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Why is theory important in the area of sociology?

A theory is a proposed relationship between two or more concepts. In sociology, theories are statements of reason why particular facts about the social world are related (Marcionis & Geber, 2010, p14). The scope of the social issues in question may range from exact descriptions of a single process to examples or models for analysis and interpretation. Some theories attempt to tell us about the possible outcome of future events in the social world, while others function as broad perspective which guides further sociological analyses (Calhoun, 2002, p1). The importance of theory in the area of sociology cannot be overemphasized. Theories such as the social conflict theory, structural functionalism theory, positivism theory, field theory, rational choice theory, and so on, were developed to explain social phenomena.

In sociology, a theory states the hypothesis of a set of entities or relevant system, and permits statements on the possible or envisaged outcomes on their future states. As captured in Little (2010), a theory may also specify probabilistic relations among entities, giving rise to statements about the distribution of possible future states of the system. Little (2010) also noted that a theory provides a set of “bridge” statement that permits the theorist to connect the consequences of the theory with predictions about observable state of affairs.

Sociology is an examination of human beings in social contexts. It entails observing how people in specific communities interact, and surveying and conducting experiments to yield new data on which to build sociological knowledge. Interconnectivity or interdependence is the main characteristic of a society. Sociological theories are frameworks explaining how certain aspects or elements of society are interconnected to the larger processes or environment. Application of theories helps determine the interdependent aspects of the co-existence of individuals or groups. Theories in the area of sociology will help people understand how society works and how they can be a useful part in it.

Furthermore, theories helps in decision making with regards to factors affecting a certain community as wrong decisions often result from inadequate knowledge of the structure and other peculiarities of the society. These wrong decisions may have a far-reaching impact on people’s lives. In addition, addressing societal problems such as alcoholism, high criminal rate, requires decision makers to have a fair knowledge of the problems and their root causes. Vassos, while contributing to the subject, stated that sociological theories provide insights on social issues, thereby enabling appropriate relevant authority to adequately and effectively tackle the problems. Sociologists focus on how a society is structured, how each and every individual works as part of the whole, how society has changed over the years and predictions of future changes. In essence, sociological theories help people understand society and knowledge of the world as it grows.

In conclusion, Ritzer (2003) defined sociological theory as a set of interrelated ideas that allow for the systematization of knowledge of the social world. This knowledge, he noted, can then be used to explain the social world and make predictions about the future of the world.

Discuss any sociology theory of your choice

The Social Conflict Theory is one of the theories in sociology. The conflict theory was originated by Karl Marx in the mid – 1800’s. The theory states that human behaviour results in conflicts between competing groups. According to Karl Marx, the two competing social groups comprised of the ruling class on one hand and the subject class on the other have unequal access to power and resources (Anderson & Taylor, 2009). The ruling class enjoys been the owner, having control over the forces of production thereby exploiting the subject class which results in a conflict of interest between both parties. Conflict theories generally focus attention on key areas of substantial social differences particularly with regards to class, gender and race.

Conflict theory is mostly associated with Marxism, and may also be associated with other major perspectives including critical theory, feminist theory, post-modern theory and post structural theory (Adegbolagun, 2012). Macionis & Geber (2011) however noted that other important sociologists like Harriet Martinean, Hane Addams and Dubois argue that this sociological approach does not adequately consider how social structures help society to function; rather it dwells on how inherent social differences can cause some people in the society to be dominant and others to be oppressed.

The social conflict theory opines that different social classes of individuals and groups within society with varying amounts of material and non-material resources use their relative strength in power or wealth to exploit groups with lesser advantage. Two major means of this exploitation are through cohesion or force usually done by police, the army and economics. Perhaps this explains the reason why money is perceived as the substance of social disorder and oppression. It can also be deduced from their beliefs that the society is characterized by an on-going social struggle or competition between various groups. The social conflict theory believes social relationships are about power and exploitation; the rich exploiting the poor. Citing an example of this oppression is a renter for instance, living in a rented apartment for as long as fifty years and having no right or economic interest within the property.

