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Technological development is becoming more and more essential in spot competition. Technological development refers to the development of techniques or appliance which can improve the quality and magnificence of the sport competitions. However, there could be some difference between different countries; it may depend on the level of the countries’ development. There are three main aspects revealing that technological development has revolutionized sport competitions. Firstly, the development of telecommunications promotes the globalization of sport competition. Secondly, the use of electronic appliance helps to reduce controversy and ensure the fairness of the results in the competition, such as auto-timing system. Moreover, the improvement sport equipments and analyzing system has become necessary for enhancing the performance of athletes.

Firstly, one of the most dramatic revolutions in sport completion is caused by the developments in new technologies of mass communication, especially the development of Internet and satellite television, which are allowing the sport competitions to be publicized around the world much more quickly. As an example, mega-events such as the Olympic Games can be regarded as a ‘media-events (D. Rowe, 2004, 166). According to Roche, the 1936 Berlin Olympics was the first Olympic Games to be radio broadcast to the world; and it was also the first major sport event to be televised, although it was only available in the city of Berlin at that time due to the limited local cable system. Nowadays, the universality of the Internet and television are most effective to the globalization of the sports competition, however, turning the sport competition into global event. Referring to the television, Horne and Manzenreiter indicate that the estimation of 3.9 billion television audiences had watched parts of the 2004 Athens Olympic Games, and 40 billion which are cumulative television audiences, contributing to a increase of 27% over the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. Moreover, Horne and Manzenreiter also indicate the 2002 FIFA World Cup staged in Japan and South Korea, 41000 hours of programming were provided in 213 countries and about 28.8 television audiences of this event, even more than that in Olympic Games. From this situation, there is no doubt that the development of telecommunication provides a much larger stage for the sport competitions, and makes the sport competition become a global history.

Secondly, in the sport competitions, the quality of the athletes is the most important factor in determining their performance. Analysing the movements of athletes could be the effective method to increase the possibilities of championship in the sport competitions; for instance, analyzing the movement or posture of an ice-skate athlete could help the athlete to maximize the speed and overcome the shortcomings. However, the details of the movements cannot be easily seen because the unassisted eye functions at the speed of 1/340th of a second exposure time; fortunately, the use of film, cine and video and many other electronic analyzing devices provide the chance to analyze the movements of athletes in a much more detailed version. For instance, as Everett and Trew, who are from the Department of Physiotherapy, have found that the computerized kinetic analysis system can collect reliable three-dimensional data which uses high-resolution cameras to video athletes’ movements. These data are very useful to enhance athletes’ performance and also the recovering, as they can show whether the speed is at maximum or not, uncoordinated or smooth. In this case, it could be said that sport competitions are not only about the competition between athletes and also the level of technology between countries.

Finally, the auto-timing system is contributing substantially to the revolution of sport competitions. The hand-held stopwatch has been eliminated from the formal or major sport competitions, as it has the absolute limitation on accuracy, because the result will depend on the judges’ reaction. The article from Australian Academy of science states that the computerize timing systems nowadays can provide the accuracy to less than 0.001 of a second, which is 10 times the requirement of accuracy under the rules, compares to the first electronic quartz timing system in 1964 which can provide the accuracy of 0.01 of a second. Furthermore, when the vertical line-scanning video system was introduced in 1991, human judgment and error were totally removed in the competitions; the video image of each athlete will be shown when they cross the finished line, at the same time, the timing system will record each athlete’s result.

Snowboarding is one of the biggest and fastest growing winter sports. The reason I chose to look into snowboarding more, is because I have wondered about issues like where it began, backcountry boarding, and safety.

Snowboarding has been progressing very rapidly, but when did snowboarding actually originate? And who was the person who started it? It seems according to the research I did, that no one actually knows who first came up with the idea. Some say that in the 1920s is when people first started using snowboards, although not actually snowboards, more a board with a string. But we do know that the first type of snowboard was the snurf board. It never had bindings, and was only made for a few years, but the most astounding part was that in the first year of its production, nearly half a million boards were sold.

After the snurf board came along burtons first boards, and with them also came the first professional boarders, and the first competitions began. Since then the sport has continued to evolve, and so has the gear as we will talk about later on. Snowboarding gear has changed drastically over the years, from boards and gear that more resembled ski boots and surf boards, to flimsy leather boots that had no strength, to the stiff comfortable boots we now enjoy. The boards themselves have changed drastically as well, but I think the most drastic change has been the clothing for snowboarders. Not only in the way they’re designed, but also in the colors that seem to be popular for that time period. Many of the bright colors such as pink that were sported in the 80s, seem to be coming back in the last few years, Not only pink, but just bright colors in general. The evolution of the bindings is another big step that seems to have been more took in small steps at a time. bindings have progressed from two straps that needed to be ratcheted, to two straps but only one ratchet.. manufacturers have also created step in bindings, which seemed to be in for a little while, but they don’t have the same back support, and they tend to have many more problems with the setup, including broken rip cords for when taking of a boot from the board, to frozen snow and ice so that they can’t even get the boot locked in. Thus because of all the issues that happened, it seems that manufacturers of all brands have more or less got rid of the step in binding and boots setup.

Backcountry is a type of snowboarding that seems to be progressing rapidly, and also shows up more in the latest movies like: That’s It That’s All and Get Real; the focus seems to be on big air Jumps, up to 150 feet distance , and 50 or 80 feet in the air, and then landing on perfectly sloped hills with tons of powder. Another way backcountry seems to be used in the movies is for huge drops, and coming down super steep mountains. These forms are all backcountry, and it is done in many different ways for many different people. Some people use snowmobiles for going into the back country while others use snowshoes or even snowboards that can be split into two parts and made into skis for skiing up the mountain. The main attraction for most people to backcountry seems to be all the fresh powder that comes along with the hard work, as well as people enjoy the adventure and time spent with friends during the day. One of the biggest risk factors about backcountry snowboarding would have to be all the avalanches that happen every year. Without the usual blasting like what goes on at big ski hills, the snow can become very unstable, and even create overhangs, and as a result many avalanches start. Another reason for avalanches is the different variety of conditions up in the mountains, thus causing unstable snow that slides very easily.

Differences in tricks and styles of riding since the first competition, have become very clear, I myself don’t know what types of tricks and such that were pulled during the first competition. For all I know it could have just been about the one that stayed on his board the longest won! But what I do know is that over the years the tricks and different styles of boarding have changed. First, let’s talk about the different styles and kinds of snowboarding, and then after that we will look at how it has all progressed in tricks. The main type of snowboarding is still where someone goes to the ski hill, gets a board and just enjoys going down the slopes at their own pace. However, there are different types, for example, in the deserts they snowboard, but instead of doing it on snow it’s on sand. There is also the racing of snowboarders down single tracks. The boards are made differently and have the bindings pointing more towards the nose of the oard. There is also the type where you get about five people in each race and you go down a track with jumps and moguls, trying to beat the other competitors to the finish line. Another type is the more park freestyle type were boarders can go into half pipes and pull tricks, or nail a few rails. Each type of riding seems to have a type of board that goes along with it. The boards can differ in their flex, length and weight, thus the board suits the type of riding the rider uses it for. Sometimes the rider uses a different style of board than he should for the type of riding he does. For example.. Instead of riding a stiffer board like I should I prefer a flexi board.. but it’s just my personal preference. When setting up a snowboard there are many different things to come into consideration, including length of the board for the person and the set up, either goofy or regular. Also, the angle of the bindings can be changed for omparableness. When picking a board length for a person, the majority of the time we want a board that is just under our nose when compared to us, but again as you get better you might want to change the length of the board for the style of riding you do. When a person is getting set up for the first snowboarding experience, they usually do a test to see which foot should be put first , right foot forward is goofy, left foot forward is regular. To test which foot should go forward they usually just push you backwards and see which foot you step back with. That indicates which is the lead foot, and it should be at the front. When deciding on the angle of your bindings it usually is put for the most comfortable setting allowing the best movement and stability. The usual formation is set with the back binding facing straight, while the front is angled about 10 to 20% towards the front of the board. Again, as the rider gets better he may choose to change the angles. Mine are set both straight, while my friends are set duck foot, being the back binding angled to the tail of the board, while the front binding is angled to the front of the board. The reason why so many injuries and deaths occur when snowboarding can be split into two reasons. First, why and how do injuries and deaths occur for backcountry snowboards? And two, why and how are injuries and deaths occurring for snowboarders on slopes and such? To begin with I think we should look at what causes the injuries and deaths in backcountry snowboarding. The largest factor in deaths to snowboarders when doing backcountry is avalanches. Avalanches can be triggered so easily, from taking a drop, to just carving in the fresh powder. So why do avalanches occur? What causes these mass amounts of snow to come careening down the hill towards onlookers and smashing to bits everything in its way? An avalanche is caused by the way snow builds up and the kind of snow building up, as well as different temperatures as it builds up.. if there is a solid slab on the bottom with powdery snow on top , the bottom slab can act like a slippery board, and the snow on top will slide on it. In this illustration, it shows the unstable snow that built up, and as the skier in this case carved on the snow it let loose, causing an avalanche. Another reason for deaths to snowboarders is due to the fact that it seems un cool to wear a helmet. I had never ridden with a helmet until this year, but I must say that it doesn’t affect anything but keeping your head safe, and who wouldn’t want that. If we could get more people wearing helmets alone it would take the death rate down.

Illustration 1

I myself grew up skiing from a young age of about five or younger. By the time I was about seven, I was already snowboarding and doing very well at it. From then on I had a lot of people that influenced my boarding, and taught me many skills. At the age of about twelve I started really getting into all the tricks, and uring that time I also built a few rails and attempted to build a half pipe on our property.. of course it was only 4 feet high and 8 feet across, but hey it was something I’ll never forget. Since then I’ve learned many tricks: 180, 360, 540, grabs, rails even a back flip. After them it just turns into trying to combine the tricks such as a back flip 180 with a grab in it.. get’s scary but super fun. Although I have grown up in a small town with huge mountains around me, I really haven’t done all that much backcountry. Yes, I have done backcountry, but it ends up being like a few times a year at the most. this year I have been wanting to get out and do some more backcountry, but the weather doesn’t seem to want me to, seeing as we have had very bad weather which causes many avalanches. But my opinion still stands from my past experiences, backcountry is just the best type of riding, from the soft deep powder, to the massive 80 to 140 foot gaps you can make, with powdery landings. If you want a challenge and a good time, I suggest backcountry snowboarding with a few friends

“beginning of snowboarding.” Snowboard history. 05-22-05. 15/12/09 www. Sbhistory.de

“the history of snowboarding- from garages to Olympics.” The history of snowboarding. 09/10/2008. 16/12/09 http://www.thehistoryof.net/history-of-snowboarding.html

“The history of snowboarding.” Bulgaria ski. 16/12/09 http://www.bulgariaski.com/snowboarding.shtml

“the history of snowboarding .” contributions to the history of snowboarding. 15/12/09 http://www.faqs.org/contrib/jj2/The-history-of-snowboarding.html

“.shorelineoftahoo.com. youtube. 15/12/09

“.youtube. VBS.tv. 15/12/09

Ryan wiltons history picture collection. youtube. 16/12/09

“history of snowboarding.” 16/12/09 Wikipedia

“Backcountry snowboarding.” Backcountry. 15/12/09 http://pistehors.com/backcountry/wiki/Gear/Backcountry-Snowboarding

“off piste- backcountry snowboarding.” ABC of snowboarding. 15/12/09 http://www.abc-of-snowboarding.com/offpiste.asp

“The backcountry can be a beautiful, but dangerous place!”. 2008-2009 season. http://www.snowboarding-master.com/backcountry.html

Magazine Snowboard Canada issue for early winter 2009

“Totally Rad 80’s Snowboard Gear Dude.”12/12/08 http://www.fuel.tv/FUELTVED/blogs/view/4787

Pictures

AA.http://david.geraldine.perso.neuf.fr/pistehors/images/avalanche/snow/slab-release-d.png

Snowboarding

Snowboarding is a kind of sport that evolved from surfing and skateboarding. Often, it’s a sport described as skateboarding or surfing on snow. Before one goes to the slopes, it is advisable to have some stretching and warm up exercises. After snowboarding, the same exercises and stretching must be repeated. We normally do this to minimize pain. It can be frustrating the first time one goes down a hill. But it can be interesting if the right procedures are followed. We are required to dress properly for snowboarding. A helmet must be worn properly because it prevents one from getting injured if it is not moving around the neck and it’s below the eyes. However, it should not be too tight. Boots must be comfortable and tight. Always wear high socks. For safety reasons, wear only one pair of snowboarding socks as wearing two pairs will make the boots too tight thus giving no room for blood circulation on the feet.

