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The development and significance of tennis as a Leisure Activity (Mainly in the UK)
1. The History and Development of tennis. (Mainly in the UK)

According to The Cliff Richard Tennis Development Fund 2000, tennis is a world-class competitive sport captivating millions of players and fans all round the world. It was in France that the game tennis as we know it today really came into being. During the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries it became the highly fashionable sport of kings and noblemen a far cry from being played by the lower classes. The development fund 2000 describes how real tennis was actually very different to the game that we know today. The game was played indoors, in large galleries with jutting roofs and points were won according to how the ball was played off of the gallery walls, rather like squash. This concept is very different to today’s Lawn Tennis, where the rectangular court is laid out on a grass surface and the play is within marked boundaries, not off of the walls. After its initial rise in popularity with the French nobility, tennis spread throughout Europe, becoming particularly popular in England. Today, Wimbledon and the UK are associated with lawn tennis.

Cliff Richard’s Development fund describes how the changes in tennis have taken place over the years and how the shift has moved tennis from being associated with the upper classes to a sport which is played at all different levels and at every level of the social classes. During the 19th century when Victorian prosperity in England prompted a significant revival, courts were built in many famous country houses and the first tennis clubs providing facilities for members began to appear. The biggest boost for tennis however came in 1875. As said by the development Fund 2000, The All England Croquet Club, which had formed in 1869 had failed to attract enough visitors and in 1875 they decided to offer Lawn Tennis as an added attraction. The new game was an instant success, so much so that in 1877 the name of the club was changed to the All England Croquet and Lawn Tennis Club. This highlights that the popularity of tennis has been growing for many decades thus gives us a good indication that it will continue to prosper.

The Wimbledon Championship has been one of the most significant developments in the history of tennis. This event alone has contributed to a huge numbers of followers and participants throughout the UK and illustrates the development of tennis as we know it today. In the 1930s the game became highly fashionable in the UK, led by British stars such as Fred Perry and Don Budge and International Champions such as Henri Lacoste. Then, into the 1990s the championships became more popular than ever – particularly as Great Britain’s hopes for a champion became rekindled with the likes of Greg Rusedski and Tim Henman. Now, entering 2006 we are witnessing the rise of young Andrew Murray who is taking the tennis circuit by storm and he will hopefully encourage and boost tennis numbers within the UK.

The Lawn Tennis Association has outlined a number of ways in which it has attempted to translate the enthusiasm generated by the Wimbledon Championships each year into lasting benefits and continually develop tennis on a yearly basis. Some examples include; the sponsored campaign, ‘Play Tennis’, which is an initiative that offered free tennis lessons with the Lawn Tennis Association coaches in April and May 2004. The Lawn Tennis Association confirms that in 2004, 8,000 Londoners participated in the scheme and as a result around a third joined their local tennis clubs after playing. This highlights the significance of tennis within the UK and that the sport is held in high esteem. Perhaps now it is important to expand its target market and appeal to different socio-economic groups. Further, the Lawn Tennis Association launched an Ariel Tennis Ace campaign which was a ‘talent search’ for young players, the winner of which received coaching with John McEnroe during the Wimbledon Championships. It is important to note that tennis is such a significant sport within the UK that such competitions are respected and widely sought after.

Other ways in which the Lawn Tennis Association has developed and increased the popularity in the UK include the introduction of a Tennis Show which has been running since April 2004 which was linked in with the Fitness Show and offered free coaching, access to clubs and information. Further, in order to establish a larger ratio of children who play tennis the organisation pioneered the Wimbledon Kid’s Zone; whilst the Championships were taking place, a children’s area is established to introduce children to tennis. Approximately 6,000 children attended in 2004 and lastly, ‘The Road to Wimbledon’ initiative was set up for young players to lure them into tennis and encourage promising young talent which will help boost tennis numbers. The incentive to entering this competition was that the winners were given the opportunity to play at Wimbledon in August.

Nowadays, sporting events tend to be sponsored by major companies in order to generate more money. Last year, American Express sponsored a five-day event next to Tower Bridge with larges screens televising Wimbledon matches, tennis training and held a celebrity tennis night which raised money for the Sport Relief Charity. The Lawn Tennis Association supports any private sponsorship for these free public events because it helps develop the sport. Moreover, it is obvious that much is being done to develop tennis within the UK because Sport England has launched a website – www.activeplaces.com – this Internet site has produced a list of facilities for all sports, including the locations of every tennis court in London. Sport England believes that the site’s usefulness could be enhanced if it keeps records of the condition of facilities to ensure the courts upkeep and increase the number of tennis players in the UK. The Lawn Tennis Association believes that currently a third of local authority tennis courts are in a state of disrepair, this information needs to be passed onto the local authorities to be addressed, otherwise tennis could cease to play a significant sporting role in the UK. Also, if information of facility conditions is recorded it will provide a more realistic picture of sports resources in London and may serve as a prompt to local authorities to improve their local facilities.

2. The Organisation of tennis.

The Lawn Tennis Association’s work and investment is based around three main priority areas, theses include tennis clubs, junior players and performance. The organisation has been trying to make British tennis more inclusive and available to a wide number for many years. The reasons for targeting the different areas and widening their target market are to attract more and better players. Nowadays, the Lawn Tennis Association is focusing on how and where tennis is played and organised in the UK. The reason for this is to establish where the best facilities are and to improve the areas which are in disrepair. In order to better organise tennis within the UK, the Lawn Tennis Association has introduced an initiative called ‘Club Vision’ which aims to provide progressive clubs with greater support and resources at both a national and county level and to ensure that clubs can play a greater part in making the UK into a stronger tennis nation and make it as popular and generate a following as great as that of football.

‘Club Vision’ is described by the Lawn Tennis Association as being a multi-million pound investment programme that puts clubs at the heart of British Tennis and also supports public ‘pay and play’ indoor tennis centres, schools and local authority venues. The Lawn Tennis Association joined forces with the Sports Council and the All England Lawn Tennis Club in 1986 to launch the Indoor Tennis Initiative designed to develop indoor tennis centres around Britain. The main benefit of ‘Club Vision’ is that it is able to help any club throughout the UK regardless of size and therefore as facilities are better they can promote and attempt to attract many people. This shows that tennis is becoming more organised in the UK perhaps as a result of the increased availability of courts, the affordability of equipment and the increased media interest and coverage of tennis tournaments and championships.

According to Sport England, the London Assembly’s Culture Sport and Tourism Committee met with them and the Lawn Tennis Association to discuss tennis in London in 2004. The aim of the meeting was to establish how the Wimbledon Championship could propel and promote tennis within London and the rest of the UK. Further, the bodies discussed and considered ease of access to tennis courts in London and deliberated over club organization and costs of using publicly owned tennis courts. Throughout the talks, certain projects were discussed which encourage young people to get involved in tennis (such as the Westway Tennis centre), and further they examined how the Mayor, Sport England and the Lawn Tennis Association could encourage more Londoners to pick up a racquet. There is more incentive for people to take up tennis due to the 2,600 tennis clubs which have affiliated with the Lawn Tennis Association via their local county office. The development and introduction of so many clubs highlights the improvement of tennis as a leisure activity.

Currently, the Lawn Tennis Association estimates are that two-thirds of local authority courts nationally are in a state of disrepair and nevertheless the cost of hiring local authority courts stands between ?2-?6 per hour for adults. Most tennis activities are run through such organisations as the Lawn Tennis Association and All England Tennis Club. As a result of theses clubs it is possible for people to enquire as to their nearest club or courts and increase the probability of people playing tennis as knowledge is more readily available.

3. The Social Structure of Participation.

In my opinion tennis has always been classified as a rich mans sport. This might be due to the fact that when tennis originated it was played by the Kings, Queens and nobility. This stigma has now shifted however, there are still certain socio-demographics who shy away from the sport. According to the Lawn Tennis Association, 2.9million people aged four years and upwards played tennis in the UK in 2003. Further, this is reinforced by the British Embassy who suggests that around five million people play tennis in the UK. Either way, this is a large number but there does not compete with the number of people that play football. Of the 2.9 million tennis players the Lawn Tennis Association estimates that 441,000 of these people play tennis in London; 137,000 of them playing regularly. In the UK many of the tennis campaigns and organisations aim to attract the younger generation to take up tennis. This it is no surprise that the younger generation in the UK are likely to play more tennis in the future than that of the current older generation.

In contrast to the number of tennis players in the UK, American Tennis Life Magazine, which conducted a survey on tennis, illustrates that 23.5 million Americans play tennis annually. Of this, 52 per cent of players were men and 48 per cent were women with the average age of these players being 29. Further, the percentage of women players to men is reflected in the ratio of spectatorship. McNamee, (2001) illustrates that 48 per cent of women watch tennis compared to 52 per cent of men. I am surprised that women on average play less and watch less tennis. The abovementioned illustrates that tennis is indeed a thriving sport within the UK but simultaneously illustrate that there is scope for growth within these figures.

So, it is important to establish the type of people who do not play tennis and the reasons for their lack of participation in the sport. The kind of people not playing tennis are those who are in the lower social classes who cannot afford to pay for a club membership, those in areas where facilities are in a state of disrepair and those from ethnic minorities, the latter will be discussed further. Moreover, Sport England and the Lawn Tennis Association have identified the following barriers to greater participation in tennis in London, some of which include; cost (however in reality this is more down to peoples perception of the sport – studies show that the actual cost of tennis membership is more than half what people estimate). Also, poor local authority facilities and a lack of investment in facilities has meant that people in certain areas are just unable to play tennis. Further, the weather plays a large role in determining the months of the year in which tennis is played. Those with no access to indoor courts are not likely to play tennis outside the summer months which results in lower numbers of people who play tennis. Moreover, Sport England has established that there is no co-ordinated approach to tennis for people with disabilities, thus limiting the development of tennis as a leisure activity. Lastly, due to the immense popularity and plugging of other sports such as football, competition with other leisure activities and sports creates a loss of interest in playing tennis once young people have left school.

Furthermore, according to Gabriel, D from the Commission for Racial Equality (CRE), black players are noticeably absent from tennis. Supposedly, poverty is cited as a major factor, with 57 per cent of people from ethnic minorities socially excluded from sports on the grounds of destitution. Gabriel, D believes that a ‘white sporting establishment’ effectively excludes people from ethnic minoritiesfrom getting involved in ‘the organisation and governance of sport’ at every level. In other words, the lack of black people in decision-making roles within sports organisations means there is little opportunity for them to ascend to senior and more influential roles that could promote their wider involvement and influence in sport. McLean, L reinforces the fact that the ethnic minorities do not take part in sport, compared with the national average. Supposedly, people from ethnic minorities are keen to give sports such as tennis a go, but they do not have access to facilities. Thus in order to ensure that tennis remains a popular sport and continues to grow it is essential that every local government looks to improve facilities in their area and encourage ethnic minorities.

Every year, Wimbledon is broadcast on television and in its own right is one of the UK’s major sporting events. According to the Lawn Tennis Association, Sport England spent approximately ?18.7 million on tennis facilities, coaching and promotion and outreach in London in 2003. This perhaps demonstrates that tennis in the UK is in fact on the increase. What we must ensure is that we have the infrastructure in place to cope with larger numbers. The Lawn Tennis Association believes that the most immediate benefit from the Wimbledon Championships is the revenue generated by the event. The 2003 competition brought in ?25.8 million (net income) which was invested back into tennis initiatives nationally. However, in order to see tennis become more popular it is essential to promote all year round and eradicate the idea that it is a summer sport. There is of course little that the Lawn Tennis Association can do to change the weather but it should look to invest in indoor courts and floodlighting through its Club Vision programme and Indoor Tennis Initiative. In 2003, the Lawn Tennis Association committed ?2.28 million to facilities in London, 30 per cent of the organisations fund. Since 2001 it has invested over ?4.89 million in 16 major tennis projects in London.

Further, Gabriel, D from the Commission for Racial Equality has reported that black people are very interested in tennis thus there is scope to increase the number of tennis players in the UK. In my opinion tennis is a growing sport. This is further emphasised by UK Sport (2001), which has explained how the management Board of the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB) has decided to engage with Sport England and the Lawn Tennis Association in an informal consortium to seek planning permission for the redevelopment of facilities at the Bisham Abbey Sports Centre, enabling it to become a Centre of Excellence for both sports. This illustrates that organisations believe that tennis is a worthy investment for the future.

