in the UK offer very few options for specific footwear, with only 2 major brands on offer (Adidas and Hi Tec). It also appears that the fencing shoe has been more specifically designed for the function of the trail foot to enable good grip on the piste as well as maximising the life span of the shoe if dragging the back foot, which is common in fencing.

The limited availability of specific shock attenuating footwear to the fencer may predispose fencers to overuse injuries. The majority of studies analyzing the influence of different footwear conditions on impact kinetics have focused on running.

Therefore, the aim of the present study was twofold. First, to assess the magnitude of the peak axial tibial transient accelerations associated with the lunge in fencing to provide practitioners with information regarding the potential causes of injury. Secondly, to compare two specific fencing shoes with two standard sports shoes (running and squash) with regards to their shock attenuating properties during the lunge movement.

In particular, it was predicted that peak axial transient accelerations were lower in shoes which have been particularly developed for shock absorbing qualities (running and squash shoes) in comparison to fencing shoes during the stance phase of the fencing lunge.

Methods
Participants

Nineteen male (17 right handed and 2 left handed) competitive fencers with a minimum of 2 years experience (Age 25.6 + 8.3 years; Height 1.78 + 0.5 m; Weight 76.8 + 9.0 kg) comprising a mixture of the foil (n=2), epee (n=15) and sabre (n=1) disciplines, volunteered to take part in this study. All were injury free at the time of data collection and completed an informed consent form. The procedure was approved by a university ethical board.

Materials

Each participant was fitted with four pairs of shoes for the study. The shoes were the same for each participant; they differed in size only (sizes 9 and 10 men’s UK sizes) and consisted of a conventional running shoe (Saucony Grid forum), squash shoe (Hi-Tec squash indoor) and fencing shoes (Hi-Tec blade) and (Adidas en guard). A tri-axial (Biometircs ACL 300) accelerometer sampling at 1000Hz was utilized to measure axial accelerations at the tibia. The device was mounted on a piece of lightweight carbon-fibre material. The combined weight of the accelerometer and mounting instrument was 9g. The voltage sensitivity of the signal was set to 100mV/g, allowing adequate sensitivity with a measurement range of ± 100 g.

The device was attached securely to leading leg on the distal anterio-medial aspect of the shank 8 cm above the medial maleolus in alignment with its longitudinal axis.

This location was selected as the boniest prominence of the distal tibia in accordance with the Nokes et al., (1984) conclusions to improve the mechanical coupling of the accelerometer mounting to the tibia and reduce artefact due to interposing soft-tissue. The accelerometer was positioned so that acceleration was measured in the direction up the tibia (Figure 1). Strong adhesive tape was placed over the device and the lower leg to avoid overestimating the peak positive acceleration due to tissue artefact. The device was attached as close to the tibia as possible, the skin on overlying the bone itself was stretched thus ensuring a more rigid coupling between accelerometer and tibia. Furthermore, adhesive tape was positioned over the device itself to ensure it was maintained in a fixed position along the longitudinal axis of the tibia. The acceleration signal was sent to a Biometrics data logger with a 2 GB memory card. The data logger was fastened securely to a lightweight backpack to reduce movement of the device during trials.

Procedure

The fencers completed a suitable warm-up and were allowed two minutes to familiarize themselves with the experimental protocol and footwear condition prior to the commencement of data collection. They were then required to complete ten lunges hitting a dummy with their weapon in each footwear condition whilst returning to a starting point (pre-determined by each participant prior to the commencement of data capture) following each trial to control lunge distance. Each trial was comprised of a lunge where contact between the sword and dummy defined a successful outcome. The starting point for the movement was adjusted and maintained. The order in which the different footwear conditions were worn was randomized. Upon conclusion of the data collection participants were asked to subjectively indicate which shoe they preferred for fencing.

Kinetic data was quantified/processed using Biometrics data-log software. The stance phase of each trial was acquired from each accelerometer signal for analysis. Peak positive axial tibial acceleration was defined as the highest positive acceleration peak measured during the stance phase after a 60Hz 1st order low pass filter had been implemented in accordance with the Lake and Greenhalgh (2005) recommendations.