Every person has got his/her lead foot. Snowboarding requires us to determine our lead foot before we put our foot on the snowboard. Lead foot may be determined by sliding on ice, running on hardboard floor and slide or standing with the feet squared and then having a friend push us from behind. In all these instances, the foot that we put forward naturally is the lead foot. The lead foot should then be put in the front binding. Make sure the bindings are fastened tightly and get the real bindings. This should be repeated for the other foot. It is advisable to move around and bounce to get a feel of the snowboard. In order to prevent a runaway board which is normally serious, we loop a lead chain around the lead binding. This is then clipped into the lead boot lace. An angle of 15+ degrees for the lead foot binding is allowed so that the ankle is not sprayed after falling. Every beginner’s big toe is supposed to be angled towards the board’s nose.

From here, we get on the ski lift with our board. After getting off the ski lift, we don’t go speeding down a hill once we are off the chairlift. We start from a little hill where we can then turn to the larger one. Going to a bunny/practice hill which can give a speed of 5 miles in an hour helps you to have enough practice. When on the edge of the bunny hill, it is a requirement to sit with your board perpendicularly and then check whether the binding and the boot are tight enough. If this is okay, one can then stand and apply pressure on his lead foot. The best position is to keep the back straight while the knees are bent so that balance is maintained. Slowing down is done by switching to the toe or the heel. This is very important to learn as it vital when turning.

Always, the board follows our body. Thus when switching to the heel edge from the normal stance, the torso must be turned to face downhill. Sometimes balance is lost and falling back means that we have leaned back too far. But this is better rather than having the toe edge catch snow while falling forwards. Leaning backwards also accelerates stopping. It’s very similar to switching the toe edge where we turn the torso uphill. In this case, applying the pressure on the rear leg and placing weight over the toes through leaning little forward is advised. Controlling turning is the same way as switching the toe edges. This is important when one gets to the edge of the hill where we are supposed to get back to the foot forward stance as we aim for chair lift line.

Snowboarding is an interesting activity. It’s through snowboarding that our bodies are toned and at the same time getting a good cardiovascular workout. This is a sport that keeps on strengthening our heart muscles. Oxygen is excellently delivered to our muscles through snowboarding. Since snowboarding is a physically demanding activity, in one way or the other it assists us to loose weight thus lowering risks of several diseases. The warm up exercises and stretching help in burning of calories and thus such people look better than those who don’t. We escape some dangerous diseases like high blood pressure and type 2diabetes. It’s a sport that keeps benefiting all body parts. The exercises involved help in secretion of endorphins. This is a chemical that helps us to feel happy and more peaceful. It’s even possible to sleep better after snowboarding. Once we are able to go down a given hill, there is that feeling of accomplishment and pride that there is a goal achieved. This helps a person to age so well.

Snowboarding is a risky sport. Several people have their careers in snowboarding as skiing instructors while other design snowboards. Others have been employed as terrain park designers, event organizers, filmers, product testers, resort managers and sales material designers. Due to the risks associated through accident and personal injury, there is provision of insurance policy that deals with medical costs. Where one experiences an injury or a minor accident, compensation is always at hand. These are considered to be special benefits offering standard coverage. The skiing equipment is expensive too. Loss of this equipment may leave a person out of pocket. Thus, those in this career are provided with cover for any replacement costs. This also assists in payment of hire fees. A ski pass is not cheap too. There are several policies that have been in use in order to award compensation coverage just in case one loses the ski pass. Most importantly, the major benefit in snowboarding is that one can compete in organized sports and a win earns him/her the prize money.

Every four years, millions of people turn their attention to one city where Olympic Games take place. Almost all major cities compete for the right to be the host city of the next Olympic Games. It is highly competitive competition as Olympics bring attention and spectators which provide huge revenue to the host city. However, for the host city Olympic Games begin much earlier as it takes years to prepare and organize such project. It is clear that no city in the world can host Olympics next day after being chosen. Further, this essay will observe election procedure of the host city and state main requirements of the IOC for the host city.

In 1999 the new host city election procedure was confirmed by the IOC (International Olympic Committee). According to this procedure, the cities are checked for the appropriateness of the basic technical requirements. Then the cities which are passed through IOC Executive Board become candidate cities and permitted to pass to bidding process. During this process IOC Evaluation Commission visits and inspects all candidate cities. Eventually at the IOC session the host city will be chosen (John E. Findling: 265). The host city election procedure is complicated due to heavy responsibility which lies down on shoulders of both host city and the IOC. To prevent any kind of mistakes during Olympic Games the IOC has several technical requirements such as:

Transport concept.

Environmental conditions.

Accommodation.

Experience from the past sport events.

Sport venues.

Finance. (Factsheet. Host city election facts and figures. (www.olympic.org).

Leicester’s transport concept includes transport systems within the city, East Midlands Airport and the Railway station. Special departments regulate the Leicester’s traffic situation. Different IT systems and CCTV cameras provide a real time picture of the traffic situation within the Leicester. Digital Car Park Signs give all the information about available car park spaces throughout the city centre. In addition, there is a “Star Trak” information system which provides “next bus” information via signs at bus stops (Leicester City Council. Transport and streets). All these technologies support efficient traffic flow and ensure safety for both pedestrians and drivers. Visitors will find these facilities useful for them. However, the main problem is that how spectators from every corner of the world will come to the Leicester. The city is served by single railway station and East Midlands Airport which in addition works for Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire. Moreover, East Midlands serves domestic and European destinations with only few flights to holiday resorts (UK Airport Guide. East Midlands Airport). This means that more railway stations and international airport are needed to meet all the quests. In contrast, Beijing spent more than $4bn to build a new airport terminal and extra subway lines (Bristow M. BBC news). Apart from this, nearly ?80m will be spent to improve Docklands Light Railway (DLR) network in London. In addition, London will invest more than ?900 million to East London Line which will link the Olympic Park with the city. Line will connect with the DLR, Jubilee and District line and the North London Line (London 2012.Transport). In fact, even more developed cities than Leicester are forced to improve their transport systems due to Olympic Games.

The second criterion of the IOC is the environmental condition of the future Olympic city. This requirement can be fully satisfied by Leicester as it became Britain’s first “Environment city” in 1990 and was among twelve cities which took part in the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (Leicester City Council. Environment and planning). Since then Leicester keeps high standards of environmental conditions. For example, Leicester City Council uses the Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS), which helps to conserve environmental standards. As well as the EMAS, Leicester City Council’s Environmental Policy plays vital role in maintaining and improving high environmental conditions in the city. The targets of this policy are reduction of carbon footprint, prevention of pollution, protection of trees and natural environment and promotion of using renewable energy. Throughout this policy Leicester City Council encourages the public to protect environment where possible (Leicester City Council. Environment and planning). Furthermore, Leicester city achieved significant results in recycling of wastes. In partnership with Biffa Leicester the city of Leicester created the “Ball Mill” recycling facility which can recycle more than 70% of household waste from landfill. By this facility Leicester can recycle and compost nearly 33% of all wastes in the city (Leicester City Council. Environment and planning). Taking in consideration all these facts Leicester can be proud of their environmental condition, whereas Beijing invested nearly $20.5bn over the past 10 years to improve environmental situation during the preparations for Olympic Games (Bristow M. BBC News). Further, this essay will observe housing facilities where visitors can reside during Olympics.

It goes without saying that the host city meets thousands of tourists coming for Olympic Games. In 2008, Beijing registered almost 382,000 overseas visitors. Organizers expected to meet 500,000 visitors, but visa controls decreased that number (www.2008gamesbeijing.com). Therefore Leicester should have enough rooms to reside between 300,000 – 400.000 tourists. According to Leicester City Council there are nearly 26 hotels with more than 2000 rooms in Leicester. In addition, partnership with University of Leicester can provide additional 3096 rooms (Leicester City Council. Environment and planning. 2012 Preparation camps). As a result, there are more than 5200 rooms in total available for upcoming visitors. Of course it is not enough to reside more than 300,000 tourists, therefore more accommodation facilities should be build. For example, London offers 100,000 hotel rooms and nearly 30,000 beds in student accommodations to welcome all the visitors during Games (London 2012. accommodation).

Experience of organising sport events is important as well as other technical requirements. Leicester has hosted Special Olympics GB Summer Games two times (Leicester City Council. Sports and fitness). 2700 athletes from 19 UK regions took part in 21 sports during Special Olympics 2009 (Special Olympics 2009). Actually, this is invaluable experience, but organisation of Olympic Games requires the hosting of 26 sports with more than 300,000 participants including athletes and spectators (London 2012. Games).

In previous paragraphs this essay mentioned different features of the Leicester except sport venues which are directly connected with Olympic Games. There are might be hundreds of hotels, railway stations and airports in the host city, but without appropriate sport facilities the city will not host Olympics. Leicester has different sport venues, including Saffron Lane Athletics Stadium, Braunstone Leisure Centre and sport facilities of Leicester Grammar School. These venues contain modern facilities for badminton, tae-kwon-do, swimming, basketball and etc. However all of them have been already offered as pre-gaming training camps for athletes coming to London 2012 Olympic Games (Leicester City Council. 2012 Preparation camps). In comparison, Beijing has built 12 new stadiums which required $1.9bn (Bristow M. BBC News). As well as Beijing, London is building completely new Olympic Park which will contain nine sport venues including Olympic Stadium, the Aquatic Centre, the VeloPark and etc (London 2012. Venues). After all, it is clear that present sport facilities of the Leicester should be improved by financial support.

Financial part of the Olympic project plays significant role in organising Olympic Games. The major cities like Beijing and Athens have spent $40bn and $16bn respectively to host Olympics. Apart from this, London has already invested $22.6bn for 2012 Olympic Games (Bristow M. BBC News). In contrast, according to Leicester City Council budget of Leicester in 2008/09 was ?779,788,900. In other words, Leicester should find more funding to host Olympic Games.

Finally, I think that Leicester does not have clear disadvantages in contrast with other cities. However it will take more time and investments to host Olympics in Leicester than in Beijing or London.

