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Introduction:

Adidas is German Company and was named after its founder Adolf Dassler and his brother Rudolf Dassler in 1948. Adidas is one of the most popular sports manufacturers as Mr Adolf Dassler understands the need of athletes’. He had simple vision for his company to provide athletes best products with three guiding principles: produce the best shoe with sport requirement, protect the athlete from injury and make the product durable. There more than 700 products related with sports and this has created Adidas Kingdom of the sporting goods. A part of Adidas Group is Reebok sportswear. The company also produces eyewear, watches, shirts, bags and clothing related to sports. Adidas’s current official logo consists of three parallel bars. The three stripes become a brand name in 1949 and with the help of Olympics held in 1952 where more sportsperson wore Adidas than another shoe, the company began to grow. Adidas has contributed to the development of the Olympic Games.

Adidas’ main aim is to continuously progress their quality and image of their product in order to exceed consumer expectations and to provide them with the highest value of satisfaction.

Hermann Deininger, CMO of Adidas comments on Originals by Originals that “when we enter into any new partnership for Adidas Originals, It is essential to offer something truly unique and new for our consumer” (www.press.adidas.com)

Based on Adidas objectives of innovation and design leader I have been asked to devise a new product for Adidas and develop a marketing strategy. The product which I would like to introduce is called ADIPATCH to be launched and sold in Pakistan after the successful business and environmental analysis.

Description of ‘ADIPATCH’:

Adipatch is a pain reliever that uses heat therapy for the relief of stiffness and muscular pains. It is been developed for Adidas for players and for the people who uses gym regularly and suffer muscular pains. The warming effect of Adipatch heat penetrates into muscle helping to stimulate blood circulation. This patch last for up to eight hours and can be used for the relief of backache, sprains, and joints stiffness. It is easy and cost-effective way to get back o your active lifestyle. Adipatch is designed to be used on the skin where athlete wants the heat to be applied. Our Adipatch standard size is 3.5?5 inches. It is easy and cost-effective way to get back o your active lifestyle.

Recommended use of ADIPATCH:

To relieve joint and back pain

To relieve shoulder and neck pain

To relieve sore and aching muscles,

To relieve knee pain

For long hours office work, long haul flights and long driving

Marketing Objective for ADIPATCH:

Launch a new product and it development

Earn the market share and increase in sales

Allow Adidas to gain greater recognition

Market development

Business and Environmental Analysis:

Market oriented firms’ looks outward to the environment in which it operates adapting to take advantage of emerging opportunities and to minimize potential threats (Jobber 1995). I decided to launch ADIPATCH in Pakistan and I would like to do two analyses. First to launch our product we need to do Pest analysis to know the political, economical, sociological and technological conditions of Pakistan to know whether it’s feasible to launch Adipatch in Pakistan or not. Pakistan is located in south Asia. Pakistan is sixth most populous country in the world. Pakistan’s approximate population by July 2009 is 174,579,000. Karachi is the biggest city of Pakistan in population size and then Lahore. National sport of Pakistan is hockey but cricket is more popular. Pakistan economically and politically is not stable. Fiscal deficit as targeted in 2009 is 5.5 percent of GDP, which was 7.4 percent in 2008 fiscal but still enjoy sports.Pakistan is rapidly developing country.

The second deals with the issues analysed in the area were we have to look into market, competitors, customer’s needs and wants, buying behaviour, brand loyalty and segmentation. Michael Porter’s five force model is used to critically analyse this part and results showed that Adidas has opportunity to launch its new product ADIPATCH in Pakistan. An environmental scanning was carried out and results showed that Adidas is more responsive to the customer’s needs and opportunities identified could help Adidas lip frog competitors.

Growth Objectives:

Guzman (2005) quoted Yogi Berra in his book “if you don’t know where you are going you will end up somewhere else.” Asnoff provided a framework to identify growth opportunities, determination of scope (Croft 1998). He has identified four generic growth strategies such as market penetration, market development, product development and diversification. Asnoff pointed that diversification strategy stands apart from three strategies. It is a form of growth strategy which helps to increase profitability through new products and markets.

In current circumstances, Adidas objective is to develop new product of potential interest to its current market. It is well known that Adidas is an international company with market all over the world including Pakistan. The important issue for success in going down this road is the profitability of the customer group for which the product is being developed. Secondly Adidas has a strong brand that can be comfortably applied to the product.

Market segmentation, Target Market, Positioning:

Market segmentation provides the basis for the selection of target markets. A target market is chosen segment of market which a company has decided to serve. As customers in the target market segments have similar characteristic, a single marketing mix strategy can developed to match those requirements. Creative segmentation may result in identification of new segments that have not been served adequately.

Market segmentation refers to subdividing a market along some commonality, similararity or kinship.

Adidas as an international company, we can segment Pakistani market on following basis:

Size: Pakistan’s population is approx hundred and seventy four million and 45% are of the age of 25-45 years old and interested in sports.

Identification: Through the survey it was identified that the 50% people of the above group age 28-40 are involve in sports activities. This age group have healthy routine. Age 28-40 are involved in some sports such as cricket, hockey and badminton and 40-45 enjoy long walks in the park to keep themselves fit and suffer from muscular pains.

Importance: by market research I have found out that Adipatch features are important for the age group 28-40 because this group suffer more from muscular pains and to the doctors for treatment. Adipatch can help them to get relieve of the pain or sore.

Accessibility: during my research I found out there are good channel of communication that can be use to make the customers aware such as sports magazines, TV, health clubs. After segmenting the market, the next step to move on is positioning in the mind of customers of new product. The objective is to create and maintain a distinctive place in the market for company or for its products (Sampson, 1981). In Pakistan age group 28-40 meet these characteristics.

Positioning describes how the target market is selected and evaluation by customers in comparison with competitors such as ‘deep heat’ and nurofen back pain heat patch sold in Pakistan. Adidas chose a positioning strategy that seeks to differentiation from competitors with regards of product characteristics to increase sales. This will facilitate Adidas to maintain market stand and charge premium prices.

Product Development Process:

Organisations do not operate in static environment but they are constantly facing the consequences of changing technology, changing customer’s taste and preferences and changing competitor’s products. Any organization that is positively managing its product portfolio will recognise that its existing products are in different stages of their lifecycle and can be modified to maximise its potential.

It is important part of product strategy new product development can be very risky business. The foundation of for successful new product development is the creation of corporate culture that promotes and rewards innovation. Effective new product development is based upon creating and nurturing an innovation culture, organizing effectively for new product development, and managing the new product development process.

Development of Adipatch follow consists of following steps:

Idea generation: Any new product has to start from somewhere as a germ of an idea. Adipatch is a new product. The objective is to motivate the search for ideas so that salespeople are aware of this product

Screening: having developed new product ideas need to be screened to evaluate their commercial worth. After screening of a range of ideas it was found that Adipatch will be worth if produced with an early pay back. The calculation of the payback is found in the capital investment section of this assignment.

Concept testing: once the product idea has been accepted, it can be framed into specific concept for testing with potential. Product testing is focuses on the practical aspect of the product. At this survey was conducted to get the views of the customers.

Business analysis: based upon the results of concept test estimate of sales, cost and profit will be made. After budgeting Adipatch has identified the target market, its size and projected product acceptance over number of years.

Product development: at this stage the new product concept is developed into a physical product. Adipatch is developed into a physical product through the research and manufacturing unit,

Market testing: market testing takes measurement of customer acceptance .The main idea is to launch Adipatch in a limited way so the customer’s responses in the market can be assessed.

Commercialization: this stage relies on marketing management making clear choice regarding targeting market and development of marketing strategy. This is final stage of Adipatch where it can be brought to market. Adidas will need to decide when and where to launch Adipatch and its launching plan.

Market mix for Adipatch:

Based upon understanding of customers, a company develops its marketing mix. The marketing mix consists of four major elements: product, price, promotion and place. These 4Ps are the four key decisions are that company must manage so that they satisfy customers needs better (Kotler, 2005)

According to Adidas website their marketing strategy is based on 4Ps which is also called the marketing mix. We can use market mix for Adipatch as follows:

Product:

Adipatch is a new product introduced in Pakistan for people who are into sports. It alleviates muscular pain and regulates blood circulation using heat therapy.

Price:

Price is a vital element of the marketing mix as it represents on a unit basis what the company receives for the product which is being marketed (Parry, 2005). The product will be charge at same price compared to Deep heat and Nurofen heat patch. This will help Adidas to maintain standards and to compete in the market with existing products. The price per box of Adipatch will cost 300 Pakistani rupees

Promotion:

Customers need to be aware of the new product. Means of communication to be use such as to advertise on TV, magazines and in radio.

Place:

Involves the decision with reference to supply of Adipatch to the target market. This will concentrate on more using retailer and sport shops, Adidas outlets, health clubs, doctor’s clinic.

Costing For Adipatch: Investment in Pakistani Rupees

Package design 29,000,000

Test Marketing 8,800,000

Product Manufacturing 100,000,000

Distribution Cost 21,000,000

Storage Cost 9,000,000

Press Release 6,800,000

Raw Material 18,000,000

Handling Cost 9,000,000

Total 201,600,800

Adipatch per unit price is 300pkr with the variable cost of 130pkr. The contribution expected to be 280pkr. The number of units of Adipatch expected to be sold each year for next 5 years is as follows:

Years Units

Year one 200,000

Year two 230,000

Year three 280,000

Year four 300,000

Year five 290,000

The contributions for the next five years are expected to be as follows:
Year Revenue Investment Cumulative Profit

(Millions) (Millions) (Millions)

0 201,600,800

1 57,000,000 57,000,000

2 65,550,000 122,550,000

3 79,800,000 202,350,000

4 85,500,000 287,850,000

5 82,650,000 350,500,000

According to the analysis Adidas will get their investment back within approximately in three year time.However, Adidas should introduce more features to Adipatch because of changing environment and trends to sports and injuries to sports people

References:

Barand Strategy (2004), Dasani Withdrawn, Brand Strategy, 6Apr, p.7

Cramb,C (1999), ‘Grolsch Targets Mature Markets’, Financial Times 10Febrary, p.35

Croft, M(1998), Time to Nurture Creativity, Marketing week, pp40-1

Guzman, D(2005), “Innovative Products Deliver Fresh Growth for Oral Care” Chemical Market Reporter , 9-15 May pp.34-5

Kotler .P (2005), Marketing Management, Prentice Hall.

Jobber David (1995), Principles and Practice of Marketing, McGraw-hill.

Mitchell, A. (2005), ‘After Some Innovation? Maybe You Just Need to Ask Around’, Marketing Week, 16june, p.28

Parry .(2005), ‘New Production Development: There’s Many Slip’, Marketing Week, 02june,p.24

Sampson. ( 1992), People are People the World Over: The Case for the Psychological Marketing Segmentation, Market and Research Today.

Watts. G (1998) Asnoff’s matrix, pain and gain: Growth Strategies and Adaptive, International journal of entrepreneurial behaviour and research, vol4, pp101-111

www.press.adidas.com.

Accumulated and Continuous Physical Activity, Which is better for you?Introduction

Physical activity (PA) is becoming increasingly important to our health and the effects it can have on our daily lives, yet most adults report not to be physically active (MMWR, 2005). The sedentary lifestyle being led by the public is having a detrimental effect on general health. The decline in PA over the years could be due to modern technology such as cars and computers (Haskell et al, 2007) which stops people from doing the simplest of things such as walking to the shops. Inactivity can cause major health problems and increases the risk of chronic illness such as cardiovascular disease (Booth et al, 2000) it leads to obesity, hypertension, thromboemlic stroke, type 2 diabetes, cancer (Kesaniemi, et al, 2001) and psychological impairments such as stress and depression. Even with these heightened risks people are still not changing their lifestyles, in 2005 23.7% of the American population were reported as undertaking no leisure time activity (MMWR, 2005). PA is beneficial to health having positive effects on cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems and brings improvements in the metabolic and immune systems (Vuori, 1998).

Prior to the 1990s it was strongly believed that the way to improve health and fitness was to do 15-60mins of continuous moderate-vigorous exercise up to 3-5 days a week (Hardman, 1999). The problem with this amount and intensity of exercise is people are less likely to adhere to it and in essence end up doing none at all (Osei-tutu & Campagna, 2005). More recently the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) (Pate et al, 1995) have updated their recommendation to suggest that the general public should accumulate ?30mins of moderate exercise, on most, if not all days of the week. Exercise can be accumulated through small periods of activity (<10mins) such as walking to work or even gardening. Regular periods of PA can promote and maintain health thus preventing chronic disease and early death (Haskell et al, 2007). There is a vast amount of literature supporting both of these suggestions; however both cannot be right. The following sections will investigate whether continuous or accumulated exercise is better, or whether neither has a more beneficial effect.

Continuous Exercise

Multiple studies have provided evidence that continuous exercise is the best way to keep healthy, however these results are in direct contradiction to those for accumulated exercise. Fulton et al (2001) showed that continuous was better than accumulated exercise through a field evaluation of energy expenditure (EE). A total of 31 females were tested over 3 days; walking continuously for 30mins on one day, walking for three 10min sessions on another and refraining from PA all together on a third. The order of walking was set to meet participant’s preference. Participants wore a TRITRAC-R3D® accelerometer to estimate their daily EE and kept a diary to record the time, duration, mode and intensity of any PA in their lives lasting for ?5 minutes.

Results showed that EE differed significantly between the exercising groups and a control group. EE was significantly greater in continuous exercise compared to the accumulated exercise, with the difference being attributed to differences in trunk movement, movement intensity or duration. Therefore for the purpose of EE continuously walking gave a greater weight loss, by 60kcals, compared to accumulated walking.

However there are several limitations to this study that may have impacted the validity of the results. The study was based on self reporting measures and the measurements from the use of an accelerometer. Accelerometers are known to give inherent errors in estimation of EE and could therefore give inaccuracy in the level of energy actually being expended, if this was the case though, errors would have applied to all trials. Self reporting measures could quite easily have lead to participants making up diary extracts in attempt to please the experimenters or to appear to be sticking to the walking regime. Additionally monetary incentives were also given for completing the study, which could affect protocol adherence.

All sessions were completely unsupervised and pace was determined mainly by the participants themselves, supervision could have influenced the intensity and duration of the exercise leading to different estimates of EE. Additionally participants were not randomised to the 3 walking conditions, so EE may have been influenced as to which condition was performed first. Participants should have been randomised into conditions or should have done the sessions at the same time of day and in the same sequence, whilst being supervised. Unless these factors are controlled the conclusion that EE is better in continuous exercise cannot be drawn.

Osei-Tutu et al (2005) compared the effects of the new ACSM PA recommendation to the traditional recommendation, aiming to see how both impacted mood, VO­2max and body fat percentage. In the study 40 sedentary individuals were randomly assigned to one of three groups (Control Group, short bout (SB) or long bout (LB) group). The exercise groups trained for 8 weeks, doing 30mins of walking/day for at least 5 days/week. Participants walked at 60-79% of their maximum heart rate (HR) which was established in pre-testing. The SB group accumulated 30mins of exercise in three 10min bouts, separated by at least 2 hours. The LB group performed one continuous bout of walking at a time of their choice, both groups were self monitored and told to schedule walking into their daily lives. They were taught how to monitor their HR to ensure they were working in their target zone, and where possible were allocated Polar Vantage XL HR monitors. Each group totalled 1110mins of walking and had psychological assessments taken pre-, mid- and post-testing as well as physiological assessments pre- and post-testing. The control group remained sedentary.

