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Cardiovascular Control in Exercise, the contribution of Central Command and Muscle Afferents

The human body has the ability to easily adapt when exercise begins with many of these adaptations occurring in the cardiovascular system. It is well documented that at the onset of exercise heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP) and muscle sympathetic nerve activity progressively increase to higher levels (Lind et al, 1964). These cardiovascular adaptations are controlled by either central (Central Command) or peripheral (exercise pressor reflex) mechanisms (McCloskey & Mitchell, 1972).

Central Command (CC) is thought to be a feed-forward process controlling both HR and respiration, both of which are known to increase in the anticipation of exercise (Secher, 2007). CC originates from higher areas of the brain (motor cortex and subcortical areas) and works in parallel with both the locomotor and cardiorespiratory systems during exercise (Green et al, 2007). The feed-forward efferent input converges on the cardiovascular centres of the brainstem along with feedback returning from afferents located in the active skeletal muscle providing the changes seen at the onset of exercise (Fisher et al, 2005).

The changes within the cardiovascular system during exercise are helped via peripheral mechanisms as well as CC. CC inhibits the parasympathetic nervous system by decreasing vagal tone allowing HR to rise, the sympathetic nervous system eventually takes over to allow further increases. Activation of the sympathetic nervous system is produced via feedback from muscle afferents, mainly mechanoreceptors (Murata and Matsukawa, 2001), and forms the sensory arm of the exercise pressor reflex.

Muscle afferents are split into two separate classes, group III and group IV. Group III afferents, classified as mechanoreceptors, are stimulated via muscle stretch, contraction or pressure (Kaufman et al, 1983) whereas group IV afferents, classified as metaboreceptors, are chemically sensitive (Gladwell and Coote, 2002). Afferents are also said to be polymodal and can respond to both mechanical and chemical stimuli (Mense and Meyer, 1985). The exercise pressor reflex is evoked when afferents become sensitised allowing feedback to the cardiovascular centres within the brain. This then allows adequate perfusion of the muscles by increasing cardiac output and constricting the vascular beds (O’Leary, 1993).

A number of studies aim to distinguish between the role of CC and muscle afferent feedback in humans during exercise. When the blood supply to an exercising muscle is occluded CC is not present, this process known as post exercise circulatory occlusion (PECO) activates metaboreceptors (Gandevia and Hobbs, 1990). Electrically evoked exercise also bypasses CC so when this method is used CC is redundant (Kaufman and Rybicki, 1987). These two methods allow the elimination of CC showing muscle afferents provide all feedback which could evoke a cardiovascular response.

CC is activated in proportion to the intensity of the exercise; results from a study by Williamson et al (2002) have shown this through hypnosis. Originally an individual’s perceived exertion during exercise was thought to be independent of any force being produced, allowing the magnitude of CC to be seen (Gandevia et al, 1993). Williamson et al (2002) obtained results related to this idea; they found that the level of CC activated was related to an individual’s sense of effort independently of any force being produced. Increases in HR were found during hypnosis despite no exercise being performed and increases were therefore independent of feedback from afferents within the active limb.

Passively stretching muscles allows cardiovascular responses to be evoked within humans; two studies by Gladwell and Coote (2002) and Fisher et al (2005) have proposed opposing ideas. Gladwell and Coote (2002) activated mechanoreceptors in the triceps surea to measure the effects on HR and BP. Voluntary isometric contraction of the plantar flexor followed by a sustained stretch of the triceps surea by dorsiflexion were performed. Fisher et al (2005) used a similar protocol but blood supply was occluded throughout and different percentages of maximal voluntary contraction were used. They aimed to see whether cardiovascular response to sustained muscle stretch was altered by varying metabolites within the muscle.

Gladwell and Coote (2002) found HR increased soon after the onset of muscle contraction with part of the HR response being mediated via mechanoreceptors since stimulation of receptors via stretch decreased parasympathetic activity. Fisher et al (2005) found that HR and BP were unaffected by levels of metabolite accumulation, therefore stretch was seen to activate mechanically sensitive afferents which are unaffected by the metabolic condition. This study’s use of occlusion shows that the response to stretch is purely from muscle afferents as it is known that CC is not present in these conditions. Gladwell and Coote (2002) did not use occlusion and though cardiac vagal tone activity was measured throughout stretch there is no way to ascertain whether CC was present. The conclusion drawn by Fisher et al (2005) is more reliable as the cardiovascular response seen is entirely down to mechanoreceptors, it must be certain that CC has been eliminated in Gladwell and Coote’s (2002) study before the results can be taken into consideration.

The use of stimulated and voluntary exercises is an easy way to directly compare the effects of CC and muscle afferent feedback on the cardiovascular system. An early study by Krogh and Lindhard (1917) showed through electrical stimulation that an increase in pulse rate was reflexly induced (by muscle afferent) whereas increases in voluntary exercise originated from cerebral impulses (CC). Alam and Smirk (1937) took this further and looked into the changes in BP during muscular work when circulatory occlusion was applied. A cuff placed around the thigh occluded flow whilst knee raises were performed at repeated intervals using only the calf muscle. BP rose as a result of the exercise and dropped when the exercise stopped, however it remained at an elevated level compared to rest. BP did not return to resting level until PECO was ceased. Mental efforts which are associated with muscular work are not the main reason for the rise in BP; when no cuff was placed around the leg increases in BP were less or abolished. Therefore the small fall in BP whilst PECO is still in place is due to the cessation of mental activity concerned with muscular exercise and muscle afferents must be causing the cardiovascular response thereafter.

The studies indicated previously provided the basis for the concept that CC and muscle afferents affect cardiovascular response in separate ways. More recent studies by Coote et al (1971) and Bull et al (1989) have looked further into the effects of voluntary and stimulated exercise. Bull et al (1989) compared the pressor reflex during and following voluntary and involuntary contraction of the triceps surea whilst under occlusion. When voluntary contraction ended but PECO was maintained BP rapidly fell to a lower though still elevated level compared with rest. It was thought that the initial drop was attributed to the removal of CC, matching the results of Alam and Smirk (1937). The immediate drop in HR back to resting level seen post exercise whilst still under PECO suggests that it cannot be the metabolites which cause the increase in HR, if this were the case HR would stay elevated in PECO. The study concludes that the elevated BP following both types of contractions (electrical and voluntary) were due to circulatory arrest caused by trapped metabolites within the muscle. This suggests that the cardiovascular responses of HR and BP must be controlled by two separate mechanisms, CC and peripheral feedback respectively.

Coote et al (1971) looked at the pressor reflex response to muscular exercise in cats. The cats were anaesthetised and contraction of the hindlimb was elicited by electrical stimulation of the ventral root, CC was not activated as electrical stimulation bypasses the brain. An increase in BP was still seen without CC being present therefore the conclusion was drawn that cardiovascular response arises from within the contracting muscles themselves, either mechanically or chemically, rather than from CC. Evidence for a chemical stimulus within humans has come from Alam and Smirk (1937) which can provide the link that results drawn from cats can be similar to those that occur in humans. It was also found that the pressor reflex was proportional to the tension developed by the contraction and so the stronger the contractions the large the pressor reflex is likely to be.

Distinguishing between CC and muscle afferent feedback can also be undertaken through neuromuscular blockade (NMB) and anaesthesia. Two studies employing this technique are by Gandevia and Hobbs (1990) and Iwamoto et al (1987) both looked at cardiovascular response in man, McCloskey and Mitchell (1972) also employed this technique but investigated cats. The latter study sought to provide evidence that NMB would abolish the cardiovascular response in exercise. Cat’s triceps surea were electrically stimulated via the ventral root with two nerve blocking techniques being used: anodal blockage was used to eliminate large myelinated nerve fibres and anaesthesia was used to eliminate small and unmyelinated nerve fibres. Anodal block did not change the pressor reflex from the control condition; this is due to only the large fibres being blocked which are predominantly muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs. However under anaesthetic the cardiovascular responses were abolished. This is due to small and unmylinated fibres being blocked which are predominantly mechano- and metaboreceptors. The fact that only anaesthesia affects the cardiovascular response shows that the response is entirely due to the pressor reflex as no CC could be present.

Iwamoto et al (1987) did a similar study but experimented on both cats and humans. The cat procedure was the same as McCloskey and Mitchell (1972) whilst humans performed voluntary and evoked knee extensions before and after NMB (tubocurarine). In cats blockade eliminated all cardiovascular responses compared with the control condition. In human voluntary contraction HR increased and strength was large, NMB reduced strength but allowed further increases in HR. Stimulated contraction reduced strength but HR was as large as in voluntary exercise though increased from the second R-R interval, NMB reduced strength further but HR still increased from second heart beat. BP increased in both types of exercise but to a lesser extent in stimulated exercise, NMB further reduced BP. As HR was unaffected by NMB it is suggested that it is governed by processes outside the muscle (CC) this is in line with Secher’s (1985) findings. However BP was affected suggesting that muscle afferent feedback plays a role in the control of BP within the cardiovascular response, this matches the McCloskey and Mitchell’s (1972) conclusion drawn from cats.

Gandevia and Hobbs (1990) looked at changes in HR and BP to graded contraction in man with the use of anaesthesia. Handgrip contractions were performed with a period of 3min PECO, arm muscles were then acutely paralysed via anaesthesia and the exercise performed again. HR and BP increased in line with the preceding contraction with PECO showing the degree to which the metaboreflex was activated. BP increased in direct relation to the preceding contraction but HR did not. In paralysis graded increases in HR were seen but not in BP, suggesting CC controls HR response. These results are consistent with in Iwamoto (1987) who found NMB to reduce BP response but which had little effect on HR response to voluntary contraction. Both studies show that cardiovascular response must be due to a combination of CC and chemoreflex. Gandevia and Hobbs (1990) showed that during anaesthesia HR was controlled by CC as muscle afferent would have been blocked, as BP did not increase with anaesthesia it could be concluded that muscle afferents control the modulation of BP.

Conclusions can be drawn from all the relevant literature that CC and muscle afferent feedback have overlapping tendencies and that the different aspects of the cardiovascular response, though controlled via both mechanisms, lean towards one aspect more than the other. Therefore HR could be controlled to a greater extent by CC (Gandevia and Hobbs, 1990; Iwamoto et al, 1987 and Bull et al, 1989) whereas muscle afferent feedback could control BP response (Alam and Smirk, 1937 and Coote et al, 1971).

The decision of the ECJ in the Bosman case[1] had an extremely significant impact on professional sports within the European Union. As has been pointed out by a number of commentators the decision in Bosman led to an overhaul of the existing transfer rules of club football within Europe. It also had a wider impact on professional sports as a whole as the post-Bosman period witnessed a significant influx of migration of professional athletes within the EU.[2] Within the EU, sport has assumed a special status and forms an integral part of European identity and its culture. The European parliament has coined the term “specifity of sports” to address the interaction of Community law in the sporting arena and the extent of such an interaction.[3] This interface between sports and community law was first addressed in Welgrave and Koch v Union Cycliste Internationale[4] followed closely by another decision in the case of Dond v Motero.[5] Almost twenty years down the line came the decision in Bosman which clearly elucidated the role of Community law within the sporting arena and in the process reaffirmed and elaborated upon some of the principles discussed in the two above mentioned decisions.

The controversy around the Bosman decision stems from the fact that it put an end to the existing transfer process in European football by abolishing player transfer fee system and creating free agency for European footballers. It also brought an end to the existing UEFA “Non-National” rules. Both the above regulations followed by European clubs were tested against the Community provisions aimed at protection of labour rights and were found wanting. The transfer rules as well as the nationality rule was found to be violative of Article 48 of the Community treaty safeguarding against free movement of labour as well as anti-discriminatory treatment of workers. The significance of the Bosman judgment lies in the fact that it managed to make a significant contribution to the corpus of labour law by emphatically reinstating that sportspersons rights were protected within Community law and also laid down the framework for subsequent judgments which further established the labour rights of professional sportspersons.

The paper will first explain in brief the background in which the Bosman judgment arose. Then paper will delve into the intricacies of the judgment along with some of the most persuasive arguments raised by the parties to the dispute. Then judgment of the court along with the reasoning behind the judgment will be explored. At the outset it has to be mentioned that the paper will only address the issues of transfer rules and nationalily rules which were evaluated on the anvil of Article 48. The ancillary issue of related to Article 85 and Article 86 of the Community treaty would not be addressed. In the next section the paper will explore the extent to which the judgment in Bosman’s case contributed in settling the law related to free movement and non discrimination of sportspersons within the EU. In this section of the paper subsequent judgments would also be briefly looked into to describe the establishment and development of the principle of applicability of non discriminatory principle within the arena of sports in the EU. Finally the paper will briefly look back at the arguments raised in the Bosman case related to the need for keeping sports outside the ambit of the provisons of Community treaty. In this section existing regulations in England as well as the United States will be looked into to evaluate whether the guidelines laid down in Bosman is in sharp contrast to the sporting regulations existing in those states.

Literature Review
A Closer Look at the Judgment of Bosman
Background and Facts

Within the European Union football is played either as an amateur or a professional sport. The structure of professional football comprises of clubs which belong to national associations or federations. The national associations including Belgium’s ASBL Union Royale Belge des Societes de Football Association (URBSFA) are members of the Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA). FIFA is again divided into confederations, UEFA being the confederation which governs football in Europe.