The mean values of the footfalls per participant/condition for the axial component of the acceleration signal was quantified and used for statistical analysis. Descriptive statistics were calculated for each variable including means and standard deviations. Differences between footwear conditions were examined via a within subjects repeated measures analysis of variance with significance accepted at the p

Results

A statistical power analysis of pilot data was conducted in order to reduce the likelihood of a type II error and determine the minimum number of participants needed for this investigation. It was found that the sample size was sufficient to provide more than 80% of statistical power in the experimental measure. Figure 2 provides the mean and standard deviations for the peak tibial accelerations for the four different shoe types. The Mauchly’s sphericity assumption was violated and as such the degrees of freedom of the F statistic was adjusted via the Greenhouse Geisser correction. The Shapiro-Wilk statistic for each footwear condition confirmed that the data was normally distributed. The analysis of variance was significant (F (1.97, 35.52) = 16.31; P < .001; ?2 = .48). Post-hoc comparisons showed that the peak axial tibial shock was significantly lower in the squash and running shoes in comparison to the fencing shoes (p <.01). The fencing shoes did not differ from each other in terms of peak axial acceleration (P = .48) nor did the running and squash shoes (P = 0.087).

Discussion

The aim of this study was to determine the differences in the magnitude of the transient acceleration between traditional fencing shoes and standard athletic footwear during the impact phase of the fencing lunge. The results of this study support our hypothesis, in that the magnitudes of the axial impact shockwaves were significantly lower in both the running and squash shoes compared to the traditional fencing footwear.

The transient shockwave is linked to the development of a variety of overuse injuries (Whittle, 1999). It is essential to acknowledge the link between the magnitude of these forces and overuse injuries, as the frequency of these conditions can be reduced by attenuating the impact magnitude (Whittle, 1999). Therefore the significant reduction in impact shock found would suggest that running/squash footwear may assist in the reduction of overuse injury occurrence.

Interestingly, despite the higher impact magnitude and concerns regarding the potential development of overuse injuries, the majority of participants indicated that they preferred fencing specific footwear for fencing. This finding agrees with those of Geil (2002) who hypothesized that this finding centred on plantar sensory proprioceptive mechanisms, whereby the feel of the fencing piste underneath the foot is reduced in shoes that offer a high degree of midsole cushioning. Geil (2002) suggested that footwear may influence fencing performance. They noted that increased midsole cushioning and travel of the foot during compression may lead to slower motion of the feet, which in turn could contribute to diminished velocity of the weapon hand, reducing the overall execution quality of the movement itself.

Based on these findings it appears that midsole cushioning properties should play only a partial role in the design characteristics of an effective fencing shoe. Fencing involves a number of movement strategies in addition to the lunge, and as such shoe designs must cater to this. Fencers like most athletes require sure footing during competition; as such footwear designs must deliver adequate traction to provide stability during lunging, attacking and retreating motions. Furthermore, the medial forefoot of the trail shoe is an area traditionally subjected to high abrasion forces and thus heavy wear. Manufacturers should therefore focus attention on developing more resistant materials for this purpose to prolong the lifespan of the shoe. Whilst shock attenuation is the primary function of midsole cushioning, the elastic energy stored and recovered by cushioning systems has been proposed as a mechanism by which the oxygen cost of movement can be reduced. Given the aerobic demands the sport of fencing places on the athlete (Roi & Bianchedi, 2008) additional research should focus on this factor as it may serve to slow the onset of fatigue and improve performance.

The results of this study however, suggest that there is some justification for the Zemper and Harmer (1996) recommendations regarding the re-design of fencing shoes due to the demonstrated high transient impact forces on the front foot during the lunge. The primary design dilemma facing footwear manufacturers is to include features that would serve to attenuate the large impact forces and help reduce overuse injuries. At the same time, the design characteristics should also provide the fencer with an adequate feel for the fencing piste beneath the foot.

The severe angle between foot-segment and ground on initial contact is also significant when designing the shoe. The shoe cushioning system must therefore provide protection in the extreme rear of the heel, an area not normally associated with consistent high impact forces in other sports. The obvious asymmetry of the sport presents a challenge to footwear manufacturers and arguments can be made for the development of asymmetrical footwear designs.

Several different surfaces in fencing are used. Surface stiffness can have a significant influence on the magnitude of the impact shock during landing (Kim et al., 1994). This study was conducted during training sessions on a training surface as opposed to a traditional piste used during competition thus the results obtained may not adequately represent actual competition. During competition a hard floor can be used, as well as a metallic piste (either a cloth placed over the hard floor or a hard metallic piste). Future research should therefore concentrate on the magnitude of the impact shock during competition on a true fencing piste.