Further, Since September 2004, construction has been underway on the Lawn Tennis Association’s new National Tennis Centre (NTC) in Roehampton. If tennis was showing signs of decline there would not be so many initiatives or campaigns running to improve facilities throughout the UK. The site will provide a single site of national focus for tennis in Great Britain, and will open in late 2006. The reasons for a National Tennis Centre according to the Lawn Tennis Association are that in 1999 an extensive review of the sport was undertaken and it arose that tennis has effectively turned into a social leisure activity for a few, rather than a competitive sport to be enjoyed by many millions.

In all, the evidence points to a rise in popularity of the game tennis. There is still plenty of scope for growth and the introduction of more ethnic minorities to the sport.

Bibliography

The Cliff Richard Tennis Development Fund (2000) The History of Tennis. (Internet), Available at http://www.cliffrichardtennis.org/planet_tennis/history.htm, cited 30/11/05

Bray, A. (2005) Tennis in London. (Internet), Available at http://www.london.gov.uk/assembly/reports/culture/tennis.rtf, cited 30/11/05

The Lawn Tennis Association. (2005) Building our Tennis Nation. (Internet), Available at http://www.lta.org.uk/InsideTheLta/AboutTheLta/BuildingOurTennisNation.htm, cited 30/11/05

British Embassy. Sport – One of the best things in life. (Internet), Available at http://www.britishembassy.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1065716130553, cited 30/11/05

Gabriel, D. Commission for Racial Equality (2005). Why black British tennis players are missing from Wimbledon. (Internet), Available at http://www.cre.gov.uk/Default.aspx.LocID-0hgnew070.RefLocID-0hg00k001.Lang-EN.htm, cited 30/11/05

UK Sport (2001) Cricket and Tennis seek Alliances. (Internet), Available at http://www.uksport.gov.uk/template.asp?id=376, cited 30/11/05

Tennis Life Magazine. Demographics. (Internet), Available at http://www.tennislifemagazine.com/advertising/advertising-demo.html, cited 01/12/05

McNamee, Dr (2001) Sporting Conduct: A survey of Sports spectators’ perceptions of the values and norms of selected professional sports. (Internet), Available at http://www.uksport.gov.uk/images/uploaded/sportingconduct.pdf, cited 01/12/05

McLean, L. Participation in Sport. (Internet), Available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/uk/2002/race/participation_in_sport.stm, cited 01/12/05

The word leisure is normally attributed to an individual’s free time and what they choose to do during that time. Every individual at some stage in their life will participate in some form of leisure, whether it be shopping, travelling, playing sport or just relaxing. Participation must be by choice in order to be considered leisure. Throughout this essay I am going to identify and explain the different types of leisure and why individuals participate with reference to relevant academic literature.

Leisure as a concept is not new, throughout history there has always been examples of leisure. If you think back to the time of ancient Rome, people enjoyed watching and in some cases taking part in the activities held within the Coliseum. Furthermore as you move through history the examples continue; Jousting and banquets in the middle ages, all the way up to what we define as leisure activities today, shopping, participating in sport etc (Pearson, 2008). What’s important to point out is the change in perception of what leisure actually is now, compared to what it was before. During the late eighteenth and nineteenth century Britain went through a massive economic change. Otherwise known as the industrial revolution, this period changed what we would define leisure as today (Bull et al, 2003). For so many people, their nature of worked changed drastically, both in terms of what they did and where. This change enabled social class to be born, and with it increased wealth. This new found wealth enabled new technologies which in turn would allow new forms of leisure (2003).

Trying to define leisure is often difficult; this is due to the many different forms leisure can take. Bull, Hoose and Weed, (2003) propose four approaches to define leisure. These are leisure as time, leisure as an activity, quality of leisure and personal attitude (p32). Most people work long stressful hours during the day, leisure time is often dictated by the time we are left with after working and earning money. However necessities such as sleeping, eating and personal hygiene all eat into what we define as ‘leisure time’. Under the leisure as time approach, work and leisure can be perceived as being in opposition, with one (usually work) limiting the other (p33). When it comes to activity based approaches, as the name suggests, this approach sees leisure as engaging in activities that one would do in their free time, such as shopping, playing recreational sport etc. The quality of leisure and personal attitude go hand in hand with the previous approaches. If the participant is having fun their quality of leisure is improved, the opposite can be said if their attitude is negative. It’s important when looking at why people participate in leisure, that these 4 approaches are taken into account.

As mentioned above, leisure and work are often seen to be in opposition with each other; however that is not always the case. More and more businesses are seeing the benefits leisure can have on staff productivity and happiness. This year alone an estimated ?1.67 billion was spent on leisure activities for staff at work (Groom, 2010). That equates to 20% of all spending on expenses last year. This view is reinforced by companies partnering with leisure based businesses such as activity day planners and health clubs to offer staff a range of benefits and discounts in order to increase their leisure quality. In addition to investing in leisure for staff, businesses as a whole take part in “leisure” also. Sponsorship for leisure events was estimated to be around $45.2 billion last year (IEG Global Sponsorship Expenditure Reports, Cited in ‘Sponsormap’, 2009).

The main concept to explore when asking why people participate in leisure is what motivates them to do so. Under ideal circumstances, the benefits from participating in leisure are numerous. As it covers such a broad range of activities, leisure allows an individual to do what they want. Linda Nazareth (Cited in Alboher,2008) provides an example of a woman who works a stressful 6 day week. By incorporating a small amount of leisure into her routine, she felt happier at work, and felt her interactions with others outside work also greatly improved. Further to this studies show that physical based leisure, such as exercise or recreational sport have a positive effect on ones wellbeing. This is due to a combination of psychological factors as well as raised endorphin levels (“The Reality of the Runners High”, 2008).

However, an individual’s leisure can often be impacted by numerous external factors such as age, race, income and gender. William R. Burch, Jr. (2009) highlights how social class (income) has an effect on what activities an individual can take part in. Activities such as going sailing, although not exclusive to upper class, is more likely to be available to than someone who is lower class. In addition an individual’s gender can also affect their free time. Roberts (2010) cites a recent international survey that shows men have half an hour more leisure time every day than women. In addition, geography also plays a key role. In the same study, figures showed that the half an hour advantage men have over women in the UK, compared to 38 minutes in the US, 33 in France, 50 in Belgium, 22 in Germany and 80 in Italy.

Person’s surroundings similarly can limit their participation in leisure. One could argue someone who is retired will have the most leisure time out of all socio economic groups. This however is not always the case. Just as before, location has a major role on leisure, not just internationally but also locally. As Bull et al (2003) describes behavioral norms and expectations of what someone who is retired is able to do, can in fact limit what it is available to them. Further to this, social expectation can encourage social isolation and disengagement. All of these things contribute to having a negative effect on an individual’s participation. Government funding can also have an effect. If the facilities aren’t available, what an individual may want to do as activity based leisure may not be possible. In addition if pricing of facilities is too high, what an individual has access to will be limited. On the flip side, if funding is there the quality of leisure available to individuals is greatly improved and in general so is participation. This highlights how; at least in terms of activity based leisure, opportunities can sometimes be better for some more than others.

As shown, although leisure is subjective, external factors often have a role to play in the choices an individual makes. When answering why people participate in leisure, the answer is obvious. As William H. Davies said “What is this life if, full of care, we have no time to stand and stare?” (Cited in, Khurana 2009). Life is too short to have nothing but worry. People participate in leisure to escape from the hectic lives they have to live. Although many extrinsic factors can have an effect on leisure, there is no denying the benefits of even a little a day.

Statement of task

As gowning up I was always around sports, for that fact always around many different sports, and one thing that I noticed in each sport is that the interaction, passion, and the interrelations that the fans have with the players. This relation between the players and the fans, many times causes the turnout of the game, which it has. Whether its soccer or football, American or African, males or females, no matter what sport it is all of the games can be determined by how the fan are. Different types of fans react differently in a game, like a hockey fans are mostly angry in nature who cause riots if the game does not go the way they want it to, when a tennis player does not do as well as hoped, there fan will obviously react in a different way. In Europe, they are big soccer or football as they call it there fans, during a game of soccer, if a riots breaks out they have to stop the game completely for the safety of the players and the fans, sometimes these riots last for days… the understanding of these fans can tell you how the game or even the series will end.

Data Collection

In sports there are many different ways to measure how the games will end up, whether your then wins or not, or is going to end up like. One can never tell how the fans are going to act; they can do and will do anything to see a good game. They do a lot of things, just to see their team win. They, the fans, have done many crazy things, like kidnapped a player so he couldn’t make it to the game, for threaten the player physically or physiologically to get into the players head. The players always get energy form the fans and how each one of them has the courage to stand up for what they come to see, see their team win…

This is one of the greatest comeback in soccer history… The comeback may be the most thrilling event in sports. One team or player is left for dead, done, kaput, down too many points or games to come back. We are rational beings. We like to believe what we see, that when a game looks over, it is indeed over. But the comeback, the one done against all odds, speaks to our irrational, dreamy side. It makes us realize that against all odds, great things can happen. They came back for 4 down in the 80th minute and won the match.

In base ball the fans are tend to be always fun and interactive with the players. Sometimes a great comeback is spurred by a single moment. Take, for instance, the 2004 Boston Red Sox. In the American League Championship Series, the Red Sox found themselves down 0-3 to the New York Yankees. They had been pummeled 19-8 in Game 3. History was not on their side: No baseball team had ever come back to win a series after falling behind 0-3. And there was that little matter of a certain curse that shadowed the club. In the last game they were down 4-3 and they with the help to the fans the player found a new motive to bet the Yankees and bet them they shall, because after that the Sox went on to win in extra innings, then won the next three games, completing the single biggest comeback in baseball playoff history. In the World Series, they swept the St. Louis Cardinals to end an 86-year championship drought. There was the 2004 ALCS when the Red Sox rallied against the Yankees to become the first team to ever overcome losing the first three games of a postseason series.

Here are some of the other comebacks which were inspired by the fans for them to win… the 1999 US Ryder Cup team; 2005 Champions League winner Liverpool FC; golfer Karrie Webb; tennis player Ivan Lendl; basketball’s Duke Blue Devils and Boston Celtics; and hockey’s Toronto Maple Leafs.

DATA ANALYSIS

cs shows that soccer games, 40 percent of the time the games are won form a comeback win.

In football about 25% of the games are won from come from behind victories. Most people when won or lose the game blame the most important player on the team, which may or may not be the quarterback, although it is the fans that never give on their team, it is the fans that get people back in to the game, it is the fans the control the game.

35 percent of basketball games are won from comeback victories.

45 percent of the games are come back games in baseball. Six times in the previous 114 World Series has a team rallied from a 3-1 deficit to win a World Series, and a team has overcome a 3-1 deficit in six of the 48 LCS that have been played since it was expanded from a best-of-5 to a best-of-7 in 1985.

Evaluate

For every game that has been ever been played, more than one third has been won with the help and support of the fans in the stadium. One of the important factors that affect the betting odds at football betting is the Home and Away wins. If you have a look at the statistics, you will find that around half of the total matches are home wins, the other quarter matches are draws and the remaining quarter are away wins. These statistics are very much same for all the football leagues around the world. Thus, this fact backs that a home team has a better advantage over the away team. This is not just for football but every sport out there such as, soccer, baseball, even basketball it’s all the same.

There are many reasons for a home team to have advantage over the away team. One reason is the presence of the home crowd. The shouting and cheering of the home crowd really motivates the players, as well as make them play harder to win. On the other hand, the away team always has tremendous pressure, when playing away from home. In such situations, the away team tends to create mistakes, while playing.

In any game these days, you will always find that the home team is always the favorite before the start of the game and accordingly the odds are decided. After the kick-offs of any sport, the odds change depending on the situation of the game. In case the home team scores the first goal, home run, or basket, the odds change in the favor of the home team. In other words, if you wish to place a bet on the home team, there are chances that you may win it, since the home team is the favorite and on top of that, it has scored the first goal, home run, or basket also.

Without any doubts the winning teams are the favorites to win no matter, if it is a home or away match or team.