References:

Findling J. E. & Pelle D. K. (2004:265). Encyclopedia of modern Olympic movement. Westport: Greenwood Press. Extracted 01/02/2010 from, http://books.google.com/books?id=QmXi_-Jujj0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=encyclopedia+of+modern+Olympic+movement&hl=ru&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

Bristow M. BBC News, Beijing. 31/07/2008. Extracted 29/01/2010 from, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7523235.stm Extracted 29/01/2010

www.multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_repert_1191.pdf Extracted 29/01/2010

http://www.leicester.gov.uk/your-council-services/transport-traffic/transport-systems/ Extracted 29/01/2010

http://www.leicester.gov.uk/your-council-services/transport-traffic/transport-systems/digital-car-park-signs/ Extracted 29/01/2010

http://airport-maps.co.uk/uk-airport-directory/east-midlands-airport/ Extracted 29/01/2010

http://www.london2012.com/making-it-happen/transport/index.php Extracted 29/01/2010

http://www.leicester.gov.uk/your-council-services/ep/the-environment/environment-city/ Extracted 29/01/2010

http://www.leicester.gov.uk/your-council-services/ep/the-environment/environmental-policy/ Extracted 29/01/2010

http://www.leicester.gov.uk/your-council-services/ep/the-environment/recycling/ Extracted 29/01/2010

http://2008gamesbeijing.com/beijing-has-652-million-visitors-for-the-olympics/ Extracted 29/01/2010

http://www.leicester.gov.uk/your-council-services/ep/planning/plansandpolicy/hotels-information/ Extracted 29/01/2010

http://www.leicester.gov.uk/your-council-services/lc/sports-services/news-update-2007/2012camps/ Extracted 29/01/2010

http://www.london2012.com/visiting/accommodation/index.php Extracted 29/01/2010

http://www.leicester.gov.uk/your-council-services/lc/sports-services/news-update-2007/special-olympics-2009/ Extracted 29/01/2010

http://www.sol2009.com/home/sports.html Extracted 29/01/2010

http://www.london2012.com/games/olympic-sports/index.php Extracted 29/01/2010

http://www.london2012.com/games/venues/index.php Extracted 29/01/2010

http://www.leicester.gov.uk/accounts/accounts0809.pdf Extracted 29/01/2010

Executive Summary

Nike is an incorporated company that operates primarily in the footwear industry. The Company designs, develops and markets athletic footwear, apparel, equipment and accessory products. CEO and President Philip Knight runs Nike, Inc. Mr. Knight co-founded Blue Ribbon Sports in 1962, which officially became Nike in 1978.

A strategic audit of Nike Inc. and its wholly owned subsidiaries was conducted by gathering the company’s financial data, press releases, industry information, company history and current projects. After the data was collected, it was analyzed and a SWOT analysis was conducted for Nike to reveal strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats Nike has as a company. The footwear industry was analyzed using Porter’s Five Forces model.

Based on findings, the following recommendations are being made for Nike Inc.: Improve quality and brand name image of ACG, Nike’s All Condition’s Gear line for extreme sports; use money more efficiently by expanding promotions into entertainment; expand marketing efforts in the casual footwear lines; continue to be on the cutting edge of the design and development of athletic footwear; enhance website to be more appealing to customers shopping online; increase international marketing efforts; and continue to be the technological and performance leader in athletic shoes.

Nike’s Mission Statement

According to Nikebiz.com, Nike’s mission statement is, “Through the adoption of business practices Nike is committed to securing intergenerational quality of life, restoring the environment, and increasing value for our customers, shareholders, and business partners.”(1) However, according to Acaria.com, it is, “To maximize profits to shareholders through products and services that enrich people’s lives. (2)

Current Company Overview

Nike, Inc.’s principal business activity is “the design, development and worldwide marketing of high quality footwear, apparel, equipment and accessory products”(3). Nike sells its products to about 20,000 retail accounts in the US and in approximately 110 countries around the world. Independent contractors manufacture almost all of Nike’s products. Most footwear products are produced outside the United States, while apparel products are produced both in the United States and abroad. Revenues for the fiscal year ending May 31, 1999 were $8.8 billion, compared with $9.6 billion in the previous fiscal year (3).

Nike footwear is specifically designed for athletic use, placing considerable emphasis on high quality construction and innovative design. However, a large percentage of the products are worn for casual or leisure purposes. Nike markets and sells a wide variety of products, including shoes for running, basketball, cross training, women and children. All of which are currently its top-selling product categories.

Nike also markets shoes designed for outdoor activities such as tennis, golf, soccer, baseball, football, bicycling, volleyball, wrestling, cheerleading, aquatic activities, auto racing and other athletic and recreational uses (3).

Nike began selling active sports apparel in 1979 and apparel is now offered in each of the above categories, as well as athletic bags and accessory items. Nike apparel and accessories are designed to complement its athletic footwear products, feature the same trademarks and are sold through the same marketing and distribution channels. The company often markets footwear, apparel and accessories in “collections” of similar design or for specific purposes (3).

The company sells a line of performance equipment under the Nike brand name, including sport balls, timepieces, eyewear, skates, bats and other equipment designed for sports activities. They also sell a line of dress and casual footwear and accessories for men, women and children under the brand name Cole Haan through its wholly owned subsidiary, Cole Haan Holdings Incorporated. The company markets a line of headwear with licensed team logos under the brand name Sports Specialties, through its wholly owned subsidiary, Nike Team Sports, Inc., formerly Sports Specialties Corporation. They also sell small amounts of various plastic products to other manufacturers through its wholly owned subsidiary, Nike IHM, Inc. (3).

The company’s wholly owned subsidiary, Bauer Nike Hockey Inc., manufactures and distributes ice skates, skate blades, in-line roller skates, protective gear, hockey sticks and hockey jerseys and accessories under the Bauer and Nike brand names. Bauer also offers a full selection of products for street, roller and field hockey (3).

Nike competes internationally with an increasing number of athletic and leisure shoe companies, athletic and leisure apparel companies, sports equipment companies, and large companies having diversified lines of athletic and leisure shoes, apparel and equipment, including Reebok, Adidas and others (3).

Chief Officers

Philip H. Knight is the 62-year-old Chairman of the Board, President, Chief Executive Officer and co-founder of Nike. He graduated from the University of Oregon in 1959 with a Bachelor of Science degree in Business Administration. He then went on to Stanford University to obtain his MBA in 1962.

Two years later, in 1964, he began Blue Ribbon Sports (a Nike Progenitor) with his former track coach Bill Bowerman. With his company off to an uncertain start, he sold his shoes out of the back of a station wagon. To make ends meet, Mr. Knight held a position of Assistant Professor at Portland State University, and continued to practice as a Certified Public Accountant (CPA) with Price Waterhouse and Coopers & Lybrand.

Mr. Knight has been a director at Nike since 1968 and has been its President from 1968 to 1990, and from June 2000 to present.

In 1998, Philip Knight was in the top 100 most generous Americans. His donations exceed $30 million, with the bulk of it focused on education. Mr. Knight is also listed as one of only 57 individuals from the Forbes 400 to appear in the American Benefactor’s list (6).

His annual earnings consist of a total annual compensation worth $2.5 million, long-term incentive plans of $300,000, and other means worth about $700,000, making his 1999 fiscal year total to be $3.5 million. However, Knight does not own stock options in the company.

Richard K. Donahue, 73, is Nike’s current Vice Chairman of the Board, and has served in that capacity since 1977. He served as President and Chief Operating Officer of the Company from 1990 until 1994. He has been a partner in the law firm of Donahue & Donahue, Lowell, Massachusetts, since 1951. From 1961 to 1963, Mr. Donahue was an assistant to President John F. Kennedy. Mr. Donahue is a former President of the Massachusetts Bar Association and the New England Bar Association. He is a member of the John F. Kennedy Library Foundation, a trustee of the Joyce Foundation and a director of Courier Corp. (5)

History

The following is an edited timeline of Nike, Inc. from the beginning when it was known as Blue Ribbon Sports. The timeline can be found at http://www.acaria.com/jsp/nikehist.html.

1957

Phil Knight and Bill Bowerman meet

1960

Bowerman continues tinkering with new designs for athletic shoes

1962

Knight receives a Master of Business Administration from Stanford University and makes up a company named “Blue Ribbon Sports” (BRS)

1964

Knight and Bowerman each contribute $500 to start BRS and the company sells 1,300 pairs of Tiger running shoes; revenues are $8,000

1965

Jeff Johnson becomes BRS’ first full-time employee (he switched over from selling Adidas football shoes).

BRS revenues are $20,000

1966

BRS’ first retail outlet is formed in Santa Monica, Ca.

A sales office is opened in Wellesley, Mass. to handle East Coast distribution

1969

Knight devotes himself full-time to BRS (he was an Assistant Professor of Business Administration at Portland State University).

Knight becomes Chairman of the Board and Chief Executive Officer of BRS and later Nike, Inc.

1971

Swoosh Design trademark is created by Carolyn Davidson for a fee of $35.

Johnson dreams up the company’s new brand name, NIKE, the Greek Goddess of

victory.

A soccer/football shoe is the first NIKE model to hit the retail market.

A Nike T-shirt to promote the shoe becomes the first apparel item

1972

BRS launches the Nike brand at the U.S. Olympic Trials.

Canada becomes BRS’ first foreign market

1977

BRS starts Athletics West.

Manufacturing factories are set up in Taiwan and Korea.

Nike shoes are sold in Asia for the first time.

1978

BRS changes its corporate name to NIKE, Inc.

The first children’s shoes are introduced.

Revenues = $71 million.

1979

Nike introduces the Tailwind, the first running shoe with the patented AIR-SOLE cushioning system.

The NIKE Apparel line begins.

Nike is the No. 1 running shoe with nearly 50 percent of the U.S. market revenues. World Headquarters are opened at 3900 S.W. Murray Blvd. in Beaverton, Oregon.

1980

Nike goes public with 2 million shares of common stock.

The NIKE Sport R&D Lab opens in Exeter, New Hampshire.

NIKE shoes become the number-one seller in Canada

1981

Nike International Ltd. Is formed

1984

International sales take off, reaching $158 million

1985

AIR JORDAN court shoes are introduced along with apparel

1986

Nike charges into the sport of golf

1987

The Air Pegasus, a NIKE classic in its 4th generation, sells its 5,000,000th pair

1988

The “Just Do It” campaign is introduced.

Revenues break $1 billion for the first time.

1989

“Bo Knows” commercials featuring Bo Jackson are tied to the Just Do It theme

1990

Doors open to the NIKE World Campus.

The first NikeTown opens in Portland, Oregon

1991

NIKE F.I.T. apparel is introduced

1992

International revenues top $1 billion

1994

NIKE launches P.L.A.Y., Participate in the Lives of America’s Youth.

P.L.A.Y. includes Reuse-a-Shoe, a program that diverts more than 1 million shoes from landfills to new court surfaces.

1995

Nike enters the sport ball and eyewear markets

1997

Nike sponsors WNBA and selected athletes in the American Basketball League.

Revenues break $9,186,539,000

Financial Summary

By analyzing company ratios we will be able to determine how well the company is performing financially and to see how much value they are adding for their shareholders. Keeping your shareholders happy is very important and it should be among a company’s main goals.

Profitability Ratios

Return on Equity is a measure of how the stockholders fared during the year. Because benefiting shareholders is so important to the company, it is a true measure of performance. ROE is measured as: Net Income / Total Equity.(6) For every dollar in equity, Nike Inc. generated $0.18 in profit. This number is lower then the industry standard of $0.23 of equity for every dollar.(7) In order to catch up to the average standards, Nike Inc, would have to improve how efficiently they manage their equity.

Return on Assets is a measure of profit per dollar of assets. ROA is measured as: Net Income / Assets. For every dollar of assets, Nike Inc, generates $0.10 in profits. This is in accordance to industry standards. In order to improve this ratio, Nike would have to find a more efficient way of using its assets to generate profits.

Profit Margin is a ratio that the firm and investors pay a great deal of attention to because it indicates how many dollars of profit the firm brings in for every dollar of sales. All other things being equal, a relatively higher profit margin is more desirable. Nike Inc.’s profit margin is 6.45. This means that that they roughly make .7 cents in profit for every dollar generated in sales. In order to improve this ratio, Nike Inc. would have to decrease expense ratios relative to sales ratios.

Financial Strengths

The current ratio is a measure of short-term liquidity. This is one of the most important ratios to creditors, especially short-term creditors. The higher the current ratio, the happier they are. To the firm, a high current ratio will hopefully indicate liquidity, but it can also mean that the firm is inefficient in using its cash and short-term assets. Nike Inc.’s current ratio is 1.7, which is quite lower then the average industry standard of 2.2. It is important for Nike to try and increase their current ratio so that they can become more efficient in using their short-term assets.

Inventory is often the least liquid current assets of the firm so the quick ratio will tell us how efficiently the firm is liquidating their inventory. Nike Inc.’s quick ratio is .91. This is right on target of the industry standards of .9. Although they seem to be doing a good job of liquidating their inventory assets, they still have room for improvement. They should work on trying to improve this ratio to meet the upper industry standards of 2.9. Because inventory is relatively non liquid, it is important to continuously strive to keep this ratio as high as possible.