Results showed that VO2max­ significantly increased (P ? 0.05) in both exercising groups and decreased in the control group, the exercise groups did not differ from each other. The LB group showed a significant decrease (P ? 0.05) in percent body fat after 8 weeks compared to the SB and control group. Mood was affected in both exercising groups, with vigour activity significantly increasing and total mood disturbance significantly decreasing. Levels of depression-dejection decreased significantly in the LB group. Overall LB exercise was seen as a better way to improve VO2max and mood and decrease percent body fat.

Psychological assessments show that participants who receive positive effects from exercise have an increased chance of maintaining exercise. In the LB group one factor affected another; when more body fat was lost, mood improved and this led to better adherence to the program. Perhaps the 10min threshold is not sufficient enough to allow for significant mood benefits. Due to the positive effects of exercise on mood and therefore adherence, improving the results cannot be isolated to exercise on its own. If mood was to be studied in all experiments continuous exercise may always be perceived as the better option.

Osei-Tutu et al (2005) used a field based study, not dissimilar to that of Fulton et al (2001). Measures are mainly self-reported and not monitored by an investigator. Adherence to the exercise regime may have been affected and it is therefore unclear whether continuous exercise actually yields greater effects on health to that of accumulated exercise, which was the case in this study.

Accumulation of Exercise

Accumulation of ?30mins of PA is the currently accepted option for improving health. Altena et al (2004) compared postprandial triglyceride (TG) responses in subjects who performed a single session of continuous exercise versus accumulated SBs of exercise. In the study, 18 inactive normolipidemic individuals, performed three separate trials (one continuous 30min run, three 10min runs or no exercise at all) along with eating high fat meals (HFM) in a randomised order, separated by 7-10 days. Excluding a 9min warm up, both trials totalled 30mins of running at 60% of subjects VO2max and were conducted in the evening, 12 hours before HFM. Blood samples were taken in the fasted state, then every 2 hours for a total of 8 hours after the HFM. Samples were used to analysis plasma TG, total cholesterol and HDL-C.

Results showed plasma TG to be significantly lower in accumulated exercise compared to the control group, but continuous exercise was not different from accumulated or control group. With no food being consumed between accumulated exercise sessions, results indicate that SBs of exercise attenuate the effects of a HFM more so than continuous exercise and SB exercise is therefore better at lowering postprandial lipemia. Altena et al (2004) concludes that the public should exercise in short but more frequent bouts. Again, however, there are a number of limitations within this experiment that could impact the validity of the results.

There were no dietary restrictions, the study allowing participants to be “free-living” prior to consuming the HFM. Participants were not consuming the same amount of calories as one another and though asked to replicate their diet before each additional trial there is no certainty they did. Therefore the calories they consumed before the continuous exercise may have been of a greater amount compared to those consumed before the accumulated exercise. Blood samples taken after the HFM and the level of lipid within the blood cannot be isolated to exercise alone. Participants may have eaten less/more fat prior to the different trials and this could potentially alter the level of lipid within the blood, giving inaccurate results of postprandial lipemia.

During the accumulated trials, all exercise was performed over a short period of time and guidelines say that exercise should be accumulated throughout the day. In this study the 3 SBs were separated by 20mins of rest, with the next bout starting straight after. A 20min rest period is not sufficient enough to allow the body to recover and be in a non-exercised state so the benefits of accumulated exercise are more likely to replicate those of continuous exercise. Results given for postprandial lipemia to accumulated exercise are therefore similar to that of continuous exercise.

Park et al (2006) looked at the effect of accumulated and continuous exercise on blood pressure (BP) reduction in 20 pre-hypertensive adults. A randomised cross over design was conducted with ambulatory BP and HR variability being taken for 12 hours after either; accumulated exercise (4 sessions of 10mins) or one 40min continuous session of exercise. A control group also attended the lab but did no exercise. Trials were separated by 7 days to avoid any training effects. Exercise (walking on a treadmill) was performed at 50% of each participant’s VO2maxpeak; VO2 was measured in mins 2-4 and 6-8 of each session to confirm exercise intensity. HR, measured via ECG and BP via auscultation was used to monitor participants throughout. An accelerometer was also used to measure EE to allow control for variation in activities in participant’s daily life.

No significant difference (P = 0.894) in EE for the 12 hours post treatment were found for the three groups. Systolic BP (SBP) was reduced for 11 and 7 hours post exercise and diastolic BP (DBP) was reduced for 10 and 7 hours post exercise in the accumulated and continuous group respectively. The reduction in SPB was significantly greater (P = 0.045) after accumulated exercise compared to that of continuous exercise. The conclusions drawn state that accumulated PA appears to be more effective than continuous PA in the management of BP in pre-hypertensives.

In conclusion Park et al (2006) leans towards the use of accumulated PA to improve health. This controlled laboratory study can be seen as reliable and the effects of accumulated PA on BP are impressive. All recorded data was quantitative and not reliant on self-reporting which could lead to participant bias. The study also recorded baseline and post exercise measurements allowing comparison of the two. The drawback to this study is the use of one off bouts of PA. To make the results more reliable and respectable to the public the study should have been undertaken over a longer period of time. This would allow us to see if the effects of accumulated exercise are acute or sustained on reducing BP in pre-hypertensives.

No differences between continuous and accumulated exercise

It was originally thought that continuous exercise was the best way to improve health, so why has it now been assumed accumulated exercise is better? Many studies have compared the two and found no difference. Macfarlane et al (2006) found that the effects of accumulative exercise were not too dissimilar to those from continuous exercise on fitness levels. In the study 50 participants were randomly assigned to one of two gender matched groups; either a life style activity group (SB) or an exercise prescription model group (LB). Both groups were to accumulate 10-11 MET hours/week for the duration of the study. The LB group performed 30mins of light- moderate continuous exercise 3-4 days/week, while the SB group did 5 daily 6min sessions on 5 days/week. Adherence was assessed using a daily log, recording the time, duration, mode and rate of perceived exertion for each session, HR was also measured in sessions. Participants attended pre- and post-testing sessions, were phoned weekly and visited twice during the study.

Results show no difference between either group in EE and VO2max. Both groups accumulated more MET hours than they had been prescribed to do, but for the same duration the LB group managed to accumulate more EE than the SB group. VO2max significantly improved by 7.4% and 5.3% in the LB and SB groups respectively. Overall findings show that the effects of SB exercise can provide short-term improvements in cardiovascular fitness which is comparable to that of LB exercise.

Results suggest that either type of PA would enable the same benefits; however poor control of variables within the study lead to invalid results especially the non use of a control group, not allowing any comparisons. Without a comparison we cannot be certain that there are not any other variables effecting results.

Like many studies on PA, recording the amount of PA performed was self reported; participants could quite easily have done more exercise than prescribed and not reported doing so. This would lead to results which do not represent what is actually being investigated, and therefore not answering the question of which type of PA is better. The study does not provide any strong quantitative physiological data either. HR monitors were used but some data was not fit for analysis, and without strong data the conclusion cannot be seen as reliable. Additionally participants were not all working at the same intensity when exercising, which could have greatly affected results. A final problem is the number of sessions the SB group were required to perform; fitting 5 sessions of 6mins may have become impractical and allowed adherence to decline. If all sessions had been completed, accumulated exercise may have been seen as the better option compared with continuous exercise.

Murphy and Hardman (1998) also concluded that there was no difference between accumulated and continuous brisk walking. In the study 34 women participated in a 10 week brisk walking program and were split into one of three groups (SB walkers, LB walkers and control group). Walking pace was set at 70-80% of maximal HR based on baseline testing. Participants were asked to walk briskly and keep their HR in their designated zone using a HR monitor. Walking took place on 5 days/week for a duration of 30mins; women in the LB group did one 30min walk whereas women in the SB group did three 10min walks with a gap of ?4 hours. Walking was performed outside the laboratory with one day out of five being supervised, participants also filled in training diaries throughout. BP, blood lactate and anthropometry measures were taken at baseline and at the end of the study.

Results show that all measures of endurance fitness improved in the walking group, VO2max and VO2 at blood lactate concentration of 2mmol.L-1 increased significantly in the walkers relative to the control, but a significant difference was found between the LB and SB groups respectively. Body mass decreased in both walking groups, but only the SB were significantly different from the control group skin fold thickness decreased in both walking groups but again did not differ between LB and SB groups.

The findings that fitness improved to a similar level with three brisk walks as it does to one continuous 30min walk, prove that perhaps it does not matter which type of PA we choose to do. This study was well controlled and had large amounts of data to substantiate the conclusions. Baseline and post-test measures were undertaken which included exercise tests, anthropometry and BP. In the case of BP duplicate results were taken by an observer who was blinded to the participants walking regime, stopping any experimenter bias. When participants were joined once a week, investigators concealed their HR monitors to make sure that they were correctly pacing themselves. This prevented participants walking at the incorrect speed if for any reason their HR monitors were to break

The only drawback to this study is the use of a field based design, if the same study had been carried out within a laboratory all factors would have been isolated and the results gained would have been entirely due to the exercise performed. Performing almost all sessions without supervision could have lead to participants not adhering fully to the protocol or walking at the incorrect speed and the weather may also have been a confounding variable. Overall the results are consistent and reliable and the improvements in health can be isolated to the exercise being undertaken.

A final study by Schmidt et al (2001) also found no differences between SB and LB exercise on fitness and weight loss. In the study 48 overweight females were assigned to one of 4 groups (a control group, one 30min bout, 30mins split into two 15min bouts and 30mins split into three 10min bouts) and completed a 12 week aerobic exercise program, exercising at 75% of their HR reserve. Participants reported to the same designated exercise room during specific hours where an undergraduate student was in charge of recording attendance and HR. Exercise length increased from 15mins/day in weeks 1-2 to 30mins/day in weeks 5-12. Participants in the multiple bout groups were required to have a gap of at least four hours between sessions, thus eliminating residual physiological effects from the previous bout. HR monitors were worn throughout the exercise and participants were asked to stick to a self-monitored calorie restricted diet, of 80% of their resting EE (REE) throughout the study. Participants were also asked to wear a pedometer during waking hours so that the number of miles walked when not exercising could be recorded. Participants attended pre and post assessments where height and weight, circumference of hips, waist, thighs and upper arms as well as skin fold thickness at seven sites were measured as well as oxygen uptake and REE.

The results from this study show that VO2max­ increased significantly in all 3 exercise groups compared to the control. There was a significant decline from baseline to post-treatment in mean weight loss, body mass index, sum of skin folds and sum of circumference measures in exercising groups. Therefore exercise which is accumulated in several SBs does not differ to one LB of exercise in the effects it has on aerobic fitness or weight loss.

The laboratory based design of this study means all variables were well controlled and therefore the conclusions drawn can be seen as reliable. All results were obtained through scientific measures and the data is quantitative rather than self-reported. Participants were continuously monitored throughout and were checked upon if they missed a session, causing adherence to be high. A drawback with this study is that participants were asked to self-monitor their calorie constricted diet, potentially leading to error in the actual amounts of calories consumed. Overall though, the study was well controlled and showed that exercise must be the factor effecting fitness and weight loss.

Conclusion

There is a vast array of literature available that leads to confusion over which type of PA (accumulated or continuous) we should perform to maintain our health. From the articles evaluated it would seem that both types of PA improve health and fitness levels. The majority of studies that are well controlled for indicate that both types of PA give the same effects and so doing either are beneficial. However, I would conclude that accumulated PA is better as it is much easier to fit into a busy lifestyle; it requires no changing of clothes or going to a designated workout area, and is therefore more achievable (Schmidt et al, 2004). Accumulated PA gives multiple health benefits such as attenuating postprandial lipemia (Altena, 2004), increasing high density lipoprotein cholesterol (Aldred et al, 1994) and helping with weight loss. It has also been shown to improve aerobic fitness (Murphy et al, 2002) and blood lactate response to sub-maximal exercise (Murphy and Hardman, 1998).

The drawback for accumulated PA is that it has been shown to give less overall EE then continuous PA (Fulton et al, 2001). Continuous PA has also been shown to improve VO­2max and has a positive effect on personal mood (Osei-Tutu et al, 2005). That said continuous exercise is more likely to be of a higher intensity and therefore has negative effects such as getting sweaty or having to go to a required location to participate.

Both types of PA have pros and con, equally having positive effects on health, but as our lives are becoming increasingly busy it would be easy to count walking to work as one bout of PA rather than having to make the effort to go to the gym.

Do not forget that you are required to keep a copy of all of your submitted work.I certify that this assignment is my own work and that all sources of information have been acknowledged.

This report critically analyses the role of leadership to managing people in sport and leisure organisations. It uses critical thinking methods to demonstrate the definition of leadership, the human resource management in sport leisure organisation, the difference between management and leadership and some key theories of leadership. Finally, it analyses to analysis a case studies through one practical sports organisation as example. The purpose is to make logical recommendations for improving the fitness club management ideas to build a strong cohesion and loyalty of staff ranks high.

The Definition of Leadership

Leadership was defined by Parry (1996: 2) who stated that “Leadership is the presentation by a person of some identifiable goal or vision or future state that people can desire; and the generation of a willingness within those people to follow the leader along a socially responsible and mutually beneficial course of action, toward thatgoal.” This concept of leadership seemed ambiguous; it did not emphasis the effectiveness of leadership and major characteristics. Leadership probably means having a long term vision and to stimulate the people follow he or she to achieve their common goal for the company’s future development. Strange and Munford (2002) believed that the direct leadership comes from the personal charismatic leadership; this could be the best way to influence and motivate people. Therefore, Wunderer and Grunwald (1980: 232) defined “leadership as a goal-oriented and social impact to fulfill common tasks in a structured work environment.” Because of many kinds of notions about leadership, it always led to confusion between leadership and management. As far as this point is concerned, the following essay will research the role of leadership in an essential position in the management environment. Simultaneously, it will evaluate the process of human resource management.

Human Resource Management

Human Resource Management system plays a significant role in a company or organization. It directly impacts on this organization’s strategic implementation in each step and controls the speed of development with their competitors in the same sphere. Heathfield (2010) proposed that “Human Resource Management (HRM) is the function within an organization that focuses on recruitment of, management of, and providing direction for the people who work in the organization. Human Resource Management can also be performed by line managers.” Moreover, in the past in USA, HRM concentrated on the human relations in the enterprise management and employees’ relations in the working environment; Due to industrial psychology, it applies consolidated systems and strategies commonly, HRM was also considered as personnel management (PM) in the UK (Chadwick and Beech, 2004). According to the above statements, it was obviously seen that a manager was set in a core position in the HRM system. The mangers main responsibility was to deal with issues related to people, such as recruitment, to choose who the most appropriate person for this vacancy is. As Taylor et al (2008) said the HRM system was the first level of administration in people management system, while encouraging more organizational activities. How can we evaluate the organization owns a good HRM system or not? It focuses on the Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) system. Operational effectiveness and strategic positioning were two fundamental methods to support the organization in outperforming their rivals in an industry (Porter, 1979). These two points could stimulate the organization have to perform better activities than other competitors and create some unique advantages in the same industry. However, Taylor et al (2008:128) commented that “a focused strategy requires a competitive position based on cost leadership or differentiation”.