Limitations

Accelerometry is a complicated approach and methodological problems can affect the efficacy of collected data (Lake and Greenhalgh 2005). The magnitude of the signal obtained from the accelerometer is dependent on the mounting interaction, making cross study comparisons difficult. Soft tissue artefact can also influence the acceleration recording of underlying bone (Light et al., 1980). Attaching the device directly to bone represents the most accurate method of measuring impact shock and further work is necessary to determine the efficacy of the less traumatic skin mounting technique.

The device signal is also reliant on the centripetal acceleration due to angular motion of the shank in the sagittal plane during ground contact (Lafortune and Hennig 1991). Lake and Greenhalgh (2005) noted that despite the application of a distally mounted device, correction for angular motion may still be necessary. Further research should be conducted to investigate the necessary signal corrections for angular motion.

Another potential limitation/restriction of this study is that the results obtained are entirely specific to the footwear and ground surface conditions, any variation in these parameters would most likely cause changes to the participant’s fencing kinetics/kinematics. In addition this study analyzed the lunge motion only. The lunge represents a high impact motion; however there are other movements of lower intensity which may still be important in terms of the development of overuse injuries. Therefore, additional research is necessary regarding the influence of footwear on the magnitude of the transient shockwave during different fencing movements before appropriate prescriptions of fencing footwear can be made.

References
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Lake, M.J. (2000). Determining the protective function of sports footwear. Ergonomics, 43, 1610-1621.
Lake, M.J., and Greenhalgh, A. (2005). Impact shock measurements during running correction for angular velocity of the shank is necessary. Proceedings of the 7th Symposium on Footwear Biomechanics. Cleveland, Ohio, USA.
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Nokes, L., Fairclough, J.A., Mintowt-Czyz, W.J., Mackie, I., and Williams, J., (1984). Vibrational analysis of human tibia: The effect of soft tissue on the output from skin mounted accelerometers. Journal of Biomedical Engineering, 6, 223-226.
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Steroid use in professional sports: are the punishments fair?
Introduction

Anabolic steroids are continually used by sporting professionals though major sporting organizations have banned their usage due to the negative attributes and effects associated with continued usage. Many nations are troubled by the increasing occurrences of usage of performance enhancing drugs exhibited by the sports people. Professional athletes and baseball players have been in the limelight especially during the summer and American Olympic Games. According to recent survey both old and seasoned sportspeople and athletes use steroids to enhance their performance. Teenagers also admit to have used the steroids at some point of their life (Paterson, 1998).

A recent poll on US, about 43% of Americans believe that almost half of the athletic professionals and American Olympics athletes in the country use steroids. Since non medical usage of steroids is illegal, amendments have been advanced in the Anabolic steroid control regulations to make possessions of these drugs a federal crime. Anabolic steroids which are testosterone derivatives enable the body to quickly metabolize the ingested proteins thereby enabling quick synthesis and formation of skeletal muscle. Primarily, sports personalities have continually used the steroids in order to delay the feelings of fatigue and ultimately enabling a feeling of euphoria be exhibited. This boosts their performance levels.

This document will highlight the prevalence of the vice amongst the sporting personalities and the kind of punishment advanced to the falters’ of the rules. With evidence from the Anabolic steroids governing bodies and major sports associations like the Olympics, NFL, NHL and the NBA, a critical analysis of the rules and penalties will be advanced. An agency referred to as World Anti- Doping has consistently maintained a list of steroids which are deemed to enhance performance like Dianabol, Anadrol, winstrol and oxandrin.

Literature review

Commonly abused steroids

There are generally three types of steroids which are commonly abused by sports professionals. Anabolic, Cortico and androgenic steroids are available in the market though the US Government has banned their usage. Anabolic and androgenic steroids have growth and thickening effects on the users’ skeletal muscles, larynx, vocal chords as well as the bones while affecting a considerable loss in body fat. When taken a remarkable transformation in the body of the user is exhibited due to increased muscle bulk and general body strength. This is primarily the reason why many sports people opt to use the anabolic steroids due to increased strength and agility exhibited after continued usage (Rogak, 1992). Without a valid prescription usage and possession of anabolic steroids is illegal. The Cortico steroids are made in such a way that they mimic the function of the naturally occurring cortisone in the human body. Cortisone deals with injuries in the body by regulating inflammation in the body. The Cortico steroids are used in treatment of such illnesses as asthma, allergies and kidney diseases. Common street names advanced for these steroids include pumpers, weight trainers, Arnolds amongst others.