Dividend Information

Dividend yield is a convenient way of assessing the rate of current income earned on the investment dollar, so it is a measure of common stock dividends on a relative basis. Dividend Yield is computed as follows: Annual dividends received per share / current market price of the stock. Nike Inc.’s dividendyield is 1.16. It is usually one of the ratios that professional traders check up on to track prices because it gives a good idea of how the firm is performing. To put dividend yield into perspective, it is helpful to look at the dividend payout ratio. This ratio describes the portion of earnings per share that is paid out as dividends. It is computed as follows: Dividends per share / earnings per share. Nike Inc.’s payout ratio is 22.22%. This is a fairly good ratio, because although stockholders like to receive dividends, they don’t like to see the firm’s payout ratio over 60-70%. Payout ratios that are too high are difficult to maintain and may lead the firm into trouble.

Nike Inc.’s most recent stock price was valued at $41.38, and their latest annual dividends were valued at $0.48 for every share owned. It is safe to say that they are being relatively efficient in their dividend payout every year.

Considering Nike Inc. is a leading design, developer, and marketer of high quality footwear, one would expect their company profile to be quite healthy. The previous financial analysis proves that Nike is operating a healthy company in the industry even though their ratios may not always be above industry standards. It is always very important to keep your shareholders happy, and Nike has done this by continuously adding value to the company. Regardless of some low ratios, Nike deserves credit for being a market leader and for always being on the search for new markets to lead.

Nike’s future is extremely promising as the company expects to continue penetrating new markets, increasing sales and mitigating product costs. The company can also be expected to continue paying dividends, which ensures shareholders a positive return. In conclusion, we would recommend investing in Nike Inc. stock as this report proves it would be a prudent venture and will provide promising opportunities for any investor.

Corporate Strategy

Over the past two decades, there has been a movement from a “standardized” to a “flexible” economy. Whereas, mass consumption for a standardized good was once preferred, there is now a greater demand for niche products. Having a rigid corporate organization used to be the norm, where now it is common to have a flexible organization, that incorporates subcontracting.

The athletic footwear industry has benefited greatly from this economic shift. It is an example of a new, highly volatile, competitive market. The changes that occurred in the footwear industry are:

? Footwear production has grown rapidly

? The many different styles of shoes have created an explosion in intense competition and market volatility among brands.

? In order to be successful, a company must be innovative and have rapid turn-around of design and production.

? Producers must have output and design flexibility

? Producers must protect proprietary information and technology, and still remain to be organizationally flexible.

The main reason why Nike has succeeded in competing in the footwear industry for as long as they have is because they remain flexible in a volatile market by using subcontracting relationships overseas in low labor-cost countries. (8)

Another reason why Nike has continued to be a strong competitor is based on their product differentiation. Although they started out by only producing and selling athletic shoes, their product line now consists of a wide range of clothing, equipment and accessories. They also design products for a variety of sports, ranging from running to golf to aquatic activities.

Successful differentiation allows a firm to: (10)

? Command a premium price for its product, and/or

? Increase unit sales, and/or

? Gain buyer loyalty to its brand.

SWOT Analysis

Part of doing a strategic analysis of Nike is doing a SWOT analysis. SWOT analysis sizes up a firm’s resource strengths and weaknesses and its external opportunities and threats to provide a good overview of whether a firm’s business position is fundamentally healthy or unhealthy. This will provide a clear view of Nike’s resource capabilities and deficiencies, its market opportunities, and the external threats to the company’s future well being and provide a starting point for our recommendations to Nike’s strategic market strategy.

Resource Strengths and Competitive Capabilities

Nike is an industry leader in developing innovative new products. It first started with the air product line called Nike Air. It has now moved to the latest release, the Nike Shox line. The new shoe is designed to enhance an athlete’s ability to jump, run and get an edge on the competition. Nike’s research team has spent more than 16 years dreaming, researching, developing and testing the possibility of attaching springs to the bottom of an athlete’s foot. Nike Shox, the most acclaimed technological development makes the dream a reality. This is another example of how Nike uses performance and technology to create its shoes. They also keep the designs simple which is currently fashionable for Nike. Nike also has excellent mass-merchandising, unique advertisements, and is known for its promotions as much as their shoes.

Nike also has valuable physical assets. The have worldwide distribution facilities because they sell shoes in over 100 countries. Nike is also teaming with Hewlett-Packard to supply hardware, software and consulting services to host the worldwide Nike Supply Chain (NSC) project. The mission of the project is to create a consumer-driven supply chain and a framework for decision-making that provides sustainable competitive advantage and enhances Nike’s global brand leadership. The goals of the project are to enhance Nike’s ability to respond to changing conditions, reducing inventory and capital investment risk, improving service to meet customer/consumer needs, improving processes, information and product quality, and providing an efficient global supply chain with local implementation.

Nike also has valuable human assets because their employees are motivated with athletic backgrounds, which makes them a highly competitive company that does not like to lose.

Nike also has valuable organizational assets from the standpoint of loyal customers, a strong balance sheet and stable financial standing.

One of Nike’s most important sustainable competitive advantages is their intangible assets, such as brand-image and organizational culture. Everybody knows Nike from its past advertising, promotional endorsements, and events while their culture is one of competition, athletics, and a Just Do It attitude.

Another strength is the company’s research and development organization, which has the ability to keep the company’s pipeline full of innovative new products. They also have manufacturing contracts with manufacturers in countries that do not have as many requirements for conditions of work environment and others that increase costs. Also because the process is labor intensive, the manufacturing takes place where labor is cheap.

Because of Nike’s growth over the last ten years they are in an advantageous position in the market. This can also be attributed to their market share leadership, wide product selection, and stronger name recognition.

Weaknesses

There are weaknesses that Nike has gained for a couple of different reasons. The first being that they are no longer a small rebel company, but a large corporate pillar that as Phil Knight CEO says “There are some things you can do as a $100 million company that you can’t get away with as a $9 billion company.

Nike has also gotten bad press, especially in the 18 to 24 year old demographic groups with relation to the supposed “sweatshops” where products are manufactured. This has created a backlash that has affected sales in a very important demographic of customers. It is also part of the continued decrease of Nike’s brand image and the idea that to be cool and fashionable you should buy Nike products. Another related issue is the over marketization of the swoosh. At one point a shoe had 13 swooshes on it.

Another reason is the increasing costs of sports endorsements with the decreasing marginal returns that those endorsements produce. This is also due to the fact that the line between sports and entertainment has blurred.

Finally, and the biggest weakness that Nike has is the lack of knowledge in the Internet age. They do not have the technical resources or experience curves that other companies have and Nike is behind in its marketing strategy and ability to use the Internet as another channel for sales and promotion.

Opportunities

Nike has new opportunities and markets that they must penetrate and take advantage of to continue to be a world leader and sustain profits and growths. The biggest is the “All Conditions Gear” (ACG) product line that is targeted toward generation Y and the extreme sports that they enjoy. Continued expansion into mainstream sports such as golf, hockey, tennis, volleyball, football, soccer, etc. through more products and accessories is also a necessity. Nike also must continue to expand into current international markets while penetrating into new ones. They must continue to create new technologies and the latest fads such as Nike Shox. Another opportunity is expanding promotions to include entertainment and other non-sports venues, since the line between entertainment and sports has become blurred. Nike should also try to grow into the world of corporate merchandise because that is a $3 to $4 billion dollar market. And lastly, continued growth and expansion into women’s sports and entertainment shows to be very promising.

Potential External Threats

The biggest threat is if the economy goes into a recession then the ability for Nike to continue to grow from sales, marketing, and a promotional standpoint will be significantly inhibited. Another is the maturing market in athletic shoes. There is also a growing adverse demographic change in the marketplace relating to brand image and promotions that Nike is unable to overcome. The continued weak Euro and Asian recession that has hurt international sales and growth is also a threat. Nike’s extreme sports product line is viewed as lower quality in comparison to competing firms and is hurting sales and brand image.

Five Forces Of Athletic Footwear/Apparel Industry
Rivalry Among Competing Sellers in the Industry

The rivalry is very fierce with many companies competing for sales. Lots of money is spent on marketing and promotions through different channels in order to communicate to the young demographic group of consumers who spend the most money on their products. Growth has also slowed in the athletic footwear industry, however new markets are emerging with high growth rates. Examples of these markets are the extreme sports market and the corporate merchandise market. Product demand also has a seasonal component, which affects rivalry.

Market Attempts of Companies in Other Industries to Win Customers Over to Their Own Substitute Products

Because of growth in non-traditional sports and casual wear, competition and marketing is fierce to get customers to switch. Switching costs for the consumer is also very low. Substitute products are readily available, attractively priced, comparable on quality, and have only some feature differentiation.

Potential New Entrant

There is a deterrent to enter the athletic footwear industry because of the research and development that goes into the athletic footwear market. However, casual footwear is not as costly. There is specialized technological “know-how” in athletic footwear that is not readily available (ex. Nike Air, Nike Shox, Reebok DMX, etc.). Buyers are also very attracted to brand preference and loyalty. In order to obtain this, they must establish brand image, promotions, endorsements etc., all of which can be very expensive to implement.

Another difficulty that new entrants face is low capital investments, which are needed for manufacturing. However, one of the most important entry deterrents is limited access to retail space. As of now, there are no regulatory policies, tariffs, or trade restrictions to prevent entry.

Bargaining Power and Leverage Suppliers of Inputs Can Exercise

Suppliers have no power or leverage to affect prices or availability. There is also no shortage of raw materials or manufacturing capacity. Quality and performance in raw materials and manufacturing is not a factor because the process is labor intensive. Quality and performance depends on the type of shoe and how it is manufactured, not the raw materials that go into it.

Bargaining Power and Leverage Exercisable by Buyers of the Product

Buyers have some power in the fact that switching costs are low. There is a very large group of potential customers, however, who buy individually and not as a group. Therefore, there is no negotiation on price or special group discounts. Buyers have no threat to backward integrate into the business of sellers. However, buyers do have a wide variety of choices in deciding whether they purchase a certain brand of a product.

Recommendations

After thoroughly analyzing Nike’s organization, business practices, and position in the market, we have come up with the following recommendations.

Since the ACG product line has been experiencing a diminishing quality and brand image, we suggest that they spend more money, resources and advertising in order to try and increase it. They can also accomplish this by using a better product design, materials and manufacturing processes.

The organization should make more efficient uses of its money. This could be accomplished by expanding their promotions to include entertainment and other non-sports venues, since the line between entertainment sports has become blurred.

Currently, Nike is focusing most of their marketing efforts towards the sports footwear lines. In order to increase sales, they should expand this to include their casual footwear line as well.

Since Nike’s strategy is differentiation, they need to continue to be on the cutting edge of the athletic footwear technology. Doing this will help them design new types of shoes and other products, giving them a diverse product line.

One of the most important aspects of Nike’s business is becoming the use of the Internet to communicate with consumers. They are developing a new technology that will allow their customers to design their own shoes online. In order to accomplish this, they must enhance their website in order to make it more user-friendly. Currently, the site takes too long to download and the basic design does nothing to comment their products.

We also recommend that Nike increase their international efforts in order to maximize their product sales.

And our final recommendation is that Nike continues to be the technology and performance leader in athletic shoes. They must keep their strong competitive edge in order to prevent

1.0 Executive summary

The need to introduce a specialty coffee shop in Berkley, CA is supported by the rich and viable coffee market niche in the region. Our coffee shop dubbed “High-life Coffee” (HLC) will primarily be introduced upon research findings based on this research plan. We intend to market HLC as our brand name within this unique U.S. market region due the perceived coffee shops reputability as well as well as rich business environment (Godsmark, 2004). In this regard, our research plan will support our bid to venture into U.S market fully aware of the prevailing market trends and related forces. Meanwhile this research will prove the hypothesis that, U.S coffee market will be viable for our coffee shop.