Wright and McMahon (1992: 295) gave a definition of SHRM as, “the pattern of planned human resource deployments and activities intended to enable an organization to achieve its goals”. The purpose of SHRM was to choose the best appropriate candidate take part in their own organization whilst increase the organization marketing segment in the industry. Sport organization was a good example, each sport clubs would like to attract a famous coach or athlete, like in National Basketball Association (NBA). There was no doubt that NBA draft was the best opportunity to provide for each team to choose a potential player in every year. However, in the practice of organization, SHRM system did not only focus on some basic HRM skills, but also extended the range of relevant management techniques, for instance, high-commitment work system, the process of recruitment, leadership philosophy and the development of process of the organization (Taylor et al, 2008).

In brief, the present approach of SHRM still in the traditional HRM scope; it lacked practical circumstance for an organization to operate their performance in different situations. Particularly in a sport organization, if it could combine the HRM rational theory and operate the SHRM in a practical process of organization, it would bring more outcomes for the organization’s long term development. In addition, managerial leadership was an indispensable part in the SHRM. Hence, the next part of the essay will look at the differences between management and leadership.

Differences of Management and Leadership

Regarding the issue about relationship and the distinction between management and leadership, different people will have their different perspectives. In the early stage, a professor named John Adair (1988) made use of etymological origins to explain the difference in a magazine interview; Adair revealed that “leadership” stems from an Anglo-Saxon word; it means that a road, a way, the path of a ship at sea, a common sense of direction, whereas “management” was from a Latin word “manus”, it means a hand and it has to do with handling a sword, a ship, a horse. It is easy to remind people what entrepreneurial engineers and accountants were doing when starting and administration businesses and how they gained the currency in the 19th century. Nevertheless, since the leadership development in recent years, more functions have been appeared, such as planning, organizing and controlling work. These functions are similar to the functions of management in my view. Managers always make a plan, organize the activity and administrate the limit resources to realize some common objectives (Gill, 1997). Meanwhile, managers could communicate with his or her employees, but leaders usually influence and inspire his or her employees. Behind each leader there is a support team and followers, however, managers just have their subordinates. In my opinion, management focuses on implementing the whole plan through the manager’s ability and making the utmost of the managing resources, whereas leadership emphases the individual person’s idea and imbues with the main spirit to their employees. In brief, the final goal for good management or leadership is to win the hearts and minds of their people.

Leadership Theory

Leadership was deemed as a process of a leader to impart unique ideas to other people through his or her individual managing strategy. Popper and Zakkai (1994:3) believed that “the essence of leadership is to make people do what you want them to with as much will, determination and enthusiasm as if they had decided for themselves.” From the past several years’ research, leadership literature mainly focuses on: which types of leadership theory is close and more appropriate for present leader to exert their leadership function. Lewin et al (1939) implied that the subordinates’ performance decides which kind of flavor of leadership theory fits this organization; furthermore, different kinds of training programmes related with leadership have emerged. Notably in the current situation, outward bound development plan is the most popular approach was adopted in most organizations. The rest of this report will review some major theories of leadership and the purpose is to analyses of the real case in the last part then to propose some recommendations for improvement.

l Trait Theory

Leadership traits theory is the original theory and it concentrate on the leader’s characteristics. Cartwright and Zander (1968) stated that an effective leader should possess the following certain qualities: intelligence, reliability, sense of responsibility, greater energy and social activity. Regarding these qualities; it is easy to find that most of them require the leader to keep on cultivating himself in the future not are inborn. The ‘Personality Era’ of ‘Great Man’ theories were proposed by Van Sters and Field (1990:29) who said that “effective leaders at one time were believed to show common characteristics that cause them to behave in certain ways.” However, this theory was challenged in the 2000 World Economic Forum report. The report indicated that many successful companies always change their Chief Executive Officer (CEO) to ensure that their business prospers. Whereas most CEOs succeed in their first organization, they often fail when enter for a new organization. This point demonstrates that in fact the leaders have not acquired all the leadership traits and that is little connection between CEO style and organizational performance. Also the trait theory was not to judge the leadership situation.

l Situational Leadership and Contingency Theory

Situational theory is more focused on the situation and the group of followers. This way is more practical and good for the leader to acknowledge their followers and situations. This approach does not consider the whole organization or the current requirements of the individual leader’s group. Contingency theory of leadership mainly analyses three factors between leaders and followers. The first one is Fiedler (1968), who proposed the extending definition of the follower’s and of the work structure of the subordinate. The second one is how the leader uses his or her authority and depends on his or her subordinates. The third one is the existing relationship between the leader and followers. The leader’s charisma attracts the followers and the follower’s reverence for the leader.

l Leadership Style Theories

Leadership style theories are concerned with the leader’s behaviour and do not pay attention to the individual characteristics of the leader. Through these theories, some researchers discovered that the manager who considers the employee as the centre may gain more results and effects than the manager who focuses on tasks. This point is evaluated by the leader’s performance value. If the leader views the situation from the perspective of a boss, he or she priorities the tasks above the employees. However, if he takes the employee’s view into consideration, he or she values both the task and the employee. So the later approach is more encompassing. Of course, as a leader, pay more attentions on the employee behaviour can bring his or her work more benefits than only concern with the task as a centre.

l Transactional Leadership

This kind of leadership turns out to be more popular in most organizations. Popper and Zakkai (1994:6) accepted that “transactional leadership contains a basic mechanism of exchange relations which becomes possible when there is no outstanding sense of impending threat or anxiety”.

Transactional leaders shall use management-by-exception, actively or with contingent rewards (Gill, 1997). Generally, the management-by-exception includes making objectives and regulations, taking charge of the progress and discovering mistakes and then enhancing the effectiveness of leadership. However, transactional leadership ignores the employees’ desires and motivation; it focuses on how to achieve the goal through the followers. Many empirical examples prove that transactional leadership might cause performance that meets expectations (Gill, 2003).

l Transformational Leadership

This pattern of leadership is a good approach in order to stimulate the followers and subordinates’ interested in accomplishing the goal and enhance their self-development. Alderder (1972) agreed that transformational leadership should pay more attention to the leader’s developmental requirement. Furthermore, Bass (1991) revealed that there exist the following four aspects of transformational leadership behaviours.

Individualised consideration
Intellectual stimulation
Inspirational motivation
Idealised influence (charm)
Analysis of a Practical Sports Organisation Example

During a period as a sports trainee in Beijing, an example of a process of leadership change was witnessed by the author. This fitness club was set up in 2003 and it was been open for 5 years.

In the early period, the former fitness club manager’s original plan was run a small business and serve whiter collar workers and students around the university. Hence, his focus point is how to attract more customers and increase sale volume rather than make an integrated management system for his subordinates to enhance the whole level of this fitness club service. He is a typical laissez-faire leader in the hearts of his employee. Popper and Zakkai (1994:3) claimed that “an effective leader, according to the criteria of this approach, is a sensitive psychological diagnostician who accurately discerns subordinates’ needs and expectations and responds to them accordingly.” In addition, his behaviour assesses the various theories. When the employee proposes their suggestions or questions during each weekly meeting, the leader always says these opinions were correct but never realizes it. In terms of this point, several senior level coaches began to leave whilst some old customers also followed by their coach left this club. These results led to the club faceing bankrupt and merger by other large fitness corporation.

In 2005, this fitness club was taken over by the Bally Total Fitness Corporation. As the new leader was transferred to this club, he brought a totally new management system. He used transformational leadership theory, through exploiting subordinates intellectual stimulation and inspirational motivation to improve employee vision. Transformational leadership is more important when the company faces uncertain markets. A new recombination has to be innovated to remain in the competitive environment (Gill, 1997). First of all, he reformulated the current staff while reducing the number of staff. Second, he advised each coach to take ACE (America Certificate Exercise) certificate to make use of their personal time. Third, he added some new reward regulations, such as providing a free nutritional breakfast for early morning shift employees. Furthermore, the company will organize one outside sports event consisting of employees and their family members to join in each year on anniversary day. Apart from these, to keep more regular customers and attract more potential customers, he adopted some kinds of exercise classes especially arranged different coaches for different ages. Another side is, he is a patient person who can listen to each employee’s suggestions about the club development and communicate with his employees frequently. For instance, one employee proposed that the club could publish their own health tips each month focus on their current membership. After one month, this was realized and club’s first month health tip flyer was put up in the club information bar. The theory of motivation, Horner (1997) stated that the degree of satisfaction of employees could be thought of as motivators; only one motivation the employee could achieve the goal. Others motivation theories were concerned with what behaviour the leader needs to influence their subordinates. Apart from that, Alderfer (1969:142) proposed that “there may be only three needs: existence needs, relatedness needs and growth needs in a hierarchy of concreteness, and people may be motivated by multiple needs at any one time.”

Since this new manager uses a logical leadership management method, it results in revenue fitness club turn flourishing and the scale began to extend. Of course, the marketing share also rank at the top compared with other competitors. However, the most essential reason is the new manager used a correct leadership theory and rationally applied the realization.

Conclusion

To sum up the role of leadership in a sport and leisure organizations, the leader’s behaviour could influence each subordinate’s psychology, the leader’s management method decides the company’s development trend to success or failure. Through the author’s experience of two leaders’ behaviour in a real sport and leisure organization, how to create more motivations for their employees, how to encourage their employees are more important and practical than only depend on some formal traditional leadership theories. The significant value for the leader is to let the subordinate follow your path of company development. Consequently, discovering more new management techniques from experience are the most effective ways to manage modern organizations.

Reference:

Alderfer,C.P. (1972). Existence, Relatedness and Growth, Human Needs in Organizational Settings, New York, The Free Press.

Cartwright,D.C. and Zander, A., (1968). Group Dynamics. The 3rd edition., London, Tavistock.

Chadwick, S and Beech, J. (2004). The Business of Sport Management. Harlow, Prentice Hall.

Fiedler, F.E., (1968). Group Dynamics. 3rd edition., London, Tavistock.

Parry, K. (1996). Transformational Leadership. Melbourne, Pitman Publishing.

Taylor et al. (2008). Managing people in sport organizations: A strategic human resource management perspective. Oxford, Butter worth- Heinemann.

Wunderer, R. and Grunwald, W. (1980). Fuhrungslehre: Grundlagen der Fuhrung. Berlin, Walter de Gruyter.

Alderfer, C.P. (1969). A new theory of human needs. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4, 142-175.

D.A. Van Sters and R.H.G.Field (1990). The evoluation of leadership theory. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 3(3), 29-45.

Grill, R. (1997). New Directions in Leadership. Leadership Trust Foundation, 16 March, 1994.

Grill, R. (2003). Towards a General Theory of Leadership. Leadership Trust, 31 January, 2003.

Horner, M. (1997). Leadership theory: past, present and future. Team Performance Management, 3(4), 270-287.

Lewin, K et al. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created social climates. Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 271-301.

Popper, M. and Zakkai, E. (1994). Transactional, Charismatic and Transformational Leadership: Conditions Conducive to their Predominance. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 15 (6), 3-7.

Poter, M.E. (1979). How competitive forces shape strategy. Harvard Business Review, 57(2), 137-145.

Strange, J.M. and Mumford, M.D. (2002). The origin of vision: charismatic versus ideological leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 13, 343-77.

Wright, P.M. and McMahon, G.C. (1992). Theoretical perspective for strategic human resource management. Journal of Management, 18 (2), 295-320.

Heathfield, S.M. (2010). [online]. Last accessed 23 March 2010 at: http://human resources.about.com/od/glossary/f/hr_management.htm.

Analyse the treatment of the “outsider” or “outsiders” in one of the texts studied on the course. What role does this tension play in the socio-political vision of the author?

Julio Cortazar was one of most influential Argentine writers of all time. He was one of the great masters of short stories and was compared to the likes of Jorge Luis Borges. Cortazar’s literature is closely linked to social and cultural realities of Latin America and in particular Argentina. This essay will begin with the history of Julio Cortazar including his background influences and the style of his texts with focus on the short story ‘La Casa Tomada’. Then this shall lead on to the analysis of the treatment of characters that are considered as “outsiders” in the story focusing on the different interpretations of the main characters and the unknown invaders that take over the house. Furthermore, the role of these “outsiders” will be discussed relating to the socio-political vision of Cortazar and the influence of politics on his writing, incorporating the socio-political situation in Buenos Aires, Argentina at that time.

In 1914, Julio Cortazar was born in Brussels, Belgium of Argentine parents, after World War 1 his family returned to Buenos Aires, Argentina. This was where he grew up and became educated, then later moved to Paris in 1951, after obtaining a French scholarship, where he died in 1984 at the age of 70. Prior to becoming a writer, he worked as a teacher and then as a translator. (Prego & Cortazar, 1997)

Cortazar is known as one of the Latin American writers of the “boom” that exploded onto the world literary scene. The literary boom was during the middle of the 20th century when Latin American writers work became published in Europe and the rest of the world. The stories were known to associate with magical realism which is where ‘unreal things are treated as if realistic and mundane, and mundane things as if unreal’. The plots of these stories usually combined real and fantastic elements in a way that makes them difficult to separate. (www.statemaster.com/encyclopedia/Latin-American-Boom) Stories that have been written by Julio Cortazar normally mix fantasy with Latin American reality.

The story being focused on, ‘La Casa Tomada’ by Julio Cortazar, was initially published in the 1946 review ‘Los Anales de Buenos Aires’ which was directed by Jorge Luis Borges. It then appeared his in his first volume of short stories ‘Bestario’ in 1951. (www.juliocortazar.com.ar/hislife.htm) In the story, a middle-aged brother and sister live together in an old large family house, situated in the North district of Buenos Aires. They spend their days doing routine tasks with little variation. The sister, Irene, knits and the brother reads and collects stamps. They both clean the house and cook meals together. One day they hear mysterious noises within the house, but they do not worry. Without much explication, they abandon parts of the house because of this invading noise. When eventually the unknown noises take over the whole house, they leave the house with nothing and throw the key away.

It is written in the first person with the narrator being the protagonist in the story. This means the protagonist is the centre of attention and this allows the reader to participate in all the events. The reader can see all the thoughts and ideas of the protagonist so they can easily identify with the protagonist. This adds realism to the story in contrast with the ‘unknown characters’ that bring an element of the surrealism that ‘boom’ writers are known for.

The northern district of Buenos Aires where the protagonist and his sister live is the rich and privileged area and from the start of the story, it sets out to the reader that the siblings are from privileged backgrounds. “Nos gustaba la casa porque aparte de espaciosa y antigua (hoy que las casas antiguas sucumben a la mas ventajosa liquidacion de sus materiales) […]” (Cortazar, page 1). The house has eight bedrooms so previously their family would have occupied all the rooms and they would have had maids to work for them.

The large house was previously owned by their ancestors and they are the last of a long line of family. “[…] guardaba los recuerdos de nuestros bisabuelos, el abuelo paterno, nuestros padres y toda la infancia.” (Cortazar, page 1). It seems they can afford to live without working.Instead they spend their days doing little more than cleaning, reading and knitting with rare communication with the outside world.