Erythropoietin is commonly used by endurance athletes in a bid to improve on their performance. The drug works to increase the amount of red blood cells present in the body by stimulating the production and release of the red blood cells from the bone marrow. So when there are many red blood cells available in the body, a lot of oxygen is circulated in the body thereby increasing performance.

Steroid use in sports

The prevalence of steroid usage in sporting arena is high and stiff penalties have been advanced to the sports people found taking the drugs. Most athletes who take steroids do so in a bid to push the performance of their bodies past the limit thereby acquire a competitive advantage ahead of their opponents. Continued usage of steroids results to remarkable increase in muscle mass and strength thus giving the user a competitive edge over his opponents. Common usage of steroids is exhibited in those sporting activities which largely require a lot of strength and large size like football, baseball or wrestling as well as those requiring a lot of endurance like swimming and track athletes (Rogak, 1992). Body builders as well as individuals who fancy developed muscles largely fall prey in taking steroids. Except for the increased body strength and mass exhibited after continued usage of steroids, skill and performance of a player is not increased. It is such factors as the body size, age, diet and the frequency of training which determines the general performance of a sportsperson.

Testing and Punishment procedures

Every sporting agency has different procedures through which it administers testing and punishments to the players so as to determine whether they are under the influence of steroids. Though a lot of politics exists regarding the ways to administer testing of players, all stakeholders in the sporting arena acknowledge the need to test and make public the results thereby reduce the skepticisms associated with usage of steroids (Rogak, 1992). Challenges exist though, especially when players claim that a move to undertake testing will interfere with their privacy and the results may be maliciously influenced through falsely accusing the players of using steroids. Different sports have their testing procedures which they undertake. The minor league baseball players are tested for cocaine, marijuana, steroids as well as androstenedione. The first time offenders undergo education, counseling and treatment and are constantly subjected to random tests. Suspension from the league is affected to repeat offenders.

NFL players are tested during the preseason with random tests being done throughout the season and offseason. A first time offender earns a four game suspension, a second offence earns six games suspension while a third offence earns a complete expulsion. For NBA, the rookies are tested four times each year with penalties of suspensions without pay being advanced to the falters. The US Olympic team has stringent testing procedures with such activities as blood doping, stimulants, alcohol, marijuana as well as mimetic being prohibited. Penalties differ depending on the substance used. Primarily the penalties range from public warnings to suspensions ranging from two to five years.

Benefits of punishing steroid usage

Since the inception of the Steroid control act many sports personalities involved in steroid usage have been stripped off their titles, medals and records held. Thus through the enforcement of the legislations regarding steroid usage issues of cheating as well as hollow victories have been minimized (Paterson, 1998). By not permitting the steroid users sports personalities to compete with the drug free sportspersons is a show of fairness as no competitor is given a competitive advantage over the other players. Sanctity is reverted to the sporting industry since no pressure is advanced to the drug free sportspeople to use steroids in order to continually remain competitive in their field. Constant drug testing need be upheld by all sporting bodies in order to completely deter sports people from taking the steroids while instilling stiff penalties to people found taking the drugs.

Curbing Trafficking of steroids

Steroids can be obtained from pharmaceutical companies without prescription. Due to the negative effects associated with the drugs most governments have banned their usage and stiff penalties are advanced to the users as well as anyone found in possession of the drugs. There are several proponents of criminalization of individuals found in possession of the drugs. Many people contend that through putting in place stiff penalties, trafficking of the steroids will be deterred (Roberts, 2005). Monitoring the internet selling sources of the steroids will help in reducing instances of influx of the drugs into the market. Relevant Government agencies need monitor such selling avenue so as to determine their source and destination.

Strict controls which limit the substances produced by pharmaceutical companies will ensure that destructive drugs like steroids are not undertaken. The control act states that any individual involved in the manufacturing, distribution and dispensation of controlled substances should always register with the attorney general office (Paterson, 1998). Although this move helps in curbing the manufacture and distribution of the steroids, the booming trade of counterfeit labs which mimic the legitimate pharmaceutical companies has resulted. The black market of the steroid drugs which are substandardly manufactured has continually frustrated the Governments efforts to kick out steroids from the reach of the users.