In sociology, conflict theory opines that the society functions so that everyone or group involved can make the best use of benefits which in the long run brings about social changes. Most times, the theory is used to explain conflict between social classes in ideas such as socialism and communism. Competition plays a vital role in understanding conflict theory. Accordingly, there are three primary assumptions of modern conflict theory (Vanithamohanakumar, 2011). The first is competition over scarce resources such as money and leisure which is characteristic of human relationship. Second is structural inequality which has to do with inequalities in power and reward. Thirdly, it is believed that rather than adapting to the situation, rapid and forceful turnaround or revolution is eminent as a result of the conflict between competing interests. According to McCafferty (2006), conflict theory emphasizes the social political or material inequality of a social group. It also contrast dominant ideologies and make open differences in power.

Conflict theory posits that social groups or classes compete with each other in order to obtain control of the scarce resources. A realistic social conflict theory is an understanding of the positive role of social conflict in serving the common good. It is actually expected to put change in perspective since all substantial social change involves social conflict. Understanding social conflict theory can assist groups to function in finding common grounds, developing alliances, defining core values, identifying and indeed eliminating differences in viewpoints where necessary, setting group boundaries, and strategizing to achieve the expected change.

Harper postulated that in Social Conflict Theory, no one group should dominate all other groups particularly in a democratic society. He noted further that the power of all groups, especially of large institutions, is limited by the rule of law and by social impact, custom and social tradition. Within these confines of interest, various groups and institutions compete, negotiate and work out changes in socio-economic arrangements, generating social conflict in the process.

Wright Mills opined that social structures are created through conflict between people with differing interests and resources. Individuals and resources in turn, are influential by these structures and by the unequal distribution of power and resources in the society (Knapp, 1994, pp228-246).

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Knapp, P., One World – Many Worlds: Contemporary Sociological Theory, 2^nd ed., ( It Apprercollins Colleges Div, 1994) pp 228 – 246.

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Ritzer, George., Contemporary Sociological Theory and its Classical Roots: The Basics, [online], (McGraw-Hill Higher Education, University of Maryland, 2003). Available from: http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/007234962x/student_view0/chapter1/chapter_overview.html [Accessed 28 March 2014].

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1

The problem of abusive relationships has attracted national attention in England and Wales. Historically Domestic violence has a strongly entrenched patriarchal system, which gives men proprietary rights over women. Traditional and cultural values as means of resolving conflict are critical in shaping and perpetuating violence of men toward women. A woman’s social status is believed to be derived by her relative position to a man that is as a daughter, wife, girlfriend or mother of his children. One solution to ending the abuse and leading violence free lives would be to leave the relationship. While this is a possible solution it should be noted that in order for women to leave it requires enormous restructuring of material, physical and social relations strategies. What makes the ethnic minority women stay in abusive relationships?

A qualitative feminist research methodology was used with a convenience sample of 8 women who agreed to participate in the study. In depth interviews were conducted with the participants to explore the perceptions and experiences of ethnic minority women in abusive relationships. A number of themes that emerged from the study suggested clearly women’s perceptions and experiences to remain in their abusive relationships. These themes relate to commitment, staying because of children, cultural beliefs, economic dependence and lack of social support.

Chapter 1

Introduction

Domestic violence is a social phenomenon that is universal and perverts society at all levels, Hague (1998). Domestic violence is one of the most common crimes and is present throughout society, usually hidden but there none-the-less. Violence towards women by intimate partners is a social problem of enormous proportion. The impact of domestic violence is broad and substantial with serious consequences not only for the women who are victimised but also for their children and society at large.

According to the United Nations Domestic Violence is an act of gender based violence that results in physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women including threats of such acts of cohesion, arbitrary deprivation of liberty whether occurring in public or private life. The United Kingdom government adopted a gender neutral definition, any incident of threatening behaviour, violence or abuse (psychological, physical, sexual, financial or emotional) between adults who are or have been intimate partner or family members regardless of gender or sexuality.

Activists working in the area of domestic violence reiterated that, if domestic violence is so common and the abuse that bad, why do these women stay with the perpetrator. The answer is perplexing and thought provoking and without being judgemental, can be painfully obvious. Professionals, including social workers who work directly with victims of domestic violence often find themselves scratching their heads at the decisions women make when they are victims of domestic violence and why they remain in those abusive relationships.