From this, the theme of “outsiders” comes into play, which plays a strong role throughout the story. From analyzing the story, the unknown invaders are immediately seen as the “outsiders” that come in and take over. However, the siblings could also be “outsiders” giving that they are so cut off from the rest of society. Cortazar portrays the siblings as very unusual and lonely characters that do little to prevent themselves from being outsiders in society.

The siblings seem to be obsessed by routine and keeping the house clean. We find out little about the narrator except that he like French literature. He portrays the sister Irene as a very passive female who is happy to just spend her time knitting. They share the cleaning and cooking chores between themselves. The narrator says how they never use the back part of the house except entering to clean. Therefore, there is already a barrier created between them and the “outsiders” with the large oak door. There is a reference to how much dust collects on the furniture. “Buenos Aires sera una ciudad limpia, pero eso se lo debe a sus habitantes y no a otra cosa.” The narrator seems to imply that the middle-class citizens keep the city clean. He also says “Hay demasiada tierra en el aire” which is ironic seeing as the city is called “Buenos Aires”. (Holmes:2004, pg254)

There is an incestuous aspect between the brother and sister as they have reached middle age and the only time they spend is with each other, uninterested in others outside the house. “Simple y silencioso matrimonio de hermanos[…]” (Cortazar) This shows they had no plans to marry anybody else and have children to pass on the house to. This incestuous theme is something Cortazar said may have been related to his own life; “Yo empece a pensar y a descubrir que efectivamentea traves de mis serenos yo tengo una problema incestuoso con una hermana mia” (Cortazar por Cortazar, pg 43)

The brother and sister can be seen as outsiders at the end of the story aswell because they are the ones that end up on the outside of the house with nowhere to go. They have numerous possessions at the start of their story and bit by bit, it is taken away from them until they are left outside with nothing. “?Tuviste tiempo de traer alguna cosa? – le pregunte inutilmente. – No, nada.”

The other “outsiders” are the invaders that are seen as unknown enemies. They are referred to as plural during the story for example when they take over the first part of the house; “-Tuve que cerrar la puerta del pasillo. Han tomado parte del fondo.” (Cortazar) so the reader automatically presumes it is more than one unknown character.

The unknown outsiders are treated as very unwelcome and they can be seen as threatening. Throughout the story, Cortazar leaves no clues to whom or what these noises are and it seems as if the brother and sister are not necessarily that scared or shocked by them. An example is after the part where the brother says to Irene that they had taken over the back part:

“Dejo caer el tejido y me miro con sus graves ojos cansados. -?Estas seguro? Asenti. -Entonces -dijo recogiendo las agujas- tendremos que vivir en este lado.”

She does not show any fear and just carries on knitting. They seem to have knowledge of whom or what has invaded the house and act alone in defending themselves against this invasion. At the end of the story, the outsiders are still left as unidentifiable and mysterious characters to the reader and leaves them guessing. It is up to the reader to come to their own conclusion about whom or what they think these strange noises are.

The beginning of the story starts as very realistic with a description of their lives then once the outsiders that invade take over the first part of the house, it becomes surreal. Cortazar puts a lot of emphasis on the description of the house; the house seems unwelcoming as it lacks the comfort and security of a home. The characters feel unsafe in their home and ready to flee at any point and it loses any feeling of safety when the others take over. Cortazar explores the connection between identity and the home. The house shows everything about the siblings such as their wealth, their background and their hobbies and once they no longer have the house, they lose their identity.

The house is personified in the story; “a veces llegamos a pensar que era ella que no nos dejo casar.” This shows it has some sort of control over the brother and sister living within and creates a barrier between them and the real world. The only time that the brother visits outside is when he goes to get his French literature or wool for Irene to knit and Irene never leaves the house. Also, note that the street name Rodriguez Pena was the name of Cortazars street when he lived in Buenos Aires. (Maquiera: 2004, pg.10) Therefore, this shows how the story relates to his own personal experience.

It seems the treatment of these outsiders seems to play a strong role in the vision of Cortazar as the story is related to his life. There are numerous interpretations for the meaning behind La Casa Tomada but the one that stands out seems to be that Cortazar uses the relation between the characters, the outsiders and the home as a way to respond to social and political tensions that were occurring in Buenos Aires during that time.

Cortazar wrote the story post-war when Juan Peron had recently come into power over Argentina. Initially Peron had worked his way up by taking a position that nobody else was interested in as the head of the Labour department. From there he appealed to the workers. Peron aimed for an independent Argentina, free from foreign economical influence. Peron promised a “New Argentina” founded on “social justice, political sovereignty, and economic independence”. He showed support for the workers that he called the “masas descamisadas” by increasing wage earners income and building a large number of low cost homes. (Rock: 1987 pg.262-263)

Cortazar was anti-peronist and demonstrated against his regime. He saw Peron as a dictator and felt threatened by the control. “Si bien Cortazar no comulgaba aun con el socialismo, su postura hacia la politica del nuevo gobierno era abiertamente critica” (Maquiera: 2004, pg.19.) Peron aimed to integrate the population and bring about social reforms. Many, including Cortazar saw him and his wife Evita as a political and economical threat and “a threat to good taste”. They saw him “encouraging the invasion of Buenos Aires by riffraff from the provinces”. The racist term “cabecitas negras” was used against the immigrant workers. (Standish: 2001 pg.4) For the opponents of Peron his promises were myths and had caused a divided society with a bankrupt economy and a nation controlled by a dictatorship.

“El Peronismo significo la llega a la capital de la clase obrera del interior del pais y la entrada de esa poblacion en la vida social y cultural de la ciudad” (Maquiera: 2004, pg. 20). Although Cortazar does not link them directly, the ‘outsiders’ in the story can be seen as a satire in showing the socio-political vision of Cortazar against Peronism and the arrival of the working class during that period.

The story could be portrayed as showing the anxieties of the upper and middle classes of Buenos Aires during the nine-year administration of Juan Peron. By showing how they felt marginalised because of the increasing number of rural immigrants that were coming into the city for work. Just like the protagonists in the story, their way of life had changed and these invaders into the house may symbolise the workers coming into the city.

Therefore, the role of these outsiders could be an allegory of the migrant workers that moved into Buenos Aires and took over a lot of the jobs and the brother and sister could symbolise the Argentineans that felt like these migrants invaded them.

“Bien podria representar todos mis miedos, o quiza, todas mis aversiones; en ese caso la interpretacion antiperonista me parece bastante posible, emergiendo incluso inconscientemente”. – Julio Cortazar (www.abretelibro.com)

The story is most commonly seen as an anti-peronist allegory and expresses the fear that Cortazar may have felt about ‘outsiders’ in Argentina. The feeling of fear felt that was caused by Peron’s military government and by the invasion of industrialisation. However, the story has also been seen as similar to that of Adam and Eve; they are expelled from their small and closed paradise into an unknown world. html.rincondelvago.com/casa-tomada_julio-cortazar_2.html

When asked, Cortazar says that ‘La Casa Tomada’ was inspired from a nightmare that he had and that when he woke from this nightmare he immediately started writing the story. The house described in the story is the same as in his nightmare. “La unica diferencia entre lo sonado y el cuento es que en la pesadilla yo estaba solo.” (Prego: 1990, pg79) When he woke up, he immediately started writing the story. Therefore, he says that it is his dream that should be analyzed not the story. “Es un cuento que para mi no tiene absolutamente ningun contexto de ninguna naturaleza salvo la pesadilla.” (Garfield:1978 pg 89)

The architecture of the house plays an important role in the link between the present and the past in Buenos Aires. The house symbolizes the city’s aristocratic past, after Independence, Buenos Aires chose European instead of colonial architecture. Architects were brought over by the Government from Europe to design buildings. (Holmes: 2003 pg254) Again, this shows the fear that the characters have of change from the past, as they prefer their traditional style European house.

During the time, that a large amount of immigrants from overseas and migrants from the countryside came there was a demand for more housing. So new housing projects were created for the middle-class resulting in higher value for houses like theirs as the narrator points out at the beginning of the story (Holmes: 2004), “las casas antiguas sucumben a la mas ventajosa liquidacion de sus materiales” (Cortazar). The brother and sister prefer the European style spacious house and enclose themselves in what represents the urban past. They seclude themselves from the city and in turn make themselves outsiders from the modern Argentina. Therefore, the invaders could be the city making them leave their home.

Throughout the text there are numerous historical references such as the French literature which the brother enjoys reading. This seems to be one of the few ‘outside’ things that are accepted into the house. He also finds that “Desde 1939 no llegaba nada valioso a la Argentina” which refers to the lack of European culture in Argentina because of the war. The brother only seems to find value in French literature and has to re-read what French literature he has. Once again, this also shows the link with their fear of change.

The relationship between the characters and the house shows their lack of interest in modernity and change. They seem to want to stay within a routine and show little interest towards changes outside of their house in Argentina. This story may represent Peronist Buenos Aires but can also represent the role of Europe in post-colonial space. It seems that Cortazar rejects how Argentina has become post-European influence. The story may also portray the modern Buenos Aires conflicting with the past city.

After looking in depth at the story and the history related to the story, I can conclude that the different “outsiders” in the story play a strong role in the socio-political vision of Julio Cortazar. La Casa Tomada has numerous interpretations about its hidden meaning. Although when questioned, he does not specifically relate it to a particular opinion but to a nightmare he had. This showed his underlying preoccupations with the events in Buenos Aires during that time.

The theme of outsiders is continued throughout the story and each character shows an aspect of being an outsider. The invaders that take over the house from the siblings are seen both as the workers that moved into Buenos Aires invading the space of the middle-class or as the city making the protagonists leave their safe past and as face the changing Buenos Aires. The protagonists show a stereotype example of the middle-class people of Argentina during that time that feared any sort of change, though in the original nightmare it is Cortazar himself. It is Cortazar that it seems had this fear of invasion from “outsiders” and was concerned about the changes occurring. The role of the outsiders is very effective in demonstrating his feelings about Peron and the changes within Argentina.

Chapter 2LITERATURE REVIEW

This sections presents a review of literature pertinent to this study including a history of mentoring, the barriers for women in career advancement, the relationship between mentoring and career advancement, mentoring in healthcare administration, and the advantages and disadvantages of formal and informal mentoring.

History of Mentoring

Mentoring is rooted in Greek mythology and arose as a concept in a story where Athena, the goddess of wisdom, assumed a male form and called herself Mentor. Athena acted as a surrogate parent to Telemachus when the boy’s father, Odysseus, fought in the Trojan War. Athena provided guidance and instruction to the boy as the latter assumed the leadership of the household and groomed him to be Ithaca’s future ruler (Butler, 1944). Hence, the concept of mentoring has been shaped by the notion of a relationship where a more experienced adult guides a youthful individual (Kram, 1985). More specifically, Kram (1985) describes mentoring as “a relationship between a younger adult and an older, more experienced adult [who] helps the younger individual learn to navigate the adult world and the world of work” (p. 2). Lacey (2001) states that the term “mentor” has since evolved to represent either a counselor, teacher, or friend and the mentoring relationship now connotes a partnership where the primary purpose is the exchange of information and knowledge distinct to a given industry or organization. Other authors refer to mentoring relationships as “sponsor, patron, and godfather” relationships (Rowe, 1978, as cited in Kram, 1985). A literature review on mentoring across various disciplines by Hayes (2001) produced the definition of mentoring “as a process of building trust between two people, one is experienced and the other is a newcomer” (p. 29). Carmin (1988) provides a comprehensive definition of mentoring:

Mentoring is a complex, interactive process, occurring between individuals of differing levels of experience and expertise that incorporates interpersonal or psychosocial development, career, and/or educational development, and socialization functions into the relationship. This one-to-one relationship is itself developmental and proceeds through a series of stages which help to determine both the conditions affecting the outcomes of the process. (p. 10)

Mentoring as a field of study started with the 1978 research of Levinson et al. on adult men’s career development experiences (as cited in Kram, 1985). Levinson and his colleagues concluded that the mentoring relationship was a pivotal experience in a young adult’s life because aside from receiving knowledge from mentors, the experience also shapes a person’s self-esteem and professional identity.

Kram (1995) identifies two broad types of mentor functions: career-related support and psychosocial support. Career-related support refers to the support mechanisms provided by the mentor that boosts the mentee’s career advancement within the organization. Component functions associated with career-related mentoring include “sponsorship, exposure and visibility, coaching, protection, and challenging assignments” (p. 86). Due to the mentor’s influence and high status, experience, and leadership position in the organization, the mentee receives the best hands-on training and gets assistance on learning more about the organization itself and its inner workings, receives exposure to the mentor’s social networks, and acquires promotions. In this regard, the mentor sees him or herself in the mentee’s shoes and want to groom a future executive in his or her fashion. Allen & Eby (2002) view that mentors and mentee alike benefit from the mentoring relationship and that mentors are fueled by the desire to ensure the success of the next generation of leaders. Kram (1985) theorized the mentors can provide five specific career development functions (as cited in Ragins & Cotton, 1999):

Sponsoring promotions and lateral moves (sponsorship);
Coaching the protege (coaching);
Protecting the protege from adverse forces (protection);
Providing challenging assignments (challenging assignments); and
Increasing the protege’s exposure and visibility (exposure). (p. 530)

The second mentoring function is psychosocial in nature. The psychosocial function of mentoring addresses “those aspects of a relationship that enhance an individual’s sense of competence, identity, and effectiveness in a professional role” (Kram, 1985, p. 32). Kram’s mentor role theory (1985) suggests that there are four components of psychosocial support that mentors can provide to mentees (as cited in Ragins & Cotton, 1999):

Helping the protege develop a sense of professional self (acceptance and confirmation);
Providing problem-solving and a sounding board (counseling);
Giving respect and support (friendship); and
Providing identification and role modeling. (p. 530)

Where career support is dependent upon the mentor’s power and influence within the organization, psychosocial support focus on the emotional bond and the interpersonal relationship underlying the mentoring relationship. Career support aims at advancing the protege’s career while psychosocial support is geared at improving the protege’s personal development.

Barriers for Women in Career Advancement

Compared to several decades past, women have made leaps in terms of advancing toward senior executive positions formerly monopolized by men. However, career advancement opportunities for women still lag considerably compared to the men. Tharenou (1999) estimates that although women in developing countries make up almost half of the entire workforce, only 5 percent of them are situated in top executive positions. A worrisome fact is that while there seems to be equal opportunities for men and women in entry-level positions, the road toward the more senior levels are unfortunately blocked for women. While is undeniable that the greater workforce composition of women is one of the most positive social changes in the twenty-first century, struggle for equal opportunity persist as women are still excluded from the top positions in the organizational hierarchy.

This phenomenon has been referred to as the “glass ceiling,” a term originally used in 1986 by a Wall Street journalist to connote the status of women in the corporate world. The term was coined as a description of the complex barriers that block women’s opportunities to break through the top levels in the organization. This “glass ceiling” is especially evident when one looks at rarity of female senior executives in organizations of virtually all disciplines.

The concept of the glass ceiling was recognized and accepted as a public term when the 1992 Federal Glass Ceiling Commission concluded that there were indeed several barriers that hindered women and other minority groups to achieve their full potential within the career ladder. The same study confirmed that “gendered” structural and organizational barriers prevented women from attaining the most senior level positions in several companies. Moreover, it lamented on the so-called “hegemonic masculinity” that is pervasive in the organizational culture in corporate America (Woody & Weiss, 1994).