As per the rules framed by the URBSFA prior to Bosman case, every player whose contract is expiring must be offered a new Contract by April 26, failing which he is given amateur. The player has the option of accepting or rejecting the contract offer. If the player rejects the contract, he is placed on the compulsory transfer list for a month from 1st may onwards. In this period any club can buy the player from his existing club even without the permission of the existing club by paying certain compensation fee for training which is called transfer fees. On 1st June the period of free transfers begins and in this period a player can be transferred by the mutual agreement of both clubs after the payment of the requisite transfer fees. If the transfer does not take place the clubs are required by URBSFA to offer a contract to the player which is not less than the initial contract of April 26. If this contract is rejected by the player, he is classified as an amateur and has two wait two years to obtain a transfer without the club’s consent.

Jean Marc Bosman, player for Belgian club RC Liege, was offered a contract before the expiry of his existing contract which entailed a substantial reduction in his wages, of almost 75%. As a result Bosman refused this new offer and as a consequence was put on the transfer list. During the period of free transfer the French second division club US Dunkerque became interested in employing Bosman. However as per rules for international transfers, the Belgian football association had to pass a transfer certificate to the French football association within a specific time. However in spite of RC Liege and US Dunkerque agreeing upon the amount of transfer fee for a seasons, RC Leige refused to give permission to the Belgian league to pass on the certificate to the French association as they were unsure about the financial solvency of Dunkurque. Thus Bosman was preveted from joining RC liege leading to the initition of a suit in the Court of First Instance in Leige which finally culminated in the landmark decision of ECJ in 1995.

Transfer Rules and Article 48

The Courts assuming jurisdiction under Article 177, restated the principle of applicability of Article 48 of the EU Charter to sporting activity as long as there is an “the existence of, or the intention to create, an employment relationship.

ECJ decided in favour of Bosman and against the respondents namely RC Liege, URBSFA and UEFA. The court ruled on two main issues. Firstly the Court overhauled the existing transfer system by holding that transfer fees for out-of-contract players were illegal and in violation of Article 48 of the EU treaty when the players were moving from one E.U. nation to another. Secondly the court also found nationality clause to be inconsistent with Article 48 and as a result struck it down.

Firstly in spite of the arguments raised by the respondents the ECJ found that the right to movement of workers as enshrined under Article 48, which is one of the four fundamental rights guaranteed by the EU charter, was being violated by the existing transfer rules of URBSFA.The Court rejected the contention that transfer rules governs relationship between culbs and does not affect the players. The Court pointed out that transfer fees is a burden which the clubs has to bear and the failure to pay such fees ultimately affects the employment rights of the players.The Court then pointed out that in spite of being contrary to Article 48 the transfer rules could be saved if they could be justified on the grounds of pressing public interest and the principle of proportionality between the means exercised for the objectives sought. However in Court went on to reject the different justifications forwarded by the respondents.

The Court found merits in UEFA’s goal of maintaining financial and competitive balance but rejected the claim that the transfer rules furthered this object because the existing rules had failed to preserve the level of financial and competitive balance as the rules failed to prevent the richest clubs from securing the best players. The merit of the second justification advanced by respondents regarding UEFA’s goall of encouraging the recruitment and training of young talent was also accepted by the Court. However the Court failed to establish the nexus between the transfer system and the achievement of that goal. The Court found no relationship to exist because the amount of a transfer fee is unrelated to the actual cost of training and recruitment, and because receipt of such fees for any particular player is speculative. Finally the argument that transfer fees are acceptable on the grounds that such transfer fees are necessary for clubs to buy players was rejected because the Court observed that obstacles to freedom of movement cannot be justified simply on the grounds tat such obstacle was in existence in the past.

Finally the Court reaffirmed the opinion of the Advocate general that as alternatives which does not tantamount to an obstacle to freedom of work can be used to achieve the ends sought by the transfer rules and hence the transfer rules has to be struck down.

Nationality Principle

The ECJ also rules that the 3+2 rule which restricts the employment of footballers of a different EU state is in direct violation of Article 48(2) of the EU treaty which expressly seeks to abolish any discrimination based on nationality between workers of the member states of the EU in relation to employment, remuneration and conditions of work and employment.[6] In this regard the Court further refers to Regulation 1612/68 of the Council which seeks to enforce the provion under Article 48. Finally the court extends this principle of non discrimination to the existing transfer rules by referring to the principle propounded in the Dona case where regulations of sporting bodies were held to fall under this principle of non discrimination. In light of the conflict between the nationality provision of the ransfer rules and Article 48 the Court examines a few possible justifications which can save the nationality rule followed by UEFA.

It was argued by the respondents that the nationality rule can be justified on non-economic grounds including maintaining a natural link between the club and the country, the maintenance of a pool of national players and to maintain the competitive equilibrium between the clubs.

However the Court referring to the Dona case observed that though non economic objectives may justify the exclusions of certain players in certain fixtures but that principle is not relevant in this case because the 3+2 rule of UEFA applies to all clubs and all matches. Similarly the Court also observed that the nationality rule is not adequate enough to prevent rich clubs from acquiring the richest players. Further the argument regarding the nexus between club and country was also rejected along with the point regarding the maintenance of a pool of national players.

Another important point which was argued and rejected by the Court was that the 3+2 rule was developed in cooperation with the Commission and hence should not be struck down. In this case the Court observed that “Finally, as regards the argument based on the Commission’s participation in the drafting of the ‘3+2’ rule, it must be pointed out that, except where such powers are expressly conferred upon it, the Commission may not give guarantees concerning the compatibility of specific practices with the Treaty” Hence if the rule in violation of Article 48 then the fact tht it was made in cooperation with the European Commission will not validate it.

Community Law and Principle of Non Discrimination of Foreign Nationals

In order to understand the interface between nationality restrictions and its conflict with the EU treaty it is imperative to briefly look into the framework of the EC treaty. Sports per se has not found a place in the present EC treaty, but as has been discussed before, it falls within the competence of EC law when it concerns an economic activity.[7] Article 12 of the EC treaty prohibits discrimination on the grounds of nationality. More specifically discrimination on the basis of nationality of workers is dealt with in Articles 39[8] to 42 of the EC Treaty. However it has to be remembered in this context that the compatibility of a sporting rule with a particular article of the Treaty does not release the rule from the requirement to comply with other Articles of the Treaty.[9] However, the general protection against nationality discrimination can only be invoked in the absence of any specific provision within the treaty. This principle was elucidated in the case of Lehtonen and Castors Canada Dry Namur-Braine v. Federation Royale Belge des Societes de Basketball (FRBSB),[10] where it was observed that Article 39 of the treaty dealing with nationality discrimination of workers will be applicable in the instant case. The Court further observed that Article 12 will only be applicable independently in case of the absence of any specific provision.[11]

In light of the above framework of Community law the Lehtonen judgment can be briefly evaluated to determine whether it has also followed the Bosman line and determined whether a sporting rule can be discriminatory within the EC treaty in the absence of objective justification. In Lehtonen different periods of transfers were applicable in the Belgian basketball league of players from Belgian clubs and European clubs. This vires of the transfer rule was challenged to be in violation of the non discriminatory rule enshrined under Article 48. The ECJ observed that

“…Article 48 precludes the application of rules laid down in a Member State by sporting associations which prohibit a basketball club from fielding players from other Member States in matches in the national championship, where they have been transferred after a specified date, if that date is earlier than the date which applies to transfers of players from certain non-member countries, unless objective reasons concerning only sport as such or relating to differences between the position of players from a federation in the European zone and that of players from a federation not in that zone justify such different treatment.”[12]

In other words the Court followed the line of Bosman and held that Article 48 can act as a threshold which specific sporting regulations have to abide by. However a divergence from the non-discriminatory principle is allowed if they can fulfill the test of objective satisfaction.

One more interesting aspect of the non-nationality principle, which has come to the limelight in subsequent cases, is the status of individuals belonging to non-member states who have entered into Cooperative agreements with the EU containing non discriminatory terms in relation to nationality of the members of those states as well as the members of third party states.

In the Malaja[13] ruling a Polish basketball player Malaja, challenged the restriction of the French Basketball Federation on the number of foreign players in a club. She based her claim on the basis of an agreement entered by Poland with the EU which ensured non discrimination of Polish workers within the EU. The Council the Etat held that the non-discriminatory principle enshrined in the EU treaty will also be applicable to eastern European states along with Poland who had entered into cooperation treaties with the EU.

Another landmark decision in this respect is Kolpak case. Kolpak who was a Slovak national, signed consecutive fixed-term contracts in 1997 and 2000 as a goalkeeper for a second division handball team. However the German Handball Associations imposed a cap on the number of non-EU players who could play in one team. This precluded Kolpak from performing his duties under the employment contract. Kolpak held a valid residence permit in Germany. He took the dispute to the German courts arguing that the agreement between Slovakia and the EU would prevent the Handball association from treating him differentially from other non-EU or German players. The dispute was referred to the ECJ. The Court observed that the agreement with Slovakia did not contain any specific provision safeguarding against anti-discrimination. However the Court compared the agreement with Article 48 of Treaty of Rome and came to the conclusion that the agreement embodied the same principles which have been enshrined under Article 48. Hence even in the absence of any specific provision preventing discrimination, the Court held that the principles of non-discrimination established in Bosman can be extended to the present case. However the Court restricted the scope of the non-discriminatory principle by holding that the non-discriminatory principle construed from the agreement will be limited to Slovakian workers already employed in the member states of the EU.

The final judgment that has to be mentioned in this regard is the Simutenkov case in which the Courts closely analyzed the Bosman and the Kolpak decisions. The decision of the Court in the Simutenkov mirrored the judgment in Kolpak and extended the principle of non-discrimination to Russian workers employed within the EU. The decision followed Kolpak to the extent that the scope of the non-discrimination principle was restricted to existing workers. In other words it did not bestow a general right on all EU members to circulate freely within the EU.

A Closer Look at the “Sporting” Exception

In Bosman, UEFA had argued that sports was always respected within the European Union and owing to the difficulty in extrapolating the economic aspect from football Article 48 should be interpreted in a flexible manner. German Government further emphasized on sports being an expression of European culture and hence should be protected under Article 128 of the Treaty of Rome which seeks to safeguard the national regional diversity of culture.

However as has been discussed previously the Court relied on previous ECJ decisions in Walgrave and Dona to determine the extent to which Article 48 of the treaty of Rome can regulate sporting activities. Again as recently as 2006, The ECJ in its decision in Meca-Medina v. Commission[14], reaffirmed the principle of Bosman when they observed that “having regard to the objectives of the Community, sport is subject to Community law in so far as it constitutes an economic activity within the meaning of Article 2”

However the approach of the Court in this respect has been severely criticized in certain quarters. Commentators have alleged that the Court has in their zeal to extend economic regulations have failed to recognize the specific nature of sports.[15] However a brief look at sporting regulations and the legal restrictions imposed on such sporting rules in US and UK points to the shortcomings of bestowing unfettered power in respect of sporting activities.

The transfer system in British football can be traced as far back as the last decade of the 19th century when football clubs started to purchase and sale football players. The concept of transfer fees was in existence even in that period. Even though these rules flagrantly violated the contractual and labour rights of the players, these rules remained in existence throughout the majority of the twentieth century and were justified on the grounds of regulating player mobility and competitive equilibrium.

The landmark case of Eastham[16] the “retention and transfer” system[17] was challenged by George Eastham who wanted to move from Newcastle to Arsenal. However Newcastle simply retained him despite his repeated request for transfers. As a result a writ was filed in the High Court against Newcastle for restraint of trade. Five issues was considered by Judge Wilberforce out of which the one of relevance where whether there was actual restraint of trade and whether such restrain was necessary for the maintenance of the nature of the league or its members. The Court found that Newcastle had indulged in activities which tantamount to restraint of trade. More importantly the Court found that the transfer and retention system was also an unreasonable restraint on trade on the ground that it acted as a barrier to the movement of players even when their contracts have expired unless a transfer fee was paid.[18]

As a consequence of the Eastham rulin the retention and transfer system was overhauled and a new system was introduced where a player was free to move from his existing club unless the club offered a contract which atleast equaled the terms of the previous contract between the club and the player. In 1978 further changes were brough about which gave players the right to reject contracts and move to a different club. Further it was provided that in case of a dispute between the new and the former club regarding transfer fee a four member panel will be constituted to determine the amount of transfer fees.