The study aims to explore why ethnic minority women in England and Wales remain in abusive marital relationships despite the risks of being hurt, both physically and psychologically during the abusive episodes as well as the coping mechanism they employ to cope with the violence. This study emerged from a great interest that developed from an inspirational work with victims of Domestic Violence in a women’s Refuge during my Second Year Placement in 2011.I had the opportunity to deliver a domestic violence awareness programme to the women in the refuge. The victims were mainly from the ethnic minority community. The women shared vital information regarding their experiences with the abuser. It is this indebtedness that has provoked an eagerness, to explore subject further.

Aims of the study:

To explore the lived experiences of ethnic minority women who remain in abusive relationships

To explore the reasons why they remain in abusive relationships

To explore their coping strategies in abusive marital relationships

To discuss the theoretical perspective as to why ethnic minority stay in abusive relationships

To identify the legislation regarding Domestic Violence in England and Wales

To identify and discuss the implication to Social Work Practice

To design a methodology

Objectives:

To determine the type of abuse that ethnic minority women in abusive marital relationship endure

To explore how women construct their stay and the coping strategies employed to survive.

To ascertain whether abused women in abusive marital relationships have access to support

Chapter 2 ??

The researcher will review the literature

Chapter 3:

This chapter focuses on the research design and methods that the rearcher used in the study

Chapter 4:

This chapter will cover data collection analysis and interpretation

Chapter 5:

This chapter will cover discussion of the results and findings ,the wider question of the research and the conclusion.It will further make recommendations for future studies

Literature Review

Historical overview of domestic violence

History reflects the enormous magnitude of the problem of violence against women. For centuries patriarchal norms dominated and women were considered to be the property of their husbands. Some postulate that woman abuse has its roots in Roman law, which permitted a husband to kill his wife if she committed a variety of offences (Stacey, Hazelwood & Shupe, 1994). English Common law gave husbands the right to beat their wives with any ‘reasonable instrument’. These laws were maintained throughout Europe and America until the late 1800’s when a few states rescinded this ‘right’. Domestic assaults continued and were termed ‘domestic disputes’. They were considered to be nuisance behaviour, not criminal. As a result they were not seriously in the criminal justice system until the past ten years when a variety of statutes were developed which specifically protect people from domestic abuse.

Domestic violence and Patriarchy

Dobash & Dobash (2002) states that there are several legal and political ideologies supporting the idea that husbands have authority over their wives. The legal right of a man to use physical force against his wife is no longer explicitly recognised in England and Wales, however the legacy of the patriarchy continues to generate the conditions and relationships that lead to a husband’s use of force against his wife (Dobash &Dobash 2002).Patriarchal dominance is still supported by moral order which reinforce the marital hierarchy, making it difficult for women to struggle against the dominance. As a result women’s struggles are therefore considered as wrong, immoral and a validation of the respect and loyalty a wife is support to give to her husband. The fact that Domestic violence is seen as a form of patriarchal dominance is irrefutable in light of historical evidence. The historical, legal and religious writings all contribute to the understanding of the status of women regarding domestic violence. This status encompasses the explanation why women remain in abusive relationships.

Culture ,religion and Patriarchy

Domestic violence take on different forms within the BME communities (Richards 2004).Various tactics are employed by their partners to destroy self-esteem and prevent complaining or escape as echoed by Dasgupta (2000).Choudry(1996) noted that culturally specific abuse, includes threats to ruin a woman’s reputation among relatives, accusing women of instigating the abuse. Although domestic abuse tends to focus on intimate partner violence, However as Minhas 2002, Gill 2002 andGangoli 2004) observed that other members of the abuser’s family are cited as being involved in the violence. Violence connected to dowry can often underpin the extended family’s involvement in the abuse (Dasgupta and Warrier, 1996). Cultural, social and religious norms may deter women from seeking help or exposing the problem through a prosecution, as they may fear censure from within their families or communities, or fail to receive the necessary validation to name their experience as victimisation (Hart 1996, Viano 1996, Erez 2000, Erez 2002, Raj & Silverman 2002, Nicholson et al 2003).

In BME communities, women face dishonour and rejection if they leave their partners, even if they do so as a result of domestic violence (Choudry 1996). A study in the Western Isles of Scotland (MacNeil et al 2004) demonstrates how some tight-knit communities can have strong cultural and religious norms which stress family privacy and non-interference, and attach considerable social shame to domestic violence, perceiving it to arise through victims ‘failing’ in exercising family responsibilities. These factors can affect women’s exposure to violence, and their ability to acknowledge its occurrence and seek or obtain community support.