Many studies have reported on the various barriers that women encounter during professional advancement. A report by women’s group Catalyst (1994) listed the most common barriers identified by mid-level managers that prevent them from advancing further into the top-level positions. These barriers include (as cited in Arnold & Shinew, 1997):

stereotyping and preconcepts about suitability for leadership positions;
exclusion from informal networks of communication;
absence of effective management training for female employees;
failure to hold upper level managers accountable for developing and advancing women;
inadequate appraisal and compensation systems, leading to inequities in salaries;
inflexibility in defining work schedules; and
absence of programs that enable employees to balance work/non-work responsibilities. (pp. 42-43)

The work of researchers Henderson and Bialeschki (1995) has been influential in comprehensive studies that aim to identify the different barriers that women face in their pursuit of upward career mobility. They conducted a nationwide survey among women practitioners in the recreation and leisure industry. The researchers grouped the different barriers into three broad categories: individual, organizational, and home/family. By examining career patterns, family situations, career satisfaction, and equity in the workplace issues, they found that stereotyping and gender-based discrimination remains the greatest barrier for women that prevent them from advancing to the top tier of the corporate ladder. More than half of them also reported being sexually harassed. Other identified barriers include the lack of training, lack of mentors, and women’s exclusion from “male-only” networks.

Another study by Frisby and Brown (1991) surveyed 30 women mid-level managers belonging to leisure-oriented organizations in order to examine their career experiences as they struggled their way to the top. Consistent with previous findings, women in middle management reported that the most common barriers they encountered from advancing in their careers include career interruptions due to pregnancy or family issues, the lack of role models or mentors, the lack of support from senior executive to promote women, exclusion, gender stereotyping, personal factors, and exclusion from male-dominated social networks.

Frisby (1992) did a follow-up study to examine in a more comprehensive manner the factors that hinder the career development of women in leisure organizations. Using a descriptive-quantitative design, Frisby grouped the various barriers reported by women managers that have influenced their career direction and mobility. There were legislative factors such as gender discrimination, pay equity, and laws on sexual harassment; organizational factors such as patriarchy, exclusion from networks, flexible work options, difficulty in dealing with male-dominated organizational culture, lack of training and mentoring opportunity; and individual factors such as gender, education, and geographical mobility; and lastly, family factors that include lack of support from spouse and difficulty balancing work-family responsibilities.

Due to the complex and varied nature of identified barriers for women, studies by Henderson & Bialeschki (1995) and by Woody & Weiss (1994) have grouped these barriers into three categories: a) Individual factors; b) Organizational/Structural factors; and c) Family or Home-related factors.

Individual factors as barriers

Individual traits and skills are often attributed for laggard career advancement among females. Individual factors such as age, educational attainment, skills, experience, proficiency, or ability are related to advancement. There remains gender stereotypes on what men can do that women cannot that justifies greater upward mobility for males. Some express that women lack the necessary attributes such as assertiveness, motivation, or networking skills to advance in careers (Vecchio 2002). The simple fact of “being female” thus becomes a potent barrier for career advancement among women. For instance, there is a double standard when it comes to appreciating leadership in females. Morrison, Greene and Tischler (1985) opine that when women display competence in leadership, they are viewed negatively while men who visibly lead are appreciated. Similarly, succession in vacated executive positions is usually based on the gender of the previous occupant of the position or the job. Since most senior executive positions are dominated by males, women are immediately excluded from consideration. Moreover, females are placed in “traditionally-female” positions such as staffing and human resources and cannot be promoted to higher positions that are “traditionally-male” in nature. Age can also be a barrier as individuals who are deemed “too young” or “too old” may not be deemed suitable for senior executive positions.

Organizational factors as barriers

Most research studies conclude that the biggest barriers to career advancement among women are beyond their personal control. The Glass Ceiling Commission indicts organizational and structural barriers as the most predominant barrier toward women’s upward climb in the career ladder (Woody & Weiss, 1994).

Bergmann (1986) opined that organizational structures specifically job assignments are designed to prevent women from ascending to the top. Job assignments are considered to be the primary route for career advancement. Organizational structures “steer away” women’s potential for upward mobility by confining them to work roles that are considered to be “women’s occupations.” Bergmann cites a study by Forbes that the quickest way to the top of corporations is placement in functional areas or crucial job assignments that lead to the accomplishment of critical organizational tasks (p. 88).

Klenke (1996) suggests that women face an exclusion policy that prevents them from penetrating the “old boys” network. Access to such networks is considered a significant step to gaining upward mobility in organizations. One can access information and learn more about the organization not possible in regular communication channels.

Another barrier cited by women is the lack of mentoring opportunities from male superiors. For instance, Dreher and Cox (1996) found that females find it difficult to gain informal mentors who are male. If they do find a male mentor, they also face challenges in the course of the mentoring relationships especially in relation to its nature and possibility of misinterpretation. Some female managers even report being subjected to sexual harassment.

Cooper Jackson (2001) contends that the scarcity of women role models is another perceived barrier toward advancement. Organizational leadership is predominantly patterned after the male form of leadership. Since acquiring senior executive positions are blocked, developing women role models that would inspire and motivate women and neutralize male-dominate culture in the organization becomes challenging. Moreover, because women lack opportunities for role modeling or mentoring relationships, they often fail to plan their career and build effective networking strategies.

The reality of stereotyping has been found to affect women’s career advancement deeply. Because of gender stereotyping, women feel isolated and discouraged because they perceive themselves unable to blend well or fit in with the patriarchal culture of senior executive leadership. Sometimes, this perception leads them to believe that have to change considerably in order to suit the male-dominated culture of the top hierarchy.

Davidson and Cooper (1986) report that gender stereotyping in the organization leads to higher stress levels among women than men. This is because gender stereotyping often pressures women to exert extra effort or to work harder and perform better than their male counterparts in order to prove themselves equal to them. Women tend to believe that in order to achieve their career goals, they have to over-perform to counter the effects of negative gender stereotyping. Even when women are promoted and do acquire senior executive status, there is a prevailing norm that they have to perform even better than their male colleagues to prove themselves worthy of the position.

Powell and Butterfield (as cited in Collinson & Hean, 2001) state that stereotyping also leads to social isolation among female managers and their heavy dependence on formalized relationships for career advancement. Female managers put a prime on their professional portfolio and credentials when they pursue promotional opportunities whereas men can depend on informal networks to advance in their careers.

Collinson and Hearn (2001) believe that unless the patriarchal nature of institutions are broken down, women will find it difficult to advance their careers in what is considered male territory. They define patriarchy as a process and a context through which male supremacy is promoted by men and institutions. Patriarchy is a stumbling block for women because it “control[s] access to hierarchical power and characteristics of knowledge claims” (Collinson and Hearn, 2001, p. 23). In this environment, cultural practices and information flow signify male authority, hence, placing women as mere subordinates to men. However, the problem with patriarchy is that it is a “complementary process” that is legitimized by both women and men and forms part of the organizational culture. In this manner, male dominance becomes a self-perpetuating phenomenon in organizations. Moreover, Collison and Hearn (2001) opine that executive culture is a male realm. They believe that women are not accepted wholly into the workforce but are merely tolerated. Hence, the notion of “patriarchal elitism” especially in top executive culture is widespread (p. 8).

Pringle (1999) contends that female managers lack access to networks, trainings, and mentoring programs because they are usually gender-based and male-gendered. The domination of men in organizations is sustained with constant identification with one another. Perpetuating a gendered organizational culture leaves women managers isolated and places them in a situation where executive leadership feels very much like engaging in constant “physical combat” (Sinclair, as cited in Pringle, 1999, p.8).

Home-related factors as barriers

The barriers that women encounter extend far beyond the confines of the workplace to the home. For many female managers, the home environment presents several obstacles that must be overcome in order to achieve upward mobility.

One obstacle is that some women managers, especially, those with families, experience the so-called “second shift syndrome” where they must work on the first shift in the workplace and continue on the second shift in the home environment. The burden of juggling work-related goals with family responsibilities is a serious concern for some women. Women who find themselves in this circumstance are also called “dual career women” where performance at work and at home are necessary. To perform this balancing act between professional development and personal life may prove too difficult for some women in many ways. Some of them eventually may find inadequate support from their respective families to pursue career advancement goals.

A 1995 survey by recruiting company Robert Haff and Associates (1995) found that more than 80 percent of women managers who were interviewed preferred a job that featured more flexible hours, provided more family time, and slow-paced advancement than grueling jobs that featured rapid career mobility. In a sense, because of additional responsibility at home and with their families, women do not perceive career mobility as “a methodical rise to power” (Aburdene & Naisbitt, as cited in Pringle, 1999, p. 43). Unlike the men, women do not focus on the singular objective of professional advancement but struggle to “do it all” and come up with more creative ways to reap professional success.

Research also reports that women managers continue to bear the brunt of carrying the “double burden” of family and work. They have to be successful equally in the home and at work. In the home environment, they need to assume the manifold tasks of wife and homemaker and struggle to become equals with men in the workplace at the same time. Sue Newell opines that so long as women continue to juggle these dual roles, they may never achieve the parity they need and deserve in relation to men in the work environment (Newell, 1992).

However, studies have also found the home and family-related barriers do not necessarily interfere with motivation and career success among many women. The problem with having the additional burden of family responsibility for women is that it is viewed as a negative thing. Research has suggested that many companies look at women with home-related commitments with disfavor (Swiss & Walker, as cited in Pringle, 1999). What is worse is that some women may even be penalized career-wise for having commitments outside of the professional realm. Having marital and family responsibilities may not interfere in terms of commitment among women but these factors might slow down the promotional opportunities of woman managers. Some women have reported that the workplace was inviting and conducive to success when they were single and changed considerably to a more unwelcome environment when they got married and had children.

In an article, management expert Douglas T. Hall (1990) suggested that in order to provide more access for women in terms of career advancement, companies need to come up with strategies that promote balance between work and family responsibilities. Among the strategies he recommend were more flexible work schedules and expanded use of home-based work option.

In this Project I will be discussing Spanish gastronomy, in particular from the regions of Andalucia and Aragon I will begin with an introduction of both the regions and then go onto outline the food they like to eat, discussing the dishes that are unique to the region from each province within the region, and how popular the dishes are, and I will research the produce that is unique to each region and the tradition(s) behind the food and the people, I will also provide illustrations to give visual impact to my discussion.

Andalucia is the largest populated region in Spain boasting an incredible 8,285,692 inhabitants locating its self southerly, easterly facing the Mediterranean and westerly the Atlantic Ocean. Andalucia is divided by eight provinces Almeria, Malaga, Granada, Seville, Huelva, Cadiz, Cordoba and Jaen. Essentially the region offers a Mediterranean climate with dry, hot summers and polar like cold winters, making it an attractive location for tourists with its golden beaches and mountain ranges. Andalucia is typically an agricultural region but the service sector is now the regions predominant source of income incorporating tourism, retail sales and transportation. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusia- 12-3-2010)

Aragon is a Spanish region in the north east of the country and it borders with France. The region is divided into three provinces which are Huesca, Zaragoza and Teruel. Aragon is one of Spain’s smallest regions and homes 1,277,471 people. The region in difference to Andalucia is an in-land region and doesn’t have beaches, but is blessed with rich green pastures and orchards, valleys and permanent glaciers. Aragon also has many rivers, one of which it is known for is the river ‘Ebro’ (Spain’s largest river) and with it being in the midst of the Pyrenees it is surrounded by many mountains including the highest in the Pyrenees the ‘Aneto’. Aragon is one of Spain’s richest regions although its revenue is similar to Andalucia’s of agricultural and Service sector. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragon – 17/03/2010)

Andalucia is a beautiful region of southern Spain, where it is rich in fresh produce thus making it gastronomically precious. The prime diet of the region is the Mediterranean diet like in a lot of Spain. In this section I am going to talk about each province of Andalucia and some of the dishes and produce they have to offer.

Almeria.

Almerian dishes are mostly based on produce such as pepper, garlic and tomatoes and include the following popular dishes: ‘Olla de trigo’, ‘Ajo colorao’, ‘morgas’, paprika stew and ‘Gachas’ pancake. (http://www.s4c.co.uk/casadudley/e_casadudley_andalucia.shtml – 18-03-2010) ‘Olla de trigo’ is pots of wheat and ‘Ajo colorao’ is red garlic.

Granada.

Granada is popular for its ‘Sacromonte’ omelette and Grenadine style broad beans. The style of cooking in Granada has a lot of Arabian influences, with it being spicy and sweet, and consisting in stews and soups. Granada like in a lot of Spain, offers a good variety of Tapas in its bars, where you can sample a variety of national and regional bites and light snacks. Generally Granada’s gastronomy forms around fresh fruit and vegetables, salt and vinegar and olive oil and whatever you eat from the region will have one if not all these ingredients within it. Summery soups are ‘Gaspachos’ and ‘Ajo Blanco’ and wintery ‘thicker’ soups such as: ‘Olla de san Anton’. The Grenadine style broad beans are wrapped in ham and are called ‘Habas con Jamon’. (http://www.whatgranada.com/granada-food.html – 18-03-2010)

Malaga.

Food in Malaga is based around seafood, poultry, sausage, olive oil and locally grown vegetables. ‘Chanquetes’ is a popular dish made with small fishes such as sardines and ‘Boquerones’ in vinegar (marinated and pickled Anchovies). “Rabo de Toro a la Rondena”. Is another popular regional dish which is a bull’s tail. (http://www.spanishabroad.com/spain/Malaga/mala_food.htm -20-03-2010)

Huelva.

Huelva is home to a busy port, so the produce that surrounds the province in abundance is Seafood, so its restaurants are rich with fresh fish and shell fish. A popular dish is ‘Choco’ which is a small cuttle fish, and Huelva is well known throughout Spain for its ‘Gambas Blancas’ (white prawns) and an array of clams: ‘Chirlas’, ‘Coquinas’ and ‘almejas’. Other famous dishes are ‘Rape al vino Blanco’ (Monk fish in white wine) and ‘Raya al pimenton ‘(Skate with paprika). (http://www.andalucia.com/cities/huelva/restaurants.htm – 24-03-2010)

Cadiz.

The food in Cadiz like in a lot of Andalucia, is predominantly sea food based, finding amongst its coast lines, shrimp, sea-snails, squid, sea-urchins, lobster and prawns, but seafood is not the only thing people eat in Cadiz, meats such as Pork, goat, beef, game and lamb are widely consumed. Some of the nicest seafood dishes of the province are: ‘Abaja de pescado’ (Fish stew), ‘Gambas al ajillo’ (prawns fried in garlic) ‘Cazon en adobo’ (Dogfish marinated) ‘Cadillios de peros’ (Fish; stewed in orange) and as far as the meat dishes go: ‘Guiso de Rabo de Toro’ (oxtail stew) ‘Perdiz estofada’ (partridge casserole) (http://www.whatcadiz.com/spain-food-wine.html 24-03-2010)

Seville.