1. INTRODUCTION

Sociologist Aashish Nandy once remarked that Cricket is an Indian game accidentally discovered by the British shepherds. Today, the Indian sub-continent, rather India has become the best market for the game of cricket. Globally, over the last two decades sport has moved from being a pastime to a business as a result of the process of commercialization. The story of cricket is no different. In fact, commercialization of cricket started way back in the 1970’s. In 1978, Kerry Parker, the Australian business tycoon started the Parker series which revolutionized the way the game was played till then. Parker Series, still has its impact in the form of colored jersey, day-night matches etc. The International Cricket Council (ICC) was initially opposed to Parker, but they later compromised for the good of the game. The game has changed by the time the Parker series concluded in the 80’s the game changed forever.

1983 is a landmark year in the history of Indian sports. On the 25th day of June that year India captained by Kapil Dev won the Cricket World Cup. The victory was totally unexpected but the magnitude of it was so much that it changed the sporting interest of a nation. Rarely can such things happen. After that victory, Indian’s fell for the game. In 1987, the Indian sub-continent hosted the World Cup successfully. Nine years later, in 1996, India organized the Cricket World Cup again. This time it was commercially successful as well as took the game to almost every part of the country. India became the best market for the game. The game had such a big impact that, we Indians consider Cricket to be our national game, though Hockey is the national game.

What makes the game of Cricket special? Though diverse answers are possible to this question, I personally feel that it is the game’s ability to adapt to changes that makes it special. Going by the history of the game, this has always been true. For e.g. starting from 1878 till 1960’s test cricket was the only form of the game. The game in the 1930’s underwent modification from being played for unlimited time to a limited time of 5 days. In the 1960’s, test cricket began to look boring. This led to the start of One Day Cricket in England. Eventually, the first One Day International was played between England and Australia at Melbourne in 1971-72. Within 4 years, ODI cricket became the leading form of the game as the first World Cup was organized in 1975. As said earlier, Kerry Parker launched his ODI series in 1978 which revolutionized both ODI and the game of Cricket. In course of time, ODI became sort of boring especially with many lopsided matches and being unable to offer the kind of thrill that it used to offer earlier. This led to the start of a new brand of Cricket called Twenty-Twenty, where each side gets to bat twenty overs each. It is a faster version of the game with all spicy elements in it.

The first T20 was between Australia and New Zealand in 2005.

As always India was a late entrant in the T20 format as well. The turnaround however came in 2007. India was out in the first round of the ICC Cricket World Cup. Talks of organizing a T20 tournament to discover new talents for the team and to improve the existing talents were suggested by Kapil Dev and Subhash Chandra of the Zee TV. They decided to start a T20 tournament named the Indian Cricket League (ICL). The Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) was against a private body taking international players and running a T20 tournament. BCCI in the ICC used its full strength to ban those players who take part in the rebel league. Just as the ODI picked up steam in India, the T20 picked up steam in India when India won the first ever T20 World Cup in South Africa. Soon, the talks of organizing a league parallel to the rebel league arose and it was called the Indian Premier League (IPL). While ICL was launched in December 2007 the IPL was launched in April 2008. The IPL is the brainchild of Lalit Modi. Just as Kerry Parker revolutionized the ODI cricket, Lalit Modi revolutionized the T20 Cricket.

2. THE INDIAN PREMIER LEAGUE

The Indian Premier League was founded on ‘My City My Team’ principle. 8 franchisees are there representing eight cities namely, Chennai, Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Mohali & Jaipur. They were called Franchisees. Each franchisee was bought by a group or individual. There are 8 franchisees. The names of the franchisees and there owning group is given below:

Darbari Lal Foundation or DLF, a real estate company based on Dubai sponsors the entire event. Together, the entire event is called the DLF IPL.

Perhaps for the first time ever in the history of the game, the cricket players registered with the IPL were auctioned. The IPL and the player auction have attracted a lot of attention and comments. The auction for the players underlined the fact that cricket is not just a game anymore and it is a business and a big one at that. Just think of the business concept at its most elementary level – the product is the game, the players are the assets, the spectators inside the stadium and television viewers are the market, the revenues will come from in-stadium advertising, player endorsements, entry tickets, share of television rights and lot, you have a complete business. When we bring the concept down to this elementary level, it may be easier for die-hard cricket fans, to digest a Sachin Tendulkar or a Rahul Dravid being auctioned off like an inanimate asset. Players, much like land or machinery, are assets for the business and just as when a businessman spot a prime piece of real estate that he thinks will be good for his plant or showroom and bid for it, so when he finds a class player on the block he bids for him.

Finally the extravaganza began on 18th April 2008. Though, before the start of the IPL, there were some reservations about the success of the event, especially whether the audience will throng the stadiums or not. But within few days from the start of the tournament all those fears were disproved. Audience came to the stadium in large numbers. IPL thus became a huge hit. Even though this time the IPL is held in South Africa, the local audiences are responding in the same way as Indian audience did. So, the brand of IPL is a huge success. Cricket, as a game and as a business has certainly come of age. But couple of question arises in this regard:

Is cricket losing its innocence?
Does cricket need to be commercialized to such a great extent?

The IPL has caused emotional trauma to some fans of the game who consider themselves as purists and who claim to watch and play the game just for the joy of it. The advent of big money, they say, somehow robs the game of its charm. There is no doubt something to be said for the concept of players donning the national colors and playing the game for their country. But then, the IPL is not going to be a substitute for international cricket played among national teams. It is going to be yet another dimension to international cricket. Of course, the great players are not going to play for national honor but for money. But what’s wrong with that? Why should they be grudged the money they earn for showcasing their awesome skills that gives so much entertainment and joy to millions of people? Why should cricketers not be valued based on their skills just as an investment banker or a CEO is and paid accordingly? We do not complain when we hear of the multi-million dollar salary packages and bonuses earned by top flight investment bankers who may after all have earned that just for lending to sub-prime clients!

Till the advent of the IPL or for that matter the Indian Cricket League of the Zee group, cricketers had a single employer – their respective national cricket boards. Of course, most of these boards took good care of their players but there was never really a market to determine the real worth of a cricketer. And again, talent was at the mercy of the Board and it is not difficult to point out instances, especially in India, where talent was ignored or even suppressed for reasons other than cricket alone. That will no more be possible with a market developing for cricketers, a market that respects performance alone and does not care about anything else. Here, the pioneering initiative of the Indian Cricket League (ICL) should be acknowledged. But for the ICL and the threat it posed to the BCCI, the latter might not have conceived of the IPL at all.

For those bemoaning the loss of innocence in cricket, the answer is that this is the age of free markets and marketing. Cricket cannot remain insulated to market forces when everything around it dances to the market’s tunes. The commercialization of cricket was inevitable after it became a profession years back with players depending on the game for a living. The game ceased to be a gentle sport played for the love of it long ago just as other sports such as football, basketball or rugby. It is just that cricket managed to retain its “innocence” longer than the other sports.

And again, there is also something to be said for cricketers of different nationalities playing together in the same team. At a serious level it will help players understand each other better.

Whatever, be the views IPL is a hit with the masses.

3. SOCIAL IMPACT OF IPL

At its simplest level, the IPL is all about businessmen sensing an opportunity to profit from the game’s craze among a growing mass of people with high spending power. There is big money waiting to be made by all concerned – the businessmen now bankrolling the league, the players, advertisers, the media and, of course, the BCCI. The first edition of the IPL was highly successful. The way it united India for 45 days was simply amazing. Cricket is a game that unites India- whether it is rural or urban. The kind of support that cricketers enjoy in India is unique and unparalleled. Once I met a Bihari worker. He asked me where am I from. I said I am from Kerala. Though he did not know much about Kerala, the first thing that he asked was about Sreesanth and what do you say about the slap that he got from Harbhajan. This is an indication of the kind of support that the cricket players enjoy.

India is a diverse country. Unification of the country thus becomes very different. Divided by religions, languages and many other factors, we need something that can unite us. Cricket is the only sport capable of doing it. The role played by IPL in that regard is spectacular. For e.g. Jaipur blast occurred a few days before a Rajasthan Royals match in Jaipur. It was presumed that the turn out will be low following the blast. But that was not supposed to be. Sports are a good heeler and IPL proved it when people dared to come out of their households to support the team. This incident can be analyzed at another level also- IPL as an instrument of strengthening regionalism. As I have seen over the last few days, people supporting the team from their region like a person from Kolkata for Kolkata Knight Riders, a Rajasthani for the Rajasthan Royals. This strength is in a positive sense. But regionalism is not regionalism as in the case of a language or culture as manifested by the MNS or other such organizations. The reason behind this is that even though the team or franchise hail from a region, the number of players speaking the language and sharing the culture is very few. For e.g. the Kolkata Knight Riders claiming to represent the city of Kolkata, has 4 people from Kolkata, namely Saurav Ganguly, Ashok Dinda, Wridhiman Saha and Arindam Bose. Then how does IPL strengthen regionalism when there is hardly anyone from the region? The answer is that even though there is hardly anyone from the region, it is ensured by the team owners are that the regional tastes are catered. This is done through the icon player, who happens to hail from that city. Secondly, the home matches of the teams which were played at their home grounds. All these are good ways to throng the audience to the stadium. For e.g. whenever a Kolkata Knight Rider match was played at the Eden Gardens, the atmosphere was electric and hardly any seats were empty. Similar was the mood in Chennai as well.

IPL was not about any nationality, it liberated us from that moral restriction. It was acceptable to cheer Shane Warne or Adam Gilchrist performing well, especially against India. Earlier what used to be the case was that there was that moral restriction, which prevented us to some extent from cheering a foreign player openly. It is only post IPL that we have really started enjoying cricket more as a sport. IPL strengthened the relations among countries. Cricket diplomacy is something that has become synonymous with Indo-Pak relations. Though the relations among countries at the higher level may be worse, the lower level may not be the same. In 2008, the Pakistani players were cheered by the Indians especially players like Akthar, Tanvir, Asif etc. Later, when IPL decided to organize the Champions League, i.e. a tournament featuring top two T20 sides from India, Pakistan, Australia and England, Pakistan willingly sent its teams. However due to Mumbai blast and consequent events, the Champions League did not become a reality. This year it is the diplomatic relations at the top level and some security issues in Pakistan prevented Pakistani players from taking part in the second edition of IPL. Nevertheless, IPL and Indian fans miss Pakistani players.

IPL also changed the T.V. viewing habits and strengthened the depth of cricket in rural-urban India. Last year, during the 45 days of IPL, the TRP i.e. television rating of IPL was very high. It was a good break from the T.V. sops focusing on ‘saas-bahu ‘and other family themes. People sat in front of the T.V. sets, whether it be a posh hotel in Mumbai or an ordinary tea stall in the rural area of U.P. or Bihar, to watch an IPL match and encourage their favourite players and teams. IPL was the bigger threat to multiplexes than the recession. All in all IPL was a tremendous success with the masses and will always continue to be a huge success.

4. CONCLUSION

The Australian Airline company QANTAS has an amazing tagline which reads: “It is the spirit that brings us home”. Going by that style, IPL should have a tagline that it is the spirit that connects us. Cricket is the best healer in a country like India divided by languages and cultures. If there is anything on which the rich and poor can have a commonality in India, it is Cricket and Cricket stars. This unity, though for short time is achieved by IPL. If not IPL and cricket, then what else can unify the country?

In 2009, due to General elections in India, IPL is being played in South Africa. South Africa is one country with whom India has a great relationship with. By taking the IPL abroad, Indian culture and tastes are given a global appeal. Even though, the game is played in South Africa, there is no dearth of excitement for it in India. Every evening all of us sit together and watch the match. The reaction if the favourite team loses or the favourite players perform badly is that of one of sadness and disappointment. This is what happened two weeks back during a match where the pendulum was swinging either ways and after an intense finish in which his team lost, a supporter was very sad. So sad to such an extent that another supporter commented that the reaction is as if his dad’s money is involved in it. Such is the emotional attachment one feels to a team. Cricket is being discussed wherever you go. From tea stalls to posh hotels, from markets to super markets, among the rich and the poor, rural and urban India, IPL is a super hit with the masses. It is the perfect example of marrying business with sports and thereby uniting a country. Entertainment has thus achieved a new name.

IPL has thus changed from Indian Premier League to India Patriotically Liberated.