1.1 Research objectives

Essentially, this research plan is set out to attain the following objectives. First, to fully analyze and evaluate coffee shop viability based on the market trends and customer buying patterns.HLC brand will only thrive if the prevailing marketing trends within California promotes the brand entry strategy and enhance our bid to position our unique offer in the niche. Secondly, to develop and establish viable marketing strategy that will assist us in effectively promoting our product amid competition. Similarly, relevant information collected from the market will help in developing efficient promotional strategy. Finally, findings drawn from the research plan will prove vital in developing our competitive edge strategies, identifying market opportunities or even assisting in risk minimization prior to hitting full-scale product introduction. For instance, through findings the marketing team may settle for a different market niche or even alter our branding strategy.

2.0 Research Methodology

2.1 Study population/Data sources

We seek to involve diverse demographics segment drawn from Berkley, CA that will furnish us with valuable information in relation to our objectives. Our study population will be the primary source for essential data. First, the study team will collect vital data from various research agencies that provide market information and related findings within U.S market, and in particular Berkeley, CA. Research agencies are popular service organizations providing that primarily specializes in various research projects (Loudon & Wrenn, 2002). Such sources will offer varying information on competitors’ strategies, performance levels as well the industry trends. The agencies will also offer us secondary data on future forces that may impact the industry growth.

Primary information can also be obtained from banks that perhaps have transacted with various competitors. Secondly, primary data collected from consumers will play a paramount role in enhancing our understanding on varying preferences and tastes as well. Specialty coffee preferences contribute to diverse consumer patterns among coffee users (Godsmark, 2004).a In addition, through observation on consumer buying patterns, the research team may draw some primary information that will be very crucial during industry analysis. Finally, government departments, international bodies or even trade and business associations hailing from our place of interest will offer vital data on entire industry performance. Similarly, sources such as government department will offer credible data on coffee shops’ future or relevant information on the general industry trends. International bodies such as World Bank departments may be approached to secondary data based on coffee industry analysis.

2.2 Sampling

Selection of various respondents will be based on sampling technique depending on the variable credibility and/ or viability. Credibility is defined in terms of the respondents’ ability to provide the required data as well as the efficiency in deriving such information possibly on accessibility basis. Similarly, the sample will selected on the basis of their ability to provide vital data that relates to our industry and directly may impact our business entry strategy or our ability to compete. In order to derive credible sample, the research team will use stratified random sampling approach to survey key groups such as consumers, government officials operating under various business chambers of interest to coffee industry, or even seeking information from international bodies’ officials. The selected subpopulations will constitute a total of 32 individuals under three subgroups. The subgroups will be based on the above three data sources. The subgroup increases data reliability by enhancing accurate representation among the sample members (Loudon & Wrenn, 2002).

2.30 Data Collection and Research Instruments

Data gathering will be based on cost effectiveness of the instrument used and the availability of required resources. As such, a questionnaire will be a key instrument to gather vital data from our sample population (Refer to Appendices B). Questionnaire will be used to collect data as it will offer us an opportunity to handle various resistances that may arise from our target sample during collection procedures. Will prefer questionnaire over other techniques in data collection since the respondents may require more time to fill-in the details or even complete the questionnaire during their leisure time. In addition, since we will employ standardized questionnaires in gathering information, the findings will be more objective as opposed to interview approach. Essentially, questionnaires will be distributed during our third week as per the research plan (Refer to the Appendices A).

2.31 Qualitative Measures

During the 4th week, we intend to qualitatively present the data collected for statistical analysis purposes. Under this approach, descriptive statistical measures will be used in summarizing as well as analyzing key findings that relates to our field. Varying patterns may be evidenced from the results drawn from the questionnaire depending on the subgroup concerned. For example, consumers may exhibit a certain pattern in offering information that may relate to their interest in specialty coffee. In analysis of such pattern other sources may come in-handy to support the perceived trend in data presented.

2.32 Data Presentation

Simple graphical procedures will be adopted during presentation, and any disparities that exist among the variables concerned may be detected as well. Graphical procedures will be crucial in establishing the key relationship among various variables such consumer patterns, and market trends. Our data presentation will be done on 5th Week as per the schedule of activities (Refer to Appendices A).

2.4 Contact Methods

Establishing an effective contact methods assist in enhancing data collection procedures well as necessary consultation procedures. For example, we will use emails when relaying vital information to respondents who may prefer to essentially complete the questionnaires during their free session. Email is an efficient tool to use in an attempt to instantly derive response from the subpopulations. In addition, this method is easier and costs effective in terms of resources and time expended while communicating the message. Phone calls will be placed to contact international bodies or government department when gathering information. Instants responses associated with calls will undoubtedly offer an opportunity to evaluate the actual progress when collecting data from diverse sources. Finally, personal contacts will primarily be used when delivering the questionnaires to designated locations. In this case, the individual dishing out the documents will be able to attend to any difficulties experienced by the respondents when filling-in the questionnaire’s details.

Biomechanics Lab Report

This lab report is based on the Anthropometrics practical session that took place in week three.

Introduction

The aim of the session was to find out what our Anthropometrical measures were and how they would compared to some typical figures that were given out at the time.

The study of Anthropometrics deals with the measurement of the dimensions, mass, and mass distribution of the human body. It provides estimates of the lengths, masses, location of the centres of mass, and moments of inertia of the human body that are used in the study of human motion

There are 10 main parts of the body that will be measured during the study of Anthropometrics and they are the two forearms, the head, the two upper arms, the trunk, two thighs and two shanks. All these measurements will give us an indication whether we are fit and healthy or if we are underweight or overweight,

.

Anthropometrics was found by a French savant called Alphonse Bertillon who in 1883 gave the name Anthropometrics to a system that he designed which involved him taking certain measurements and when they were recorded he found out that every single individual could be distinguished from other people by these measurements. This is because he concluded that everyone has a different physique and surface area.

Materials and method

The equipment that was used during this practical session were things like

Goniometers
A plinth
Some Calipers
A Height Gauge
A set of Scales
A Tape measure
Nomogram
Grip Strength Gauge

Goniometers are designed for the measurement of limb angular movement. The sensors are attached across the joint employing double-sided medical adhesive tape and connected to instrumentation. The sensors are lightweight an unobtrusive allowing the data of human activity to be displayed or recorded while leaving the subject to move freely in the normal environment.

The first thing that we did was to calculate our body mass index and to do this we measured our height and weight by using a Height Gauge and a set of scales. Then we calculated our body mass index by multiplying the height by itself and then dividing the answer that we got by our weight and this gave us our body mass index. Then we measure the length of our legs by using a tape measure. Then we measure the greater Trochanter knee joint and the Lateral Malleous knee joint by using Calipers. We also used the Calipers to measure the width of our wrist, elbow, knee, ankle and armspan. Then we used a goniometer to measure the angle of our quadriceps. Then we used the calipers to measure our skin fold thickness. Then we used the grip strength gauge to see how strong we were. We used the plinth to measure the lower part of the body. For example we used it to measure our lower limbs. We did the measurements that are above except for the height, weight and body mass index first on our right side and then on our left side and this enabled us to find out the total measurements of the entire body. Finally we checked our surface area by using the nomogram.

Results

Anthropometrical Measures

Value

Height (m)

185cm

Weight (kg)

72.8 kg

BMI (kg/m2)

21.3 kg/m2

Left

Right

Leg Length, ASIS – Medial Malleolus (m)

101 m

101 m

Greater Trochanter-Knee Joint (m)

45 m

45 m

Knee Joint – Lateral Malleolus (m)

43 m

43 m

Wrist width (m)

5.7 m

5.9 m

Elbow width (m)

7.3 m

7.3 m

Knee width (m)

10 m

10.2 m

Ankle width (m)

7.6 m

7.4 m

Armspan (m)

185 m

185 m

‘Q’ angle

10°

10°,

Chest/Waist/Hip Circumference m

Chest

90 m

Waist

79 m

Hip 86 m

Waist to Hip Ratio (WHR)

0.91 whr

Ratio Armspan to body height

1 cm

Calf Circumference (m)

35 m

35 m

Thigh Circumference (m)

47 m

46 m

Grip Strength Ratio (L vs R)

34

26

Surface Area (Nomogram)

1.91 m2

Surface Area by calculation

1.93 m2

Skin fold thickness (rectus femoris)

8

5

Measure the ratio of ring finger length

to index finger length m

0.925 m

0.924 m

Discussion

While analysing my results I found out that some of my results were normal and some of my results were below or above the average for that particular measurement. For example when I analysed my body mass index I found out that I was in the normal range for body mass index which was 20-25 kg/m

Typical ranges for body mass index

Underweight

<20 kgm2

Healthy Range

20-25 kgm2

D Overweight

25-30 kgm2

Obese

>30 kgm2

While analysing my results I found out that my skin fold thickness is lower than the normal average. For example the average skin fold thickness for a fit man is 14-17 percent whereas if you have a body fat percentage over 25+ you are classed as obese. On the other hand women will have a slightly higher body fat percentage than men because they have got a slightly wider physique than men and this means that women will have a higher body fat percentage.

Skin fold thickness measurements are also used as an indication of obesity and it has been proven to be a more reliable method to find out how much fat we have in our bodies

Typical values for body fat percentage

Women % body fat

Men % body fat

Fit

21-24 %

14-17 %

Obese

32 + %

25 +%

While analysing my results I also found out that my q angle was lower than a normal q angle should be. For example a normal q angle should typically fall between 18°- 22°, with males usually at the lower end of the scale and females at the higher end of the scale.

An abnormal Q angle will typically be increased from normal. This automatically increases the vulnerability to tracking problems like lower back, pelvis, leg and foot problems. An abnormal Q angle becomes further complicated when accompanied by a functional or anatomical short leg. Many people especially runner’s favour a functional short leg rather than anatomical short leg. They prefer a functional short leg to an anatomical leg because the functional leg is used to straighten an abnormal q angle whereas an anatomical leg just keeps it in place. In this case a heel raise is often recommended but this will make the problem worse by keeping the leg in an abnormal position when it should be in a normal position. A normal Q angle will have the patella rotated slightly more towards the mid line than the tibial tubercle.

Also while analysing my waist to hip result. I found out that I am at a low risk of being overweight and getting a serious health problem. For example a man needs to have a waist to hip ratio of 0.90 to be at low risk of getting a serious health condition but if a man has a waist to hip ratio of more than 1.0 than he is classed as being at a high risk of getting a serious health condition. In comparison to this a woman needs to have a waist to hip ratio of less that 0.80 to be at a low risk of getting a serious health condition and if they have a waist to hip ratio of more than 0.85 then they would be classed as being at a high risk of getting a serious health condition. The types of health conditions that you could get if you are at high risk are things like Coronary Heart Disease, Hypertension and Diabetes. On the other hand there are some serious health conditions with being underweight and they are Osteoporosis, Diabetes, Infertility, Anorexia / Bulimia, Aneami and Aimmune Deficiency. These conditions mainly affect women who have a body mass index of less than 18.5.kgm2

When my results was compared with the averages for the different measurements I found out that they were below the normal average for some of the measurements and this is because everybody is different in many ways. For example people have different physiques so the amount of body fat that is found in a person’s body varies and this means that everybody’s body mass index will be different.

Conclusion

While concluding my results I found that I am fit and healthy and that I am in no danger of getting a serious health condition. I have also found out that there are a number of different conditions that affects people who are overweight and underweight. I have also concluded that everybody’s Anthropometrical measures will be difference. This is due to the difference in physique, height, body mass and the surface area of the body. When I compared my results to some typical data I found out that I was around about the normal range for most of the measurements that were taken during the practical session.

Reference Page

Books

Pheasant, T S, (1996), Bodyspace: Anthropometrics, Ergonomics, and the design of work, London, Taylor & Francis

Hall, J, S (1953) Basic Biomechanics, London, Human kinetics

Websites

http://www.chiroweb.com/archives/21/24/03.html

www.biopac.com/s/sitesearch/runsearch.php?q=goniometer – 28k

www.worldchiropracticalliance.org/tcj/2004/jun/charrette.htm

www.nth.nhs.uk/dtrack.asp?r=docs/presentations/Podiatric%20Biomechanics%20-%20A%20Hardy.ppt

www.brianmac.co.uk/injury.htm

You have a job interview for the role of an Assistant Physical Activity Promotion officer. Within this role you will be asked to work alongside the GP referral scheme coordinator. As an assessment of your current ability you have been asked to produce a report on your current knowledge regarding the psychological benefits of physical activity. This will be a major decider in their decision of whether to offer you the job.