The people of Seville are famous for being known as the people who do not eat but feed on Tapas. (http://www.andalucia.com/gastronomy/provincial.htm 26-03-2010) So a good way to get to know Sevillian food is to try as many dishes as possible from all the tapas bars, this is the way the locals eat, amongst big groups of friends eating lots of small portions from the tapas bars. Cured meats such as ‘Jamon Serrano Iberico’, prawns of sanlucar, fried fish, including ‘Gaspacho’ and fresh salads. When the Sevillian’s are not out eating at the tapas bars and taverns, they do a lot of home cooking as the people of Seville are not keen restaurant goers. The true specialities of the region are Flamenco eggs, stuffed artichokes and sauteed kidney with sherry. (http://www.aboutsevilla.com/sevilla/food-drink.asp – 26-03-2010)

Cordoba.

Unlike the other regions I have spoke about in Andalucia and their very seafood orientation, Cordoba’s food seems to be more in-land with delicious gamey dishes and stews, quite similar to Almerian dishes. Produce such as peppers, pumpkin, purple grapes are included in the dishes and also exotic spices such as cumin and saffron. Some other popular dishes include ‘Salmorejo cordobes’ (a thicker Gaspacho style soup), ‘Morcilla’ (Blood sausage), ‘Salchichon de Pozo Blanco’ (cured sausage). (http://www.whatcordoba.com/cordoba-food.html 28-04-2010)

Jaen.

Jaen, the final province in Andalucia, a province which bases its food on olive oil and some popular dishes include ‘Espinacas Jineses’ (a style of spinach typical to Jaen) ‘Ajilmojili’ (a provincial style of potato cooked with olive oil, red peppers and vinegar). There is also an area of Jaen where fish is more widely consumed with fish dishes being more cod and herring based which are used to make the following dishes: ‘Ajoharina’ and ‘Andrajos’. Jaen is known for products such as ‘Afajores’ (macaroons), ‘Mostachones’ (a provincial sweet made with, flour, cinnamon, lemon and sugar), ‘Roscos’ (a type of donut) and a selection of local marmalades. (http://www.andalucia.com/gastronomy/provincial.htm – 29-03-2010)

I have based this project more so on Andalucian cuisine, but in the following section I will briefly state some of the dishes from Aragon comparatively to the dishes of Andalucia.

Aragon.

Aragonese cuisine is known as the most wholesome and straight forward in Spain and with Aragon being in-land and bordering France and homing the Pyrenees, the food is simpler, warm and homely, differing from the Andalucia’s zest and vibrant seafood. In Zaragoza you find meat dishes such as Lamb and goat cooked on a spit, vegetable stew and some local favourites such as ‘huevos al salmorejo’ (eggs with asparagus sauce) and ‘Pollo a la chilindron’ (Chicken in a cured ham sauce) (http://www.zaragozatravel.com/dining.htm) 30-03-2010.)

The region also includes dishes that combine, meat, chocolate and fruit, popular dishes include partridge with chocolate, Fried Pyrenees trout (the best trout from the rivers in the region) and Serrano ham from Teruel (which are made and cured in the bitter winter months up in the mountains) and ‘Sopa aragonese’ which is made with liver and cheese; dating back to the 17th century.( http://www.iberianfoods.co.uk/Aragon.htm) 30-02-2010)

With the exceptions of Dorotea and Zoraida, the women in the First Part of Don Quixote are weak-willed, subservient creatures who rely on their husbands as masters. However, even Dorotea ingratiates and humiliates herself in order to win back Fernando’s affection. Zoraida, on the other hand, at first stands out as the one seeming exception to this model, since she has the will to steal from her father in order to run away from home with the captive.

Zoraida, or Maria if you prefer, is “a female figure who is half Moor (the body) and half Christian (the soul)” and “enters into self-imposed exile from her home culture in order to actualize a hidden and purportedly European self” (Garrett 141). Zoraida abandons her father on a deserted island in the process of actualizing her quest for the Christian world (Garrett 141).

As a Moor, she can step outside the bounds of the conventional roles governing the lives of Cervantes’s women. However, Zoraida speaks only once, and then it is in animated revision of her name: “No, Zoraida no: Maria, Maria!” (Cervantes 353). Renamed Maria, Zoraida’s Moorish identity would be replaced by a Christian ideal of feminine chastity, but her muteness symbolizes her lack of power. Therefore, even though her ethnicity and religious passion make her unusual and suggest that she might serve as the model for a new kind of woman in the novel, she remains as much an object as the other female characters.

The Captive’s Tale highlights a woman’s role in “modern” Spain. From the first, Zoraida is represented as an object unable to demonstrate a sense of self. In contrast to the captive, who actively interacts with the inn’s guests and defines himself as part of their community, Zoraida is passive and mute and distanced. She becomes visible to her new companions only after the captive translates for her for a specifically Christian audience. The success of Zoraida’s cross-cultural journey depends on the captive. (Garrett 142)

Zoraida enters Cervantes’ text as a literal representation of a romantic damsel-in-distress. Her arrival follows Dorotea’s impersonation of Princess Micomicona, an imaginary construct devised by the priest and the barber to put an end to Don Quixote’s misadventures (Garrett 142). A once great lady, the princess is said to require a knight’s service to restore her and her family from the tyrannous hold of an “overgrown giant” (Cervantes 274).

In an interesting parallel, Zoraida, having become herself a reduced and vulnerable woman, provides a real-life mirror to the princess. A willing expatriate from her home culture, Zoraida enters the story after having been relieved by pirates of her bangles, pearls, and rubies, and appearing a materially impoverished Christian convert (Garrett 142). Her freedom depended on betrayal, and after that betrayal she lost her economic and discursive power. In the end, all that she retains is her allure as a Muslim woman seeking a new homeland.

Where the imaginary Micomicona is protected by the madly romantic Don Quixote, Zoraida is protected by the Christian captive. Together, Zoraida and the captive arrive at the inn as realistic figures of a modern Christian knight and his chastely silent lady.

Zoraida represents the potential for women’s centrality at the same time she reveals the limits of women’s access to power. Both in terms of economics and discourse, she is contained after offering herself up for exchange. In Cervantes and the Material World, Carroll Johnson suggests that “Zoraida journeys from linguistic and economic empowerment in protocapitalistic Algiers to voicelessness and poverty in feudo-agrarian Spain, where the old order triumphs and Zoraida is promised, at best, a position as a second-class morisca citizen” (126).

Cervantes used masculinist literary models to shape his novel, but he engaged in an entirely new kind of literary activity that reached out to a growing reading population by “positioning Zoraida at the center of the discussion of race, class, and difference in early modern Spain” (Vollendorf 322). Zoraida cannot upset any genre, for hers is the quintessential historical narrative of conversion, displacement, and silence.

Research PaperSancho Panza: Sidekick and Skeptic

The character Sancho Panza in Miguel de Cervantes’ Don Quixote de La Mancha is both a sidekick and a skeptic.

Don Quixote de La Mancha by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra is acclaimed as one of the best novels ever written. Miguel de Unamuno once wrote “there scarcely exists a person of even average education who does not have some idea of Don Quixote and Sancho.” Contrary to what one might think, there is a character who is just as important to the success of this novel as is Don Quixote himself: Sancho Panza. Without him, Don Quixote would be a two-dimensional character with hardly any appeal. But with the aid of Sancho’s interactions, Quixote takes depth and form as a character. The reader is able to judge Quixote through the thoughts and actions of his companion because Sancho is both a supportive sidekick and a nagging skeptic. Sancho Panza’s duality shows both the good and bad in Don Quixote, which reveals many sides to Quixote that would not have been shown otherwise.

Despite being physically hurt on multiple occasions and faced with perpetual humiliation, Sancho Panza continues to follow Don Quixote on his insane adventures. Sancho does not share his master’s extreme belief in chivalrous virtues, however he “often lives in and adores [Quixote’s madness], sometimes getting caught up in [it] entirely”(Sparknotes). Sancho’s support of Don Quixote shows that Quixote is prominently good and lets the reader know that he is an admirable person with at least enough sanity to maintain a good friendship. Sancho Panza fulfills the role of a sidekick by being “absolutely faithful” (Dramatica) and having an “unswerving belief and support of the Protagonist” (Phillips).

Sancho demonstrates his loyalty even on his first day as aAs Don Quixote’s squire, Sancho follows his master into countless situations where the outcomes are unfavorable to say the least. On his first day as a squire, Sancho accompanies Quixote as hewhen he accompanies Quixote as they approaches a coach that the knight errant believes to contain an imprisoned princess. Don Quixote attacks one of the monks in front of the coach and knocks him off of his horse. Sancho scrambles to collect the monk’s garb as a battle spoil for his master, but the servants that are standing by see him and they “attacked Sancho and knocked him down…leaving no hair in his beard unscathed, they kicked him breathless and senseless and left him lying on the ground” (Cervantes 62, 63). Even after a brutal beating to start off his career, Sancho rides off with Quixote after the battle and is more worried about his master’s wounds than his own. The squire maintains his loyalty like a true sidekick, but more importantly, he allows the reader to feel pity for Quixote through his own concern for the man’s wellbeing.

Later on in the book, Sancho and Quixote stay at an inn to heal their wounds from a previous beating. The innkeeper expects to receive payment when the two try to leave, but Don Quixote refuses to pay him anything. Quixote then rides off a fair distance from the inn, not realizing that he has left his squire behind. The innkeeper turns to Sancho and demands payment. When Sancho does not pay, a few men throw him into a blanket and “[begin] to toss him and make merry with him as if he were a dog at a Carnival” (Cervantes 122).

Not only does this good squire show loyalty, but also support and belief in Don Quixote. Sancho is hesitant at first when Quixote wants to rescue his horse Rocinante from a group of angry Yanguesans. He exclaims, “What the devil kind of revenge are we supposed to take when there are more than twenty of them and only two of us, or maybe only one and a half?” Quixote replies that he himself is “worth a hundred” and charges the crowd of men. Sancho then becomes “incited and moved by his master’s example, [and so] he [does] the same” (Cervantes 103). Sancho’s faith in his master during times of imminent disaster shows that Don Quixote must have good leadership qualities as well as the ability to inspire and motivate through sheer confidence.

Despite being physically hurt on multiple occasions and faced with perpetual humiliation, Sancho Panza continues to follow Don Quixote on his insane adventures. Sancho does not share his master’s extreme belief in chivalrous virtues, however he “often lives in and adores [Quixote’s madness], sometimes getting caught up in [it] entirely”(Sparknotes). Sancho Panza therefore fulfills the requirements for being a sidekick by being “absolutely faithful” (Dramatica) and having an “unswerving belief and support of the Protagonist” (Phillips).

Sancho Panza also demonstrates the attributes of a skeptic and allows Quixote to be criticized as well as praised. A skeptic “doubts everything, thinks every plan is unworkable, and that success is unlikely” (Phillips). Sancho does not always agree with his master and often times “Quixote’s heightened, insane conception of the world is brought crashing to earth by Sancho’s sly pragmatism” (Thornton) and. hHe frequently “berates Don Quixote for his reliance on fantasy” (Sparknotes).

One such example of Sancho’s skepticism and probably one of the most famous events in the novel is when the two encounter a field of windmills. To Don Quixote, the windmills are giants that against which he must wage battle against. Sancho is skeptical of this notion, does not agree. He “warned [Quixote] that, beyond any doubt, those things he was about to attack were windmills and not giants.” But Quixote does not heed Sancho’s pleas and ends up being tossed off Rocinante when his lance gets stuck in one of the vanes. Sancho rushes to his master’s aid and says, “Didn’t I tell your grace to watch what you were doing, that these were nothing but windmills, and only somebody whose head was full of them wouldn’t know that?” (Cervantes 58-59). In instances such as these, Sancho shows that Quixote does not have the best judgement and is certainly not of sound mind.

Sancho Panza is a complex character that demonstrates the qualities of both a sidekick and a skeptic. These two opposite archetypes fused within one person allows for a perception of Don Quixote that gives him life. If Sancho was not present in the novel, the readers would not get as much enjoyment out of the book and Don Quixote would not be as popular as it has been for the past centuries.

La Educacion Basica de Mexico se encuentra en un proceso de reforma que inicio en 2004 con preescolar y continuo en 2006 con secundaria. En el 2009, la Reforma se generaliza en primaria en los grados de primero y sexto. Durante los siguientes dos anos, la reforma abarcara los grados de segundo y quinto, asi como tercero y cuarto de primaria, respectivamente, para que en el 2012 la Reforma Integral de la Educacion Basica haya cubierto su ciclo de articulacion.

El nuevo plan, programas y materiales educativos de primero y sexto tuvieron una etapa de prueba durante el ciclo 2008-2009 en 5,000 escuelas piloto. Sus resultados fueron analizados e incorporados previos al proceso de generalizacion en todo el pais.

Las razones de una Reforma Educativa son connaturales al avance de la investigacion educativa y la evolucion de las diversas disciplinas cientificas, pero tambien, buscar hacer de esta reforma una gran oportunidad para mejorar la calidad de nuestro sistema educativo nacional.

La Educacion Basica debe formar en los alumnos las competencias que requieren para incorporarse con exito en la sociedad del conocimiento, lo que significa mejorar sus capacidades lectoras, matematicas, cientificas y tecnologicas hacia niveles de alta complejidad, al mismo tiempo que se les brinda una formacion integral para la vida y el desarrollo humano. Ello implica formar en los ninos las competencias para saber conocer, saber hacer y aplicar el conocimiento; saber convivir en una sociedad democratica y saber ser hacia la autorrealizacion personal.

Como en toda reforma educativa, el docente es central para lograr resultados exitosos. Es por eso que se realizan capacitaciones para profesores de primero a sexto grado, directores, supervisores y jefes de sector de nivel primario, y se actualicen en base a la nueva reforma.

La Reforma Integral de la Educacion Primaria, es parte de la politica educativa nacional con la que se culmina el proyecto de articulacion curricular, impulsado desde la reforma en preescolar y secundaria, orientada a “elevar la calidad de la educacion y que los estudiantes mejoren su nivel de logro educativo, cuenten con medios para tener acceso a un mayor bienestar y contribuyan al desarrollo nacional”.

Esta reforma es parte de la estructuracion global del proyecto cuya base es la coherencia de los fundamentos pedagogicos que promueve y posibilita al docente el acercamiento a los propositos y al enfoque del nuevo plan de estudio, los programas y los materiales educativos para que se apropie de ellos y encuentre diversas formas de trabajo en el aula acordes con la diversidad y entorno sociocultural.

Uno de los ejes fundamentales para el exito de esta reforma, es la participacion de todos los actores en el proceso educativo: alumnos, padres, maestros y autoridades educativas comprometidas con el cambio. Una estrategia inicial es la formacion academica a docentes, directivos y asesores tecnicos pedagogicos.

Para que la reforma pueda lograr sus objetivos, es indispensable reconocer que a cada maestro le corresponde la tarea de traducir los principios que orientan la reforma a propuestas concretas en el salon de clase, esto es:

Realizar una planeacion de sus actividades didacticas en concordancia con los enfoques de cada asignatura.

Reconocer la manera como pueden instrumentarse en una escuela, en un contexto especifico, con un grupo de alumnos con caracteristicas particulares y desde la reflexion de su propia experiencia como docente.

Establecer las actividades de aprendizaje y las formas de evaluacion que articulen este nuevo enfoque en la tarea docente, desde los planes y programas de estudio apoyadas en los materiales educativos.