Within the study of electrofishing and fishery habitat management, there are specific guidelines which the management professional must adhere to in order to protect the safety of the wildlife, the boating participants, and the participating patrons. Such guidelines are industry standards and should be understood by all professionals who are participating in the fishing process. To ensure such failsafe mechanisms are in place on a consistent basis, activities must follow a professional and pre-determined path while preparing gear, loading into the watercourse, and performing electrofishing tasks. Professionals will understand that these steps cannot be ignored due to the need for similar results over an extended period of time. Given the adherence to such measures, the potential for a pure data stream and analysis is greatly improved.

Given the scope of lake fishing operations, there are several key safety checks which must be performed prior to placing the boat into the water. Figure 1 demonstrates a standard safety check of the engine and generator systems on a typical electrofishing boat. Boat standardization across the industry is consistent; however, the components will often vary, requiring safety examinations which are constantly aware of standard features. Generally all boats will include a power supply and a power conditioner which are designed to meet the requirements of the specific body of water. By ensuring that the boating materials are properly calibrated for the specific investigation, researchers will ensure that their performance is not inconsistent with previously tested results.

Participants in the electrofishing process will include the boat handler or driver and two additional participants for actually performing the fishing process. It is important that each individual is aware of the expectations of the task prior to moving into the water so that standards systems remain active. The handlers are responsible for placing the seining instruments into the lake for continuous shocking of the fish population. The stun process will involve retrieving the fish via net and charting their data aboard the boat. To ensure that such procedures are accomplished with limited negative affect on the fish, handlers must use care and be actively aware of their shocking methods. Niemla et al. (2000) challenge that within the electrofishing process that there are oftentimes inconsistencies in the population estimation process which can be minimized through a standardized and non-random selection process over a small number of suitable sites. There are alternative mechanisms which can also be used, including a random process or area sweep; however, what is important is that such procedures generate comparable results over time.

One of the most significant challenges given the breadth of the lake environment and results driven electrofishing is to ensure that transets are predictable and time based. In successive examinations, researchers recognize that removal methods will oftentimes underestimate the actual fish population, due to a reduced catchability based on removal statistics (Gatz and Loar, 1988). To ensure that such deviation does not occur, the seining gear must be placed in approximately the same spatial area as participants navigate the lake. Extending the gear to a specific length, i.e. 10 feet, ensures that with each subsequent transet, fish are compared to the previous guidelines and not to a new set of unpredictable data. For appropriate fish sampling, a multiple pass system as highlighted by Kimmel and Argent (2006) may be used for accuracy’s sake; however, standardized systems will focus on length versus width consistency or a linear sampling distance.

Recognizing that fish demographics offer substantial insight to fishery professionals, comparison data is often drawn using specific tools and tracking methods. A length board is a handy and standard tool which is used to compare fish throughout the study. Weight can be charted frequently or at regular intervals in order to gain a sampling of the representative fish population. Data regarding the water quality, temperature, and chemical composition should also be attained during this process through standard testing which includes the use of a dissolved oxygen probe. Implications of such study will become obvious during subsequent examinations and data comparison.

During the multiple pass system, transets are established by visual shore markers which enable the consistent analysis over a period of time. Study of historic data trends by Humpl and Lusk (2006) demonstrated that singular pass systems were oftentimes inaccurate and could not provide researchers with adequate samples for long term comparison. Upon collection of data samples, the return process and docking procedure should mimic that of the initial boat placement, including the shutoff of all powered components prior to exiting the boat. Cataloguing data using visual methods and consistent charting materials enables long term comparison and researchers will be quickly able to identify any inconsistencies in the lake or habitat area.

Considering the variability of lakes and the changing fishing population, such standardized electrofishing techniques ensure that results may be compared based on regular intervals. As biologists continue to develop more standard technologies for fishing bodies of water, integration of standard procedures the process, regardless of materials must be ensured. In this study, the underlying safety checks for the boating system were addressed, highlighting those key points where failure to investigate could mean a failed experiment and a stranded craft. Fishery management involves a relationship between the natural habitat, the visitors, and the investigating professionals; through well directed, consistent efforts, the information gathered can directly assist in charting the long term sustainability of a fish population as well as the surrounding ecology.

References

Gatz, A.J; Loar, J.M. (1988) “Petersen and Removal Population Size Estimates.” Environmental Biology of Fish, Vol. 21, pp. 293-307.

Humpl, M; Lusk, S. (2006) “Effect of Multiple Electro-Fishing on Determining the Structure of Fish Communities in Small Streams.” Folia Zoology, Vol. 55, No. 3, pp. 315-322.

Kimmel,W.G; Argent, D.G. (2006) “Efficacy of Two-Pass Electrofishing Employing Multiple Units to Assess Stream Fish Species Richness.” Fisheries Research, Vol. 82, pp. 14-18.

Niemla, E; Julkunen, M; Erkinaro, J. (2000) “Quantitative Electrofishing for Juvenile Salmon Densitites: Assessment of Catchability During a Long-Term Monitoring Programme.” Fisheries Research, Vol. 48, pp. 15-22.

Part One
Introduction

There are many methods which one can rely on in order to undertake policy research. Often we will see policy makers undertaking primary research by way of observations and experimentation, resulting in a first-hand account of the effectiveness of a certain policy in a given context. However, such primary research is not always available or easily accessible, and often persons need to rely on secondary accounts of information to base their decision making processes on. It is this reliance upon secondary information that can lead to problems as to quality and reliability, which may contribute to the lack of effectiveness of a certain implemented policy.

The purpose of this essay is to explore the principle of concept models and their effectiveness in relation to the formulation of policy as regards sports development. In doing so, it will attempt to identify what concept models actually are, what sports development is defined as, how the two areas interrelate, and finally the advantages and limitations of relying on concept models as a form of research. It is important to note at the outset that relying on secondary research is arguably fraught with danger in any case, however this essay also recognises the fact that primary sources or material may not always be available, and will consider whether concept models make a valuable alternative form of research.

What are ‘Concept Models’?

Concept models are a logical form of data collection, which researchers and academics often use to gauge and measure certain aspects of a sample of a population, so as they can form general conclusions based on the results. Often a concept model is the result of laborious analysis and experimentation, which uses scientific data collection methods to formulate and test hypotheses, so as a person studying a particular area can gain knowledge and intuition in a logical manner. Clearly there is a significant difference between the application of a reasoned hypothesis to a particular set of circumstances, as opposed to the application of theoretical principles, and this is perhaps where the conflict arises between these two methods of research in particular areas of study.

It is important to understand the fact that there may be times where a concept model is perhaps the most appropriate method of research in a particular matter. However, other situations will require a more theory-based approach. This is the difficult issue that the study of society and culture presents to the academic and researcher: society and social values are often not accountable to rhyme or reason. They cannot be justified by the application of facts and figures, but rather one must attempt to understand the underlying rationale of a social context so as to have an idea as to what conclusions can be drawn about that particularly sample’s behaviour. The purpose of this essay is to highlight the tension which concept models bring to a social issue such as sports development.

What is ‘Sports Development’?

Sports development cannot be defined by one singular term. It can have a variety of meanings depending upon the context it is used. Perhaps the most succinct definition, but by no means definitive, is the following:

Sport development deals with the opportunities available for people to progress to their potential in sport, from taking part for fun and health to competition and also encompasses the provision of opportunities for addressing the social issues of the day through participation in sport.^[1]

Furthermore, it is important to note that:

As a profession sport development needs to justify the claims made for it by politicians and practitioners alike by providing an evidence base for the claims made for its value as a legitimate social service.^[2]

Therefore, sports development is regarded as having a role in society in general, and is not limited just solely to participation in sport itself. It can relate to health, in the sense that participation in sport and physical activity can lead to a reduction in obesity levels and cases of coronary heart disease and the like. It can link to crime, in the sense that sport can be used as a method of implementing structure and rigidity into a person’s life, with the theory being that a person is less likely to offend as a result. It can even delve as deep as other social issues such as gender equality, in relation to the access to top competition sporting events and activities being geared more towards men than women. All these different concepts are important, and all need to be understood in order to truly grasp the overall concept of sports development. But how does one teach this to others? How does one understand the relationship between these very different entities, in a user-friendly way?

How are Concept Models used in Sports Development?

Concept models can be a useful tool in sports development, and in fact have been in discussion and policy research since the 1970s. Since first being coined as a term in the 1960 Wolfenden report,^[3] sports development has undergone somewhat of a development in itself. New concepts have arisen, that need to be explained to scholars, researchers and laypeople alike. This is where concept maps may serve a valid purpose. They visually represent how various aspects of areas interrelate and flow on from one another. For example, the area of sports development has traditionally been associated with the ‘pyramid model’,^[4] whereby a person begins at the bottom of the pyramid with many others at the foundation level, and gradually moves up the pyramid to the excellence level, which is only reached by much fewer people. This brief pyramid concept basically tells the reader in a visual way the overall principle of sports development, and what its ultimate goal is. However, this does promote limitations. Firstly, it implies that the only way a participant in sport can move is up, and does not allow for the frequent occurrence of participants having to drop down one ‘level’ and attempt to climb up again. Secondly, it also imposes a quite rigid framework, and does not allow for the individual or unique nature of each and every participant. These issues will be discussed in further detail in due course.

Concept models are also useful in the sense that sports development is an area which has been identified as severely lacking in empirical and scientific data to justify any other major form of modelling.^[5] Riddoch also goes on to say that, as a result of this lack of ‘hard evidence’, we must rely more so on “theory, common sense, observation and expert opinion as on hard evidence”.^[6] This essentially proves the usefulness of concept models in the context of sports development; however it also signifies the need that we need to begin developing a ‘bank’ of hard evidence so as to support the faith the government shows in this area. Essentially then, concept models are useful as an introductory tool, however one should seek to qualify these concepts with rigid empirical data.

What are the Advantages of using Concept Models?

The overwhelming benefit that concept models play in relation to the design, planning and delivery of the sports development process is that fact that is essentially simplifies the concepts and the relationships between various aspects of sports development and the wider community. It can essentially explain otherwise complicated topics quite clearly and reasonably, while also guiding the policy development process as a whole, given that it can highlight specific target ideas and values that a policy may wish to address. An excellent example of a concept model for sports development can be found in the PAT 10 report entitled ‘Sport and Social Exclusion’ (1999) at page 10 thereof, which attempts to represent the relationship between sport (or physical activity generally) and the wider economic benefits to the community as a whole.^[7] On the basis of this concept model, one can trace the path of consequences that a specific activity or outcome can carry. For example, an increased time in sprints can lead to an increase in sports injuries, and then an increase in costs to the NHS. However, the same outcome could also result in an increased achievement in sporting activities, then an increase in one’s health, and accordingly a decrease in costs to the NHS. This diagram maps out this particular issue quite well, although it is still quite ambiguous, in the sense that it does not indicate which path is more likely than the other to occur, and implies an even chance of either (or even both) occurring.

What are the Disadvantages of using Concept Models?

The above discussion in relation to the advantages of concept models also perhaps highlighted what some of the disadvantages are. A person who seeks to rely on a concept model in developing sports policy may be making a decision based on misleading information. This is primarily due to the fact that concept models can imply ambiguity in the data they represent. As mentioned above, the example in relation to the PAT 10’s concept model does not give any indication as to what event is more likely to occur than the other, meaning that the policy makers cannot accurately measure their issues as against the consequences due to the lack of empirical data in support. Therefore, it is important for policy makers to make their own enquiries into the reliability of the information, and they also should seek to support it with some ‘hard’ evidence before drawing a conclusion and formulating policy to guide the sport development process. Also, a pre-existing concept model may not cater for the policy maker’s particular circumstances, and therefore it would be important to have further information available to tailor the concepts to fit the situation. Concept models may also only prescribe one manner of ‘moving’ through the various concepts, which does not cater for all eventualities, and therefore one must exercise caution when relying on them, and perhaps only rely on concept models which might allow a certain amount of flexibility in their guidance.

Conclusion

On the basis of the above discussion, it would be reasonable to conclude that concept models can be a valuable tool in guiding the design, planning and delivery of sports development policy, however they should be relied upon with caution, and the policy maker should make an effort to familiarise himself with other ‘hard’ evidence so as he can make policy in the best interests of achieving the objectives he has set for the policy. It is the unique objectives of the policy that should come first, and it is the role of the policy maker to design and implement policy which will achieve these goals otherwise it will be of no benefit. Therefore, it is incumbent upon the policy maker to make all reasonable enquiries so as to ensure that they are making their decision based upon reliable and sound evidence. While concept models are valuable resources, they are certainly not definitive, and should not be viewed as such by those who seek to rely on them.