Domestic violence has been legitimised in law, religion, and in cultural ideologies of male dominance and women’s inferiority (Gill 2004).In contrast, Hearn (1998) argues that although there have been some legal changes, cultural discourses of masculinity continue to inform men’s justification for violence. In male-dominant cultures, the notion that women are responsible for upholding family honour remains a major force influencing law, religion and cultural values and shaping the nature of and responses to domestic violence (MacNeil 2004) For this reason it can be argued that in such cultures it may be difficult for women to leave or seek help to escape domestic violence because to do so would bring shame on the whole family and could result in community ostracisation.

In simple terms, theories are used by sociologists to explain how social phenomena has occurred. A theory is used as an explanation by sociologists as to why something occurs in society. Durkheim quotes, “sociology is a way to discover ultimate truths about society, for the purpose of social improvement” (Seidman, 2008). For most sociologists this quote summarizes the reasons they study society and in turn use theories to explain social phenomena. Theories offer people in sociology and outside sociology another view or take on a certain aspect of society. The more theories there are, the more choice and freedom of thought there is for someone looking for answers as to why society is the way it is. Hence theories are essential to the continuing development of society, providing potential answers to those who seek them. It is natural for humans to ask why and seek answers. Sociologist also use theories to abstract particular information and convert it into more general material, so that others can make sense of it. Further more they use theories to categorise and group sociological happenings into a specific class.

In order to illustrate the above, the Neo-Marxist theorists Althusser and Gramsci will be compared, seeing as they both have their own unique approach to Marxism and interpreted Marx’s idea’s in different ways. Gramsci was the humanitarian Neo-Marxist while Althusser was more of a scientific Neo-Marxist (Kellner, 2005). With Althusser being a structuralist he in turn rejected Marx’s Hegelian essentialism, the two kinds of which being economism and humanism (Scott, 2007). Hence Althusser was very much an anti-economist and anti-humanist. Althusser viewed ideology itself a determining inflection that moulds consciousness and ultimately represents a considerably large swerve away from economic determination (Scott, 2007). For Althusser ideology portrayed the relationship between the persons imagination and their actual conditions of existence. He felt that ideology transformed humans into subjects of ideological process that shaped them while at the same time they are conned into viewing themselves as self- determining agents. (Benton 1998). Further more Althussers theories can often relate to functionalism (Swingewood, 2000).

Gramsci was also a strongly influential Marxist thinker. Like Althusser, he rejected economism, but also rejected crude materialism and instead offer a humanist version of Marxism which focused on human subjectivity (Nield & Seed, 1981). He adopted the term hegemony to depict the supremacy of social classaa‚¬a„? over others which in essence referred in particular to the bourgeoisie dominance over the working class (Nield & Seed, 1981). As well as hegemony being used as an economic and political tool, he felt it gave the dominant bourgeoisie class the ability to project its own way of viewing the world upon the lower classes who then accept this as common sense and part of life. A key difference between the two Marxist theories is that contrary to Althusser, Gramsci highlights struggle and conflict (Nield & Seed, 1981). He claimed that common sense was not a solid state and constantly transformed itself. Gramsci’ s theory meant a rejection of economism due to the fact it saw the struggle for ideological hegemony as a major factor in social change. Overall, there were more criticisms of Althusser’s theories that in turn led many to favor Gramsci’s theories, with particular credit given to his theory of hegemony.

A number of strengths can be found across the board of Marxist theory. Contrary to the mass media, Marxism takes into account the importance of explicit theory (Swingewood, 2000). The Marxist critical theory attracts consideration to the matter of political and economic interests in the mass media and emphasizes the social inequalities in media representation whilst revealing the myth of value-free social science (Swingewood, 2000). Whilst Althussers theories help to attenuate the allegory of the absolute individual, other Marxist attitudes see the media as a ‘site of struggle’. Marxist theory accentuates the importance of social class in relation to the media and the publics understanding of media, which remains a valuable factor in media assay (Kellner, 2005). This Marxist analysis is useful in that during the distribution of power in society, certain types of reality end up with more influence than others, which in essence means Marxist theory reveals how the media makes less important new seem far more important that it is. Meanwhile more serious and important news is sometimes swept aside and not focused on by the media for a tactical purpose. While the strengths of Marxist theory seem to outweigh the limitations, some limitations can be found. Some contest that Marxism is just another ideology, with some Marxists being accused of being too doctrinaire (following the theory regardless of its practicality). Fundamentalist Marxism is crudely deterministic, allowing not much amplitude for human agency or subjectivity (Swingewood, 2000). Another point is that Marxism is often seen as an elevated form of theory which concentrates on the grand scheme and in turn averting empirical research. This means Marxist analysis of media does not include vigorous enough studies.