Finally the regulations existing in the baseball league in US [MLB] and its interface with different fields of law can be briefly explored. The major contentious issue in American Baseball league was surrounding the “reserve list” and “reserve clause: which raised significant questions regarding players right to movement and free agency. However in the early years of the twentieth century the US legal system was averse to the idea of collective bargaining rights and hence there was a lacuna in the law related to labour rights. Further the Sherman Act, which sought to prevent restraint of trade also provided an exception to the MLB and as a result the employment rights of the players suffered. However the gradual development of collective bargaining culminated into the creation of baseball players association[MLBA] which entered into a collective bargaining agreement with the club owners. The significance of this collective bargaining agreement was that it contained an arbitrational clause for addressing player’s grievances. On the basis of this collective bargaining agreement, arbitration proceedings were initiated inNational & American League Professional Baseball Clubs v. MLBPA[19] where baseball’s reserve system was challenged. The arbitrator found in favour of the players. However the true significance of the judgment lies in the fact that the arbitrator held that though it was possible to negotiate a reserve system which contained the option of continuous renewal, however the option clause was not implied into the contract and had to be bargained for. In other words the arbitrator laid down that the though the reserve system cannot be overhauled, however the incorporation of such a clause in player contract cannot be implied. The presence or absence of such a provision will be decided on the basis of collective bargaining between the parties. This was also affirmed by the

BUILT TO RUN: BIOMECHANICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE MARATHON RUNNERS

Acknowledgements

Special thanks are accorded to the following people whose work contributed significantly in developing this essay:

Dennis Bramble and Daniel Lieberman whose recent findings established running as an essential factor in the evolution of humans, findings that added an extra measure of interest to, and a context for, the essay;
Jolie Holschen for doing such an excellent job of pulling together so much valuable information on the anatomical differences between male and female athletes; and
Stephen Seiler for his exploration of gender differences in endurance performance and training.

In addition, there were numerous other sources used and for which appreciation is due. Attributions are made to all sources in the References section at the end of the essay.

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION

1

Anatomical Differences between Men and Women with Specific Reference to Running

2

Definition of the Term Marathon with Comparison to Other Types of Running

7

Definitions of the Term Biomechanics

8

Application of Biomechanics to Running with Reference to Marathon Runners

10

OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE

12

REVIEW OF EXISTING RESEARCH ON METHODS AND FINDINGS

12

DISCUSSION

19

CONCLUSIONS

22

FURTHER OPPORTUNITIES FOR RESEARCH

22

REFERENCES

24

BUILT TO RUN: BIOMECHANICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE MARATHON RUNNERS

“More than by brain size or tool-making ability,

the human species was set apart from its ancestors

by the ability to jog mile after lung-stabbing mile

with greater endurance than any other primate.”

INTRODUCTION

The introductory quotation (Hotz, 2004) simply, yet vividly, expresses the results of a recent study completed by two American scientists, Dennis Bramble and Daniel Lieberman, and released in the journal Nature (2004). Bramble and Lieberman contend that “the ability to run long distances was the driving force shaping the modern human anatomy.” Hotz’s characterization of early humans as “marathon men and women from the tips of their distinctively short toes and long Achilles tendons to the tops of their biomechanically balanced heads” (emphasis added) sets the backdrop for this essay—an exploration of the biomechanical differences between male and female marathon runners.

After a few additional historical comments, this essay opens with a presentation of anatomical differences between men and women with specific reference to running then continues with definitions and descriptions of the term marathon, as a form of organized running sport, and definitions for the term biomechanics in preparation for a discussion of how the field of biomechanics is applied to running. With this information as a foundation, the objective and scope will be articulated followed by presentation of previous methods and findings revealed from a search of the literature on the topic of biomechanical differences between male and female marathon runners and closely-related topics. These findings will be discussed and conclusions drawn. Finally, recommendations for further research will be presented.

To return briefly to the research findings of Bramble, a paleontologist and biomechanics expert, and Lieberman, a physical anthropologist, to continue setting the backdrop for the essay, Bramble states: “Running made us human, at least in an anatomical sense. We think running is one of the most transforming events in human history” (Chui, 2004). Endurance running is an activity that is reserved for humans in the primate world and not common in other mammals with the exception of dogs, horses and a few others. Bramble and Lieberman contend that running permitted humans to scavenge and hunt for food over significant distances and that the high protein food they secured was instrumental in developing larger brains (Wilford, 2004).

To facilitate running, humans developed several traits including large buttocks with strong muscles which connect the femur to the trunk of the body preventing the body from “over-balancing with each step.” In addition, “humans have a lengthy arm-swinging stride” and “[l]ong ligaments and tendons—including the Achilles tendon—[which] serve as springs that store and release mechanical energy during running.” (Hotz, 2004).

Bramble’s reference to today’s running in the evolutionary context he and Lieberman established provides an appropriate introduction to the exploration of the biomechanical differences between male and female marathon runners (Wilford, 2004): “Today, endurance running is primarily a form of exercise and recreation, but its roots may be as ancient as the origin of the human genus.”

Anatomical Differences between Men and Women with Specific Reference to Running

The description of anatomical differences between men and women, which is focused on anatomical features that are involved in running, begins with a gender-neutral discussion to establish a foundation for the more gender-specific information.

Rossi (2003) emphasizes the complexity of walking, a precursor to running. He writes that half of the 650 muscles and tendons in the human body are involved in what most people consider to be the simple act of walking. He suggests that, in the evolution of the human body, there were “hundreds of adaptations” that had to take place, adaptations that required “repositioning of everything in the body” over several million years. Rossi writes:

“The arms, no longer needed for branch swinging, became shorter, the legs longer, the pelvis wider, the shoulders narrower, the neck longer and more slender, the spine changed from C-shape to S-shape. Major changes were required in the hip, knee and ankle joints. Hundreds of muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints gradually shifted in position, size and function. And of course, the new posture and gait required important changes in the size and position of all the organs of the chest and abdomen.”

Rossi suggests that some of these changes were extremely significant from a biomechanical perspective. For instance, he calls attention to the blood pumping requirement of the upright human form: Daily in each individual, approximately 74,000 quarts of blood must travel through 100,000 miles of blood vessels from the brain to the feet and legs in a circular pattern. Rossi emphasizes the human “engineering” challenge that was required to design a system that would counteract the effects of gravity in moving blood vertically in this manner. Rossi’s comments are particularly important in the context of the current discourse because they provide some insight into the current state of relevant anatomical features of today’s runners and how those features were derived.

The anatomy of humans, unlike that of other living creatures, provides for speed and endurance. The unique characteristics related to running include (Science in Africa, 2005, citing University of Utah Public Relations, 2004):

Skull features. These features, which include sweating from the scalp and face, cool the blood.
A balanced head. This shape of head with a relatively flat face, small teeth, and short snout moves the center of the mass backward which helps to counter the effects of moving upward and downward during running.
A ligament running from the rear of the skill and neck downward to the thoracic vertebrae. This feature serves as a shock absorber that aids the arms and shoulders in counterbalancing the head during running activity.
Shoulders “decoupled” from the head and neck. This feature allows rotation of the body while the head faces forward during running.
A tall body. This feature, which includes a narrow trunk, waist and pelvis, provides for increased skin surface allowing for enhanced body cooling and permits the upper and lower body segments to move independently.
Short forearms. This feature permits the upper body to act as a counterbalance to the lower body during running activity while reducing the muscle power required for maintaining flexed arms.
Large vertebrae and disks. This feature permits the human back to accepted heavier loads when runners impact the ground.
Large, strong connection between the pelvis and the spine. This feature supports more stability and shock absorbing capacity during running activity.
Large buttocks. This feature, and the muscles that form it, stabilize the body during running activity. The connection of these muscles to the femur prevents the body from pitching forward.
Long legs. This feature allows humans to take large strides during running activity. The tendons and ligaments permit the legs to be lighter and less muscular thereby requiring a smaller amount of energy to propel them while running.
Large hip, knee, and ankle joint surface areas. These features provide enhanced shock absorption by reducing the impact in any one specific area.
Arrangement of bones in the foot. This feature provides for a more rigid foot by creating a stable arch, allowing runners to push off in a more efficient manner and to use ligaments located on the bottom of the feet as springs.
Large heel bone, short toes, and a big toe. These features provide for enhanced shock absorption and increased capacity to push off during running activity.

With the running-related anatomical features applicable to all humans as a foundation, the focus now turns to the differences in anatomical features between men and women, specifically those features that are involved in running activity. Holschen (2004) writes that, until puberty, males and females are equal in terms of strength, aerobic power, heart size, and weight; they also have similar amounts of body fat.

Starting at puberty, according to Holschen (2004), male and female sex hormones begin affecting bone and lean body mass, circulation, and metabolism in different ways. A female typically has a wider pelvis, femoral anteversion (inward twisting of the femur), genu valgum (knees touch but ankles are separated), and external tibial torsion (feet do not line up in a straight manner because of out-toeing from outward rotation of the large calf bone). Center of gravity differences between men and women are minimal, correlating more by body type and height than with gender. (Atwater, 1985, cited in Holschen, 2004). When compared with males, females typically have smaller bones accompanied by smaller articular surfaces. They also have proportionately shorter legs with resulting decreased potential force in certain maneuvers. (Holschen, 2004).

At puberty, girls gain both fat and lean muscle mass due to the influence of female hormones; boys lose body fat and add muscle mass due to the influence of male hormones (Holschen, 2004). Women in adulthood have about ten percent more body fat than do their male counterparts (Greydanus, D. and Patel, D., 2002, cited in Holschen, 2004). The basal metabolic rate is approximately ten percent lower in women than in men. The presence of female hormones mandates that women rely more on fat metabolism at any given exercise level when compared to men. In addition, glycogen uptake, storage, and use are increased. (Holschen, 2004, citing Bonekat, H. W. et al., 1987; Dombovy, M. L. et al., 1987; Frankovich, R. J. and Lebrun, C. M., 2000; Nicklas, B. J. et al., 1989; Tarnopolsky, L. J., 1990) Cureton and associates (1988, cited in Holschen, 2004) attribute the differences in muscle strength between men and woman to skeletal and cardiac muscular hypertrophy and muscle mass percentage; they contend that muscle mass in men is forty percent compared to twenty-three percent in women.

Changes in body composition and circulatory capacity beginning at puberty result in approximately twenty percent higher cardio-respiratory capacity in men. Men also have comparatively higher oxygen-carrying capacity, larger heart and lung mass, a higher stroke volume, and higher maximal cardiac output which result in greater effectiveness in aerobic and anaerobic activities, although training can overcome the inherent differences (Williford, H. N. et al., 1993, cited in Holschen, 2004).

The results of the current research point to fundamental anatomical differences between men and woman, differences that largely begin to appear during puberty and which have some bearing on running capability.

Definition of the Term Marathon with Comparison to Other Types of Running

The term running can be defined as “[moving] swiftly on foot so that both feet leave the ground during each stride” (American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2000). The research by Bramble and Lieberman (2004, cited in Nature, 2004), which was presented earlier, seems to indicate that running has been part of human existence since its beginnings and, in fact, contributed significantly to development of human life today. Humans no longer require running for survival, at least in their normal affairs; that is, typically, humans do not have to run from danger or run in pursuit of animals to kill for food. In modern times, running has taken on a new form—competition foot racing. This competition racing can be against oneself to achieve one’s own “personal best” or with others. Racing against others can take many forms ranging from informal competitions between two young friends racing against one another on a playground to very formal competitions such as those in the quadrennial Olympics. The more formal running competitions are typically classified by the length of the run: 100, 200, 400, 800, 1500, 5000, and 10000 meters as well as marathons (Dollman, 2003).

There are many terms that refer to specific forms of foot racing: run, dash, sprint, relay, meet, competitive trial of speed, footrace, and marathon (Webster’s New World Thesaurus, 1997). Of these, the terms dash and sprint are typically used interchangeably to describe “a short, fast run or race” (Webster’s New World Dictionary, 1988) or “a short, swift movement” (Webster’s New World Thesaurus, 1997). Organized dashes and sprints are commonly of 50 meters, 100 meters, 200 meters, 50 yards, 100 yards, and 200 yards in length (Webster’s New World Thesaurus, 1997). Marathons are a form of long-distance running, which are on- and off-the-track competitions of more than 3000 meters (Hlus, 1997). Specifically, a marathon is “a footrace of 42 kilometers, 195 meters (26 miles, 385 yards) run over an open course,” or “any long-distance or endurance contest” People who compete in marathons are called marathoners (Webster’s New World Dictionary, 1998). Physiologically, there is a fundamental difference between a sprint or dash and a marathon. According to Pritchard (1994), “A sprinter can exert maximum force throughout the run, but this is not possible for longer runs, where propulsive force must be reduced to match energy availability.”

Historically, marathons are not new events. According to legend, the name marathon is derived from the Greek city, Marathon, to commemorate Pheidippides’s run from that city to Athens to announce Greek victory over the Persians. The marathon was introduced to the Olympics in 1896 and today’s official distance was established in 1908. (Hlus, 1997; The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2005) Today, in addition to marathon races in the Olympics, many cities throughout the world serve as sites for annual or other periodic marathons (The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2005).

A new form of marathon race has recently taken form—the ultramarathon, which is “any organized footrace extending beyond the standard marathon running distance of 42 kilometers, 195 meters…[they] typically begin at 50 kilometers and extend to enormous distances” (Blaikie, n. d.). Standard distances for ultramarathons are 50 and 100 kilometers and 50 and 100 miles (Meyers, 2002) with the longest certified race being the Sri Chinmoy, a 2092 kilometer race held annually in New York (Blaikie, n. d.).