Part Two

Childhood obesity is becoming an ever increasing problem in today’s modern society. So often do we see advertisements for fast food, junk food and other unhealthy habits and lifestyles, such as video games, on the television which are predominantly aimed at a younger audience. This places significant pressure on the sports industry as a whole, as children who become disillusioned with sport may suffer consequences not only to their own health, but the heath of the industry overall. After all, children are the future of our society, and it is in the interests of sport into the future to promote its values to the younger generation. The purpose of this case study is to highlight ways that sport is used at a younger level, such as school age and the like, in order to promote the positive message of health and fitness to children. This is often achieved through the implementation of social policy and activities which promote physical activity and are generally catered to the fitness and skill levels of younger children. It is difficult to rebut the proposition that obesity in general, let alone childhood obesity, it reaching epidemic proportions around the world, specifically in the United States. The purpose of this brief therefore is to identify the objects of school-based activity programs, and rationale which underpin these programs, the design and implementation of these programs as well as their implications for management. Specifically, given the writer’s residence in Australia, it will tend to focus more on Australian-based research based on the writer’s experience in after-school childhood sport programmes.

There is substantial evidence and policy in existence which supports the proposition that sport can promote a healthy lifestyle and decrease the risk of coronary heart disease and stroke at a later stage in life. In particular, the “PAT 10 report Arts and Sport (Department for Culture, Media and Sport, 1999) includes health as an area in which sport can contribute to neighbourhood renewal. The Value of Sport (Sport England, 1999) suggests that sport can make a contribution to “the new policy agenda” by assisting in the improvement of fitness and health – the reduction of risk of coronary heart disease, obesity and osteoporosis; psychological benefits (eg reduction of depression) and a range of more specific health benefits.”^[8] Therefore, sports development serves a vast social purpose from a health perspective, in the sense that encourages its participants to increase their physical activity in order to improve their health and not face as many potential health problems down the track.

In the Australian context, where the writer is based, there is clear evidence of a policy shift towards enforcing compulsory school-level sport within the curriculum for all primary school age students. In the state of Western Australia, this was recently introduced and, according to Education Minister Mark McGowan, “what I don’t want to see is us reach the obesity levels of the United States” and acknowledged that governments “can’t take all the responsibility here. Two hours a week in a school curriculum in which we’re loading up literacy and numeracy as well is a good outcome. What we need is after school and on weekends, parents to play their bit as well.”^[9] A Western Australian school principal remarked about the policy “It is certainly very popular with the students. The teachers like the fact that we can now program it rather than it just being an add-on to the curriculum and it seems a very good way for us to resource the problem that we’re facing.”^[10] What this demonstrates is the fact that the government only has a limited role in the decrease of the epidemic of childhood obesity. Its hands are effectively tied, in the sense that much of the encouragement and enforcement needs to come from the parents of the children rather than the government. Essentially, the government only has ‘control’ of children for about six hours per day, whereas parents are responsible for their children after school and on weekends, so there is a need for this value of childhood health and fitness to spread as a social value, rather than simply becoming an imposition by government.

Perhaps most relevant to the after-school programs that the writer was involved in was the key points in relation to health which were made by Coulter in his research report entitled “Realising the Value of Cultural Services: the case for sport” (2001), and the following seven conclusions on this report can be drawn:

Much of the research evidence relates to the health benefits of physical activity, rather than sports per se…
There is a need to focus on behaviour change rather than formal activity, promoting facility use and uptake of classes and sessions.
Among sports participants, the frequency of activity is often less than that required to achieve and sustain health benefits.
Qualitative evidence suggests that the greatest gains from involvement in activity relate to psychological health and increased feelings of well-being.
It is important that such experiences are complemented by a recognition of the unique physiological benefits of exercise.
Factors underpinning the success of activity provision have included appropriate and convenient local facilities; recognising the importance of participants’ friendship groups in getting involved and staying involved; providing reassurance that ‘people just like us’ are able to participate; acknowledging, particularly to older people, that some physical activity will be better than none; and recognising that if the activity has some intrinsic value (good fun, enjoyable, a change of environment etc), it may be more appealing and ensure adherence.
There is a widespread absence of robust monitoring information on the health benefits of participation and little long-term monitoring of adherence to activity programmes. This reflects the short-term nature of many initiatives, the lack of funding for such monitoring and the lack of expertise to undertake such work.^[11]

The above points perhaps best capture the underlying rationale behind after-school sports programs. There is no need for a child to participate in sports per se, but rather in activities which result in an increase in physical activity. While the definition between sports and physical activity can appear clouded on occasions it is clear that, for the purposes of Coulter’s report, they are two entirely different concepts.

One of the key programs that the writer was involved in, in order to be able to comment upon this issue first-hand, is known as the ‘Active After-School Communities’ program, which is operated under funding provided by the Australian federal government. A documented case study has been undertaken in regards to the effectiveness of this program in encouraging younger children to participate in physical activity. Parents acknowledged the concerns in the current social environment in relation to obesity and later health problems, however sought to support the program where they were able to, having regard for barriers such as travel and distance, as well as time constraints in relation to parents being able to pick up and drop off children in line with their work commitments.^[12] However, in an attempt to promote maximum attendance and participation, it was important for the deliverer of the program at each venue to follow certain policies in relation to the activities that they organise. First and foremost, it needed to be an activity that the children would enjoy. This meant that it needed to cater to the wants of the children, rather than the deliverer simply imposing a certain program upon the group. The deliverer therefore needed to be flexible in terms of ideas and planning of activities, however needed to remain firm enough to impose a sense of order, control and structure to the activities, in order to ensure that the overall objectives of the program were still being met. Another key feature of the Active After School Communities program is the ‘non-exclusion’ policy behind all of its activities. In essence, this means that no child should be excluded from the activities, and activities which provide for a person being ‘out’ should provide another physical role for that child as part of the activity. For example, in a game of dodge ball, a person who is hit by a ball (in a safe manner) would ordinarily be out, however a good program deliverer could find an alternate role for these participants while they are waiting for a new game to start, such as throwing balls in from the sidelines as part of the game, which still keeps them involved and active. This often meant that the deliverer had to create unique games or activities within ‘their own rules’ in order to implement the policies laid down by the program. This required special training on the part of program deliverers, and thus all deliverers were required to complete accreditation in the delivery of the program before being able to conduct the program unsupervised.

Of course, the design and implementation of the program is not without its impact upon the management of the program. It is important for the Federal Government to have regard for the fact that many parents are somewhat unable to pay large amounts for this program, and hence the participants of the focus group expressed a desire for the program to be heavily, if not fully, subsidised by the government.^[13] This creates an issue, in the sense that the funding of the program is a significant concern given the associated expenses of program delivery. This is particularly due to the need to pay the deliverers for their services, but also that the program takes place outside of school hours. This means that supervision of the program often falls outside of the scope of a teacher’s ordinary duties, and thus often a casual employee (or a number of them) needs to be engaged in order to fill this role. Magnifying this issue is the need for a large number of sites to exist, especially in rural areas, in order to maximise participation by minimising the distance and travel factors. Additionally, the case study also highlights the lack of suitably qualified staff to fill these roles in any event.^[14] This means that the management need to outlay a substantial amount of funding to initially reach the required training and staffing standards that the policies of the program demand. Therefore, the management need to be mindful of the concerns raised by the parents of the children of the program, as they are reluctant to absorb any major costs associated with the program. As a result, the management need to ensure that the appropriate budgets and costings are obtained so as to meet the objectives of the program, and it is clear that these policies perhaps impose a great deal of pressure and responsibility upon the management.

In summary, it would appear that the Active After School Communities program which the writer was associated with serves a valid purpose. It recognises the need for children to become physically active, in a society which promotes generally unhealthy lifestyles and habits. The responsibility for this negative social shift would have to be shared between the government, parents and corporations; however the responsibility to fix the problem ironically sits with the same people. For example, the AASC program relies heavily upon funding from Nike, which provides clothing and equipment so the program can run efficiently. The government needs to put the framework in place, but ultimately it is the role of the parents to encourage their child to attend the program, and to ensure continued participation, so as the child can receive the full benefit of the program.

Bibliography
Books
Houlihan, B., and White, A., The Politics of Sports Development (2002), London: Routledge
Hylton, K., Bramham, P., Jackson, D., and Nesti, M., Sports Development: Policy, Process and Practice (2007, 2^nd ed), London: Routledge
Reports
Coulter, F., ‘Realising the Value of Cultural Services: the case for sport’ (2001) LGA, London
PAT 10, ‘Research Report: Sport and Social Exclusion’ (1999) Institute of Sport and Leisure Policy, Loughborough University
Riddoch, C., ‘Relationships between physical activity and physical health in young people’ in Young and Active? Young people and health enhancing physical activity – evidence and implications’ (1998)
Ruiz, J., ‘A Literature Review Of The Evidence Base For Culture, The Arts And Sport Policy’ (2004), Scottish Executive, Edinburgh
The General Council of Physical Recreation, ‘Sport and the Community’ (1960), CCPR, London.
Internet Sources
ABC News, ‘Compulsory sport to tackle childhood obesity’ (2007), at 2 August 2008
Colmar Brunton Social Research, ‘Evaluation of AASC Program: Community Case Study – Vasse Community’ (2008), Australian Sports Commission, at 2 August 2008
Sports Development, at 2 August 2008

An Experimental study of the Independent and Interactive Effects of ‘Coach Variables’ on the motivation and performance of Rugby ‘Forwards’

INTRODUCTION

Rugby is a hugely popular international sport (UKRFU^[1], 2006; USARFU^[2], 2006). Two teams of 13 players each, play the sport by kicking, passing, or carrying a ball. In order to win a team must score more ‘points’ than its opponent. Points can be achieved by a ‘try’ (5 points) or a ‘goal’ (3 points). The former entails touching the ball to the ground beyond a line in the opponents half (more points can be earned by performing a ‘place kick’ or drop kick’ conversion). A goal involves kicking the ball over the opponents cross bar (in the form of a penalty kick or drop kick).

It is essential that the players are motivated. Research has shown that player motivation is partly dependent on coach variables (Tammen, 1997; Allen & Howe, 1998; Cumming, 2002; Reinboth et al, 2004). In particular player aggressiveness, an important aspect of rugby, is influenced by coach input (Abd-Aziz, 1998; Guivernau-Rojas, 2001). Certain coaches are better able to ‘drive’ their players to victory than other coaches, for example by providing better feedback, frequent praise and encouragement, tactical advise, and corrective information.

How players perceive their coach is critical (Mavi, 2004). Social psychological on literature (Norman, 1976; Lui & Standing, 1989; Aronson, 1995; Eagly & Chaiken, 1993; Pornpitakpan, 2004) suggests that characteristics such as credibility, likeability, and trustworthiness, may significantly determine a coaches’ motivational effectiveness. For example, a likeable coach may be more effective at encouraging his ‘forwards’ (‘tight-five’/’front five’ and ‘loose forwards’) to achieve successful try’s and goals. A review of the relevant literature (e.g. ‘PsychINFO’, ‘Academic Search Premier’), revealed a paucity of rugby research in this area.

AIMS/HYPOTHESES

The study proposed here aims to evaluate the effects of coach variables – credibility, likeability, and trustworthiness – on the performance of rugby players, particularly the ‘tight-five’/‘front-five’ and ‘loose forwards’. Consistent with previous research on communicator variables (e.g. Pornpitakpan, 2004), the following hypotheses are proposed with respect to player/team performance:

A credible will achieve more try’s/goals than a non-credible coach.
A trustworthy coach will achieve more try’s/goals than an untrustworthy coach.
A likeable coach will achieve more try’s/goals than a disliked coach.
Interactions (two-way and three-way) between these coach characteristics will influence the achievement of try’s/goals.
METHODOLOGY

Setting

The study will be set up as a field experiment. The setting will be the premises of several local rugby clubs.