In conclusion, sociologists need theories to explain social phenomena and explain how the sociological world has come to be like it is. Theories offer people another view on a certain aspect of society. We all think theoretically in our own way, although the key difference that sociological theorists use is that they think theoretically in a systematic manner. Sociological theorists will arrive at different explanations for events than the theoretical approach of a normal person, and therefore will need to create a theory to explain it. Using the example of Marxist theories and theorists, in particular Althusser and Gramsci, it is possible to see why sociologists need theories.

Suicide is a very complex subject triggered by various complex factors. The failure to meet ones expectations which may have been instilled as early as childhood may bring about a wide variety of emotions leading to people committing suicide for various reasons. Depression, physical or sexual abuse, horrible disappointments, severe financial loss, mental or emotional disorders, all trigger feelings of emptiness and hopelessness and are just some of the few psychological factors which may influence an individuals final and distorted decision of committing suicide as a means to put an end to these insufferable emotions. The foregoing, however, is just a superficial analysis touching merely upon the surface of the deep-seated source of suicide. This paper will thus attempt to provide a more in depth analysis of why people commit suicide by looking primarily at the sociological factors and in particular in relation to Durkheim’s work.

Durkheim defines suicide as a “general state of extreme depression and exaggerated sadness, causing the patient no longer to realize sanely the bonds which connect him with the people and things about him -pleasures no longer attract” [Durkheim,1951:63]. Durkheim further stated that “man cannot become attached to higher aims and submit to a rule if he sees nothing above him to which he belongs to free him from all social pressure is to abandon him to himself and demoralize him” [Durkheim,1951:110].

In Durkheim’s “Interdiction to Suicide: A study in Sociology”, Durkheim expresses his concern in developing the conduct of sociology. He sees the main problem to be that sociology is mostly constructed on philosophical overviews, and does not answer the exact social questions. he suggests a methodology that will give the science of sociology strong baselines and real results. In his book, Durkheim applies these propositions and shows how sociology should be conducted, and firmly draws conclusions that expose to us the way in which we should be able to approach the difficulties of society. This study has been presented in such a way that it is probable to assess the relevance and accuracy of its meanings and deductions. Durkheim gives the importance of sociology far more than being just a tool to fix the world, but it is a lens, through which we see reality as a shared reality, one included of individuals who are determined by their realities. In this introductory chapter he investigates the act of suicide and explores it’s social roots by examining suicide rates in different social classes and correlating that with the characteristics of the society . [Durkheim,1970:41]

A differentiation is made between two types of suicide, positive and negative. In Durkheim’s words suicide is thus described as “all cases of death resulting directly or indirectly from a positive or negative act of the victim himself, which he knows will produce this result” [Durkheim,1986:64]. A positive performance would be to discharge or to suspend an act. In this case, death comes as a straight product of the action. A negative act would be the scenario of remaining in a burning house or to refuse eating to the point of hunger. Death in this case is the indirect result of an individual’s act.

Durkheim believed that the areas with the highest rates of mental illnesses and alcoholism are not necessarily the areas with the highest suicide rates , esquirol wrote that “suicide may be seen to be for us only a phenomenon resulting from many different causes and appearing under many different forms ; and it is clear that this phenomenon is not characteristic of a disease”.[Esquirol,1838:528]

Durkheim believed that suicide is not an individual act nor a personal achievement. It is produced by some power which is over and above the individual.