Definition of the Term Biomechanics

The research produced numerous and varied definitions for the term biomechanics. The following are representative of the findings:

“The study of the mechanics of a living body, especially of the forces exerted by muscles and gravity on the skeletal structure.” (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2000).
[The] application of mechanical engineering principles and techniques in the field of medicine and surgery, studying natural structures to improve those produced by humans” (The Hutchinson Encyclopedia, 2003).
“[A] science examining the forces acting upon and within a biological structure, and the effects produced by those forces” (The University of Calgary, n. d.).
“[T]he science that deals with forces and their effects, applied to biological systems” (Freivalds, 2004).
“[T]he application of the principles and techniques of mechanics to the human body in motion” (Snowden, 2001).
“Biomechanics is a specific field which evaluates the motion of a living organism…and the actions of forces on that organism…a combination of several different areas of study [including] anatomy and physiology, kinematics (the study of motion without regard to its causes), kinesiology (the study of human movement) and kinetics (the study of forces acting on a system)” (National Endurance & Sports Trainers Association, 2005).

In furnishing a definition for biomechanics, the Quintic Consultancy Ltd. (2005) provides some additional insight into the origin and details of the term, stating that the name “is derived from the Greek bios meaning life and mekhaniki meaning mechanics,” adding that these individual terms are combined to mean “the mechanics of life forms.” The biomechanics discipline includes research into various life forms including plants, insects, reptiles, birds, fish, humans, and others. Within the human specialty, topics include mechanics “of bone, tooth, muscle, tendon, ligament, cartilage, skin, prostheses, blood flow, air flow, eye movement, joint movement [and] whole body movement” (The Quintic Consultancy Ltd., 2005).

Historically, according to Knudson (2003), the study of human biomechanics has alternated between emphasizing each of its two components—the biological and the mechanical. Atwater (1980, cited in Knudson, 2003) claims that, during the first half of the twentieth century, scholars emphasized medicine and anatomy under the term kinesiology. The distinct field of biomechanics was born from the work of biomechanists in the 1960s and 1970s. From that point the field began to emphasize mechanics over biology. Today, the competing forces to move the discipline either toward a biological emphasis or toward a mechanical emphasis continue (Knudson, 2003).

Application of Biomechanics to Running with Reference to Marathon Runners

The field of biomechanics, already narrowed in a previous section from consideration of all life forms to only humans for the purpose of this essay, can be focused even further to a sub-field called sports biomechanics (The Quintic Consultancy Ltd., 2005):

“Sports biomechanics uses the scientific methods of mechanics to study the effects of various forces on the sports performer. It is concerned, in particular, with the forces that act on the human neuromusculoskeletal system, velocities, accelerations, torque, momentum, and inertia. It also considers aspects of the behavior of sports implements, footwear and surfaces where these affect athletic performance or injury prevention. Sports biomechanics can be divided up into two sections: performance improvement [and] injury prevention.”

The Australian Sports Commission (n. d.) furnishes additional descriptive information on the application of biomechanics to sports, using a term the Commission calls applied sports biomechanics which “incorporates techniques from physics, human anatomy, mathematics, computing and engineering to analyse technique to prevent injury and improve performance.” The Commission’s division of sports biomechanics into two categories—performance improvement and injury prevention—echoes the classifications offered by The Quintic Consultancy Ltd.

Williams (2003) describes how biomechanics can help runner performance, specifically that of the marathoner. Leading into his recommendations, he describes how marathon runners use a simple biomechanical strategy known as “drafting off another runner” when running into the wind to reduce the adverse effects of air resistance and reduce oxygen consumption for the latter part of the race. He writes:

“The goal of the sport biomechanist is to improve movement efficiency, mainly by maximizing propulsive forces and minimizing resistive forces, and thus provide the athlete with a mechanical edge. Using high-speed cinematography, the biomechanist can analyze a runner’s form and detect problems in running form that may be inefficient, such as overstriding, and that may waste energy. Although most elite and experienced marathoners have developed efficient running styles, even a small improvement in running efficiency may make a significant difference over the duration of a marathon.”

In addition to the strategy of “drafting off another runner,” Williams offers several other “biomechanical strategies” including selecting the proper sportswear (i.e. uniform and shoes) and optimizing body weight and composition.

Thus far the topics of anatomical differences between men and women with specific reference to running; definitions and descriptions of the terms marathon (as an organized, competitive form of running) and biomechanics; and the application of biomechanics to running have been presented and discussed. With this as a foundation, the focus of the discourse now turns to the topic of biomechanical differences between male and female marathon runners and closely-related topics.

OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE

The objective of this portion of the essay will be to explore the biomechanical differences between male and female marathon runners through a review and analysis of selected literature on the topic and related issues.

The scope of the literature review will include marathon running with specific reference to available information on the differences between males and females. Although running of shorter distances (e.g. sprints and dashes) and longer distances (e.g. ultramarathons) as well as other sports activities are excluded from the specific scope of this essay, references will be made to these activities when they related to marathon running. Performance improvement and injury prevention were mentioned as the two primary areas addressed by applied sports biomechanics. Gender-specific issues in each of these areas will be explored briefly as well.

REVIEW OF EXISTING RESEARCH ON METHODS AND FINDINGS

One researcher who has studied gender differences in endurance performance, including marathon running, is Stephen Seiler (1996) of The Institute for Sport, Agder College in Kristianstad, Norway. He writes: “Some years ago it was proposed by some that women would actually perform better [than men] at ultra-endurance type activities. This theory has been disproved in the laboratory and in practice.” “As long as women are women, I don’t think they will surpass men,” states Norway’s perennial marathon winner Grete Waitz (quoted in Holden, 2004). The anatomical differences between females and their male counterparts, specifically those that affect running, were presented in the introduction. Now an attempt will be made to show that the general anatomical differences between men and women extend to biomechanical differences that affect marathon running performance and injury.

Holschen (2004) writes that “[T]he female athlete remains less well understood and less well studied compared with male athletes, especially in the areas of performance factors, repetitive stress, and acute injuries.” She continues: “Logical reasons for this include: (a) a limited two-generation span of the high-profile elite female; (b) fewer females involved in coaching, research, and sports medicine; and (c) limited areas of female youth sports historically (gymnastics, swimming, dance).” The reality of Holschen’s findings proved to be true in the current research activity. There were remarkably few available sources on the biomechanics involved in women’s marathon running. Most of the research either applied to males or did not identify the gender. Results from a review of selected research literature will be presented in this section beginning with gender-differentiated research results on running performance. Following this, results of research into the two applied sports biomechanics specialties will be presented with a focus on studies concerning footwear and injuries.

Holden (2004) writes about performance in running with special attention to female runners. She quotes physiologist Henrik Larsen of the Copenhagen Muscle Research Centre in explaining women’s marathon performance vis-a-vis men: “Women had not developed long distance; that’s why the improvement is much greater on the marathon.” Larsen, who seems to attribute the performance improvements of female marathoners to focused training instead of anatomic factors, claims that “[w]e don’t see any higher oxidative capacity in women.” Holden also offers comments by exercise physiologist Timothy Noakes of the University of Cape Town, South Africa who agrees with Larsen’s assessment: “A smaller body frame gives women an edge on endurance…but men can run 10% faster even when the difference in body size is controlled for.”

Stephen Seiler (1996), who was quoted at the start of this section stating that the proposal that women could perform better in ultra-endurance activities has been disproved, confirms that “there are some physiological differences between the sexes that impact performance in females independent of age.” He notes that there is a ten percent difference in marathon times between men and women, adding that this difference is the same “across the distance running performance spectrum.” He attributes this difference, not to a difference in training, but to physiological differences. He studied maximal oxygen consumption, the lactate threshold, and efficiency to analyze the differences between men and women as these factors might affect long-distance running performance:

Maximal Oxygen Consumption. There is a 43 percent difference between men and women with men possessing a VO2 max (oxygen-delivering capacity measure) of 3.5 liters per minute and women with a capacity of 2.0 liters per minute. Seiler attributes this in part to male size; men are larger. But, even when size is factored in, male oxygen consumption capacity is still fifteen to twenty percent higher. Males have a greater capacity to deliver oxygen to their muscles and organs.
The Lactate Threshold. This is the point at which lactic acid begins to accumulate at higher than normal levels in the blood stream indicating an exercise intensity boundary at which the level of intensity can be maintained over a long period and that which will result in quick fatigue. Seiler does not believe that lactate thresholds are different for men and women as a percentage of their VO2 max.
Efficiency. After finding conflicting information comparing the efficiency of males and females—revealing that females are less efficient, more efficient, or the same as males in terms of efficiency—Seiler believes that differences in efficiency do not account for the differences in endurance performance.

Seiler concludes with his determination that the ten percent performance difference between men and women in endurance running can be attributed to the first of the three physiological factors he studied—maximal oxygen consumption.

Another researcher who explored gender differences in athletics, and especially in endurance events, is Dollman (2003). Citing Shepard (2000), Dollman writes that there is consistent evidence, based on observations, that males possess “larger measures” of the following (quoted):

Heart volume, even when corrected for stature.
Haematocrit, which gives males a 13 percent greater oxygen-carrying capacity than females.
Plasma volume.
Total muscle mass, which means that females perform the same absolute task at a higher percentage of maximum voluntary contraction, with concomitant vascular impedance limiting cardiac ejection and peak cardiac output.

In addition, male skeletal muscles may have a higher succinate dehydrogenase (an integral membrane protein) concentration (Dollman, 2003, citing Costill, et al., 1987). Males may produce better mechanical efficiency during running (Dollman, 2003, citing Miura, 1997) although this is arguable as it may be rooted in cultural origins (Dollman, 2003, citing Shepard, 2000).

Now attention will turn briefly to a review of selected research into the two primary application areas addressed by applied sports biomechanics: running performance and injuries. Regarding performance, footwear will be discussed followed by a presentation of selected findings on research into injuries. Gender issues will be introduced.

Lipsky (2001, citing Hennig, 2001) presented research findings on gender-specific requirements for athletic footwear designed for running. The research experiment involved fifteen women and seventeen men of the same body weights, heights, and ages. Each subject wore the same shoe size and each tested five types of shoes which included three styles of men’s shoes and two styles for women. Using “Kistler” force platforms at a set velocity, ground force reactions, tibial acceleration, angular foot motion, and plantar pressures at eight strategic locations on the foot were measured. Accordin

Water Aerobics

Introduction:

Water aerobics is the execution of aerobic exercise in genuinely shallow water, for example, in a swimming pool. Done basically vertically and without swimming normally in waist profound or more profound water, it is a sort of resistance training. It is a type of aerobic exercise that obliges water immersed members. It is frequently viewed as a low power workout system suitable just for pregnant women or the elderly. On the other hand, it really offers numerous advantages for any wellness level. Water aerobics classes arrive in a variety of arrangements, including step, kickboxing, jujitsu, zumba and yoga.

Low Impact:

Practicing in water makes you feel around 90 percent lighter, reports the American Council on Exercise. When you hop or keep running in the water, your body does not encounter the same effect that these moves bring about on land. This makes water aerobics a perfect action for those with joint pain, back issues, foot or leg wounds, and knee conditions. Pregnant ladies and the hefty likewise profit by the diminished effect.

More Discrete:

On the off chance that you discover other gathering exercise classes scaring due to complex choreography or windowed studios, the pool offers some watchfulness. Most moves are performed submerged so just you know whether you missed a stage.

Calorie Burn:

Expect to burn somewhere around 400 and 500 calories every hour in a water aerobics exercise class, as per the Aquatic Exercise Association. The real sum you smolder will rely on upon your size, the force of your developments, and also water temperature and profundity. All in all, speedier developments fusing the upper and lower body in profound water inspire the best calorie smolder.

Strength:

At the point when exercising in water, you conflict with 12 times the resistance of air, as indicated by an article distributed in American Fitness in 1996. Just kicking and measuring the water helps add to muscle improvement, which deciphers into a higher digestion system and healthier body. Numerous water high impact exercise classes fuse equipment like water oars, noodles, single or twofold floats, and kickboards to further incite quality increases. Push-ups or triceps plunges performed on the pool deck additionally help construct quality.

Swimming:

This type of water exercise can increment joint health, cardiovascular health and lower and upper body quality. A cardio workout in swimming is an incredible approach into working out, particularly on the off chance that you are searching for the low affect high impact movement. Swimming assists with general emotional and pulse wellbeing and unwinding.

Vertical Exercise:

Not at all like swimming, has vertical exercise tried to boost resistance, which brings about a center test. Therefore, it is simpler to keep those frightful midlife inches from amassing in the region where they add to breakdown metabolic and all the related infections. Water can even enhance and keep up equalization as it empties spine. This exercise type can assuage the tear and wear of joints and support you stay fit.

Water Aerobics Is not Just For Elderly and the Sick:

Water aerobics stimulating exercise is for everybody, particularly athletes who are preparing for a apprehension or marathon getting harmed while preparing. Lubrano prescribes for marathon runners to incorporate some running water sessions in your workout. Water based exercises can build an adaptability in man’s and support anticipate wounds.