Design

The study will be based on a between-groups experimental design. There will be three independent variables: coach expertise (high/low/placebo/no treatment control), likeability (high/low), and trustworthiness (high/low). This will translate into a 4 x 2 x 2 between groups factorial design, using multivariate analysis of covariance (Coolican, 1994). Thus, in effect, there will be 16 experimental conditions. The dependent variables will consist of players reported motivation (after a match) and the number of successful try’s and goals during a match. Attempts will be made to control for important background variables, including player experience, weight, height, and, baseline motivational levels, and score history.

Sample

The sample will comprise several different teams of rugby players, recruited from schools, universities, and clubs in the local area. The target (i.e. minimum) sample size is 160 players, with at least 10 players per factorial cell.

Stimulus Materials

Prior arrangements would have been made with team officials to substitute the original team coaches with a stooge coach. Players will be informed that a new coach will temporarily ‘substitute’ their regular coach, who is unable to attend due to a prior family engagement. Two or three stooge coaches will be used, one for each team. Manipulation of independent variables will occur as follows:

(Expertise): players will be informed by the researcher that their new coach is an ex-rugby player with either ?10 years coaching experience or a newly qualified coach with <1 year experience, who just completed a Coach Development Programme (CDC) (USARFU, 2006).

(Likeability): Each stooge coach will act in either a friendly fashion (e.g. smiling, encouraging players), or an unfriendly manner (frowning, denigrating players).

(Trustworthiness): Players will be informed either that the stooge coach is getting paid a substantial amount of cash for this one-off job, or is working for free (Aronson, 1995, pp.80-81).

(Placebo): Players will receive irrelevant information about the stooge coach (e.g. where they live and marital status), who will act in neutral fashion (i.e. neither friendly or unfriendly).

(Control): No information will be provided about the stooge coach, who will try to act in a neutral fashion.

A self-report questionnaire will be used to collect baseline data from players on the following: perceived expertise, trustworthiness, and likeability of the stooge coach, and background variables including prior rugby experience, weight, height and score history. This questionnaire will also be used to assess current (i.e. pre-treatment) motivational levels and perform manipulation checks for each coach variable (i.e. expertise, likeability, trustworthiness).

The study will be carried out during a series of rugby matches played in the local area. A ‘Game Day Check List’ (USARFU, 2006) will be used to work out the most appropriate time to brief players. Prior to each match each participating rugby team will be randomly assigned to one experimental condition. Particular attention will be paid to the ‘forwards’ or ‘pack’ (i.e. players 1-8). Players will be asked to complete the baseline questionnaire, as part of a general survey on the profile and interests of rugby players in the UK. They will also be informed about the use of a substitute coach, and given the appropriate background information regarding expertise and trustworthiness. After each match players will complete the baseline questionnaire, and then be debriefed.

Data will be analysed using a multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA), performed on SPSS (Field, 2002). Background variables will be treated as the covariates (i.e. control variables).

A local Ethics Committee will review this project. It will conform to ethical guidelines of the British Psychological Society (BPS, 1993). Thus, the study will not involve any unnecessary deception, invasion of privacy, pain, injury, or discomfort, or violation of any legal requirements. Furthermore, all information collected from subjects will be strictly confidential.

TIME SCALE

The study will be conducted over a 12 month period.

Month 1: Pilot study

Month 2 to 3: Administration of Stimulus Materials & Data Collection

Month 4 to 5: SPSS Data Entry, Editing, and Analysis (MANCOVA)

Month 6 to 8: Write Up

Month 9 + : Dissemination of Findings

DISSEMINATION OF FINDINGS

Findings will be disseminated through conference presentations and Journal publications. It is planned that a paper will be presented at the 12^th European Congress of Sports Psychology (4-7 September, 2007, Halkidiki, Greece). A paper will also be submitted to the Journal of Applied Sports Psychology or British Journal of Sports Medicine or International Journal of Sports Psychology, all of which are particular useful outlets for targeting academic audiences.

REFERENCES

Abd-Aziz, S.B. (1998) Aggressive tendencies in Malaysian youth soccer: an examination of individual and contextual factors. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section A:- Humanities and Social Sciences. 59 (5-B), 2480.

Allen, J. & Howe, B.L. (1998) Player ability, coach feedback, and female adolescent athletes’ perceived competence and satisfaction. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology 20, pp.280-299.

Aronson, E. (1995) The Social Animal. New York: Freeman.

BPS (1993) Code of Conduct, Ethical Principles and Guidelines. Leicester: British Psychological Society.

Coolican, H. (1994) Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology. London: Hodder & Stoughton.

Cumming, S.P. (2002) A bio-psychosocial investigation of self-determined motivation in recreational and travel youth soccer programs. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section A:- Humanities and Social Sciences. 63 (5-A), 1765.

Eagly, A.H. & Chaiken, S. (1993) The Psychology of Attitudes. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Field, A. (2002) Discovering Statistics using SPSS for Windows. London: Sage.

Guivernau-Rojas, M. (2001) The impact of motivational and moral variables on aggressive tendencies in sport. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section A:- Humanities and Social Sciences. 62 (6-B), 2990.

Lane, A.M., Rodger, J.S.E. & Karageorghis, C.L. (1997) Antecedents of state anxiety in rugby. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 84, pp.427-433.

Lui, L. & Standing, L.G. (1989) Communicator credibility: trustworthiness defeats expertness. Social Behaviour & Personality. 17, pp. 219-221.

Mavi, H.F. (2004) The relationship among dispositional, contextual variables, and intrinsic motivation in high school teams sports. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section A:- Humanities and Social Sciences. 65 (3-A), 876.

Norman, R. (1976) When what is said is important: a comparison of expert and attractive sources. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 12, pp.294-300.

Pornpitakpan, C. (2004) The persuasiveness of source credibility: a critical review of five decades’ evidence. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 34, pp.243-281.

UK Rugby Football Union (2006) Play [online] RFU Official Site, http://www.community-rugby.com/communityrugby/index.cfm/Fuseaction/Home.Home/StoryTypeId/98/SectionId/575.cfm [Accessed 31 July 2006]

USA Rugby Football Union (2006) USA Rugby [online] Rugby Channel, http://www.usarugby.org/collegiate/manage/gameDayChecklist.html [Accessed 1 August 2006].

Tammen, V.V. (1997) Coach and athlete goal orientations: congruence of orientations and affects on athlete satisfaction and commitment. Dissertation Abstracts

International: Section A:- Humanities and Social Sciences. 57 (11-A), 4687.

Introduction

The coach-athlete relationship is widely recognised as one of the most important interpersonal relationships in sport (Jowett and Cockerill, 2002; Lyle, 1999). In the past, coaching focused largely on improving the physical and technical skills of the athlete; however, more recently, the importance of developing the athlete’s psychosocial skills has also been acknowledged (Miller and Kerr, 2002). It is now accepted that the behaviours, thoughts and emotions of the coach and athlete are interconnected, with both individuals having a mutual appreciation and respect for each other (Jowett and Meek, 2000; Philippe and Seiler, 2006). The main goal of the coach-athlete dyad is to produce an outcome of improved, high performance from the athlete, and the quality of this relationship can impact significantly on whether successful outcomes are achieved. The aim of this paper is to review published evidence on the nature and dynamics of the coach-athlete relationship and the potential influence of significant others on this dyad.

Conceptual models to investigate the dynamics of the coach-athlete relationship

Traditionally, the dynamics between coach and athlete have been studied from the perspective of coaching leadership (Jowett, 2005). The earlier models which provided a conceptual framework for this research include the Mediational model (Smoll and Smith, 1989), the Multidimensional model (Chelladurai, 1993) and the Coaching model (Cote, Salmela, Trudel, Baria, Russell, 1995). These models focus on the behaviours of the coach, perceptions of these behaviours, and the impact of such behaviours on outcome variables such as performance and satisfaction. A number of newer conceptual models have been developed which also largely have a behavioural focus (Jowett and Cockerill, 2002; Mageau and Vallerand, 2003; Poczwardowski, Barott, Peregoy, 2002; Wylleman, 2000). Worthy of note is the Motivational model proposed by Mageau and Vallerand (2003), which may be of value in the study of inspirational motivation, a recent focus of leadership research. This considers whether an individual shows an exceptional ability to lead others to higher performance levels and/or provide inspiration through the use of clear principles and goals, and has been shown to be a strongly associated with athletes’ level of satisfaction with their coach (Gomes, Sousa, Cruz, 2006). It can be argued that a major limitation of all these models is that they fail to consider the non-behavioural aspects of the coach-athlete relationship (e.g. thoughts and emotions) which may also be importance influencers of the effectiveness and success of this relationship.

The 3Cs and Co-orientation models

The Closeness, Commitment and Complementarity (3Cs) conceptual model developed by Jowett and colleagues incorporates both behavioural and non-behavioural components of the coach-athlete dyad, and reflects the relational aspects of emotions, cognitions and behaviours, respectively (Jowett, 2002; Jowett, 2003; Jowett and Cockerill, 2002; Jowett and Meek, 2000). An additional interpersonal construct, co-orientation, has also been evaluated and is included in the Co-orientation model (Jowett, 2006; Jowett and Clark-Carter, 2006). This adds another dimension by considering coaches’ and athletes’ perceptions about each other from three different aspects: actual similarity, assumed similarity and empathic understanding (Jowett, 2005). Both the 3Cs and Co-orientation models have been pivotal in recent research investigating the nature of the coach-athlete dyad from the perspective of the athlete in individual sports including swimming (Philippe and Seiler, 2006; Poczwardowski, Barott, Jowett, 2006).

Analysing the nature of the coach-athlete relationship

In addition to their own perspective on the coach-athlete relationship, both members of the dyad will also form perceptions of how the other member views the relationship. Laing and colleagues (1966) first proposed the terms ‘direct perspective’ (i.e. the individual’s own perspective) and ‘meta-perspective’ (the individual’s perception of the other dyad member’s perspective). More recently, Kenny and Acitelli (2001) developed a method of measuring the accuracy of these perceptions (Kenny and Acitelli, 2001). A study using this methodology has investigated empathic accuracy and assumed similarity in perceptions of closeness, commitment and complementarity in the coach-athlete relationship (Jowett and Clark-Carter, 2006). Findings showed that empathic accuracy and assumed similarity were evident in both coach and athlete perceptions; however, athletes were more accurate in identifying their coaches feelings in terms of closeness, while in newer relationships, both members showed higher levels of empathic accuracy.

Communication is another important component of the coach-athlete dyad (Jowett, 2003; Phillipe and Seiler, 2006). Studies have demonstrated that effective communication promotes a shared understanding of the importance of key issues between both dyad members and may therefore reduce the likelihood of problems or conflict occurring within the relationship

The Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q) is a self-report instrument developed to explore the nature of the coach-athlete relationship by examining closeness, commitment and complementarity from a meta-perspective (Jowett and Ntoumanis, 2004). The validity, internal consistency and reliability of this questionnaire were demonstrated in two independent samples of British coaches-athlete dyads. More recently, a Greek language version of the questionnaire (GrCART-Q) has been developed, together with a modified version incorporating co-orientation (Jowett, 2006). The validity and reliability of both versions of this questionnaire were confirmed in a sample of coach-athlete dyads from individual sports (Jowett, 2006).

Effective versus successful coach-athlete relationships

When considering the nature of the coach-athlete dyad, it is important to distinguish between effective and successful relationships. Effective relationships are underpinned by values such as empathy, support, acceptance, respect and responsiveness (Jowett and Cockerill, 2003; Jowett and Meek, 2000). While these undoubtedly provide positive psychosocial benefits for the athlete, they will not necessarily improve performance. In contrast, successful relationships are ones in which a measure of performance success has been achieved, although these may not always be effective in nature (Jowett, 2005).

The influence of significant others on the coach-athlete relationship

It has been suggested that the coach-athlete relationship should not be considered solely as two members of the dyad working together, but also should also take account of the influence of significant others. For example, some believe that coach leadership may be a shared function rather than a role taken on by the coach alone (Jowett, 2005; Jowett and Chaundy, 2004) while in the case of children, parents and other family members may play an important role in the development and success of the athlete (Cheng, Marsh, Dowson, Martin, n.d.).

To conclude, there is a considerable body of literature investigating the nature and dynamics of the coach-athlete dyad and those factors which may influence the development, effectiveness and success of this important relationship.

References

Chelladurai, P. (1993). Leadership. In R. N. Singer, M. Murphy, & L. K. Tennant (Eds.) Handbook on research on sport psychology. New York: MacMillan.