Steroids side effects

Anabolic steroids are deadly drugs with massive side effects. Since the sporting personalities self administer the drugs without prescription from the physicians, damage caused on the body of a user cannot be underestimated since the right dosage and duration of medication is not adhered to (Roberts, 2005). The side effects exhibited differ between individuals depending on the length of usage, the type of drug taken, individual sensitivity as well as the dosage administered. “Roid rage “is particularly common amongst the steroid users where they portray uncontrollable behavior which is spontaneous and overly aggressive especially after they cease to use the drugs. The function of the liver is inhibited by oral use of AS. Liver Lesions have been exhibited by users of nortesterone as well as testosterone esters.

The hospitalized patients of steroids have other illnesses like anemia, impotence and renal insufficiency. Usage of steroids with the 17- alpha- alkyl group cause liver turmoil (Roberts, 2005). More often than not the abnormalities are asymptomatic especially because peliosis as well as the liver tumors do not cause blood abnormalities. Continued use of steroids elicits structural changes in the formation of the heart while after discontinued usage ischemic tolerance remarkably decreases. Steroid users are at a greater risk of contracting prostrate cancer and susceptibility to getting skin infections. Since the AS is derived from testosterone, negative side effects are exhibited in the reproductive system. Decreased fertility, formation of breasts in men, irregularities in ovulation and menstrual cycle amongst women is exhibited. Thus through continued usage, males develop female characteristics whereas the females develop female characteristics. Growing children demonstrate virilization, stunted growth and gynecomastia. Steroid usage affects the cardiovascular system resulting to increased blood pressure. The immune system is also affected resulting to decreased productivity of the immune system. Some less serious side effects of acne include acne, rosccea, hair loss and increased fat excretion. Instances of glucose tolerance decrease in the bodies of seasoned steroid users while the levels of insulin in the body considerably increase thus symptoms of type 2 diabetes will be exhibited.

Findings and discussions

Issue 1: Marion Jones imprisonment and stripping of records, medal and prizes won after 2000, September. She was an award winning track &field athlete who admitted to taking performance enhancing steroids. Initially Marion Jones had denied ant involvement with drugs to the press, sports agencies and grand juries. In October, 2007 it was confirmed that Marion Jones returned the five medals she worn during the 2000 summer Olympics as was determined by the Anti doping agency of the U.S. Tim Montgomery was stripped his records after being found guilty of using steroids. He retired from sports immediately after the results were made public. The USA anti doping agency found him guilty of using the steroids as well as human growth hormones. A four year ban was imposed on him in December 2005 and consequently stripped him all the awards and records held since 2001. In 2008, Tim admitted that he took testosterone during the Sydney relay hence the reason why his team clinched the gold medal.

Rule1: According to the 1990 Anabolic steroid control act, it is a criminal offence to use steroids by sports person in order to enhance athletic and cosmetic performance. Suspension and imprisonment is the ultimate punishment for the defaulters of the rule.

Analysis1: The Anabolic steroid control act has placed the usage of steroids in the same class as such drugs as ketamine, LSD precursors as well as barbiturates. According to this act, Mariah Jones is guilty of possessing and using the steroids especially because she was involved in major competition events hence the reason why arrests, persecution and imprisonment was done. Tim Montgomery public admission that he used performance enhancers is a clear demonstration that the vice is deep-rooted amongst the athletes who wish to remain competitive in their various sports. The enforcement of the stipulated penalties serves to warn the users of the drugs against continued usage of steroids when undertaking major competitions.

Conclusion1: it is vital that the kind of punishment advanced to sports personalities implicated in steroids use is stepped up in order to show other athletes who are already practicing and those aspiring that usage of steroids is totally unacceptable. Throughout the entire career of Marion Jones, accusations that she was involved in the usage of steroids existed but she always denied until the tests were done in 2007. Thus Marion Jones return of all awards won when she was competing under grand violation of the laid down rules.

Issue 2: Ben Johnson, a well known Canadian sprinter enjoyed intense moments of fame in the 1980’s especially after winning two bronze medals and a gold medal during the Olympics. During the 1987 world athletics championships and the 1988 summer Olympics he set world records for the 100m race. When traces of Stanozolol were discovered, he was disqualified thus loosing both records and the Olympic title. He was suspended from the field until 1991. After his comeback, he was again found guilty of doping with high levels of testosterone after which he was banned completely from athletics by the IAAF.