Water Aerobics Help to Live Longer and Stay Fit:

The reports of United States Census Bureau is amid in 2009, there were 301 million visits of swimming every year by the Americans who were beyond the six years old. Swimming positioned as the fourth most prominent games based movement in the country can lessen the occurrence of interminable ailments with more than about two hours a week, says the Unites States. Division of Health and Human Services. Water aerobics exercise is simple on joints and even can build muscle quality and continuance because of the water’s inherent resistance. This type of exercise is favored by numerous rather than the more conventional form of wellness, such as exercise center, on the grounds that weight does not pull the people down same way a general workout would. Subsequently, a man can exercise longer on water than ashore without exertion additional or joint and muscle torment that regularly goes with a consistent exercise routine due to its low effect.

Anti-Aging:

It may not assist with wrinkles or snicker lines, but rather swimming has been indicated to cut the danger of death by about 50 percent. As per a study done by Dr. Steven Blair, Swimmers have the most minimal passing rate. The study was throughout the span of 32 years. The examination group took after 40,000 men, running from 20 to 90 years of age and found that the individuals who swam had a 50 percent lower passing rate than walkers, runners or men who got no exercise.

Flexibility:

Water is the best mediums in which to expand adaptability. A few rheumatologists prescribe swimming to build a man’s scope of movement as well as help to increment physical action without bringing about weight on the body’s joints.

Asthma Symptoms:

Swimming, in the same way as other high aerobic exercises, builds your lung limit; it compels your body to work extra minutes. Since water is denser than the air, lungs need to work that much harder to the supply enough oxygen to the blood, giving lungs a decent workout and subsequently diminishing asthma indications. As per a study done at The Nutrition Center and Children’s Exercise at McMaster University, “Swimming as a preparation methodology has clear advantages for the patient with asthma. These incorporate an increment in oxygen consuming wellness and a decline in asthma dreariness.

Lowers Diabetes Risk:

By practicing routinely, you’re diminishing your blood glucose levels. Aerobic exercise and resistance preparing, alone or in blend, enhances glucose control in patients with sort 2 diabetes.”

It Improves Mental Health:

As indicated by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, water based exercise enhances psychological wellbeing. Swimming can enhance the disposition in the both men and ladies. For people with fibromyalgia, it can be diminish uneasiness, and exercise treatment in warm water can diminish melancholy and enhance temperament. Water based exercise can enhance strength of the moms and their unborn youngsters. Individuals with sort 2 diabetes likewise have an expanded danger for coronary illness. In this way, keeping up their heart wellbeing and weight is a vital component for diabetes upkeep. In a study done by Leiden University Medical Center, a six month exercise arrangement with patients who have sort 2 diabetes was indicated to reduction cardiovascular danger components.

Lose Weight:

Swimming for 60 minutes can blaze upwards of 500 calories. It lives up to expectations each body part and muscle without creating strain on the body. Water additionally has more prominent resistance than air, which means strolling in water requires more exertion and at last smolders a greater number of calories than strolling ashore. Members lost a higher muscle to fat ratio utilizing submerged treadmill contrasted with area based treadmill. Security of the water: on the off chance that you despise the thought of bouncing around a room loaded with individuals in tight workout clothes, practicing submerged is an awesome option. 90% of member’s favored oceanic exercise contrasted with conventional area based exercise.

Good for Pregnant Women:

Practicing while pregnant is useful for the hopeful mother, as well as useful for the unborn child. Water exercises include no effect, overheating is impossible, and swimming face down elevates ideal blood stream to the uterus.

BUOYANCY:

The upward push applied by water on a body, which acts the other way of the power of gravity. Water’s buoyancy essentially wipes out the impacts of gravity supporting 90 percent of the body’s weight for lessened effect and more noteworthy adaptability. For instance, a 140 lbs (63kg) man weighs just 14 lbs (6 kg) in the water. Water goes about as a pad for the body’s weight bearing joints, lessening weight on muscles, tendons and ligaments. Thus, aquatic workouts are low effect and can significantly diminish the damage and strain normal to most land based exercises.

RESISTANCE:

Because of viscosity, drag powers and frontal resistance, water gives a resistance which is relative to the exertion applied against it. Resistance in water ranges somewhere around 4 and 42 times more noteworthy than in air relying upon the rate of development. This makes water a characteristic and immediately flexible weight preparing machine. Not at all like most land based exercise, water gives imperviousness to the development in all bearings, which permits these headings be utilized as a part of the reinforcing procedure. Water’s resistance can be expanded with pace and/or surface region, and the resistance is relative to the exertion needed to move against it. With the expansion of water wellness hardware, for example, lightness belt, webbed gloves, buoys and foot-product, resistance is expanded to reinforce and tone muscles

H2O HEART RATE:

The interesting properties of water empower your heart to work all the more proficiently. The hydrostatic weight of water pushes just as on all body surfaces and helps the heart course blood by helping venous return. This help to the heart represents lower pulse and heart rates, amid profound water exercise versus comparable efforts ashore. Hence, your heart rate is an expected 10 to 15 pulsates lower every moment amid suspended water exercise than for the same exertion connected on land.

TREADMILL:

Having the capacity to speedily come back to exercise taking after harm or an operation is significant and valuable to a speedier recuperation. Water empowers the arrival to exercise snappier than ashore. A mix of treadmill buoyancy movement permits people to walk or keep running at an adjusted and agreeable level taking strain & stretch off burden bearing joints whilst profiting from the aerobic action. Hydrostatic weight, resistance and water temperature all add to building up muscle and quality in a sheltered domain. The treadmill rate extent is up to 15kph and can be controlled from inside or out of the pool. The treadmill might likewise be worked dry.

Rehabilitation Water Exercises:

Water rehabilitation exercise permits you to exercise and restore yourself without the shocking and infrequently agonizing background of practicing on dry area. The buoyancy of water permits you to perform exercise without a huge effect on your body, as indicated by The Stretching Institute. Water restoration exercises permit you to keep up you wellness levels and recuperate from your damage. In any case, dependably counsel your specialist before starting water restoration exercise.

WALKING:

Walking in water that is midsection high will help you to keep up your wellness levels and also mend harm. Water walking can be utilized for spine and lower limit wounds and joint inflammation. Walking forward and in reverse can help enhance your condition without focusing on your joints. For an included test, swing your arms or utilization water weights while you walk. Walk in the water for 20 to 30 minutes on end.

SHOULDER FLEXION AND ABDUCTION:

Performing arm achieves while in water can help with the scope of movement in your shoulders. Sit on the base stride to a pool or stand so water is simply over your level of shoulder. For flexion, raise straight up arms out of pool as high as you conceivably can. Gradually bring down your arms over into the water and rehash. Complete one arrangement of 10 redundancies. For kidnapping – moving your arms far from midpoint of the body position arms at the sides. Gradually raise your arms with your palms down far from your body. Raise your arms to your shoulder level. Gradually bring down your arms and rehash. Complete one arrangement of 10 reiterations.

LEG RAISES:

This exercise can help to fortify the muscles in your legs, lower back and hips. Perform this exercise while clutching the side of a pool. For your right leg, stand with the left side confronting the pool divider. Utilize your left hand to clutch the side of the pool. Your knees ought to be somewhat twisted. Gradually swing right leg out to side. Hold it for a few moments. Bring down your leg and rehash. Complete one arrangement of 10 reiterations. Unwind and rehash with your left leg.

SUPERMAN:

The exercise extends your shoulder and back muscles. Advance toward water that is give or take midsection profound. Clutch the side of pool with the both hands. Your feet ought to be planted immovably on the base of the pool. Gradually push your feet far from the base of the pool. Your whole body will now be skimming on the highest point of the water. Develop your arms so that the elbows are straight. Legs ought to be stretched out also. Right now, you ought to look like superman. Hold this stance for 10 to 20 seconds. Gradually lower yourself back to the beginning position. Rehash one arrangement of five reiterations of this exercise.

The Olympic Games are one of the most important international sporting events for most of the world. The 2008 Beijing Olympics was especially one of particular focus and attention. China has long wished to show the world its greatness and, in June 2001, it finally got that chance. The Opening Ceremony as an event was the primary opportunity for China, besides the sporting events themselves, to demonstrate its power, wealth, and prosperity to the world; through visual and artistic spectacle. It would also allow the world to observe and witness how far China has progressed, as a country, to becoming more open and willing to being a bigger part in the global community. Aspects of the Opening Ceremony may be divided into three main categories; the Political, the Historical and Cultural, and the Ideals and overall Message.

The concept of ‘Unity’ is one of the main historical political ideas, presented throughout the Ceremony; which may be first interpreted in the mass-scale performances. Syncopation was essential during the highly choreographed displays of drummers, martial artists, and actors and dancers; in large formations. The theme of Unity has always been significant throughout Chinese history, since the unification of China under the first Emperor in 221 BCE. With rise and fall of subsequent dynasties, the prosperity of the land depended on that unity. The idea of ‘Unity’ in the new era may be more clearly displayed by the 56 children carrying the national flag, dressed in costume, representing the 56 ethnic groups of modern China; promoting China as a unified multi-ethnic, multi-cultural, nation. China’s economic strength is implied by the ability to fund and organize the large-scale use of fireworks, lighting, and man power; in order to put on such a spectacular mega-event. The Opening Ceremony may also be considered to be a promotion of Chinese pride and nationalism. It not only promotes Beijing itself as a city, or as the Capital, but as the center of the great country of China; as a while. This event is not only for China to impress all the foreign visitors, but may also prove to their own citizens, and to Chinese communities worldwide, how far they’ve come. They have the chance to make the best impression possible on the world; and to impress all with the speed and scope of China’s development.

The Historical and Cultural aspects played a major part in the Opening Ceremony through the presentation and celebration of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese director Zhang Yimou was the creative mind behind the Ceremony. He is perhaps known to Westerners for his films Hero, House of Flying Daggers, and Curse of the Golden Flower. There is a strong focus on spectacle and aesthetic beauty, and artistic tradition and history of China, with the central theme of the four great Chinese inventions; the first being ‘fireworks’. A brief film was shown during the ceremony, displaying the second of the four great inventions of ‘paper making’. The showing of the traditional ink brush making was shown to segue way into the next performance, as a giant L.E.D. paper scroll was rolled out in the middle of the stadium. At the centre lay a canvas upon which dancers in black, with a sleeve dipped in ink, left trail marking as they moved on the paper; creating a landscape of mountains, a river, and the sun. The look of it was in the style of traditional ink painting. Their dance was accompanied by the music of a Guqin, the ancient Chinese seven-stringed zither. It was a blending of brush painting, dance, and music, and the connection of all the fine arts as part of the same philosophical artistic process. In celebration of the Chinese language, of movable blocks were used in a large formation to present three variations of the character for “harmony”; another political ideal. The performance pays tribute to the third great invention of the ‘movable type press.’ Meanwhile, hundreds of costumed Han Dynasty feather-capped scholars, holding bamboo scrolls, sang out key excerpts from Analects of Confucius. Confucius was one of the most significant ancient philosophers that helped shape Chinese society, who still retains importance and influence in East Asia today. Other presentations artistic traditions of Beijing Opera and Puppetry were performed. A grounded map of the Ancient Silk Road was accompanied by Tang Dynasty dancers. The last of the great Chinese inventions, the compass, was held by the central actor in a performance presenting the voyages of Zheng He; the Ming Dynasty eunuch who led seven great naval expeditions to explore the world from 1405 to 1433. All these represent China’s glorious past. The following segment represented present day China, with a performance by pianist Lang Lang surrounded by luminescent performers; who arranged themselves into the Dove of Peace. The Dove’s wings took flight as the performers moved. A young girl, suspended by wire, ran in mid-air while flying a kite. 2,008 of male performers, in white, took formation to display a mass performance of Tai Chi in fluid unison; a martial art based on the principles of the Yin and Yang, and harmony with nature. The ink painted landscape returned for a group of schoolchildren to add their marks by colouring over it, while chanting poetry; suggesting an environmental and Green Olympics. The in the landscape was filled in with a smiley face. The accompanying light presentation showed bright coloured birds, flying into the sky; possibly to further the thoughts of peace, or environmentalism. An astronaut, and a giant glowing ball representing Earth, came forth to represent modern, and possibly future, space exploration. The ball changed colour and glowed like a Chinese lantern, while acrobats tumbled rolled along its surface. Chinese and British singers, Li Huan and Sarah Brightman, stood on top of the ball which reverted back to showing the Earth, and sang the 2008 Olympic theme song “You and Me”; in both Mandarin and English. It was a song of friendship and peace. The 2,008 performers returned, with bearing parasols with images of the smiling children; and fireworks in the shape of smiley faces were ignited.