A description and explanation of exercise psychology and its role in promoting a healthy lifestyle

Exercise psychology is the study of the brain and behavior in physical activity and exercise nature or settings. Also it focuses on human behaviours in different environment. It seeks the psychological benefits of exercise and psychical activity and the importance of exercise for the individual and how to promote lifelong participation

Exercise psychologist’s roles are mainly in research, education and consultancy. In research, they try to find the ways and benefits of exercise in increasing motivation, quality of life and etc impact the society. In education, they fill an education role by working in educational establishment, athletes and coaches and by producing educational materials on the benefits of the different disciplines within sport and exercise psychology. Consultancy role of exercise psychology involves working with individuals or groups with the view to developing psychological skills that enhance quality of life in some ways. They work in developing suitable exercise programmes, lifestyle management skills and increasing levels of exercise adherence.

The impact that exercise has had on psychological well-being

There are a lot of psychological benefits of exercising for ourselves such as improved moods, reduced stress as well as an improved ability to cope with stress, improved self-esteem, pride in physical accomplishments, increase satisfaction with oneself, improved body image, increased feelings of energy, improved in confidence in your physical abilities. These are some of the benefits and there are a lot more benefits of exercise in term of reducing the risk of developing colon cancer and etc. It also can act as alternative treatments to drug therapy. Not all patients are interested in consuming drugs. Exercise can be the other alternative although most of the time, its time consuming. In some countries, mental health are the main issues and cost a lot of money for the government in term of purchasing medicine. We have to try to reduce the cost and the problem. In UK there are a slight increase in depression and stress from 1993(!5.5%) to in 2007(17.6%)in the proportion of people aged 16-64.

Some of the symptoms of depression include withdrawal, inactivity and feelings of hopelessness and loss of control. Exercise can be a useful intervention tool for depression as research suggested that this problem can be reduces with exercise. Anxiety is defined as a state of worry, apprehension or tension. It occurs many times without real or obvious danger. Research has shown that many people try to solved anxiety with good and bad activities. Alcohol in the mind of some assumes it as a way to solved some of their anxiety problem and most of it, stress and it’s related also with smoking. Both as we know imposed danger to our health and can be considered as a bad way of tackling the problem. However, many people feel calm after a hard workout. They have forgotten their worries and use exercise as an outlet for their nervous energy. In both cases, exercise can reduces the symptoms of anxiety and depression.

However there are a few negative affect if not carried out properly. Eating disorder are the more likely of a problem in and individuals who is doing and exercise. As statistic suggested, high percentage of eating disorder are associated with athletes and people doing exercise too much or exercise addicts. Most of them related to eating disorder known as aneroxia nervosa. It’s a psychobiological disease characterized by intense fear of becoming obese. Its relates to the social and personal perception of average weight, low self-esteem, the traits of anxiety and being perfectionist

The influence of different factor on encouraging exercise adherence and how this differs for different demographic groups

It has been know that they are two types of factors on encouraging exercise adherence which is situation factors and personal factors. Within these factors, there are a lot of factors that we need to address to maximize our exercise adherence.

Situation factors which affect exercise adherence and motivation are time, money, energy, role conflict, social support, exercising with others, facilities, climate and physical discomfort. Personal factors affecting exercise and motivation are awareness of personality, goal setting, imagery and arousal regulation and concentration. These are vital factors to maximize our exercise adherence.

Time management is an important part of everyone’s life. We have to find time in our life to exercise. According to the American College of Sports Medicine(ACSM) guidelines, time to exercise should be between 20-60 minutes, depending on how the individual carried out exercise whether it more than 3-5 times a week or less than 3-5 times a week. It must be situated in a time slot where you will find that exercise will bring enjoyment not the opposite way. Some suggested that its better to do a workout after having a day working hard which can reduced work stress.

Money is not a good reason why not to exercise. Exercise doesn’t mean we have to workout in a gym or doing it in expensive facilities such as treadmill and so on. We can do simple exercise for examples walking, running and jogging in our own neighbourhood or recreational parks nearby. Our daily life is all about exercise such as walking to our workplace and many more.

We often hear individual excuses of not exercising are they are too tired or lack of energy to do it. Nutrition plays important part in exercise. With a good consumption of food will increase energy in your body. It also can affect psychologically and physiologically when working out while you are hungry which distract your focus. It is important that prevent from having a meal before your exercise session.

Role conflict refers to time management. It can be related to any commitments such as work commitments, family commitments or any other commitments. As long as its not in conflict with it. The main thing is to identify our priorities lie and to make any sacrifice if possible. A good social support is vital for good exercise adherence. To stay in it, you must have the supports of your family and friends. They must understand your commitment to it and will try their best to do something in your interest such as organizing an event which will not contradict with your exercise date. Distraction from them is the least you want.

Some will prefer that exercising with other will improves the atmosphere for example having fun and create positive energy with them, rather than doing it alone which tedium can sets in. Exercising in a group exercise class is the best solution for gaining high motivation. when you missed a class, you will have to explain to them why and this will cause fear of embarrassment into you and you will try to avoid it.

The climate in which we exercise is very influential in term of exercise adherence . if the climate is not as we desire whether it’s too hot, too cold, dry or wet, it can cause an affect in your exercising. Try to do it in a climate that suits you or if the climate is not as you desire, try to have a backup plan such doing it in a sport centre. We must also know what it takes to exercise which can create physical discomfort and the real meaning of discomfort

To help in your exercise, it helps to reflect on yourself to improve self-confidence for the exercise program such as prior successes, role models, verbal persuasion and emotional arousal. You must remind yourself with your prior successes that is there any challenges that you can’t cope with. Then reflect to other people who have try to do it and have done it. Support is important as I stated earlier and control over emotions for seeing a success as the end result.With goal settings, it enhances your motivation why you are doing it in the first place. To be effective, your goals should be a SMARTER goals which is specific, measurable, accountable, exciting, recorded, time and realistic. For example if you do it to lose weight, you have to state how much you want to lose weight and by when you want to lose it.

To improve exercise adherence, its good to use your imagination. Imagery or visualization can help you seeing the outcomes if you continue exercising. With arousal regulation and concentration as well as imagination, you can prevent an individual feeling bored while doing exercise. Try to change the settings of your exercise and be creative about it.

As I stated above about the factors on encouraging exercise adherence, different groups have different factors to another. For example young children do exercise because they are told to do so and most of them find it interesting, in adolescent, in their mind is that breaking a sweat or do exercise is uncool in the view of social trends. Again for old people, they will say they exercise to prevent or reduce the risk of having a chronic disease such as heart disease.

Another example would be male and female. As exercise refers to weight management, female tends to exercise for that reason. In the case for male, they do exercise to be fit and for the body image.

An exercise prescription for psychological well being for a particular group

Young adult are most associated with depression or anxiety,exercise can alleviate their symptoms. Exercise programme must be done step by step to prevent any unwanted factor to present such as injury. In this programme, they are 5 key of creating it which is skill, social, fitness, competition and enjoyment. Skill is to gain feelings of accomplishment, social isto gain a sense of belonging or feeling affliated to an organization or group, fitness is to improve strength,shape or stamina, competition is to archieve success either through competition or seeing progress and enjoyment is simply to have fun or pleasure. It also required a community based intervention, school based intervention and parental interventions to encourage young people to maintain an active lifestyle.

In community based interventions, the involvement of young adults in community service can create self-esteem with meeting new people. Doing exercises by the implementation of its community is vital such as walking and cycling in the local parks, encourage walking to school and so on. With male are more involved than women, the community should organize non-competitive activities that appeal this group such as charity fund and etc.

In school based intervention, its logical to implement more greater physical activity. The teacher is vital as a role model for this particular group which can motivate them to participate in school activities

Parental intervention are the most important as they are related to each other and they know their children better than anyone. They act as positive role modelto their children, personally demonstrating the benefits of an active lifestyle over more sedentary pursuits. They also can encourage their children to participate and they themselves to participate with their children. Parents needs to offer supports and encouragement to their children whatever their doing in exercise. Research has shown that female need more supports and encouragements than their male peers.

Practical examples of how best to prescribe and promote adherence in different groups

For sedentary old people, weekly exercise activities would be organize for them so that they would feel fresh. Besides that, they need to know the importance of exercise in health term such as reducing acute and chronic diseases. Family support for them is best as they don’t want to do alone, but besides with family.

For a group of people with anger issues, they need to do exercise just like the rest the people that is 3-5times a week for 20-60 minutes such as jogging and walking. in addition, share their views about their anger issues and reflect themselves what creates the issues at the first place.

For a group of young children, regular exercise would help. Parental encouragement and support is important. As their mind are just to have fun, organize a fun activities whichcan motivate to do exercise more often. Education to them about the benefits of exercise will give them the thought to exercise more often on their own and with family

Referrence

Exercise psychology By J Buckworth, R Dishman

http://www.ic.nhs.uk/webfiles/publications/mental%20health/other%20mental%20health%20publications/Adult%20psychiatric%20morbidity%2007/APMS%2007%20(FINAL)%20Standard.pdf

http://appliedsportpsych.org/Resource-Center/health-and-fitness/articles/psych-benefits-of-exercise

http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwfit/adherence.html

http://www.psych.qub.ac.uk/Staff/Profiles/Trew/A5AdolsExChap.pdf

The Origins and History of the Ancient Olympics

Introduction

The first ancient Olympic Games can be traced back to 776 B.C and were celebrated until 393 A.D (Young, 1987). The Games continued for twelve centuries and were dedicated to Olympian gods. Olympia became the site of these historic ancient games that sowed the seeds for the most coveted sporting international event of modern times, the Modern Olympics. The site of the Ancient Olympics is located in the western part of Peloponnese. According to Greek mythology, Peloponnese is the island of Pelops, the Founder of the Olympic Games (Young, 1987).

Olympia, in Greece is the sanctuary site for the ancient Greek gods. The central part of Olympia was dominated by the majestic temple of Zeus. The ancient games enjoyed a secular tradition and aimed at securing good relations between the cities of Greece and showing physical qualities and evolution of the performances accomplished by the youth. The Olympic Games were held in four years intervals at the ancient stadium in Olympia that could accommodate more than 40,000 spectators. The surrounding areas around the ancient Olympic stadium were continuously developed until the 4th century BC and were used as training grounds for athletes or to serve as homes for the Olympic judges (Young, 1987).

The Ancient Olympics allowed only free men who spoke Greek to participate in the Games. The ancient games had a slight international spirit as they included participants from other parts of Greece. The Greeks that came to the Sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia shared the same religious beliefs and spoke the same language. The athletes were all male citizens of the city-states from every corner of the Greek world, coming from as far away as Iberia (Spain) in the west and the Black Sea (Turkey) in the east (Reeser, 2005)

In the ancient Olympics, married women were not allowed to participate in any way. However unmarried women could only spectate. The ancient Olympic Games though did not allow female participants; an exception was made at the Herean Games, staged every four years to honour Hera, wife of Zeus, allowing female athletes to participate in the games. Kyniska, daughter of King Archidamos of Sparta, was the first woman to be listed as an Olympic victor in Antiquity. The events were judged by the ‘Herald’, a Hellanodikis (Greek Judge). The Olympic victors in ancient times received their awards immediately after the competition. The Herald, after announcing the name of the victor, placed a palm branch in his hands. Red ribbons were tied on his head and hands to symbolize his victory. The official award ceremony that took place on the last day of the Games was a proud day for the victor. From the elevated vestibule of the temple of Zeus, the Herald announced the name of the winner, his father’s name and the name of his homeland. The winner was finally honoured with the Herald placing the sacred olive tree wreath or ‘kotinos’ on the winner’s head (Reeser, 2005).