Rule 2: The world Anti doping agency undertakes testing of blood samples as well as urine samples. Testing is a random and unannounced. A penalty for any offence is a two year ban from athletics competitions.

Analysis 2: After the tests done at Seoul, Ben Johnson is reportedly to have denied ever doping. During the 1989 Durbin inquiry, he admitted that indeed he used the steroids under the guidance of his coach Charlie Francis who said that Johnson had always been using the steroids since 1981.

Conclusion 2: The usage of steroids need be put on hold especially with the practicing athletes. If usage of steroids is to be continued, then the legitimacy of athletics will be questioned because the results produced are not naturally acquired. Since testing is random, enforcement of the laws becomes easy. Professional leagues which exhibit mysteries will be minimized and the credibility of professional leagues will not be questioned.

Issue 3: Barry Bonds who was an acclaimed baseball player was implicated in steroid usage. Through association with steroid usage Barry Bonds awards and achievement in baseball were tainted. He had worn seven MVP awards and numerous homeruns and All-Stars. BALCO regulations completely withhold the usage of steroids thus the reason why Barry Bonds was not reassigned to the San Francisco giants during the 2008 baseball season. He played with the Pittsburgh pirates where his prowess was manifested without being revealed he was under the influence of steroids.

Ken Caminiti is another baseball player who publicly admitted to the use of anabolic steroids. He played in the team Atlanta braves and worn three awards of Golden Gloves and the coveted 1996 MVP. His admission to the use of the steroids tainted completely the baseball profession where a common belief is held that all baseball players are indeed involved in the vice.

Rule 3: Baseball players who test positive for amphetamines will be automatically tested for the second time with a second offence eliciting 25 game suspension while a third offence will elicit 80 games suspension.

Analysis 3: A controversial career life of Barry Bonds was exhibited as he is notably amongst the major baseball players implicated in the usage of steroids. In the 2007, he was indicted for the evils of perjury especially since he obstructed justice when the case to determine investigation of the case and the outcome of the implications of the case. The case is still ongoing even now and it’s unlikely that he will be reinstated in the national team. Suspicions are high regarding the baseball players as most people believe that the players are souped with steroids in order to build on their muscles. Baseball players admit that a lot of pressure exists which forces them to take steroids especially in order to compete in the majors.

Conclusion 3: Washington’s baseball commissioner has advanced several stringent measures in a bid to counter steroids. Players who fail the steroid tests will be required to miss more than a third of the seasons of the match. Due to the threat of legislations which have been spurred, players who use steroids have been put up for stiffer penalties. Stiff penalties are advanced to the players so as to limit occurrence of instances of steroid usage (Yesalis, 2000). The current penalties which are in existence include a 10 day suspension for the first offensive occurrence ,30 days for the second offence and in case of a third offence 60 days suspension is advanced. Most baseball clubs ensure that they test players during the spring training sessions with random training sessions being advanced throughout the seasons in order to ensure that players do not fall prey to the vice (Taylor, 2002). Off season testing is also advanced to the players. Several bills have been advanced in a bid to intensify punishments for baseball players who use steroids.

Issue 4: An alleged East coast distributor of steroids was arrested with a huge stockpile of anabolic steroids.

Rule 4: Non medical possession of anabolic steroids with the intention of personal use or resale is illegal. A first time possession of steroids attracts a punishment of imprisonment period of more than one year with an option of a minimum fine of $1,000. Possession with previous conviction of drugs will attract a 15 day to two years imprisonment or a fine of $2,500. People with more than two instances of charges of steroids will attract an imprisonment term of not less than 90 days and a fine of $5,000.A distributor of steroids attracts a $250,000 to $1,000,000 with an imprisonment option of up to 5 years.

Analysis 4: The mere possession of steroids is punishable by law. Steroids users need be wary of the usage of the drugs because once police investigations are undertaken and athletes are found in possession of the steroids, stiff penalties are advanced. Legal penalties associate with the vice are massive as they incorporate jail terms of not less than two years. Sports people who self administer the steroids need to have a clue on the possible consequences associated with possession of the drugs.

Conclusion 4: Anyone involved in the usage or in selling of steroids need to reconsider association with the drugs as this is the best way to go about it both medically and legally. The different types of steroids available in the market today do not contribute to improved performance of a sportsperson (Yesalis, 2000). Health side effects will no doubt result hence the reason stringent measures have been advanced to curb continued usage of the drugs.