Durkheim studied suicide vis a vis the relationship between individuals and society affirmed that suicide is a social phenomenon as well as establishing that there are no societies in which suicide does not occur. He asserted that what most people regard as an individual act is in reality the result of the social world. The evidence supporting this view are numerous. In addition to the start differentiation made between positive and negative acts of suicide , Durkheim’s research concluded that the institution of marriage protects against suicide making the observation that suicide rates are higher among people that have lost their spouse and those whom are divorced.. In additional Durkheim observes that suicide rates are higher among couples who have no children than couples who do, concluding that a human being needs to be loved and have a purpose in life. People who does not experience this in their life are the ones more susceptible to suicide. [Durkheim,1951:175]. The institution of marriage may thus play a vital role in ones decision to commit suicide Whether marriage should be viewed positively in relation to suicide is however debatable. While on the one hand marriage may play a role in protecting against suicide by providing love, purpose and stability in ones life it may on the other hand be a volatile institution that once shattered may instead be an instigator of suicide

Durkheim interestingly further observed that suicide rates are higher during times of peace than times of war because during war people need to be untied in defending their country [Durkheim,1951:229] This observation may therefore suggest that feelings of patriotism, honor as well as purpose tend to distant an individual from suicide. Suicide rates also tend to be higher during rapid economic changes than in economic crises as rapid economic changes are sudden and difficult to endure. [Durkheim,1951:241]This observation made by Durkheim may suggest that people are required to work harder in such economic times constantly being pushed to their limits in order to keep up to such rapid changes bringing about feelings of despair, restlessness and being under appreciated.

According to Durkheim’s research, religion may have an affect on suicide rates. Durkheim’s’ collected data suggested that Protestants are more likely to commit suicide than Catholics, due to the fact that Protestants are more idiosyncratic while Catholics are more communitarian. [Durkheim,1951:153] In other words Catholics tend to have more social support. According to Durkheim people connecting and validating each other within a community plays an important role in preventing suicide making this kind of social integration important. Without this type of connection people may experience feelings of depression , isolation pushing them towards suicide. Durkheim, however, seemed to identify two sides a coin in relation to social integration pointing out that where social integration is high, people are more likely to commit suicide in order to avoid becoming burdens to society . Two distinct features are therefore identified by Durkheim; namely, social regulation and social integration. Integration is described as the “degree to which collective sentiments are shared” and regulation refers to “the degree of external constraint on people” [ Ritzer,1992:90] . Based on these two social forces, four types of suicide have been proposed by Durkheim.

Durkheim differentiated between four types of suicide, the first being egoistic suicide. [Durkheim,1951:152] Egoistic suicide is viewed as stemming from an absence of social integration and is committed by people who are outcast by society and are insufficiently integrated into social groups and societies, they depend more on themselves than on a group of objectives and instructions. They are not socially combined or not socially tied to a community or group. These types of individuals find themselves powerless in finding their own individual place in society and experience problems adjusting to other groups and are given little or no social care. Suicide is therefore perceived as a solution to free themselves of the loneliness or excessive individuation , this brings Durkheim points out that this type of suicide is mostly prevalent amongst those who are unmarried, widowed, divorced, have no children as well as those without any strong attachments to religious, social or community groups.

The second type of suicide identified by Durkheim is anomic suicide. Anomic suicide is viewed by Durkheim as disillusionment and disappointment occurring when a person goes through extreme changes in wealth and is ultimately caused from a lack of social regulation. This type of suicide is most notable at times when society is rapidly changing leading to uncertainty. It is a type of suicide that stems from sudden and unexpected changes which Durkheim found mostly occurs during rapid economic changes than in economic crises. Durkheim’s interestingly points out that suicide is more evident in crisis that brings out disturbances in one’s life rather than being attributed to poverty. [Durkheim,1951:245]

Altruistic suicide is the third type of suicide that has been identified and according to Durkheim this type of suicide occurs when individuals or a group are too close and intimate ,and stems from being overly integrated into society. It is the other side of the spectrum in social integration when an individual is so well integrated into society that they choose to sacrifice their own life in order to fulfill some obligation. Altruistic suicide, being a complex concept, can further be broken down into three types: optional, acute and obligatory altruistic suicide. Optional altruistic suicide is brought about by societal pressures that may in fact be well-intentioned. This can be seen in Japan where there is a high level of suicide amongst students because of stress and high expectations from others and the constant pressured to excel at school exams. Often the accompanying stress and anxiety pushes them to commit suicide; suicide in the victim’s perspective becomes the answer to freedom of oppression from what society expects individuals to be