The Olympic Games, originally created to honour Zeus, was the most important national festival of the ancient Greeks, and a focus of political rivalries between the nation-states. However, all competitions involved individual competitors rather than teams. Winning an Olympic contest was regarded more highly than winning a battle and was proof of an individual athlete’s personal excellence. The winners were presented with garlands, crowned with olive wreaths, and viewed as national heroes (Young, 1987).

Although records of the Olympics date back to 776 BC when the Olympics were reorganized and the official “First Olympiad” was held, Homer’s Iliad suggests that they existed as early as the 12th century BC. Emperor Theodosius I of Rome discontinued them in the 4th century AD, and they did not occur again until they were reinstated in Athens in 1896 (Young, 1987).

Originally, the Olympics was confined to running, but by the 15th Olympiad, additional sports were added, such as the pentathlon which was made up of five different events, boxing, wrestling, chariot racing, as well as a variety of foot races of varying lengths, including a long-distance race of approximately 2.5 miles. Athletes usually competed without clothes proudly displaying their perfect bodies. Women, foreigners, slaves, and dishonoured persons were forbidden to compete; women, once they were married, were not allowed to spectate any Olympic events, except for chariot races (Reeser, 2005).

The actual events taking place have changed significantly since the Ancient Olympics. Evidence shown in pictures, dating from circa 490-480 BC, depicts two men wrestling. Above them hang a discus in its bag and a pair of jumping weights called ‘halteres. Long jumpers used the weights to increase their competition distances by vigorously swinging them forward at the moment of takeoff. The coach or trainer stands to the left of the wrestlers, leaning on his staff and holding a long forked branch. (Rhizopoulou, 2004).

The ancient Olympic Games began in the year 776 BC, when Koroibos, a cook from the nearby city of Elis, won the stadium race, a foot race 600 feet long. According to (Wei, 1996), this was the only athletic event of the games for the first 13 Olympic festivals or until 724 BC. From 776 BC, the Games were held in Olympia every four years for almost 12 centuries (Young, 1987).

The marathon was not an event of the ancient Olympic Games. The marathon is a modern event that was first introduced in the Modern Olympic Games of 1896 in Athens, a race from the northeast of Athens to the Olympic Stadium and the athlete had to complete over a distance of 40 kilometres. The race commemorates the run of Pheidippides, an ancient “day-runner” who carried the news of the Persian landing at Marathon of 490 B.C. to Sparta (a distance of 149 miles) in order to enlist help for the battle. According to (finely, 1976) during the fifth century B.C. Ancient Greek historian Herodotus, Pheidippides delivered the news to the Spartans the next day. The distance of the modern marathon was standardized as 26 miles 385 yards or 42.195 km. in 1908 when the Olympic Games were held in London. The distance was the exact measurement between Windsor Castle, the start of the race, and the finish line inside White City Stadium (Wei, 1996).

Although the ancient Games were staged in Olympia, Greece, from 776 BC through 393 AD, it took 1503 years for the Olympics to return. The first modern Olympics were held in Athens, Greece, in 1896. The man responsible for its rebirth was a Frenchman named Baron Pierre de Coubertin, who presented the idea in 1894. His original thought was to unveil the modern Games in 1900 in his native Paris, but delegates from 34 countries were so enthralled with the concept that they convinced him to move the Games up to 1896 and have Athens serve as the first host (Wei, 1996).

The idea of the Olympic torch or Olympic Flame was first inaugurated in the 1928 Olympic Games in Amsterdam. There was no torch relay in the ancient Olympic Games. There were known, however, torch relays in other ancient Greek athletic festivals including those held at Athens. The modern Olympic torch relay was first took place at the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin. The Modern Olympic flag of five linked rings, each with a primary colour used in the flags of the nations competing in the games, was introduced in 1908. There is no ancient basis for this modern symbol (Rhizopoulou, 2004).

THE POLITICS OF THE OLYMPIC GAMES

The celebration of the Olympic Games in antiquity was an occasion for citizens of scattered Greek city-states to assemble. At the Games they discussed important political issues, celebrated common military victories and even formed political and military alliances.
But the Games were not only a forum in which to discuss political events; they were also the cause of political conflict. Control of the Sanctuary and the Games brought with it prestige, economic advantages and, most importantly, political influence. As early as the 7th century BC we hear of disputes over the control of the Sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia between the city of Elis (30 miles to the north) and the small neighbouring town of Pisa (Wei, 1996).

In 668 BC, according to Pausanias (a 2nd century AD Greek traveller), the powerful tyrant of Argos (named Pheidon) was asked by the town of Pisa to capture the Sanctuary of Zeus from the city-state of Elis. Pheidon, with his army of well-trained hoplites (armed soldiers), marched across the Peloponnesos, secured the Sanctuary for the town of Pisa, and personally presided over the conduct of the games. But Pisa’s control of the Sanctuary was brief: by the next year Elis had regained control (Fineley, 1976).

The Olympic Truce was instituted by the city-state of Elis to protect against military incursions which interrupted the Games. Every four years, special heralds from Elis were sent out to all corners of the Greek world to announce the approaching Olympic festival and games. Along with this news, they would announce the Olympic Truce, which protected athletes, visitors, spectators and official embassies who came to the festival from becoming involved in local conflicts. Later, political tyrants of the 7th and 6th centuries BC attempted to achieve influence by more peaceful means. They participated in the athletic and equestrian contests of the Olympic Games and dedicated conspicuously lavish offerings to Olympian Zeus at the site of the games (Finley, 1976).

Nowadays there is a strong connection between salesmanship and sports and some would even say that the line between sales pitching and fast pitches has become completely blurred. At Olympic competitions, athletes’ uniforms and equipment bear the discreet but readily identifiable trademarks of their manufacturers. After the Games, we are presented with images of Olympians endorsing products and appearing on cereal boxes. Later, some Olympic celebrities become commodities themselves, as TV shows and record labels cash in on their fame (Wei, 1996).

Even in the Ancient Olympics, the victorious athletes were still celebrated and became famous for their outstanding abilities and achievements. Sculptors were commissioned to create statues of victorious athletes to be set up in the Sanctuary or in the home town of the athlete. According to Pliny, most of the statues set up in the Sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia were idealistic images of athletes. We are told that only if an athlete had won three Olympic victories could a realistic likeness of the athlete appear in the Sanctuary. In the Ancient Olympics, if an athlete was found guilty of cheating or bribing officials, they would be subjected to some form of public humiliation. For example if athlete’s were found guilty of cheating the they were made to created statues of the eventual champions which were placed in stadium so that people could celebrate them (Rhizopoulou , 2004).

THE MODERN OLYMPICS

Today’s Modern Olympic Games have 32 different categories of competitive events. When you consider that of these many, like track and field, have several events within the category and then break down further to men’s and women’s and team and individual competition, it is nearly impossible to keep track of the Games as they progress. Things were much simpler in the past. The Ancient Olympics had 13 events which were divided into 6 main categories and only men were allowed to participate in the events (Vassill, 2004).

The main categories were boxing, equestrian events, pentathlon, running and jumping. The Equestrian events were broken down into two sub-categories: chariot racing and riding. The Pentathlon was a combination of five events: discus, javelin, jump, running, and wrestling (Crowther, 1996).

Boxing in ancient Greece had fewer rules than boxing today. There were no rounds and boxers fought until one of them was knocked out, or admitted he had been beaten. There was no rule that prevented a boxer from hitting an opponent when he was down. There was no weight class in either the men’s or boy’s divisions and the contestants were chosen randomly. The boxers did not wear gloves but wrapped their hands and wrists with leather straps called himantes.and this meant that their fingers were left free (Vassill, 2004).

Equestrian events were divided into classes of chariot racing and riding. The chariot races consisted of both the 2-horse chariot and the 4-horse chariot and there were separate races for chariots drawn by foals. There was a race of carts included in this event that consisted of competition between carts drawn by teams of 2 mules. The length of the chariot races was 12 laps around the stadium track which was approximately 9 miles (Vassill, 2004).

Riding was the other equestrian event and the course was 6 laps around the stadium track which equaled 4.5 miles. The jockeys rode without stirrups and the races were broken down into competition between foals and full-grown horses. Because it was so expensive to train, feed and equip the participants the owners were awarded the olive wreath of victory instead of the riders (Wei, 1996).

The most physical event of the Ancient Olympic Games was the pankration. This grueling event consisted of both boxing and wrestling. The hands were not wrapped in the leather himantes. The only limitations on physical brutality were the rules against biting and gouging the opponent’s eyes, nose, or mouth with fingernails. Kicking in any part of the body was allowed. There were separate divisions for men and boys, but like in boxing there was no weight division and the opponents were chosen at random (Vassill, 2004).

The pentathlon, like the modern event, consisted of a 5-event combination. The 5 events of the Ancient Olympic Games were discus, javelin, jumping, running and wrestling. The Greeks considered this the most beautiful of the contests as it combined the endurance of the race course and the bodily strength necessary for the other physical events. The discus was made out of either of iron, stone, bronze, or leads and was shaped to resemble the discus of today. The sizes varied and the boys competed with a lighter weight than the men. The ancient Greeks thought the precision and rhythm of an athlete throwing the discus as important as his strength (Wei, 1996).

The javelin was a throwing event as in the modern games and like the discus the competition was based on the distance the object was thrown and in the case of the javelin the precision. The javelin was made of wood, with either a sharpened end or an attached metal point. The javelin had a thong for the throwers’fingers that was attached close to the center of gravity of the instrument that increased the precision and distance of the throw (Wei, 1996).

The jump event was similar to the modern long jump but with a major exception. The jumpers carried stone or lead weights called halteres. These weights, shaped like telephone receivers, were carried out in front of the jumper when they jumped the weights were thrust backward and dropped during the descent to increase the distance of the jump (Fineley , 1976).

Running was broken down into 4 types of races in the Ancient Olympic Games. The stadion was the oldest of the events and consisted of a sprint covering one stade (192 meters) which was the length of the stadium. Other races were the 2-stade race and the long distance runranged from 7 to 24 stades. The most grueling of the races was the warrior race designed to build and test the speed and stamina Greek men needed for military service. The race was 2 to 4-stades in distance and was run by an athlete wearing armor. The standard armor of that time weighed approximately 50-60 pounds and of course included a helmet and shield (Fineley, 1976).

Wrestling was similar to the modern sport in that the athlete was required to throw his opponent to the ground landing on a hip, shoulder, or back for a fair fall. To win a match required 3 fair falls or throws. Genital holds and biting were not allowed and breaking your opponent’s fingers was also not permitted (Vassill, 2004).

The art and sculpture of ancient Greece is alive with the depictions of the Olympics and the events described in this article. One can feel the excitement and spirit of the Ancient Olympic Games in that art. In modern games the spirit of the Olympism of old is recreated in the ceremonies and competitiveness of the event (Fineley, 1976)

In conclusion the Ancient Olympics were held to honour Zeus. There were 13 events in the Ancient Olympics’ compared to the 32 events in the modern Olympics. Most of the events that were held at the Ancient Olympics are still part of the modern day Olympics. In the ancient Olympics only men were allowed to compete whereas nowadays men and women are allowed to compete in all of the events. The athlete who won gold medals at the Ancient Olympics had sculptures with their picture on them so that people could celebrate their victory. Nowadays, there are some traditions that are still valued and for many athletes, winning an Olympic gold medal is still the main highlight of their career.

Reference Page

Crowther, N, (1996), athlete and state: qualifying for the Olympics games in ancient Greece, journal of sport history, 41 800-688

Finley, I, (1976), Olympic Games the first thousand years, London, Chatto & Windus.

Reese, J, C, (2005) Gender identity and sport: is the playing field level, Journal of Sports Medline, 39 695-699

Rhizopoulou, S, (2004), Symbolic plant (s) of the Olympic Games Journal of Experimental Botany, 46, 620-588

Vassill, G, (2004).The Olympic Games explained a student guide to the evolution of the modern Olympic Games, London, Routledge.