Conclusion

The sports figures who are constantly using anabolic steroids to improve their athletic prowess encounter several side effects which ultimately shorten their lives and careers. Thus strict punishments as advanced so curb the vice especially amongst the teenagers who admit to have use the steroids at one point of their training so as to mimic the elite athletes. While many users admit increased body muscles and strength, an alarming increase in injury levels is exhibited (Taylor, 2002). Tendon and ligament injuries erupt due to the massive stress advanced by the overdeveloped muscles owing to the continue usage of steroids. Baseball players attest to the fact that rotator cuff injuries are on the increase due to the usage of steroids. In order to save the legacy of the sporting industries governments and sporting bodies need uphold the strict punishments in the sporting industry. Players need be sensitized on the dangers associated with taking the drugs as well as undertaking regular testing as it’s not a violation of the constitutional rights but a guard against unethical behavior of steroids abuse. Strategies like healthy nutrition as well as strength training programs need be devised to as to prevent the use of steroids amongst the sporting personalities.

References

Paterson, E (1998) Anabolic steroids and sports and drug testing, New York, U.S.A: Whitston Pub.

Roberts, A (2005) Anabolic steroids. New York, U.S.A: Anabolic Information, LLC.

Rogak, L (1992) Steroids: dangerous game. Minneapolis, MN: Lerner Publications

Taylor, W (2002) Anabolic steroids and the athlete. North Carolina, U.S.A: McFarland,

Yesalis, C (2000) Anabolic steroids in sport and exercise .New York, U.S.A: Human Kinetics.

Steroids in Sports

Decade after decade, sport scandals have come and gone. The topic of steroid use in sports continues to make the headlines more frequently. We hear about Olympic athletes that have been striped of their medals because they failed the drug testing. There are also the professional sports athletes who are caught and centered out for using steroids. Athletes believe that by taking steroids it will benefit their careers and launch them to the peak of their performance. What are the consequences for both the athlete and the sport? How does this affect the fans? Fans view steroid use as a major corruption in sports, as well as the athletes that use the drug. During the last decade, many sports analysts debate the topic. Does the players’ statistics even matter anymore if players are cheating?

There may be a legitimate reason for steroid use. One example would be that the drug helps the athlete overcome personal injuries. Steroids help the repair process, by quickly repairing joint tissues allowing them to return to the game rapidly and to compete more competitively. Steroids are especially popular with senior sport athletes. As one gets older, their skill level decreases and at the same time their bodies have a hard time keeping up with the younger players. By taking steroids, it helps these players maintain a strong physique, and to keep up with the sport endurance as it advances, which in turn will prolong their career. Taking steroids will shorten the player’s time of being sidelined through injury. The most popular reason behind the use of steroids is to achieve an all time goal surpassing past successors. Steroids will always be around in sports, as long as big pay checks and fame come along with athletes accomplishments. The athlete may think that it’s in their best interest at the time, but not for the fans who lookup to these athletes they call “heroes”.

Professional sports can have a huge impact on the human body as they are constantly pushing themselves to the limit and have a high chance of running into injuries and skeletal problems throughout the intense seasons. When players are hit with injury, it can seriously impact ones career, and also the performance of an entire team. As an athlete progressively uses steroids, their bodies will begin to react negatively to the unnatural change. “The researchers’ who conducted the survey also reported that the use of anabolic or androgenic steroids raises players risk of suffering joint, ligament and cartilage injuries throughout the body” (Reinberg, 1). Many times players are influenced by their trainers who will give their injured athletes steroids to speed up the rehabilitation process, to return them to the game. “In a survey that guaranteed confidentiality, 2,552 former pro football players answered questions on their use of performance- enhancing steroids and the musculoskeletal injuries they suffered during their playing years” (Reinberg, 1). For many NFL players take steroids, it allows them to compete through the though sixteen weeks that they face, and since football players are exposed to a high chance of injury, the use of steroids will help them battle any injury they in counter. In the long run these athletes do not realise the negative effects that will follow. “Guskiewicz speculated that the additional musculoskeletal injuries could have resulted from the increased weight of the muscle mass created by steroids, putting extra stress on joints that then wears down” (Reinberg, 1). As an athlete bulks up, they push their bodies beyond their limits and place too much stress on their joints.

As many sports legends reach the end of their careers, they take steroids to push their bodies so that they can prolong their career for a few more seasons. Also, up and coming stars also join in and take steroids as they want to prolong their future and the sport that they love to play, and to get to the next skill level.