The Opening Ceremony was the event for Beijing to welcome the world. They were able to introduce, or share more of, Chinese culture and heritage to the world. It also showed a new sense of China, more built on unity, peace, harmony, and openness with the global community. These ideals were made clear throughout the Ceremony as part of the themes for the 2008 Olympics; the slogan being “One World, One Dream.” China opening itself to the world is perceived in the Beijing Olympic Logo; a stylized representation of the character of Jing, meaning ‘capital.’ The character resembles a dancing figure with arms wide open, and China’s invitation and welcome to the world. The Red in the emblem is the Chinese colour of good luck and fortune. The Mascots for the 2008 Games, called Fuwa, have five members; Beibei, Jingjing, Huanhuan, Yingying, and Nini. Their designs were inspired by a fish, a giant panda, a flame, a Tibetan antelope, and a swallow; each also representing one of the five Olympic rings. Put together, their names for a pun on the phrase Beijing huanying ni, meaning, “Beijing welcomes you.” The Olympic Committee also chose three specific themes to promote for 2008. The first was “technological Olympics”, as high-tech media broadcasting and promotion was important to a successful Olympics; the 2008 Beijing Olympics being the first in history to be broadcasted in high-definition. The second theme was “humanistic,” and the original ideal that the Olympics is a cultural event; for all people. It not only refers back to the contributions by Ancient Greece, but is also gives the Chinese people the opportunity to share their own 5000 years of traditional and modern culture. Harmony of humanity also includes harmony with nature, which leads to the final theme of a “green Olympics.” China worked hard to tackle this issue in preparation for the 2008 Olympics, to accommodate the arrival of so many foreign spectators and athletes; to be able to attend and perform in an agreeable environment. While pollution as one of the main criticisms China faces today, it remains a problem in many other countries; and was a question raised for many previous Olympic cities. The 2008 Games were used to continue to increase global awareness and the promotion of green consumption.

The 2008 Beijing Olympics was the means for China to demonstrate its wealth and power to the world. It was through art and creativity, demonstrated by the Opening Ceremony, that China was able to celebrate and share its culture with the rest of the world; while also supporting current day ideals of peace, harmony, progress, and environmentalism. It was a promotion of a new image of China as willing and ready to open itself to all, and to be accepted as among the world’s top respectable countries.

Bibliography:
http://en.beijing2008.cn/
Gold, John R. And Margaret M. Gold, Olympic Cities: City Agendas, Planning and the World’s Games, 1896-2012. London: Routledge, 2007
Fan, Hong, Duncan Mackay, and Karen Christensen. China Gold: China’s Quest for Global Power and Olympic Glory. Great Barrington: Berkshire Publishing Group, 2008.

History of Basketball

Everything that we own started for way back in time.[this sentence does not make sense] All the things have some kind of history, who invented them, where they came from, what they did then, what they do now, and who uses them. Lots of the inventions we have now came from other inventions that we had in pervious years that we modified to work with what we wanted them to. Such as games, they get changed around in order to play a different game. Many school sports, and games played have some of the best history. Basketball is the one that has the most unique way about starting up.

A man named James Naisimth invented the game of basketball. James was born in the year 1861 and raised in a town near Almonte, Ontario, Canada. That is where he attended a little one-room schoolhouse. He went to school at McGill University and Presbyterian College in Montreal to try and become a physical education teacher. After going to school and severing as an athletic director James moved to YMCA training center geared for young kids to come in and play many different sports. (Laughead Jr. George)

While James was a physical education teacher they had a very hard winter, in the town of Springfield, Massachusetts’s, that lead the kids to be inside at all times. He had to think of a game that would keep them involved, having fun, and to give them a workout that they needed in class. He didn’t know what to do so; he went back to his years as a child playing in the playground with friends. The young kids had a game that was called duck-on-a-rock this game consisted of putting an object that looked like a duck on top of a big rock and trying to knock it off by throwing a smaller rock at it. (Mary Bellis)

He also took the games, soccer, football, and lacrosse and made them into one sport that could be played inside. But since the game was played on a hard gym floor all the tackling and hard pushing were out of the question. (James A Gel)

After all the brainstorming he came up with an idea that would allow kids to have fun, play a good game, and most of all to keep them active. He decided to place Baskets at both sides of the gym and putting them on a ten foot latter so that the baskets are above the player’s heads. The first ball they used was a soccer ball that the class had. It worked just fine because it was the right size to go into the baskets and big enough to hold well with your hands. With his first game being played was just with his class he was teaching decided to make just a few rules to keep the game under control. James only started with four rules for his class to follow them being, 1. No running with the ball in hand 2. No tackling or rough body contact, 3. A horizontal goal above player’s heads, 4. Freedom for any player to obtain the ball and score a point. (Wendy Kagan)

After a couple of years of playing the game they had to come up with some new rules that made things a lot more easier for the kids and whoever else where playing the sport. IT also had to keep the crowd and all spectators able to understand the game without having to play it them selves.

After a couple of days of the young kids playing the game it started to get easy for them so to make it harder he made more rules to follow. Now instead of just four he has 13 original rules. The rules go as following: The ball may be thrown in any direction with one or both hands.
The ball may be batted in any direction with one or both hands, but never with the fist.
A player cannot run with the ball. The player must throw it from the spot on which he catches it, allowance to be made for a man running at good speed.
The ball must be held in or between the hands. The arms or body must not be used for holding it.
No shouldering, holding, pushing, striking or tripping in any way of an opponent. The first infringement of this rule by any person shall count as a foul; the second shall disqualify him until the next goal is made or, if there was evident intent to injure the person, for the whole of the game. No substitution shall be allowed.
A foul is striking at the ball with the fist, violations of Rules 3 and 4 and such as described in Rule 5.
If either side make three consecutive fouls it shall count as a goal for the opponents (consecutive means without the opponents in the meantime making a foul).
Goal shall be made when the ball is thrown or batted from the ground into the basket and stays there, providing those defending the goal do not touch or disturb the goal. If the ball rests on the edge and the opponents move the basket, it shall count as a goal.
When the ball goes out of bounds, it shall be thrown into the field and played by the first person touching it. In case of dispute the umpire shall throw it straight into the field. The thrower-in is allowed five seconds. If he holds it longer, it shall go to the opponent. If any side persists in delaying the game, the umpire shall call a foul on them.
The umpire shall be judge of the men and shall note the fouls and notify the referee when three consecutive fouls have been made. He shall have the power to disqualify men according to Rule 5.
The referee shall be the judge of the ball and decide when it is in play in bounds, to which side it belongs, and shall keep the time. He shall decide when a goal has been made and keep account of the goals with any other duties that are usually performed by a referee.
The time shall be two 15-minute halves with five minutes’ rest between.
The side making the most goals in that time shall be declared the winners. (Laughead Jr. George)

After bigger and better people noticed the game there were more people playing the sport that never thought about playing. Many people were playing inside as well as now outside on the hard ground, but within the first decade of the game it went through a big change. Now dribbling was away of moving the ball down the court without having to throw it form spot to spot. The team size that could play on the floor at one time got dropped form nine to what we have to day five. Field goals started at three points for anything that went in the basket, but later that got moved to only being two points for field goals and one for free throws and eventually making a three pointer on the outside of the arched line. The ball that they used to play was an old soccer ball but they eventually replaced the ball with a leather-covered ball that was slightly bigger than the soccer ball. The baskets went under a huge change going from little peach baskets to mesh-wire baskets that had pulleys and rope to release the ball to a bottomless cord net with a metal rim. With the new baskets also came the backboard to help with angled shots. The backboard was first made out of wood with a few holes in to make it a tougher shot. After a few years of that they made the backboards that we still use today. (Levinson 101)

About four years after all the changes the sport started to branch out with different people playing. The schools, churches, athletic clubs, settlements houses, and of course colleges, now compete with one another and started there own league. A team from Trenton, New Jersey was the first professional team that rented a place called the Masonic Temple and charged twenty-five cents to get in. While this team was playing they also put in a new piece of equipment it was a twelve-foot-high mesh wire fence around the court to keep the ball from going out of bounces and to keep the fans away from the players. With that the game went on for two decades surrounded by a fence or net making the game of basketball be called the cage game. (Levinson 101)

In the year 1905 seven coaches form powerful college teams decided to make there own league and rules for the seven teams to compete. Three years after the seven teams competed they finally came up with a league called National Collegiate Athletic Association or also known as the NCAA and in 1915 AAU and YMCA joined making there own rules and guide lines. Now days these leagues still exist with younger and older men and women playing the beloved sport. (Levinson 101)

In 1892 a woman named Senda Berenson, a gymnastics instructor, took the game of basketball and change it to where women could easily play it. She took the floor and divided into three equal areas to keep the players confined to one area so that she could keep her girls from getting too tired and getting to sweaty. A year after the new way of “women’s basket ball” was being played. Young girls in the town and playgrounds were playing the game but it was also being played in many colleges such as; Mt. Holyoke College, Sophie Newcomb College in New Orleans, Louisiana, and the University of California in Berkeley. (Levinson 101-102)

In women’s basketball they were not allowed to show any body parts besides the hands, neck and head. The proper women of the sport wore dresses that were as long as they stood and most of them were black with a few white accents to it. The dresses had to hit the floor in order to play. Later in the future they made the women wear miniskirts but they mostly stood by the long dresses that make them look flashier. With the extremely long dresses and skirts they ended up with more women having broken bones, knocked out teeth, and black eyes because they would always trip on the hem of the dress. (Sally Jenkins)

On April 4 1896 it was Cal and Stanford played the first women’s intercollegiate game that took place in San Francisco In the Armory Hall Stanford took the game winning only 2-1. In 1901 was the first publication of the new women’s sport three-court basketball. 1903-1905 the game had been shortens from twenty-minute halves to fifteen-minute halves. The game also went form having nine players on the floor to having only six, and also had eleven officials that call the game for the ladies. In the year 1916 a weird rule came in to play it was the coaches were not allowed to coach but only at half time so many of the coaches just stood there and took notes about the stuff they wanted to say in the locker room. The girls had rules but they were not as strong as the men’s so in the year 1918 they rules were changed in a way that they were similar to the guys but not as strict and easy for the women to understand. (sally Jenkins)

In conclusion you can see that they game of basketball has had a big history of where it has started. You would never think that the game of basketball would come form a little kid’s game called duck-on-a-rock. The game started with only a few kids playing from class and then it started to expand with now girls playing, younger kids playing, and than it went professional. Now the game is one of the most watched and most liked. Basketball will continue to grow and become even bigger sport that many people play, enjoy and watch.

Works cited page

Laughead Jr, George. “Dr James Naismith, inventor of basketball.” History of Basketball. 14 March 2006. History of Basketball. 30 Jan 2008

Bellis, Mary. “Basketball-James Naismith.” About.com. 2008. About.com. 30 Jan 2008 .

Jenkins, Sally. “WNBA.” History of womens basketball. 2008. WNBA. 30 Jan 2008 .

James A, Gels. “Basketball History.” The Coachs Clipboard. 2001-2008. The Coachs Clipboard. 30 Jan 2008 .

Kagan, Wendy. “Naismith, James.”Notable Sports Figures. Ed. Dana R. Barnes. Vol. 3. Detroit: Gale, 2004. 3 pp. 4 vols.Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale. Idaho Commission for Libraries. 1 Feb. 2008

.

Levinson, David. Encylopedia of world sport from ancieant Times to The Present . V.1. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1996.

Many studies from past centuries in countless different fields of research have shown that there are rampant increases of gender inequality in many fields. In the field of sports, this not something unheard of, but it has been a common trend in the past games and sports events. Several sociologists have been reported to claim that sport inequality has taken several dimensions such as gender, wealth and social class categories. These are said to have been brought about by cultural and economics differences which are the key players to discrimination in all sort of classification. (Wolff, 1994)

Although many people despite sport and games, there is a major role played by both in bridging and alleviate the norm of community cultures that brings social discrimination leading to inequality. While focusing on my favorite hobby basketball, I am first and foremost thrilled to give brief details of its history. Basketball is a sport that started at about two centuries ago. It begun in early December in the year 1891 by a famous man named James Naismith. This was at a time when there was serious search for indoor games intended to keep students occupied. Furthermore, like any other sporting event, it was not only for the keeping of the student occupied but also for the maintenance of proper level of fitness during the winter season in New England. This followed after the search for proper game that was neither tough nor too poorly designed in door plays. During such early times, the event used peach baskets which were replaced in the early twentieth century by metal hoops with blackboards. The rules which the founders of the game wrote were found in the year 2006 and were basically invented from children’s game named duck and rock. (Wolff, 1994)

Basketball game was first played by a group of young men in the young Christian gymnasium in the year 1892. This was founded in London England, which was an institutional organization that was dedicated to using Christian principles into practice to young men. The living conditions for these young men were not safe and were often neglected, thus the beginning of the game was a hallmark of bring change in the sociological arena, as this was a way substituting there life on the streets for prayer and bible study and drawing them into a new social kind of life. However, the first encounter of the composition of the sport participants is of great concern in terms of inequality. Despite the noble ideas of George William for starting such an organization which were quite unusual, and which crossed the inflexible lines that separated all the different social classes of all those lived in the England boundary; the whole community was entirely male dominated. Perhaps, this was as a result of the first intentions for creation of male institution and not an institution for both genders. Thus, the young men’s Christian association was initially composed mostly by males, showing an enormous skewed trend in the men’s side in the institutional composition. Following the interest of some of the enlightened women, there was a great struggle between the basketball leaders of the early period to include females this particular sport. However, this was all in vanity. The only achievement that yielded from such struggles was the abolishment of admitting the only males to the organization and soon or later the association would provide opportunities to all men, women and even children without any regard to racial, religious or nationality back grounds. (Axthelm, 1971