La planeacion dentro del proceso ensenanza- aprendizaje es fundamental para el exito del trabajo en el aula; en ella intervienen el contexto de la escuela, su organizacion, su infraestructura, matricula y el conocimiento general del grupo, aspectos que el docente considera en su planeacion ademas del plan de estudios, los programas y otros materiales de apoyo.

Cabe mencionar que la planeacion es el espacio donde la creatividad del docente y su conocimiento del contexto de la practica y de sus alumnos se ponen en juego; por esta razon, la planeacion es unica e irrepetible.

Considero que las reformas educativas son necesarias porque el conocimiento siempre esta cambiando. Para que una reforma tenga exito tiene que poner al dia las ensenanzas y hacer uso de los adelantos, los maestros necesitan estar al dia, aprender lo que no saben, haciendo uso de las tecnologias de informacion, el uso de las computadoras y otros medios auxiliares en cuanto a educacion.

La reforma requiere establecer un sistema de evaluacion acorde con los postulados de las competencias y abandonar los enfoques centrados en la memorizacion y en ejercicios mecanicos alejados de la vida del alumno.

Los planes de estudio del 2009 tienen como finalidad elevar la calidad de la educacion para que los estudiantes mejoren su nivel de logro educativo, cuenten con medios para tener acceso a un mayor bienestar y contribuyan al desarrollo nacional. La principal estrategia es la adopcion de un modelo educativo basado en competencias y la articulacion entre los niveles preescolar, primaria y secundaria.

El plan de estudios se clasifica en campos formativos:

1. Lenguaje y Comunicacion

2. Pensamiento Matematico

3. Exploracion y Comprension del Mundo Natural y Social

4. Desarrollo Personal y para la Convivencia.

Un elemento pedagogico que articula la reforma es la nocion de establecer competencias en los estudiantes. Se busca que el estudiante, en su formacion para ser ciudadano y miembro de una sociedad, desarrolle de manera conjunta conocimientos, actitudes y habilidades para enfrentar situaciones ineditas que le correspondera vivir en el mundo de manana.

Perrenaud[1] indica que el elemento fundamental que orienta la discusion de competencias remite a la lucha por lograr que la educacion supere la vision enciclopedica que lleva a que los estudiantes memoricen y apliquen conocimientos sin entender su relacion con las situaciones cotidianas. Es la lucha del sistema escolar por lograr un aprendizaje significativo. En la vida cotidiana ese aprendizaje no tiene mucho sentido, no es empleado para nada y se olvida una vez que el estudiante esta fuera de la escuela.

Por su parte John Dewey[2] nos dice “La educacion debe fundamentarse en una teoria de la experiencia… por ello se requiere de una interaccion entre el individuo, los objetos y otras personas.

Entendemos por competencia a “la capacidad de hacer” que demanda tener informacion, mediante la informacion podemos desarrollar una competencia, esto no significa que se deba ensenar en la forma en que habitualmente se hace ya que se pretende acabar con el aprendizaje memoristico.

Ensenar por competencias es el resultado de una lucha por superar la vision enciclopedica de la ensenanza en el terreno de la educacion. La finalidad es formar al alumno en el uso de la informacion y el desarrollo de habilidades para resolver situaciones cotidianas.

Lo importante es lograr que el estudiante construya el sentido practico de lo que aprende en la escuela.

Cadena de valor: es un modelo teorico que permite describir el desarrollo de las actividades de una organizacion empresarial, descrito y popularizado por Michael E. Porter. La cadena de valor categoriza las actividades que producen valor anadido en una organizacion en dos tipos: las actividades primarias y las actividades de apoyo o auxiliares.

Las actividades primarias se refieren a la creacion fisica del producto, su venta y el servicio posventa, y pueden tambien a su vez, diferenciarse en sub-actividades. El modelo de la cadena de valor distingue cinco actividades primarias:

Logistica interna: comprende operaciones de recepcion, almacenamiento y distribucion de las materias primas.
Operaciones (produccion): recepcion de las materias primas para transformarlas en el producto final.
Logistica externa: almacenamiento de los productos terminados y distribucion del producto al consumidor.
Marketing y Ventas: actividades con las cuales se da a conocer el producto.
Servicio: de post-venta o mantenimiento, agrupa las actividades destinadas a mantener o realizar el valor del producto, mediante la aplicacion de garantias.

Las actividades primarias estan apoyadas o auxiliadas por las tambien denominadas actividades secundarias:

Infraestructura de la organizacion: actividades que prestan apoyo a toda la empresa, como la planificacion, contabilidad y las finanzas.
Direccion de recursos humanos: busqueda, contratacion y motivacion del personal.
Desarrollo de tecnologia, investigacion y desarrollo: obtencion, mejora y gestion de la tecnologia.
Abastecimiento (compras): proceso de compra de los materiales.

Para cada actividad de valor anadido han de ser identificados los generadores de costes y valor

2. Identificacion y priorizacion de macroprocesos

Las empresas y sus divisiones autonomas dirigen sus asuntos principales por medio de grandes sistemas de uso repetido que son intrinsecamente multifuncionales llamados macroprocesos.

La mayoria de los macroprosesos son procesos empresariales que tienen sus papeles dentro del concepto de sacar nuevos productos, procesar los pedidos de los clientes, cobrar, contratar empleados, entre otros.

Los macroprocesos reciben informacion de los proveedores, procesan esta informacion, producen productos concretos y sirven esos productos a los clientes, externos e internos. El procesamiento realizado concuerda con la definicion de proceso: serie sistematica de acciones dirigidas al logro de un objetivo. Cuando las empresas crecen los macroprosesos se vuelven muy numerosos.

Un macroproceso consiste en muchos segmentos llamados microprocesos. Cada uno se lleva a cabo dentro de una unidad organizativa funcional que, con frecuencia, esta presidida por un supervisor de primera linea.

En resumen, los macroprocesos son aquellos que tienen mas de un proceso.

3. Diagramas de relacion, interdisciplinarios y de flujo.

Las herramientas que permiten visualizar mejor las rutas hacia el cambio son: los diagramas de relacion, de proceso y de flujo.

Los diagramas ayudan a dar visibilidad a trabajo. Ayudan a documentar las rutas que se emplean para satisfacer al cliente. El analisis de estos diagramas permiten aumentar identificar acciones de mejora o cambio como: reducir tiempo de ciclo, disminuir defectos, bajar costos, medir desempenos, reducir numero de pasos que no proporcionan valor agregado, etc. Se convierten en requisitos previos e importantes para tener exito en el rediseno estructural, reingenieria o benchmarking.

Diagrama de relacion: Indica las interrelaciones o vinculos existentes entre los clientes y proveedores en las distintas partes de la organizacion. Vision global que describe las interacciones entre las principales funciones de la empresa. Es una imagen de las conexiones de entrada y salida (clientes y proveedores) entre las partes de una organizacion, como las funciones, departamentos, divisiones o areas

Diagrama de procesos interdisciplinarios: Muestran la forma en que los principales procesos atraviesan los limites de varias funciones. Revela que ocurre en el interior y muestra la secuencia de pasos de los procesos productivos, entradas y salidas. Ilustran la forma de hacer el trabajo en las organizaciones, las trayectorias que siguen los insumos al ser transformados en resultados que los clientes valoran.

Flujogramas: Herramienta mas conocida para ilustrar procesos productivos. Para definir, documentar y analizar procesos, con nivel alto de detalle. Un flujograma es la representacion grafica de las secuencias de pasos que integran un proceso.A Mientras mas informacion se incorpore sera de mas utilidad.

Existen tres metodos basicos para recolectar la informacion necesaria para crear un diagrama:

Auto generacion. Cuando se domina completamente el proceso.
Entrevistas personalizadas. Con proveedores, operarios y clientes del proceso. Validacion.
Entrevista en grupo. Participacion conjunta de todas las personas relevantes e involucradas, para la creacion y validacion del diagrama.

El criterio mas importante para seleccionar el proceso es el impacto que tiene sobre el valor que percibe el cliente.

Seleccionar los procesos que realizan las maximas contribuciones al cliente como clase mundial y alta competitividad.

Existen Otros criterios como la reduccion de costos, reduccion de tiempo de ciclo o respuesta, minimizar o eliminar defectos, cuellos de botella, tecnologia obsoleta, etc.

4. Descripcion de procesos

Informacion basica (encabezado)

Nombre del proceso
Responsable o dueno del proceso
Cliente (persona, area, depto. o empresa)
Inicio
Final
Fecha en la cual se hace la descripcion del proceso.
Version
Quien lo elaboro
Quien lo autorizo
Observaciones

A A A A A A A A A A A A A A Elementos que constituyen la descripcion del proceso

ENTRADAS

ACTIVIDADES

RESPONSABLE

SALIDAS

Documentos o productos

Accion que se realiza con los elementos de entrada para producir las salidas.
Deben de expresarse con verbos activos

Personas o personas que ejecutan la accion.

Documentos o productos.

FORMATO PARA DESCRIPCION DE PROCESOS CRITICOS IDENTIFICADOS

A continuacion se presenta el formato para que cada persona describa el proceso indicado.

NOMBRE DEL PROCESO_________________________________________

DUENO DEL PROCESO__________________________________________

INICIO DEL PROCESO: __________________________________________

FINALIZACION DEL PROCESO: __________________________________

CLIENTE_______________________________________________________

FECHA_____________________VERSION: __________________________

ENTRADAS

ACTIVIDADES

RESPONSABLE

SALIDAS

Elaborado por:_______________________A A A Aprobado por: _____________________

Fecha: _______________A Circulacion: ______________________________________

5. Rediseno y validacion de proceso

Para ser competitivos deberiamos de abandonar las viejas ideas acerca de como se debia organizarA y dirigir un negocio.

La reingenieria significa volver a empezar, arrancando de cero.

En esencia, la idea esta en el pensamiento discontinuo. La identificacion y el abandono de reglas anticuadas y de supuestos fundamentales que sustentan las operaciones o procesos corrientes.

La reingenieria es la revision fundamentalA y el rediseno radical de los procesos para alcanzar mejoras espectaculares en medidas criticas y contemporaneas de rendimiento, tales como costos, calidad, servicio y rapidez.

METODOLOGIA I:
FASE I
Filosofia empresarial: Vision, Mision y Valores. Definir la empresa (productos o servicios, competencia, estructura, etc.)
Identificacion de procesos
Clasificacion de procesos criticos (cadena de valor)
Diagrama de interrelaciones de procesos criticos
FASE II
Mapeo de procesos criticos. Recursos, documentos, apoyo e indicadores de eficienciaA y eficacia.
Descripcion de procesos criticos.
Construccion de diagramas de los procesos criticos.A A A A
FASE III
Validacion de los procesos.
Complementar los procesos con medidas importantes dependiendo del tipo de proceso (tiempo, distancia, satisfaccion.)
Analisis de Valor Agregado.
Eliminar lo no necesario y que no agregue valor.
Tratar de mejorar las necesarias que no agregan valor en cuanto a la dimension clave.
FASE IV
Analizar y redisenar los procesos. Cuantificar las mejoras.
Validar el nuevo proceso
Programar su implementacion.
Proyectar los beneficios
Seguimiento y evaluacion.
Mejora de los procesos.
METODOLOGIA II:

PREPARACION:

1.1 Reconocer la necesidad
1.2 Desarrollar consenso ejecutivo
1.3 Capacitar al equipo
1.4 Planificar el cambio
IDENTIFICACION:
2.1 Modelar clientes
2.2 Definir y medir rendimiento
2.3 Definir entidades
2.4 Modelar procesos
2.5 Identificar actividades
2.6 Extender modelo de proceso
2.7 Correlacionar organizacion
2.8 Correlacionar recursos
2.9 Fijar prioridades de procesos
VISION:
3.1 Entender estructura del proceso
3.2 Entender el flujo del proceso
3.3 Identificar actividades de valor agregado
3.4 Referenciar rendimiento
3.5 Determinar impulsores del rendimiento
3.6 Calcular oportunidad
3.7 Visualizar el ideal (externo)
3.8 Visualizar el ideal (interno)
3.9 Integrar visiones
3.10 Definir subdivisiones
SOLUCION: Diseno tecnico
4 A1. Modelar relaciones de entidades
4 A2. Reexaminar conexiones de los procesos
4 A3. Instrumentar e informar
4 A4. Consolidar interfaces e informacion
4 A5. Redefinir alternativas
4 A6. Reubicar y reprogramar controles
4 A7. Modularizar
4 A8. Especificar implantacion
4 A9. Aplicar tecnologia
4 A10. Planificar implementacion
SOLUCION: Diseno Social
4 B1. Facultar a empleados que tienen contacto con clientes
4 B2. Identificar grupos de caracteristicas de cargos
4 B3. Definir cargos / equipos
4 B4. Definir necesidades de destrezas y personal
4 B5. Especificar la estructura gerencial
4 B6. Redisenar fronteras organizacionales
4 B7. Especificar cambios de cargos
4 B8. Disenar planes de carreras
4 B9. Definir organizacion de transicion
4 B10. Disenar programa de gestion del cambio
4 B11. Disenar incentivos
4 B12. Planificar implementacion
TRANSFORMACION:
5.1 Completar diseno del sistema
5.2 Ejecutar diseno tecnico
5.3 Desarrollar planes de prueba y de introduccion
5.4 Evaluar al personal
5.5 Construir sistema
5.6 Capacitar al personal
5.7 Hacer prueba piloto del nuevo proceso
5.8 Refinamiento y transicion
5.9 Mejora continua
ESTRUCTURA
Lider. Alto ejecutivo que autoriza y motiva el esfuerzo total de la reingenieria. Actuar como visionario y motivador, ideando, exponiendo la vision del tipo de organizacion que desea crear, comunica a todo el personal el sentido y proposito. Debe tener autoridad sobre los recursos necesarios. Ser un autentico lider, vigoroso, emprendedor, convencido y conocedor.
Dueno del proceso. Gerente responsable de un proceso especifico y del esfuerzo. Tiene la responsabilidad de redisenar su proceso. Debe acomodarse al cambio y ser sereno ante la adversidad. Motiva, inspira y asesoras a los equipos.
Equipo. Grupo de individuos dedicados a redisenar un proceso, lo diagnostican, supervisan y ejecutan. Producir ideas y planes para convertirlos en realidades. Capacitarse, inventar y descubrir, creatividad y sintesis.
Comite Directivo. Cuerpo formulador de politicas, desarrollan estrategias y supervisan el progreso. Priorizan, asignan recursos y resuelven conflictos.
Zar. Individuo responsable de desarrollar tecnicas e instrumentos y de lograr sinergia. Capacita y apoya; coordina las actividades.
6. Herramientas para la optimizacion de procesos

PROCESO

HERRAMIENTAS

1. Identificar problemas para resolver y proyectos de mejora.

u Recoleccion de datos

u Tormenta de ideas

u Principio de Pareto

2. Investigar las verdaderas causas del problema y/o factores para un proyecto.

u Graficas e histogramas

u Listas de verificacion

u Tormenta de ideas

u Diagrama causa efecto

u Principio de Pareto

u Analisis de registro de produccion o inspeccion.