Cheng, J. H. S., Marsh, H. W., Dowson, M. & Martin, A. J. (n.d.) Exploring the effect of relationship dynamics of support on gymnasts’ and figure skaters’ self-concept, education and psychological resilience: a research proposal. Retrieved 5 July, 2008 from http://www.aare.edu.au/05pap/che05309.pdf

Cote, J., Salmela, J. H., Trudel, P., Baria, A. & Russell, S. (1995). The coaching model: A grounded assessment of expert gymnastic coaches knowledge. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17, 1–17.

Gomes, A. R., Sousa, S. A. & Cruz, J. F. (2006). Charismatic, trnasformational and visionary dimensions in sport leadership: towards new paths for the study of coach-athletes relationships. In N. S. Huber & M. Harvey (Eds.). Leadership at the crossroads. University of Maryland: The James MacGregor Burns Academy of Leadership.

Jowett, S. & Cockerill, I. M. (2002). Incompatibility in the coach-athlete relationship. In I. M. Cockerill (Ed.) Solutions in Sport Psychology. London: Thomson Learning.

Jowett, S. & Cockerill, I. M. (2003). Olympic medallists perspective of the athlete-coach relationship. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 4, 313–31.

Jowett, S. & Chaundy, V. (2004). An investigation into the impact of coach leadership and coach-athlete relationship on group adhesion. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research and Practice, 8, 302–11.

Jowett, S. & Clark-Carter, D. (2006). Perceptions of empathic accuracy and assumed similarity in the coach-athlete relationship’, British Journal of Social Psychology, 45, 617-37.

Jowett, S. & Ntoumanis, N. (2004). The Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q): development and initial validation. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 14, 245–57.

Jowett, S. (2002). The coach-athlete questionnaire and dyad maps (Research Monograph No. 1). Staffordshire: School of Health, Staffordshire University.

Jowett, S. (2003). When the ‘honeymoon’ is over: a case study of a coach–athlete dyad in crisis. The Sport Psychologist, 17, 444–60.

Jowett, S. (2005). The coach-athlete partnership. The Psychologist, 18, 412–5.

Jowett, S. (2006,). Interpersonal and structural features of Greek coach–athlete dyads performing in individual sports. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 18, 69–81.

Jowett, S. & Cockerill, I. M. (2002). Incompatibility in the coach-athlete relationship. In I. M. Cockerill (Ed.) Solutions in sport psychology. London: Thomson Learning.

Jowett, S. & Meek, G. A. (2000). The coach-athlete relationship: an exploratory content analysis. The Sport Psychologist, 14, 157–75.

Kenny, D. A. & Acitelli, L. K. (2001). Accuracy and bias in perceptions of the partner in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 439–48.

Laing, R. D., Phillipson, H. & Lee, A.R. (1966). Interpersonal Perception. Baltimore: Perennial Library.

Lyle, J. (1999). Coaching philosophy and coaching behaviour’. In N. Cross & J. Lyle (eds.) The coaching process: principles and practice for sport. Oxford: Butterworth-Heineman.

Mageau, G. A. & Vallerand, R. J. (2003). The coach-athlete relationship: a motivational model. Journal of Sports Sciences, 21, 883–904.

Miller, P. S. & Kerr, G. A. (2002). Conceptualising evidence: past, present and future. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 140–53.

Philippe, R. A. & Seiler, R. (2006). Closeness, co-orientation and complementarity in coach-athlete relationships: What male swimmers say about their male coaches. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7, 159–71.

Poczwardowski, A., Barott, J. E. & Peregoy, J. J. (2002). The athlete and coach: their relationships and its meaning – methodological concerns and research process. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 33, 98–115.

Poczwardowski, A., Barott, J. E. & Jowett, S. (2006). Diversifying approaches to research on athlete coach relationships. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7, 125–42.

Smoll, F. L. & Smith, R. E. (1989). Leadership behaviours in sport: a theoretical model and research paradigm. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 19, 1522–51.

Wylleman, P. (2000). Interpersonal relationships in sport: uncharted territory in sport psychology. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 31, 555–72.

INTRODUCTION

“Sports will either be a school of virtue or a school of vice, and that’s why the epidemic of cheating in professional sports is, and ought to be, a huge cultural concern.

Sports, at every level, is supposed to be a training ground for virtue, to mould the character of athletes, coaches and supporters so that they may learn lessons that may help them to achieve off-the-field as much as on. In few other venues are people able to learn as effectively the good habits of perseverance through difficulties, teamwork, striving to overcome obstacles, the importance of preparation and practice, and the courtesy and class we call good sportsmanship.

But the field, court, track, diamond, rink, pool and roadway can also cultivate vice, when results become more important than virtue, when winning becomes more important than winning fairly.

It has been hard to open a sports page recently without reading something to do with cheating and its consequences. Recently encountered readings include Bill Belichick and the clear contravention of the NFL’s videotaping policy; Patriots’ Safety Rodney Harrison and his suspension for taking an illegal substances; NBA referee Tim Donaghy and his expulsion for betting on games he was officiating; Barry Bonds and his tainted home run record, along with former heroes turned synthetic pseudo-supermen Jason Giambi, Mark McGwire, Sammy Sosa, Rafael Palmeiro; Floyd Landis’ suspect yellow jersey and the expulsion of what seemed to be half this year’s Tour de France participants for blood doping and other violations; WWE icon Chris Benoit and his steroid-induced murderous-suicidal rage; various college recruiting violations, Olympic scandals and much more. Professional boxing almost looks clean and honest by comparison.

WHY DO THEY CHEAT

Sports are a microcosm and stylization of life: goal-setting, preparation, effort, character, the integration of mind and body, competition, success and failure. It’s all there in sports, distilled and intensified into a few hours’ experience.

The usual answer is that cheaters have so strong a desire to win that they will strive to do so at all costs. Cheaters do have a desire to win, but by the time we are adults we know that a cheated victory is hollow. An adult cheater knows that he has not won through skill and effort, and he knows he will not experience the pride that comes from a genuine win. The only thing the cheater is left with is that he knows that other people will believe that he won and he will reap the value of their enhanced esteem.

So here’s a hypothesis about the psychology of cheaters: Cheating is not motivated by a desire to win, but by wanting to be thought of by others as having won. Cheating is a kind of social metaphysics-what others believe is true is more important than what is actually true.

Another possibility is that the cheater knows the above-that a cheated win is hollow-but in the short run his intense desire to win crowds out his knowledge. So cheating is a failure to hold the context of why one is playing sports: strong desire overwhelms the cheater’s knowledge, or through weakness of will the cheater ignores his knowledge to indulge the desire.

Cheating in a financial context: You cheat not because you want the win but because you want the money that comes with the win
Cheating in a social context: You cheat because you don’t want your teammates to lose or because you want your teammates to have the win they want
Con-man cheating: You cheat just for the pleasure of pulling off a scam
Cheating that is malevolent: You want to see your opponent suffer a loss, so you don’t care that the win is hollow-you enjoy knowing the other guy is hurting and/or that you deprived him of the experience of winning

WHAT ARE STEROIDS

Steroids are manufactured testosterone-like drugs that are usually taken to build muscle, enhance performance, and improve appearance. While some steroids are used medically to treat many conditions including asthma, chronic lung disease, skin conditions and allergic reactions such as poison ivy, non medical use of steroids can have serious side effects. Using steroids for cosmetic or athletic purposes is not sanctioned in the United States.

Method of Use

Swallowed in tablets or liquid or injected. Users take them in patterns called “cycling”, which means they take them over a specific period of time, stop, and then start taking them again instead of continuously using them. Many users also take different types of steroids in combination with other drugs. This is known as “stacking”.

Signs and Symptoms of Steroid Use

Steroid abusers often exhibit the following symptoms:

Rapid weight gain
Rapid muscle development
Acne flare up
Fluid retention
Yellow tint in the eyes and on skin (jaundice)
Mood swings, depression
Aggressive behaviour
Premature balding

Drug Test Detection

Oral steroids can be found in your system up to several weeks after use. Injected steroids can be found for several months after use.

Short-term Consequences

Use of steroids can increase muscle mass, strength, and endurance, but can also cause liver tumors, jaundice, water retention, and high blood pressure. Some users show bad judgment because the drugs make them feel invincible. Other users suffer from uncontrolled aggression and violent behavior called “Roid Rage”, severe mood swings, manic episodes and depression. They often suffer from paranoid jealousy, extreme irritability and can have delusions.

Long-Term Consequences

When the body experiences a build up of steroids in its system, conditions such as hypertension, high cholesterol, kidney disease, stunted growth, and heart damage are likely to occur. Women can experience irreversible deepening of the voice, shrinking of the breasts, menstrual irregularities, baldness and hair growth on other parts of the body, and genital swelling. Men can experience baldness, breast enlargement, sterility, shrinking of testicles and impotence. Steroids such as prednisone and other synthetic steroids can cause a rise in blood sugar by blocking the effect of insulin. Over time, users can develop diabetes.

WHY TAKING STEROIDS CONSIDERED CHEATING

Steroids give some players an unfair competitive advantage over others. But this response stems from the faulty underlying assumption that players have some “innate” ability or talent which is not dependent upon their environment. In fact, the only way steroids are different from other performance enhancers like protein shakes or nutritional supplements is because their side effects are worse and their performance enhancing effects are large. This efficacy, and the “steroid body” that goes with it, triggers fans’ pharmacological Calvinism, the belief that taking a pill for any reason is bad, and leads to the media labelling the steroid culture and users as alien, which are the factors that truly keep steroids on the wrong side of public opinion and MLB policy.

The first and most basic reason people view steroids as cheating is because they feel it gives players abilities that they otherwise would not have had. This is the position of every poll or article researched for this essay in the national sports media over the last four years. Again, the signs displayed in Philadelphia are representative. One 60-foot long sign said “Babe Ruth did it on Hotdogs and Beer. Aaron did it with class. How did you do it?”This question rests on the assumption that Bonds’ steroid use differentiates him from Aaron and Ruth, who set career home run records without steroids.

But to simply say steroids enhancers players’ performance is easy. The deeper question behind that answer is “Why does that matter?” That question involves a number of different aspects of what it means to be a baseball fan. First among them, perhaps, is the notion of fairness. The US culture in general holds fairness as one of its central tenets, as part of the Puritan Work ethic and the capitalist ideal: everyone must deal fairly, so everyone has their shot to succeed if they work hard enough. That ideal is held to as strongly in baseball as any other sport. The problem with steroids, then, is not just that users have an unfair advantage over non-users. Widespread steroid use limits the free choice of non-users, because if they want to make a living they are almost forced to start taking injections, and having to deal with the side effects. This is called “free choice under pressure” by Thomas Murray (as reported by Peter Kramer).

There’s no question, then, that the more players use steroids, the harder it is for others to stay clean. What are the implications of that for players, and what are players’ responses? At the physical level, this spiral of steroids forces players to endure the side effects of steroids when they otherwise might not. At the level of consciousness, players have their free choice limited by steroid-fuelled competition, and free choice is also something this country values. Players respond to these concerns by claiming that steroid use supports American values. For example, a value much appreciated in sports is the desire to win above all else. Players that have that desire, like Michael Jordan in basketball, are often revered. So a baseball player might argue that he simply wants to win at all cost, even sacrificing his body to steroids to win. Just because another, non-user does not want to win enough to take steroids, that doesn’t mean the user should be punished for it.

There are other problems with the argument that using steroids is cheating because they give a competitive advantage. The biggest fault with it is that steroids are not the only thing in baseball that gives a competitive advantage when there was none before. Revenue and payroll differences and environmental factors like the skill of the training staff and the quality of the facilities can cause “unfair” competitive advantages between teams and players as well, but those discrepancies are considered part of the game. The responses to this argument are that taking a substance is fundamentally different from working out more or on better facilities because you do not have to work as hard to get the same results as someone not on steroids. But some players use a good diet to get into better shape, or take legal supplements to make their workouts more effective. This is exactly the way steroids work – they help to build muscle faster in conjunction with exercise and weightlifting, so those that work out the most are going to get the most out of steroids. Should the MLB disallow all possible supplements and mandate player diet and workout regimens to eliminate the possible advantage? Ultimately, you cannot justify getting rid of steroids because they give a competitive advantage, because baseball operates by identifying and using competitive advantages.