The inclusion of women in the organization was a major advantage to them. This paved way and gave them a chance to in the participation of this today’s world class game. They had opportunities to watch how the game was organized and they even got entertained as they watch the men play. The inclusion of females to actively take part in such a game was a real ordeal. Men were unwilling to help the women group to establish their own club. Therefore, it took a lot of time to establish a women’s team as they lack full support from the expert side of men. It took all the efforts of one of the females to come up with a women’s. This work was under taken by a renowned woman in the history of basketball by the name Senda Bereson. She set on his work to teach women basketball in the year of 1892, which is almost at one year after the men’s play had begun. In her work, she was fascinated by the new sport and the values it could teach. Thus she organized the first women’s basketball in the following year. In order to improve the performances of the women play, she used to watch plays performed by smith’s freshmen as they played against sophomores. She was also interested on improving the rules and regulations for the female basketball. Her work of writing new guidelines came into culmination when she published the first women’s basketball guide. This furthered the spreading of the women basketball and lead to improvement of the version of basketball for women. (Bonsor, 2006)

Although, the spreading of basketball from young men’s Christian association was one of the major events that saw great removal social barriers in most countries, by enabling the spreading of the game throughout the United States and Canada. But due to some misuse of their initial ideas by some groups in the development and improvement of the game standards, within a few decades, they had to discourage the new sport terming it as rough and rowdy game. The game had turned to be involved in spreading political and economic challenges. Women had started to turn into lesbians during such games. However, their efforts to do away with it were all in vain. Amateur clubs, colleges and professional clubs could quickly fill the void and argument the spread faster than before. Pro –league were formed in the beginning of the twentieth century which included the national basketball league. This was put in place to protect all the players from exploitation and to promote a lesser rough game. The parties who were involved were supposed to provide security to men, boy. (Axthelm, 1971)

With the effect of the spreading of the game, many institutions also embraced it. By the time it had gone for over five decades, basketball had become a major college sport. This in turn gave birth to the growth of professional basketball. Following the great concerns of different people from all parts of the worlds in the early 20s to 30s, the game had been almost in practice in all the developed and developing countries. Due to its introduction in most countries, the game has formed part in the major competitions that are taking place in the today’s world competitions. This includes Olympic Games and many more others. This as one way of providing opportunities to people to interact, it gave people from different continents, countries and ethnic groups to come together and share experiences and cultural traditions from different backgrounds. From the early researches, it is shown that head’s school played its first women’s inter-institutional game against the University of California in the year of 1892. From this period, several women clubs were started for basketball events. This lead to increased intercollegiate women’s game. However most of the coaches of that time were men drawn from the different part of the states. Thus, there was disparity in the composition of the bodies which were charged with the responsibilities of organizing, managing and controlling the sport. This perhaps was due to the fact that most men had developed much interest in the event, thus they had an ease of learning the requirements and operation of the game. At the same time most college seemed to encourage the participation of men in the play than any other group. For instances, by the start of the twentieth century, many colleges and universities in the United States began sponsoring men’s sports. These included universities such as university of Chicago, Columbia University, university of Manniseto, U.S. naval academy, university of Utah, Yale University and many more others. This accelerated the disparity in the participation of men to women basketball. Another major reason which might have contributed to this disparity is that, historical, participation of women in sports was discouraged or banned as they were viewed as people with tender masculine who could not tolerate the strenuous stretching activities which are involved in sports and games. (Axthelm, 1971):

However, as civilization and education enlighment dawned to most of the people, the altitude towards the basketball sporting changed with time in an amazing manner. In the developed countries where civilization and technology begun, they had formed several folds of women’s basketball committees in the year 1910. These were geared towards the mitigation of girls’ child performances in sports. National and international women’s basketball executive committees were also raised. These could organize women’s basketball competitions in different colleges and universities. In addition, they were in charge of state tournaments and nationals women’s basketball championships hence being mandated with the same powers as men. On the same empowerment, men and women were given the same equality, and this resulted into the application of men rules in the play game. The women’s competitions of 1940s were conducted using the men’s rule hence it is said that women played against men in several championships. (Wolff, 1991)

In the recent reports from different broadcasting and news papers, journals and internet sources, it has been reviewed that there is enough supporting bodies for the both men a basketball. These bodies ensures that there enough money to spent on equipments, training, travel and uniforms for males. They are mostly focusing on both the child boy child in schools, so there is more disparity which is being experienced in the present and the near future. To a larger extend, they are committed to ensuring that even cheering opportunities are areas of discrimination. By mixing the cheering squads for both men and women, they can try to alleviate the general phenomenon of favourism. Once the authorities are on their hand, they have recently fired and made reshuffling of coaches in various men and women basketball teams. There are increases in percentages in the admissions of recruits for women to curb the problem of disparity which was created by the old practices and culture by our forefathers. (Bonsor, 2006)

References:

Axthelm, P. (1971): The City Game.

Wolff, A. (1991):100 Years of Hoops.

Wolff, A. (1994): The Official NBA Basketball Encyclopedia .2nd Ed.

Bonsor, K. (2006): Newly found documents shed light on basketball’s birth.

ESPN.com. Associated Press -Retrieved on 2008-03-7.

Do you think that high school athletes should be able to go professional right after they are done with their high school career? This question is a big argument between many people through out the sports world. This is a big debate because nowadays athletes are becoming bigger, stronger, and faster right out of high school. This is happening because athletes are some of the highest paid people in the world. People in the world are actually breeding for their kids to be a sort of super athlete. Many kids are starting to be trained early in age for sports and to be able to make it further in the sports world. There are some people who believe if high school athletes are physically ready for professionals in a sport that they should be able to go right into it.

On the other side of this argument many people believe that high school athletes need to get there education and should go to college where they can play sports and then be drafted to a professional league after their college career is done. In many peoples minds that if an athlete is that ready for professional sports that the athletes should have no problem in collegiate athletics and should standout. Many people believe that the athletes college career will only give them more experience and will help them be better once they are able to make it to the draft and plus they are also getting their education just in case something does happen and they do not make it in the professionals. Many athletes do not make it in professional athletics and by making athletes go to college they can rely on their career and will still be well off in the world. For example, the NFL will not let you enter the draft until you have completed three years in college or in college athletics. This is a rule to make sure that athletes go to college but after three years many athletes enter the draft and do not finish their career. This is a huge problem because the athlete will not have their career to fall back on.

There are only a couple rules athletes must follow for the NBA draft. The first rule is that they must have been in college for one year in order to be entered into the draft. This is because they want athletes to at least try the college experience and to at least be able to make it to college as well. Another rule for the NBA draft is that the athlete must be nineteen years of age and one year removed from high school. These rules were made in the year 2006 and have been enforced ever since. These rules are a very good idea because it makes athletes go to college, which is a good thing. This can also be a bad thing because some athletes can not make it to college and that is a problem for some athletes. The age requirement is a good idea I think because at eighteen years old I don’t know if you are ready to play with people like Shaq or someone like that. This rule can work both ways though because there has been many athletes go straight to the draft at eighteen and did very well for them. A former player says, “The special ones who can go pro should be allowed to do it.” (Beck H. (2005, June 28)).

A key example for this is LeBron James and Dwight Howard! There are amazing athletes and were drafted straight out of high school and were actually first round picks! There have been many players like this such as Kevin Garnett, Tracy McGrady, and Kobe Bryant. In some ways many people think that the age requirement is a good idea because it gives you an extra year for your body to grow or even your mind to grow. This helps athletes to be ready to be a professional and it lets them train and get even better than they already are.

Many basketball coaches believe that the draft rules are very good and could change the age requirement to twenty if wanted. They believe that making the age requirement later will just encourage young athletes to go to college even more and then they might realize the importance of a college degree and what they can do with it after their basketball career is over. Many coaches believe that a lot of young athletes are not ready to compete at that high of a level many are not use to traveling that much or even being away from their family and friends that much. “If you can go to war and die for your country, or go to prison for the rest of your life at 17, then you should also be eligible to go pro at 17.”(Freeman, M. (2004)) A lot of athletes will still be maturing mentally and physically if able to be drafted straight from high school. A lot of younger athletes still do not take responsibility for themselves and their actions. With great privileges, comes great responsibilities and many people think that high school athletes are not ready for these yet!

The NFL has different rules to their draft than other professional organizations. In the NFL draft you must have completed three years in college. There is really no age limit in the NFL draft because you can enter it when you are a senior, junior or even a redshirt sophomore. The only requirement is the three years in college. There have been some athletes who have made it to the NFL straight from high school but this took place a very long time ago because the NFL has had tight rules on these types of things for quite a while.

In the NHL draft which is the draft for professional hockey has slim to none rules on entering the draft. They are one of the only sports you can be drafted straight to a professional out of high school. There have been quite a few people who have done it and a major athlete who has done great things is Sid “The Kid” Crosby. He was drafted straight out of high school and was a huge impact on the NHL he is an amazing athlete and takes on all the veterans of the sport. It is said his name is going to be more known than Wayne Gretzgy’s. He is breaking records and making new ones as he is a magnificent scorer. The reason that hockey does not have a so called age limit is because there are young people that are better than the older people and once your good you are usually good for a long time.

Then there is the MLB draft for Major League Baseball. In the MLB you can be drafted right out of high school if you are good enough. Usually if drafted straight out of high school the franchise will put you on their minor league team to test your ability and if you do well they will move you up to the majors. You can be drafted at any time as long as you are not enrolled in some sort of schooling at the time. There are a lot of high school athletes drafted to the MLB especially pitchers because they are the most needed seeming their arms do not last very long. The most high school athletes that enter the draft are from California. This happens because California is a huge state and has very good baseball programs.

Immigration is a huge topic among sports these days. For high school athletes going professional immigration is a huge deal. In America we have some of the highest paying sports and the best sports in the world. Many Immigrants know this and are come to America just for sports. For instance, Sammy Sosa is from the Dominican Republic and is an amazing baseball player. His parents and he had him come to America to be able to play baseball professionally and to make money off of a career he loved. In the Dominican Republic there is not as much money there and Sammy could not afford just to play baseball, he had to work and help his family make it in tough times. There are many families bringing their kids to America if they are good at sports because they have a better shot here of making it big and doing something they love while making money.

There are Immigrants all over in our high school athletes and they are very good. Their families have made sacrifices for them to be here to play the game they love in hope that they will make it professional. Baseball is a huge sport for this and so is football and basketball also. Immigration makes it so that people can make it here in sports and help take care of their families back home and there are many immigrants being drafted to the professional leagues. Some examples of Immigrants who have made it big here in sports are: Yao Ming, Paul Gasol, Peja Stolakivich, and many more. So as you can see, Immigration ties right into this topic and actually affects it a lot more than most people think.

Another major role in this topic is what kind of high school you have attended. This is a big deal because there are basically two types of schools. There are public schools and private schools. As we all know most public schools are very poor funded and usually do not have a lot of money to spare. In private schools they usually have tons of money and could spare some. This is a huge factor for athletes; athletes who attend a private school have more opportunities and privileges than athletes at public schools. For example, private schools usually have very nice facilities and equipment and do not charge very much for athletes to play the game. At a public school the prices are a lot and there are not nice facilities and not very much money in the program. At private schools there are just coaches. They teach at the school also but are very intelligent in there sport. At public schools they take volunteers or pay a teacher very little to do it that has really no experience and not very well suited for the job. The private schools usually make better athletes because they can spend time, money, and the right training to make them good. In public schools this is hard and the athletes are kind of at a disadvantage. This affects them making to the Professionals and could make them not even be able to play in college. There are many great athletes out there but some have better situations and will make it farther because of that. This is how public schools affect high school athletes.

All in all in my opinion I believe that athletes should be allowed to be drafted straight out of high school but I think there should be specific leagues just for rookies or high school athletes. I believe in like football there should be a league like the MLB. They will have some minor league teams and have all their young athletes play in that. Then if an athlete does very well in this league you can bring him up or send him back down whenever need be. I think this will help a lot on this issue. Don’t get me wrong I believe athletes should be student athletes but some people are just not cut out for school. It should be the person’s choice and they get to decide. The smart athletes that care about their future will still go to college and get a degree or they will do it online or something like that. Athletes will realize that they need a backup plan because their bodies are not going to last forever. So in my opinion I believe they should be able to go professional.