Wei, Y, (1996), The Olympic image the first 100 years, Edmonton, Alberta, QuonEditions.

Young, D, (1987), The origins of the modern Olympics a new version, International Journal of the History of Sport, 39 695-699

Sports, Leisure and Coaching Law

Examine the success or otherwise of the WADA Code with regard to the regulation of the use of drugs and doping in sport

It is submitted that the World Anti-doping Agency (WADA) has achieved a reasonable measure of success in the pursuit of its mandate to establish a drug free sports world.

WADA, both in its structure and in its execution of its policies, is not presented as a perfect mechanism in this respect. There are also well articulated contrary philosophical positions concerning whether sport, particularly at a professional level, ought to be regulated for substance use at all. That question is beyond the scope of this paper. In the present review, WADA is presumed to be acting at all times as a legitimate agency to advance the broad public interest in safe and drug free sport.

A brief definition and over view of WADA’s structure shall assist in the appreciation of the points made in support of the opening statement above. WADA was founded in 1999 at the instigation of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and its member bodies in the wake of a number of well publicised doping scandals (Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson’s positive steroid test in the 1988 Olympics; the Festiva cycling team arrest at the 1998 Tour de France are two examples), WADA is the supreme authority with respect to both the establishment of proper test procedures and the determination of what substances will be the subject of athletic sanction when detected (Lerner, 2006; WADA, 2007).

The WADA Code outlines the broad goals of the agency. The Code is the primary regulatory instrument employed to forge an international consensus concerning anti-doping practices in sport. The Code is the structure that binds sports governing bodies, national Olympic committees, and independent sports leagues to the enforcement of the WADA rules concerning doping tests procedures, both in-competition and out of competition, in conformity with the annual WADA Prohibited List of restricted substances and those subject to therapeutic exemption (WADA Code, 2)

This background information is emphasised because it confirms one important yardstick by which to measure WADA success – the critical mass that WADA has achieved since 1999 in assembling a broad membership of the world sports community that supports the anti-doping mandate, and the corresponding elevation of various doping issues and the inherent dangers of substance abuse in the public consciousness. This success, while somewhat intangible, is arguably as important as any specific drug testing programme or the successful pursuit of sanctions for doping violations.

On a related basis, breaches of the WADA Code by athletes are now generally publicly perceived as more than mere transgressions – drug cheating and its ‘win at all costs’ mentality tend to create a negative image of the offender in the eyes of the fan. One example is drawn from the otherwise staid confines of international cricket; Australian star Shane Warne’s use of a banned diuretic was widely described as ‘… the single biggest disappointment’ in the 2003 World Cup. (Mangan, p. 228)

The WADA Code has been held to be in conformity with the generally accepted principles of international law in most respects (WADA Code, 2007, 2). The WADA Code provides for a strict liability regime concerning the presence of a prohibited substance in an athlete, the automatic disqualification of the offender from the subject event, and the imposition of a suspension; all such measures have been deemed to accord with fundamental international law principles, primarily due to the various provisions that permit an aggrieved athlete to apply for a hearing to seek an appropriate remedy by way of arbitration. (Kaufmann-Koehler, 2003, 3)

The legal issues generated by the prevalence of doping in sport must be understood from several distinct perspectives. The first is the subsisting importance of the national or state criminal law regarding the possession, use or distribution of illegal substances. The fact that a stimulant such as cocaine is used by an athlete to enhance performance does not exclude the possible intervention of the state criminal law authorities upon its detection in the athlete’s system.(see Ulrich, below)

In practice, the apparent acceptance of WADA styled enforcement in sports as excluding the intervention of the state is an interesting phenomenon. The effectiveness of WADA has created the undeniable impression that ‘sport crime’, in the sense of prohibited substances and a violation of the WADA ‘play clean’ mandate is an administrative sanction issue for the particular sport league or governing body, not a matter for the criminal law.

A state criminal investigation may create an opportunity for WADA to intervene, or alternatively, to seek the production of search and seizure results from the state authority; the German police investigation into Tour de France cyclist Jan Ulrich and the 2007 Spanish criminal inquiry regarding doping products and public safety are examples (WADA Code, 3). Once in receipt of such evidence, WADA have successfully instituted proceedings pursuant to the Code against athletes targeted by state authorities; challenges to prohibit this approach by way of injunction have failed (Balco, 2006, 1).

Distinct legal issues are engaged at three different points on the continuum mandated by WADA anti-doping procedures – the testing, the analysis of the test results, and the appropriate sanction to be imposed. This continuum has created a definable body of administrative law that has mirrored the emergence of a global administrative law trend wherever private international bodies such as WADA possess authority. (Kingsbury, 2005, 16) Notwithstanding the attacks that have commonly been advanced against the process, a further indicator of over all WADA success is the perception of transparency concerning its practices and the corresponding heightening of confidence that WADA and its constituent organisations adhere to their own Code.

Prior to the institution of the WADA Code, a common tactic for an athlete who was subject to sanction as a result of a positive doping test was to seek a civil injunction. In an era of less than standardised practices, such injunctions were routinely granted, as courts often stated that they would not see an athlete deprived of their ability to earn income on the basis of flawed testing or administrative procedures. (See Reynoldsv. IAAF, 1994) The Court for Arbitration in Sport (CAS) is now the primary vehicle for the determination of all international WADA related proceedings; most national and affiliated sports organisations have established similar arbitration mechanisms. (Pound, 2006, 113)

A recent example of the reluctance of national (or supranational) courts to interfere in WADA-based proceedings is revealed in the Meca-Medina decision. Meca-Medina was an European Court application seeking to declare the IOC rules governing doping control (as propounded in the WADA Code) to be incompatible with European Community rules (EC Articles 82, 83) that regulate competition and freedom to provide services. (Meca-Medina, 2006, para 1, 4) The appellants were long distance elite level swimmers who had tested positive for a prohibited substance, (nandrolone) in post-event testing and each was subsequently suspended from competition for 4 years. The appellants had appealed the suspension to the CAS and each was unsuccessful before the arbitrator regarding the merits; the suspensions were reduced to 2 years.

The European Court held that the economic interests of the appellants were secondary to the legitimacy of the anti-doping initiatives and the absence of any procedural irregularity on the part of the sport organisations involved. (Meca-Medina, para 58, 60)

The CAS was founded in 1984 as an arm of the IOC. It is an unquestioned high level repository of sports administrative law expertise (over 200 cases per year with arbitrators drawn from over 80 countries; alleged WADA Code violations are a significant percentage of the case load). As with civil law arbitrations, the CAS acquires its jurisdiction by the mutual consent of the involved parties, where all decisions are final and binding (subject to extremely limited rights of review). (Lerner, 81) It is submitted that the definable body of sports law generated in CAS anti-doping proceedings is a further hallmark of WADA’s continued legitimacy and success.

The primary focus of WADA’s anti-doping efforts is directed towards individual athletes; the Code extends to all persons involved in athlete support – coaches, trainers and medical personnel. The long and intricate machinations of the United States criminal investigation into the Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative is an example where support persons were implicated in the supply of steroids to Olympic champion sprinter Tim Montgomery and American baseball record holder Barry Bonds. (Balco, 2006, 1)

The range of cases heard by the CAS reflects the breadth of the sporting world itself. The CAS has been called upon to consider reduced competition bans where extenuating circumstances are urged by the athlete (Lukin, 2007, 3); a request for relief from the Prohibited Substance list on the basis that the particular substance will aid in the health of the athlete (Brockman, (2004), 1); where an alleged tampering with a out of competition urine sample test procedure was challenged (Boyer, 2004, 1).

A recent decision of the CAS that highlights the CAS interpretation of the strict liability rules of the WADA Code is that of Zach Lund, the American skeleton racer disqualified from participation in the 2006 Winter Olympics due to a positive test for a prohibited masking agent, finasteride. (Lund, 2006, 1,2) The uncontested evidence before the CAS was that Lund had finasteride in his system due to his long term use of a hair restorative product. The CAS held that Lund was “open and honest” in his description of his failure to take all appropriate measures to educate himself as to the risks.(Lund, p.8)

It is submitted that in a traditional civil injunction proceeding, the absence of intent to gain a competitive advantage might be determinative of the issue, given that a berth in an Olympic Games was at stake. However, consistent with the ‘new age’ of anti-doping attitudes, the CAS held that ‘…the burden on the athlete to establish no fault or negligence is extremely high…’ (Lund, p.9) The arbitrator ruled that Lund was banned from Olympic competition in 2006.

In a 2006 arbitration conducted by the international basketball body, FIBA, a similar imposition of the WADA Code mandated and exacting strict liability standard was imposed for the inadvertent use of a hair restorative (Kurtoglu, 2006, 1), where FIBA upheld a two year competition ban. Other fact situations that highlight the primacy of the WADA Code in modern sport are contained in the newspaper articles excerpted below.( e.g. Gatlin; Ferdinand; Chambers)

In its eight years of existence, WADA has successfully impressed its anti-doping will upon the international sport community. The rules developed and disseminated by WADA have created cohesion and significant consistency in the manner that doping cases are conducted world-wide. As noted in the opening paragraph above, the intangibles associated with WADA’s heightened promotion of the ethical, health and competition issues inextricably linked to performance enhancing substances are WADA’s greatest achievement.

Bibliography

American Arbitration Association (2006) “Sports Arbitration including Olympic Athlete Disputes” http://www.adr.org/About (Accessed March 21, 2007)

“Athletics: Prize-Money Row Bars Chambers from NIA Grand Prix.”(2006) Birmingham Post (England) 17 Feb. 2006: 36

“Balco case trial date pushed back” (March 17, 2006) BBC News

http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/athletics/4357145.stm (Accessed March 21, 2007)

“Gatlin Faces Threat of a Life Ban from Athletics”(2006) South Wales Echo (Cardiff) 31 July 2006: 10

Haley, James (2003) At Issue: Performance Enhancing Drugs (San Diego: Greenhaven Press)

Kingsbury, Benedict, Nico Krisch and Richard B. Stewart (2005) “The Emergence of Global Administrative Law” Law and Contemporary Problems 68.3-4: 15

Lerner, K. Lee (ed.) (2006) World of Sports Science (New York: Thomson Gale)

Manjumdar, Boria, and J. A. Mangan, eds. (2004) Cricketing Cultures in Conflict: World Cup 2003. New York: Routledge,

Mottram, David R., ed. (2003) Drugs in Sport New York: Routledge

Pound, Richard W. (2006) Inside Dope (Toronto: Wiley)

“‘Rio Deserved a Longer Ban’ (2004) ” The Evening Standard (London, England): 104

Kaufmann-Koehler, Gabrielle “Summary Opinion re: Conformity of the WADA Code” (2003) http://www.wada-ama.org/rtecontent/document/prof_kaufmann_kohler.pdf (Accessed March 21, 2007)

World Anti-doping Agency, 2007 (WADA) http://www.wada-ama.org/en (Accessed March 21, 2007)

World Anti-doping Agency Code http://www.wada-ama.org/en/dynamic.ch2?pageCategory.id=267 (Accessed March 21, 2007)

World Anti-doping Agency Prohibited List http://www.wada-ama.org/en/prohibitedlist.ch2 (Accessed March 21, 2007)

Table of Cases

Bouyer v. UCI & WADA CAS 2004/A/769,

Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport v Lukin; WADA third party (January 31, 2007) SDRCC DT-06-0050

IPC v. WADA & Brockman CAS 2004/A/717,

Meca-Medina and Majcen v Commission (Case C-519/04 P) (see also T-313/02

Re: initial opinions)

Reynoldsv. IAAF, 23F.3d1110, (6thCir. 1994), (cert. denied 63USLW 3348).

WADA v. USADA, USBSF & Lund CAS OG 06/001,

WADA v. FIBA & Kurtoglu FIBA AC 2005-6

(Note: all WADA related case law may be accessed through the portals at the main WADA website)