Acute altruistic suicide occurs when an individual kills himself in order to save another life. For example when a fire-fighter saves a person from a burning fire but the fire-fighter dies as a result. This is an act of heroism and self-sacrifice. It could be argued that it may by flawed to categories this as a type of suicide which is mainly associated with a troublesome and stressed life when in fact such an act may be a form of righteous act

Obligatory altruistic suicidal refers to a type of suicidal where respect and honor plays an important factor. For example in hind women should kill themselves in the funeral of their husbands after the death of their husbands they are not allowed to live anymore. If such a person insists on living he loses public respect; in one case the usual funeral honors are denied, in another a life of horror is supposed to await him beyond the grave. [Durkheim,1951:219]

Durkheim points out that altruistic suicide is part of the “collective spirit” [Durkheim,1970] for example when the spirit inquires you to do something you are obliged to do so and which we therefore see in environments where society places a substantial amount of pressure and expectations on individuals which may in turn push an individual towards suicide as a means of escape.

The final type of suicide is fatalistic suicide. Durkheim discussed this type briefly because it was seen as a rare phenomenon in the real world. Fatalistic suicide occurs in social conditions where an individual experiences universal persecution resulting from “excessive regulation” whose “passions [were] violently choked by oppressive discipline [Durkheim,1970] Slavery and persecution are examples of fatalistic suicide in which an individual may feel that they are destined by fate to be in such conditions and choose suicide as the only means to escape such conditions

These four types of suicide are categorized by the degree of integration and regulation of individuals in their surrounding society. According to Durkheim people commit suicide because of either too high or too low integration or regulation , Suicide is a social fact and is due to social forces. Individuals are more likely to commit suicide each time the condition of society leaves from a state of stability. Society preserves stability by “integration” and “regulation”

Durkheim’s work has been critiqued on many grounds for example his emphasis on consensus and morality ,his positivist method and negligence of the individual as an actor , his description of suicide rates . Durkheim’s concept of suicide is thought to be more reinforced by argument than by fact. However, he is contributed to the growth of sociology and over a difficult theoretical framework

To conclude suicide is not an individual act it is a social act. People commit suicide because they are not supported by society or they do not feel loved by their own family, if a person has no support in his life and no one to care about him than they can feel valueless and this will lead to depression which may lead to suicide , Suicide rates are correlated with how well a person is integrated into society and the degree to which society regulates individual behavior . in general suicide has some connection with social rules or standards and the individual

With the increasing trend of the remarkably importance of the gender pay equality during the past few decades, organisations and many commentators have been paying particular attention to the relative trends, legislations, news, economy and global labour market as a whole to address the persistence of the gender pay inequality occurred nowadays. Pay equity is defined as “a particular strategy for reducing or eliminating the wage gap between or among groups such as women and men, or various ethnic groups” (Thomas 2006). It was mentioned in the CONSAD Research Corporation’s paper (2009) that there have been significant increase for women to participate in the labour force, to acquire higher education level and to make substantial real earnings. For instance, Lander & O’Neill (1991) indicated that Australian women participation rate in the labour force has doubled since 1947. Moreover, it was showed in the Education International’s report (2010) that the average female graduation rate in higher education in OECD countries is 16 percent more than the male graduation rate. Yet the challenge is that women have been earning less than men all through the developed countries around the world even they are well educated and actively participate in the workforce (Hatt1997). Taking an example in Australia, women earn approximately 80 percent of men’s wages (Lander & O’Neill 1991). The persistence of the gender pay gap is puzzling although the gender pay equity ratio has been steadily rising and a wide range of legislations such as Equal Employment Opportunity and Affirmative Action were implemented to address the issue (Smith 2009; Lander & O’Neill 1991). This paper will briefly demonstrate the historical overview with respect to the topic. It will proceed to identify the comprehensive reasons for the existence of gender pay inequality. It will then illustrate the advantages of having pay equality worldwide. Last but not least, the paper will recommend some of the strategies which organisations can best address the challenge by utilising appropriate non-discriminatory workplace practices and policies.