Despite the arguments above, most people would remain convinced that taking steroids was cheating. There are three primary reasons:

One is the notion of pharmacological Calvinism, two is the influence of the press on public perception of steroids, and three is the labelling of drugs in general and those who take them as alien. These are the real reasons that taking steroids in baseball is considered cheating today.

Pharmacological Calvinism is the belief that taking a pill or drug is morally wrong, because hard work, suffering and pain are essential parts of human existence. The concept figures prominently in Kramer’s discussion of Prozac as a way of explaining the public’s response to the drug, and the same can be said of fans and baseball players. This phenomenon can be seen in baseball lingo: someone who is clean is someone who is off steroids. This terminology might come from the MLB policies, but it probably comes from larger drug culture, and reflects the idea that even though it is tough to argue against steroids ideologically, there is still a taint to taking steroids, the sense that a player who takes them has lost some purity they might have off steroids. This also might be why players like Jose Canseco are ridiculed and reviled when they talk about steroids being the standard throughout the league: they are deliberately taking a stance against pharmacological Calvinism, and so automatically people hearing them want to reject the idea without listening to their analysis, which often is more logical than people care to admit.

Another effect of pharmacological Calvinism is that news reporters looking to cover steroids automatically assume a negative stance towards them, although that is also influenced by the dangerous side effects. Sports journalism is very pervasive. Every fan has to get their scores and results from somewhere, often on a daily basis. Sports fans also tend to spend a lot of time discussing sports, so ideas and opinions they read get discussed and argued about in their social circle.

The final reason steroids are considered cheating is because they work so well. And because they work so well, and so many ballplayers used them, the build of a user, his problems and habits, became commonly known and looked for. What is more, because of the negative press steroids got, fans were able to label them an other to dismiss steroids users as people holding alien values without really looking or considering how they might be motivated by the same things as regular fans. This can be shown by the massive amount of jokes about big heads, small balls, a common side effect of steroid use, and the vehemence of the national polls quoted earlier. For fans to say that anyone testing positive should be thrown out of the sport is quite harsh, considering that there are arrests of ballplayers all the time for a variety of other drug use charges and crime, and none of them are thrown out on the first offense. Something that might help explain this position is the legitimate use of steroids. Steroids are not like nutritional supplements of protein shakes that people might regularly take to get in shape, and they are not petty crimes or drug charges that baseball fans are familiar with or have committed themselves. They are treatments for sick people to help survive treatment, including treatment of diseases like AIDS, which already is somewhat marginalized in mainstream culture. And even in those diseases, steroids are something to avoid if you can. So that makes purposeful steroid users in sports all the more alien.

Ultimately, the reason why taking steroids is considered cheating goes back to the chemical properties of steroids themselves: they work too well at helping athletes build muscle, and combined with the country’s pharmacological Calvinism, make for bad press and public perception. This leads fans to consider steroids cheating and justify it by saying steroids give an unfair competitive advantage, when the entire sport of baseball is built on just such advantages. If steroids were less useful, like nutritional supplements today, they would probably be legal, widely used, and just another part of the game, like spitting sunflower seeds. Unfortunately, because of the pressure on athletes who will do anything to succeed, steroids are only going to get more powerful and hard to detect, rather than more benign and legal. But that doesn’t mean the steroid scandal won’t go away. Already, journalists are trumpeting this baseball season as the post-steroid era. If history is any indication, people will think steroids solved, stop caring, only to be shocked again when the next great and popular surge of offense turns out to be the result of their beloved players using the next generation of performance enhancers.

CONCLUSION

The recent epidemic of cheating in sports reveals ethical and anthropological dimensions that must be considered if we wish as a culture to eliminate it.

The ethical dimensions go far beyond the violation of a particular rule governing a sports league. It goes to one of the bedrock principles of ethics, whether in sports players, coaches and fans believe that a good end never justifies immoral means. In the cases of cheating above, we see that the cheaters think that the end of winning – or doing better in competition – validates the dishonest means one takes to get there. There are now such enormous financial rewards or losses hinging on sports outcomes that those of lesser character find far greater incentive.

The anthropological dimension refers mainly to the means one takes in violation of the ethical principle. Sports cheating today very often involve technological manipulation not just of the rules of the game – like with the Patriots’ spy gate – but also of oneself through performance-enhancing drugs. In former days the path to improvement came through practice, coaching, exercise and experience. Now for many it comes through injections, pills and creams. Rather than improving one’s skills, one seeks to make himself “better, stronger and faster” through technology – like a modern six million dollar man, or, if you consider the financial incentives for many pro-athletes, a hundred million dollar man. This comes at a huge cost. The death of pro-football player Lyle Alzado and 11 recent professional wrestlers through steroid use is enough of a warning. But we also have to be conscious of the huge temptation it places on all those who, at whatever age, wish to be successful college or professional athletes who cannot compete on their own with artificially-enhanced peers”.

References:

Sports and Cheating by Fr. Roger J. Landry

Why in Baseball using steroids considered cheating? Brian Chase

American council for drug education – www.acde.org

Amateur sports are sports where participants are entirely engaged without any form of remuneration. This kind of sport was seriously guarded in the 19th century by the rich people though in the 20th century it was faced-out as a result of continued growth in professional sport. Currently amateur sports are held by a few organizations that govern sports. Professional sports developed in the 19th century, this was spear headed by the US and the United Kingdom. By then sporting culture was strong in the institutions of learning for example colleges and universities[1]. As a result, middle class and upper class men who were students at these institutions played as amateurs. People who were working were limited in participating in the games due to there busy schedule though one’s in a while they could be given an afternoon-off in order for them to take part in the sport that was then available.

When professional teams started to emerge some clubs could willingly pay players in order for them to take some time off there profession and take part in sports. This served as an incentive to increase the number of attendances and also it made players to fully concentrate on their sport. This provided a good opportunity for the people who were against amateur sport to flourish and expand. The influence of money and its effect on sport brought the change in sports from amateurs to professional since it was in the main interest of professional to give the highest possible amount per unit of performance (Gallagher et al 1997, 71).

The upper class and middle class men who dominated this sport had a theoretical preference as well as a self interest in preventing the sport from being professionalized[2]. As a result this threatened the participation of the working class in the sport who did not understand why they should not be paid for taking part in the sport. This led to competing interests between the two involved parties since we had a group that wanted sports to be open for all while the amateurs feared that professionalism would destroy the Corinth spirit. The conflict between the two parties lasted for about a century during which sports like golf took it relatively easy and tolerated the competition between the two while others were traumatized by the happenings and they therefore helped the preceding generations to come in terms with professionalism (Wilson 1994, 379).

The Olympics of the 19th century

In the early 19th century and 20th century Olympics restricted participation to only amateur players since the amateur code had been strictly enforced. For instance track and field medals were stripped off from Jim Thorpe for taking expense money from baseball that he played in the year 1912. Afterwards Olympians from western countries who were successful began to accept endorsement contracts from organizations and people who were willing to sponsor them. Complex rules were also put in place to ensure that funds received were channeled to trust funds rather than being given to the athletes. At the same time nations that belonged to Communist bloc joined the Olympians team that mainly comprised soldiers and students who were being paid by the government to train full time.

The retirement of the International Olympic committee (IOC) president in the year 1972 led to the relaxation of the amateur rules in many areas. In the US the Amateur Sports Act of 1978 prohibited national governing bodies from imposing strict rules on standards of amateur than required by the International governing bodies dealing with respective sports. In the year 1990 there was an abandonment of the Olympic regulations which regarded amateur with an exception in sports like boxing were participation rules required amateur status for participant’s safety (Dunning 1999, 118).

Professional sports are sports where athletes receive payment for there participation and performance. This kind of sport has been promoted by several developments i.e. mass media and increased leisure by people which has lead to large audiences thus commanding large incomes. As a result people involved in sports have made it there primary career hence devoting there time on training in order to sharpen there skills, experience and physical condition. The proficiency led popularization of sports[3].

Benefits of a successful team to the city and sponsors.

Successful team popularizes the city in which they are located in other words we can say it sells the city to the world. And as a result investors are attracted to that place making the place to rapidly develop. For example Rochester city in the United States is the 3rd most popular city and it has become a centre for a large metropolitan area. Sponsors drive the goals of a team which include promotion of safety and services to communities dominated by there employees. As a result the morale of sponsor’s employees is boosted due to direct connection to positive changes occurring in the community at large.

Sponsors are able to enjoy visibility through the daily services offered by the teams they sponsor[4]. Some of the benefits of team sponsor partnership include; players wearing sponsor’s logo on there t-shirts and this reveals sponsor’s commitment to the community. There is also promotion of corporate commitment to the community and when the team is being recognized the links of the sponsor company will be included and as a result the company is popularized.

Influence of politics on sports decisions.

There is also increased corporate recognition since there will be opportunities for the media to highlight the corporate community investment. These increase the sponsor’s company visibility by the politicians and the community leaders at large. Net work opportunities with the corporate world, community and public officials are provided. Sometime the team may visit the sponsor’s office in need of training and this in turn gives his employees an opportunity to plan and facilitate sessions meant for building the corporate members.

Media plays a very important role in government development since people get access to the politics and other forms of entertainment. For a very long time the media still remains the leading source of political communication. All functions performed by the media are influenced by political insinuations. For example entertainment, news reporting, socializing new generations, airing of political forum as well as profit making. Its influence is very rampant during political campaigns since coverage of a single event may turn out to be most significant in putting an opponent down.

And since people have there own formed ideas when viewing television and other media sources there is selective attention which is created and as a result viewers tend to pay much attention to information that agree with there own opinions. And since the media is very effective on politicians who do not have a stable political opinion on all issues its very easy for the decisions of sports to be influenced by the happenings in politics.

In politics and sports power, prestige and profits motivate the people involved[5]. The media reports the preceding in both politics and sports for political purposes. Sports are regulated by political establishment in order to ensure equal opportunities, justice, legal authority and personal attention. As a result the relationship existing between sports and politics reflects the changing pattern of values and cultural practices. In the Olympics the formal rules that governed the competitors were formulated by politicians who were very eager to offer an entertainment that would be popular (Allison 1986, 63).

Economic and cultural aspect of sports

Sport has been used and its still being used to raise income, this can be referred to as sport commoditization. Commercialization of sport is not considered as cultural but rather out of the necessity due to economic circumstances. In the colonial time sports were unstructured, spontaneous activities which were coordinated and organized by the participants. This is not the case at the moment since sports are being well organized in order to attract many people from all spheres of the world with different financial status in order to raise a lot of money. At the moment professional sport has grown rapidly and it has become a booming business. Athletes, support personnel and sport team owners have benefited handsomely from sport fans who pay to watch there games and also purchase commodities endorsed by them (Staudohar et al 1991, 264).

Influence of Italian government on sports.

The kind of sport being played in a place is determined by the people’s practice or rather culture. The culture of the people influences the kind of sport they engage in. for example the ancient Olympic Games were religious festivals that commenced with procession along the sacred highway. Therefore culture has a great part in the development of a sport. The Italian government influenced the transition process by sponsoring players to train in order to gain the needed skills and this helped the sport to move from amateur to professional. Govern sponsorship, and partnership with organizing bodies facilitated the growth of sports from amateur to professional sports.

Work Cited.

Paul D. Staudohar, J. A. Mangan. The Business of Professional Sports. USA: University of Illinois Press, 1991.

Rosemarie Gallagher, Sally Fountain & Linda Gee. Physical Education through Diagrams. USA: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Eric Dunning. Sport Matters: Sociological Studies of Sport, Violence, and Civilization.

11 New Fetter Lane, London: Taylor & Francis, 1999.

Lincoln Allison. The Politics of Sport.Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press ND, 1986.

John Wilson. Playing by the Rules. Michigan, USA: Wayne State University Press, 1994.

[1] The students in the various institutions had developed a culture of taking part in sport within there colleges.

[2] The rich and men who were relatively or averagely rich dominated the original amateur sport.

[3] The effectiveness and excellence of the players was as a result of there commitment for training and there full attention during the sport.

[4] The visibility of the sponsors came about as a result of the playing and participation of the teams they supported in community development.

[5] The parties involved in politics and sports are players and politicians who had the same ambitions and also shared same benefits.