In the MLB many stars such as Barry Bonds and Mark McGwire took steroids in the later stages of their careers as they wanted to continue to battle with the young stars, and to continue to climb to the top of the statistic charts. “It is easy to understand why Mark McGwire, Roger Clemens or Barry Bonds might use steroids, assuming they did. McGwire got hurt, turned 30, and his career was in jeopardy. He had to hit home runs to stay in the big leagues. He ended up hitting a lot of them” (Posnanki, 1). Many pro football players take steroids to compete harder. This is a disadvantage towards the older players, which ultimately force them to also take steroids to allow themselves to compete longer. “9.1 percent said they had used steroids, with the certain categories of players more likely to report using drugs. For example, 16.3 percent of offensive linemen admitted using steroids, as did 14.8 percent of defensive linemen” (Reinberg, 2). As everyone takes steroids it evens out the playing field between the younger and older athletes. Not only do the older athletes take steroids to compete longer, high school athletes also take steroids to jumpstart their careers and to make it to the next level of competition. “The nation’s largest steroid testing program caught only two Texas high school athletes taking unauthorized substances out of more than 10,000 students who were tested, according to results issued last week” (USA Today, 1). Athletes of all ages cheat and take steroids to allow them to compete longer in the sport that they would die for. To them it is a gift to play longer, but to many fans they see these older players as “washed up”.

The use of anabolic steroids is banned by all major sporting bodies, including the International Olympic Committee, Major League Baseball, the National Football League, the National Basketball Association, the National Hockey League, World Wrestling Entertainment, TNA, ICC, ITF, FIFA, FINA, UEFA, the European Athletic Association, and the Brazilian Football Confederation. Anabolic steroids are controlled substances in many countries, including Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, the Netherlands (NL), the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States (U.S.), while in other countries, such as Mexico and Thailand, they are readily available over-the-counter for easy purchase. More and more athletes are being banned each year for the use of steroids, but why do they continue to use them when they know their careers are at risk? A lot of this has to do with poorly enforced regulations and the bending of the law when it comes to professional sports. The most common reasons why doping is banned from organizations are because it’s harmful to the athlete’s health, there is an unfair advantage to athletes who are doping when they are sized up to natural players, and finally steroid use conflicts with the spirit of the sport, which is to work for victory by exhibiting “natural” physical skills and quality of character. The substance is banned for all the right reasons, but the consequences for breaking the ban aren’t severe enough to scare athletes from using them. Steroids had been passed as a Federal crime in the 1990’s to stop the use of drugs promoted by role model athletes, “It was claimed that making non-medical steroid use a federal crime would accomplish this, but over the last 15 years, I can’t think of a single high- profile professional ballplayer who was ever arrested for possessing steroids” (Jendrick, 94). Even though possessing steroids is a Federal offence these athletes are being seen above the law, and receiving lesser punishments within the organization they are apart of. In order to completely abolish the chances of doping, these organizations would have to step up their punishments, by leaving it in the hands of the law to be properly prosecuted.

Throughout the years, in all types of sports and competitions, steroids have been present, creating degrading controversy that has destroyed the game for many fans. For the athletes, both young and old, who are taking steroids to overcome injuries and achieve personal goals, they soon realize the negative long term effect that it has on their bodies. Some health risks can be produced by long-term use or excessive doses of anabolic steroids. These effects include harmful changes in cholesterol levels, acne, high blood pressure, liver damage, and dangerous changes in the structure of the heart. A review in 2005 in CNS Drugs determined that “significant psychiatric symptoms including aggression and violence, mania, and less frequently psychosis and suicide have been associated with steroid abuse. Long-term steroid abusers may develop symptoms of dependence and withdrawal on discontinuation of AAS”. (this quote came from this website:Wikipedia put in the info)

In Conclusion there will always be athletes that take steroids. They will take the drug for various reasons, to break records, help their self esteem, use as a substitution for hard work, recover from injuries. Unfortunately it does not give them a good reputation and many organizations and fans view this as cheating. In my opinion Steroids will always be around in sports and competitions, unless serious steps are made by governing organizations to completely abolish the use of steroids in the sport and severe penalties are imposed. It’s unfortunate that this abuse of steroids is taking place, especially since many athletes are viewed as role models for many young children who aspire to someday become famous athletes.