First Draft: Athletes as Role Models Sports and athletic games is a very popular way of entertainment that has played a major role in people life and since the first years of man existence. From the Greeks and Rome culture to present day, so its so refluxed to society that athletics become an inspiration to a lot of people in body fitness and victory sides. However, recent media has made athletics and the people who play it as role models or heroes. Athletes are seen all over the advertisements and television, every one can watch them in commercials, on shows, read about them in newspaper, and watch them on cinemas too. As Sports plays a big role in the society. So people always seek for positive athletic role models in their society. This leads to this what some people call a role model. So that research is to show importance of having positive athletic role models in society and the influence they have on and off the field. As some teens miss the role of parents who are no longer devote themselves to the young children to sit with them, and dialoguing in proportion to the age that no longer benefit the treatment of children with behavior of kindergarten. So they look for their favorite athletics which have positive effect and negative too according to the athlete personality. So the argumentative point that athletes are not only role models but, in today’s media driven world

Due to circumstances of modern life, and less physical activity of the human person as a result of the development .Since the human body needs physical activity for both the development and its vital functions and motor or To keep them at a high emotional level, the physical education must play their part in this area .In order to provide the body’s physical activity organizer who works to maintain the vitality some sponsors encourage sports men to be role models so Many are interested in youth business, and specialists as well , the presence of role model in the youth lives, which would help them to continue their lives trying to approach the perfection and get their goals so they seek something as inspiration , and thus contribute and participate directly to the success of these athletic young people in their lives, which necessarily mean success in their community ,as success in sports today means success in the society as well ,and it is common that half of young people present and to the future teenagers too. Are looking to the youth role model , nowadays, in general, whether in the Arab world, or at the local level, there is lacks the presence of such role models in teenager life as parents or friends or relatives , although an exception among the young is proud to achieve their own goals and having the positive attitude of any negative phenomena in their society those are so energetic and others like painting or any other hobbies except sports, but it is still exception, So when the media deal with youth affairs, and trying to catch teen eyes so they use those popular sports figures to achieve their goals ,like any other type of media they choose the most successful teen player or the most skilful and get him in poster and contribute in newspapers, magazines and television to reach this result, and also its discovered that many of these young men and women, due to many reasons, multi-colors, but are talking and looking at certain models in singing the present time an example that followed the example in their lives and proud of it, simply because the famous singer appeared more beautiful after surgery to inflate the lips and other plastic surgeries , as well as for the Sports Stars of the story just felt pretty strange, or perhaps shown by their owners New Look .

There is much of definitions to the role model so True role models are those who possess the qualities and positive principles that people would like to be like those as the has effect in people way of thinking and affected in a way that makes nations want to be better people. And to make sure of personal goals, people need to take leadership on the facts and traditions that people believe in. Most of people often don’t recognize the true role models until they have noticed their own personal growth and progress. However the idea of role model is not common for all youth some just wanted to learn and not to take those as role models the good role model encourages people and teenagers to believe that they can get their goal and be a living example however .Some think being role model means that. It is the smile that they give to others. It is the look of stars and all this advertisement things. Some define Good Role Model as a person who tells, and influences teenagers to make the right choice in hard ways of life. As they should teach people that everyone should prove himself to get his goal whatever that means .people may need a reminder to work harder .especially that some of nations are lazy. But the deepest meaning is that role model has to be not just someone who teens look up to or is successful, but someone they can go through similar struggles challenges in life.

It is thought that athletics who are role model is a positive idea, as Athletes who are Against Drugs give a good hope to those children and mold their behavior at a young age. As those children can early to resist peer pressure and alcoholic drinks so early so they can protect them from getting into troubles, and teaches them to stay out of troubles and problems and street fight as some of those kids are involved with gangs. The reason why most kids get involved in gangs is because it is a place where they feel they can fit in. So by monitoring athletics themselves and be against those stuff they can act as positive role models. Athletes are role models, and it is the athlete decision to either use their gift and their powers in a positive or a negative cause. Some athletes believe that the responsibility of being role models, but it does not change the clear fact that they are considered as role models by lots of children.

There is a strong need for positive athletic role models in society; there is no negative side to have a positive athletic role model in teenager life. As stated in some sources ” I believe the majority of professional athletes provide a positive influence on our society. Athletes can be role models in many different ways. You can have a role model like Cal Ripken who doesn’t say too much, but has played in the most consecutive games in baseball ever”. A majority of professional athletes provide hope for young athletes all over the world As. some players have done many positive things in their lives and the lives of millions of children in the world through projects focusing on the lives of the poor and the suffering nations and contributing positively at world disasters, and contribute ,help many patients with serious diseases, so if every realize to be active in their community and how to help others, and positively react, as lots of those athletics suffered so much in their lives before their become billionaires, but they remained with the same habits, generous, and provides a positive model in the sports world so they contribute in the aspects of humanity so they deserve some respect and appreciation.

Some are against role model as sports men as the idea of heroes are becoming less admirable as the years go by and turned much in cash. With the recent steroids and become more alike heroine ,the real athletics who plays fair games some thinks they are rare this days to be admired by younger players as well. As most of the currently teenagers college aged students were growing up, recently, it is difficult to locate the major good player to be considered as a good example for young people to look up to. Also some sports don’t have any civilized role which affect teens and make theme more aggressive as inspired by athletes of these days, as most of them habitual drug users and general criminals. High school athletes are taking the lead from those professional players and athletics that should play respective sports and more which leads to real problem.Also some thinks that Athletes aren’t always who they seem to be on television and media, they always look like smiling, happy people who just love to help out people in need and give hugs to little children. Some thinks they have another face behind scenes; it is thought they are actors who are good at playing sports, Really some players do not show their real face as it seem on TV, as a lot of them are hard to deal with and heartless folks who are looking for some cash. They might have addiction on drugs or drinking alcohol or many other horrible things, and those things the real role models should not be doing.

Steroid and protein supplements and the injections which used by those to increase their performance has high health risk is now used by high school seniors, a direct correlation to the mammoth statistics by superstars who cheated the game. A source stated that ” The White House said a recent survey found steroid use among 8th, 10th and 12th graders combined was down from 2001 by 40% for use during lifetime, 42% for the past year and 22% for the past month. ” So a lot of youth are very affected by their athletics to have that muscular body or that higher performance of those athletics in shorter time. Some years ago an athlete said that “I am not a role model”. Actually some thought that he is not only talking about him, but all athletes in general. He referred that he is like most of normal people who want to play a fair game for his team and have his own personal life .So; every athlete should think before he signs a multimillion dollar deal, there is a little kid will put their poster on his wall, its great responsibility to be a role model or hero. However being a role model is not athletic responsibility it’s the audience responsibility to choose whatever he is good enough to represent his society or no, as some athletics are good and some are bad. And also and each of those advertisement organizations can choose what sort of message they want their representatives to deliver to their customers. So a lot of people may not agree with this statement as being model something an athlete can do to himself. However Young and talented teenager athletes sometimes place professional sports above other goals. Which may lead their carrier life to edge, they show low school grades so they wont be able to be apart of their society and they got paid but without education as well.

To summaries the point of views .It is thought from some people that those athletics did not choose to be role models and they were not prepared to be a role model and they may do not ever wanted to be a role model, as its not their responsibility however they carry even a major part of it and also the Given the number of poor examples of sportsmanship ,sponsors on display in the media today, the responsibility for finding models of desirable behaviors and attitudes rests heavily on the shoulders of those involved in the youth environment. Coaches, parents, athletes, teachers, etc must be determined in their promotion of the youth environment. Those professional athletes and other athletes are daily supposed to spotlights and it is so easy to expect that they are watched by millions of people and audience and fans who like their teams, So those people are watching every move. The athletes must realize that when they make mistakes people will be watching and judge and interact with that and even magazines will post it later. But also life is not fair and some do mistakes but also those athletics should act in positive way and take the responsibility for the consequences that come after mistakes that has been made. But also .role models athletes can do many positive things such as educating the young youth at schools by letting them know the importance of going to school and importance of sports as well. Those Athletes who are Against Drugs should be doing as role models. Those great athletics when they are up to training or open sports schools, provide people with lifelong learning skills that can flourish other areas of people lives, enhancing their confidence, improving the way with dealing with the challenges facing them in life, elevate self esteem and change the way of thinking in their life, Those athletics know that they are in the spotlight, Good and bad come out of sports and with recent media, as it over react with the actions of some players And publish it in many forms. Everyone out there is watching and for a prime time, the athlete as a role model is not an issue; it’s a Part of everyday life.

FINA is the Federation Internationale de Natation the world governing body for swimming. FINA writes the rules for Olympic-type watersport. All of the FINA sports are: pool swimming, diving, water polo, synchronized swimming, open water swimming, and master’s swimming. FINA has recognized national governing bodies in each country that carry out FINA’s regulations and directives, and have each country votes on membership on the FINA board. Among FINA’s objectives are the promotion of swimming and the organization of world championships and other FINA competitions. http://swimming.about.com/od/gues7/qt/FINA.htm

The British Governing Body

British Swimming is the National Governing Body for Swimming, Diving, Synchronized Swimming, Water Polo and Open Water in Great Britain. It is responsible internationally for the high performance representation of the sport. The members of British Swimming are the three Home Countries national governing bodies of England (ASA), Scotland (ScottishSwimming) and Wales (Swim Wales). British Swimming seeks to enable its athletes to achieve gold medal success at the Olympics, Paralympics, World Championships and Commonwealth Games http://www.swimming.org/britishswimming/about-us/about-british-swimming/about-british-swimming/1747/

Speaking about the build up to the 2012 Olympics British Swimming Chief Executive David Sparkes said: “Preparations for all of our sports are right-on-track to build on the success that the aquatics team enjoyed in Beijing and our legacy programme is also taking shape.

“We are confident that we will not only see British success in the pool but we will also see swimming moving to a new level with more people swimming more often and having more fun in the pool.”

Olympic History

It was at the 1896 Olympics where swimming was introduced as a sport, which was held in open waters. At that time there were only two events, which were the 100 meters and the 1500 meters and only involved men competing. Following the popularity of the sport at the Olympics, more freestyle events were introduced, shortly followed by other strokes such as backstroke, butterfly, breaststroke and also the individual medley. The first time a pool was used instead of the sport taking part in open waters was at the London 1908 games where it was built inside the athletics track. It wasn’t until the 1912 Olympics where women were allowed to compete in this sport and this was only due to a group of people that is now known as the international Olympic committee that made it possible. The Olympics have developed so much now that there is a total of 34 swimming races, 17 of which are for men and 17 for women. The latest event which has been added to the competition is the 10km Marathon Swim which only took place for the first time at the Beijing Olympics 2008.

2012 Olympics

At the 2012 Olympics in London the swimming events will take place in the newly built Aquatics centre over a period of 16 days from the 28th July to the 12th August. There will be a total of 850 athletes competing for 34 gold medals. It has been confirmed by the International Olympic committee that there is an unchanged swimming programme for the 2012 Olympics and will follow the competition schedule of that at Beijing 2008.

Events
Freestyle
50m freestyle men/women
100m freestyle men/women
200m freestyle men/women
400m freestyle men/women
1500m freestyle men
800m freestyle women
4x100m freestyle relay men/women
4x200m freestyle relay men/women
Backstroke
100m backstroke men/women
200m backstroke men/women
Breaststroke
100m breaststroke men/women
200m breaststroke men/women
Butterfly
100m butterfly men/women
200m butterfly men/women
Medleys
200m individual medley men/women
400m individual medley men/women
4?100 medley relay women/men
Marathon
Marathon 10k men/women
Aquatics Centre

The new Aquatics centre already dubbed the ‘Wembley for swimming’ will play home to the swimming events, diving, synchronized swimming, water polo and the modern pentathlon for the 2012 Olympics.

“The venue was designed by acclaimed international architect Zaha Hadid. It features a spectacular wave-like roof that is 160m long and up to 80m wide, giving it a longer single span than Heathrow Terminal 5.” London 2012

The aquatics centre will hold a maximum capacity of 17,500 seats for both the swimming and diving and is said to be the gateway to the whole of the Olympic park. There also plans in place for the venue to be used after the games by turning it into a permanent leisure facility for the community.

‘In legacy the Aquatics Centre will play a major role in building a more active and healthy community in the East End of London and will act as a focal point in relation to healthy activity, combating obesity and improving health’ British Swimming

Key Athletes
Michael Phelps

Last Olympic Games Michael Phelps took his total to 14 gold medals which is the record for anyone competing at the Olympics. 8 of these medals came from the last Olympic Games held in Beijing where he also broke 7 world records and 1 Olympic record. This year Phelps has gone from being described as probably the best Olympic athlete ever to being scrutinised by the public for being pictured smoking a marijuana pipe. Follow this release Phelps has doubted whether he will even swim in 2012 or decide on retiring early.

Phelps quotes ““Yeah, there are still goals that I have in the pool, 100 percent. But I’m not going to let anything stand in my way. If I decide to walk away, I’ll decide to walk away on my own terms. If it’s now, if it’s four years, who knows. But it is something I need to think about and decide what I want to do.” http://www.dailystab.com/michael-phelps-considering-dropping-out-of-2012-olympics/

If Phelps does decide to compete in the 2012 Olympics it will be interesting to see how he bounces back from this and whether he can live up to the expectations people put on him and the high standard of performance that the people have come to expect.

Rebecca Adlington

Rebecca Adlington stormed to success at the previous Olympics become Britain’s first Olympic swimming champion since 1988 and also the first British swimmer to win two gold medals since 1908. This was from competing in both the 400m freestyle and also the 800m freestyle, where she also broke the world record. In 2009 the IOC announced its plans to keep the swimming schedule the same as it was in Beijing, following ideas that the 800m for women was to be removed and replaced by the 1500m so that the events would be the same as the men’s. This therefore is good news for Adlington as if the GB team qualifies for that event in 2012 she will be able to defend her title.