3. Determinar las mejores opciones o soluciones.

u Principio de Pareto

u Tormenta de ideas

4. Aplicar y evaluar las soluciones.

u Recoleccion de datos

u Listas de verificacion

u Graficas e histogramas

5. Tomar acciones para evitar que el problema se repita o asegurar que el proyecto sea exitoso.

u Conceptos modernos de control

u Modelos de planeacion.

6. Presentacion a la Gerencia.

u Presentacion profesional con la participacion de todos los involucrados.

RECOLECCION DE DATOS

Consiste en la recopilacion de datos en forma acumulativa y sistematica que se efectua sobre determinada situacion (equipo, proceso, procedimiento, actitud u otros) en formatos adecuados como reportes, hojas de trabajo o formas claras y durante un periodo de tiempo, que esten directa o indirectamente relacionados con la calidad y el servicio.

Procedimiento:
a) Plantear claramente los objetivos del proyecto o del problema a resolver
b) Analizar cada caso para definir que se va a medir u observar
c) Registrar y ordenar todos los datos obtenidos
d) Relacionarlos de manera que puedan proporcionar informacion confiable
e) Procesar la informacion obtenida y validarla con los expertos en el tema
f) Ordenar los datos de acuerdo con el grado de importancia o impacto
g) Seleccionar la informacion relevante a la solucion del problema o al exito del proyecto.
TORMENTA DE IDEAS

Es una tecnica que consiste en dar oportunidad a todos los miembros de un equipo de trabajo, para opinar y sugerir con relacion a un determinado proyecto o problema.

Procedimiento:
a) Se coloca el grupo frente a un rotafolio en forma circular.
b) Nombrar a la persona que escribira las ideas
c) Se inicia el aporte de ideas uno por uno de acuerdo con la direccion de las agujas del reloj.
d) Cada idea es registrada en el rotafolio por la persona designada
e) No se permite interrumpir o censurar al expositor de turno
f) Las ideas se van desarrollando por estimulo de las ideas de los otros
g) Se da por finalizada esta fase, cuando todos hallan agotado sus ideas del tema en cuestion.
h) Analisis y reflexiones: cada quien analiza la lista de ideas generadas, se permiten las preguntas para aclaraciones, se descartan las ideas “descabelladas” o no posibles, se utiliza alguna tecnica adecuada para ordenarlas de acuerdo con la importancia que el grupoA considere adecuada.
PRINCIPIO DE PARETO

En todo fenomeno que resulte como consecuencia de la intervencion de varias causas o factores ordenados de mayor a menor, segun sea su importancia, se encontrara que un numero pequeno de causas, que encabeza la lista, contribuye a la mayor parte del efecto; mientras que el grupo restante, contribuye a una pequena parte del efecto.

A CAUSASA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A EFECTO

Pocos VitalesA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A

Muchos Triviales

Grafica de Pareto:

Es una grafica presentada por barras verticales en forma descendente, correspondiente a la priorizacion dada por el principio de Pareto o regla 80/20.

Procedimiento:
a) Identificar el efecto que nos interesa analizar (proyecto o problema critico)
b) Hacer lista de todas las posibles causas que contribuyen al efecto (tormenta de ideas), si es posible se puede de una vez cuantificar el impacto.
c) Ordenar dichas causas basadas en su contribucion de mayor a menor, con su peso cuantitativo real o por medio del porcentaje.
d) Graficar en forma de barras para identificar los “pocos vitales” y los “muchos triviales”.
DIAGRAMA CAUSA EFECTO O DE ISHIKAWA.

Es una herramienta para el analisis de causa efecto, utilizada para determinar acciones o soluciones a problemas identificados a traves de un analisis de Pareto.

Este diagrama de Ishikawa se traza con una espina dorsal o linea central que constituye e camino a la cabeza que es donde colocamos el efecto (proyecto o problema a resolver), hacia la cual se dirigen las “espinas” que estan constituidas por las causas y sub-causas.

Tecnica de las 5MA?s:

En las empresas se utiliza esta clasificacion de causas, que aunque no es obligatoria, incluye la clasificacion de causas en cinco categorias, que la experiencia muestra que son practicas y nos ayuda a ordenar la informacion de una forma bastante simple.

Las categorias especificas son:

u Mano de obra

u Metodos y procedimientos

u Materiales

u Maquinaria y equipo

u Medio ambiente.

Procedimiento:
a) Definir el problema o situacion a realizar. Normalmente derivado del analisis de Pareto.
b) Dibuje un cuadro o rectangulo al lado derecho de la hoja o superficie en la cual va a construir el diagrama y escriba dentro del cuadro el problema o efecto.
c) Dibuje una flecha horizontal de izquierda a derecha que llegue al cuadro dibujado
d) Dibuje las “espinas”, cinco si decide utilizar las 5MA?s, rotulando cada una con las categorias.
e) Coloque cada una de las causas de acuerdo con su naturaleza en la categoria que considere adecuada.A A Utilice previamente la tormenta de ideas.
f) Al terminar de la clasificacion en el diagrama, determine las causas mas importantes para definir una accion concreta.

Mano de ObraA A A A A A A A A A A A A Metodos y Procedimientos

Maquinaria yA A A A A A A MaterialesA A A A A A Medio ambiente

Equipo

CAUSAS EFECTO
GRAFICAS ESTADISTICAS, HISTOGRAMA

Las graficas son representaciones de algun fenomeno o evento cualquiera a traves de figuras, simbolos, lineas, dibujos, etc…A Al mismo tiempo, son herramientas de comunicacion que permiten expresar de una forma muy clara, simple y efectiva lo que nos numeros muestran confusamente u ocultan.

Procedimiento:
a) Ordenar los datos en un formato adecuado para el efecto.
b) Decidir que tipo de grafica sera util y verificar si se cuenta con los datos necesarios para construirla.
c) Construir la grafica de acuerdo con los datos trazando en los casos que se necesiten los ejes horizontal (X) y vertical (X).
d) Asigne la escala mas adecuada, buscando la proporcionalidad mas adecuada para el tipo de grafica que se construira.
e) Dibuje a mano o con la ayuda de la computadora la grafica especifica.
f) Una puntos, correlacione variables, utilice porcentajes, etc.A dependiendo de si es una grafica de barras (verticales u horizontales), grafica de pastel o circular, un diagrama de dispersion, una grafica de Pareto, un histograma, una grafica de control, etc.
PRESENTACION A LA GERENCIA

Tambien se denomina presentacion de proyectos y es una de las actividades mas importantes y provechosas para los equipos, ya que todos tendran la oportunidad de exponer frente a la gerencia.

Consiste en presentar todo lo que se ha trabajado desde la tormenta de ideas para identificacion de problemas o proyectos, hasta el planteamiento final de la solucion, en la cual todos los integrantes de un equipo han aportado ideas, creatividad, trabajo y han colaborado para alcanzar el exito.

Procedimiento:

Antes de la presentacion:

a) El equipo de trabajo debe prepararse y ordenar la presentacion de su proyecto para que sea claro y preciso.
b) Organizar, estableciendo un orden logico de temas y asignarlos de tal manera que todos participen en la presentacion.A
c) Practicar la presentacion para enmendar errores y cumplir con el tiempo designado.
d) Preparar todos los detalles necesarios con anticipacion, para evitar contratiempos.
e) Asegurarse que en el lugar de la presentacion donde se va a realizar este bien acomodada y que se cuente con todos los recursos necesarios.
f) Asegurarse que sean invitados y que asistan todas las personas que son vitales para la presentacion.
7. Justo a tiempo

Es una filosofia industrial, que considera la reduccion o eliminacion de todo lo que implique desperdicio en las actividades de compras, fabricacion, distribucion y apoyo a la fabricacion (actividades de oficina) en un negocio.

El desperdicio se concibe como “todo aquello que sea distinto de los recursos minimos absolutos de materiales, maquinas y mano de obra necesarios para agregar valor al producto”.

Justo a tiempo (JAT) implica producir solo exactamente lo necesario para cumplir las metas pedidas por el cliente, es decir producir el minimo numero de unidades en las menores cantidades posibles y en el ultimo momento posible, eliminando la necesidad de almacenaje, ya que las existencias minimas y suficientes llegan justo a tiempo para reponer las que acaban de utilizarse y la eliminacion de el inventario de producto terminado.

Para que el JAT sea efectivo es necesario desarrollar una cultura de intervencion de las personas, de trabajo en equipo, de involucramiento de las personas con las tareas que realiza, de compromiso o lealtad de los colaboradores con los objetivos de la empresa, para que el JAT funcione.

APLICACIONES
Produccion o procesos de produccion.

n Utilizar maquinas de multiples propositos, en las que facilmente se pueda pasar de la produccion de un componente a otro.

n Aplicar las tecnicas de grupos o celdas, donde las series de componentes se puedan producir juntas, esto permite reducir los periodos de planificacion.

n Trazar un esquema en U, en el cual los materiales se colocan en un costado de la U, y los productos terminados en el otro costado, permitiendo la reduccion del movimiento del material.

n Utilizar ordenes de compra generales , que autoricen a un proveedor a suministrar una cierta cantidad de material durante un periodo de tiempo, esto evita las ordenes individuales, ahorrando tiempo y esfuerzo. Reduciendo los costos operativos.

Niveles de inventario reducidos

n Utilizar un sistema para hacer que los materiales fluyan de acuerdo con los requerimientos de produccion / trabajo, conocido tambien como sistema de afluencia antes de un sistema de almacenado.

Mejoramiento del control de calidad

n Insistir en los detalles de calidad de los proveedores o fuentes.

n Adoptar un sistema de control de calidad total, comenzando con la calidad de los articulos suministrados por el proveedor, poniendo enfasis en la calidad en la linea de produccion de los articulos manufacturados y en la calidad del servicio que presta el colaborador.

Mejoramiento de la calidad y la fiabilidad.

n Disenar calidad y fiabilidad en el producto. Utilizar tecnicas de ingenieria del valor, diseno para la fabricacion y diseno para el montaje. El objetivo es eliminar el descarte y todos los defectos, para que los clientes reciban una calidad superior con menos reparaciones de garantia.

Flexibilidad del producto.

n La menor cantidad de trabajo en proceso permite una mayor capacidad para responder rapido a los cambios en las demandas del consumidor para diferentes articulos.

Responsabilidad en la distribucion.

n Al utilizar el sistema de afluencia y el control de calidad total permite dar una mejor respuesta a los clientes, en cuanto a una distribucion puntual de productos y de servicios de calidad.

Utilizacion de los activos.

n Reducir la inversion de capital.

n Al reducir los inventarios y contar con un manejo mas eficiente, se requieren menos activos para los procesos actuales. Esto permite reducir los gastos operativos de las instalaciones actuales o brinda mas espacio para la expansion del negocio.

Utilizacion del personal

n Promover la capacitacion cruzada del personal para trabajar en diferentes areas de produccion. Los empleados familiarizados con el proceso contribuyen al mejoramiento continuo; pues poseen mas sentido de propiedad con respecto al producto o servicio.

Minimizacion de los costes:

n Reducir el inventario.

n Reducir el desperdicio de material y el desaprovechamiento de la mano de obra debido a los defectos.

n Establecer cuotas de trabajo simplificadas que significan menores costes por primas.

n Reducir los costes mediante el mejoramiento del mantenimiento preventivo.

n Simplificar los procesos administrativos para reducir el trabajo por empleado.

FASES

FASE 1: Definir el porque

El porque de aplicar el JAT es convertir la produccion de la empresa en un arma estrategica y no solo para bajar costos. En esta fase hay dos pasos:

1. Concientizacion: Las directivas tendran que formarse una idea clara del JAT a fin de generar tres visiones del futuro relacionadas entre si:

n Vision del Proceso Fisico -ver a la empresa dentro de 3 a 5 anos, en su proceso fabril, flujo de materiales, compras, distribucion, etc.

n Vision del Clima Organizacional -Se debe tener un fuerte liderazgo del presidente, una etica en toda la empresa que propicie la innovacion y haga sentir a los empleados que su aporte es importante, trabajo en equipo y cooperacion entre departamentos, personas que esten acordes con los requerimientos del cargo y que se sientan motivadas a contribuir al mejoramiento de su empresa.

n Vision del Mercado -Ver posibles oportunidades en el mercado para adelantarse a la competencia.

2. Formular Estrategia de Produccion/Mercado: Dicha estrategia debe ser comprensible para todos. Un nivel se referira al crecimiento y expansion otro nivel a responsabilidades de los cargos y otro a estabilidad de los cargos.

FASE 2: Creacion de la Estructura

En la organizacion entran en juego cuatro protagonistas clave:A

n El comite directivo: Encabezado por un alto ejecutivo, el gerente de planta, representantes de gerencia medias, supervisores y empleados comunes.

n Un facilitador: Persona accesible y de confianza, su funcion es que el esfuerzo JAT sigua su marcha y que se alcancen los objetivos a corto y largo plazo.

n Los grupos encargados de proyectos: Son los encargados del proyecto piloto, de la implantacion del JATA proyecto por proyecto. Formado por miembros de administracion superior intermedia y los empleados de la fabrica que pondran en practicaA los cambios

n Los jefes de los grupos de proyectos: Son administradores del grupo y el enlace con el comite directivo.

FASE 3: Puesta en Marcha del PlanA A A A A A A A A A A A A

Comprende tres pasos:

1. Proyectos piloto e implantacion proyecto por proyecto: se establecen ciertas tecnicas JAT, como agilizacion del alistamiento, las celdas de maquinaria, y los sistemas de halar. Otros proyectos pilotos girarian en torno a areas externas de oportunidad, tales como compras JAT.

2. Educar: Capacitar al personal para que adquieran las habilidades necesarias para llevar a cabo el JAT.

3. Cambiar Sistemas y Normas. Para que se amolden a los principios del JAT.

8. Kaizen

Kaizen es un sistema enfocado en la mejora continua de toda la empresa y sus componentes, de manera armonica y proactiva.

El Kaizen surgio en el Japon como resultado de sus imperiosas necesidades de superarse a si misma de forma tal de poder alcanzar a las potencias industriales de occidente y asi ganar el sustento para una gran poblacion que vive en un pais de escaso tamano y recursos.

Hacer posible la mejora continua y lograr de tal forma los mas altos niveles en una serie de factores requirio aparte de constancia y disciplina, la puesta en marcha de cinco sistemas fundamentales:

1. Control de calidad total / Gerencia de Calidad Total

En su desarrollo inicial, hacia enfasis en el control del proceso de calidad. Esto ha evolucionado hasta convertirse en un sistema que abarca todos los aspectos de la gerencia, y ahora se conoce como gerencia de calidad total (TQM). La gestion de calidad total es una manera de mejorar constantemente la performance en todos los niveles operativos, en cada area funcional de una organizacion, utilizando todos los recursos humanos y de capital disponibles. El mejoramiento esta orientado a alcanzar metas amplias, como los costes, la calidad, la participacion en el mercado, los proyectos y el crecimiento.

en la aplicacion de metodos cuantitativos y recursos humanos para mejorar el material y los servicios suministrados a una organizacion, los procesos dentro de la organizacion, y la respuesta a las necesidades del consumidor en el presente y en el futuro. La gestion de calidad total integra los metodos de administracion fundamentales con los esfuerzos de perfeccionamiento existentes y los recursos tecnicos en un enfoque corregido, orientado al mejoramiento c