Historical Overview

The ancient time of keeping women staying and working at home while men were responsible for earning a living had passed after the World War II (Amaram 2010). The participation rate of women joining the labour force has greatly boosted due to the establishment of some legislation to remove obstacles of women’s employment and to allow women working in certain kinds of work such as metal industry (O’Donnell & Hall 1988). The booming economy and labour shortage triggered the fact that women were encouraged to replace men, who were resisting in the war, in the labour market (O’Donnell & Hall 1988). Campaigns were also formed by many women’s organisations to fight for the equal pay between men and women (O’Donnell & Hall 1988). Some supporters advocate the theory of comparable worth that “there should be equal pay for jobs entailing similar skill, effort, responsibility and work conditions, and that this parity should occur regardless of respective job market values” (Grider & Toombs 1993). However, even there were legislation, theories and women’s organisations to protect women from getting unequal pay; the gender wage gap has been existed for many years. To explain this gap, there are a couple of complex reasons which directly and indirectly result in the gender differences in pay.

Occupational Segregation

One of the primary reasons for the gender pay differences is due to occupational segregation. Men and women are not evenly allocated in all occupational categories. Women tend to be distributed in low-paying industries or occupations which directly affect their average earnings (Smith 2009; Hatt 1997; McAuley 1981; Mumford 1989; Lander & O’Neill 1991; Education International 2010; Curlew & Weber 2010). It was pointed out that women were mainly employed in community services, the wholesale and retail trade, clerical work and catering; whereas men were generally employed in mining, electricity, gas and water, manufacturing as well as construction industries where men are more likely to receive well above average pay (O’Donnell & Hall 1988; Hatt 1997). The consequence of setting women apart in certain occupations with low-status and low-paid partially results in the gender pay gap.

Vertical Segregation

Rather than constraining women in particular occupations or industries, vertical segregation occurs in both public and private sectors when women are located in lower positions and men are placed in more senior positions such as executive or managerial roles (Mumford 1989). Women are given very few opportunities to engage in promotion to higher positions, and therefore women are constrained their mobility upwards to the organisational hierarchy and they are under-represented at senior positions in all occupations (Hatt 1997). This phenomenon is closely related to the glass ceiling effects for women that refer to “those artificial barriers based on attitudinal or organisational bias that prevent qualified individuals from advancing upward in their organisation into management-level positions” (U.S. Department of Labour 1991). Hence, vertical segregation is another factor that leads to the gender pay gap.

Family Responsibility

As a result of the family obligation to give birth as well as take care of the children and elders at home, there has been a greater percentage for women to participate in more flexible part-time and casual employments than men who tend to have full-time employments (Smith 2009; CONSAD Research Corp 2009; Curlew & Weber 2010; Amaram 2010). It was indicated in Amaram (2010)’s study that pregnancy leading to the absence of women is 36 percent more than men and married men are more likely to work longer hours to make up the loss of the earnings for the family. Undoubtedly, it was claimed by many reporters that part-time employment pays relatively less than full-time employment, thus the unbalanced participation in part-time works causes women to be classified in lower level of income groups without adequate chances for skill advancement and promotion opportunities (Education International 2010 & Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia 2009).

Women’s Tendency of Education and Work Choices and Patterns

The educational paths that men and women decide for their majors in higher education or universities are different, indirectly affect the real earnings between men and women in the workforce (Amaram 2010). Amaram (2010) showed in his paper that men generally prefer sciences as their majors whilst women prefer humanities and education. The assumption is that men and women are likely to choose their desired majors at colleges or universities that can reflect what they are going to choose for their careers in the future, which leads to the conclusion by Hartmann (2004) that the pay of the male-nominated occupations tends to be higher than female-nominated occupations. One of the explanations can be attributed that women tend to choose a safer work environment such as being a secretary, teacher or receptionist and they are willing to accept less-paid jobs (Education International 2010 & Farrell 2005). In addition, based on the GAO’s report (2003) showing that women normally work fewer hours and take more breaks away from work than men, women are therefore less work experience and human capital at work that brings about the consequence of earning less income.

Historical and Social Stereotypes of Under-Valuating Women’s Work and Skills

Based on the historical overview mentioned in the first section, up until the Second World War, women were supposed to stay at home for cleaning and bringing up the children while men were taking the main role to be the breadwinner for the whole family (Amaram 2010; Elias & Purcell 1988). According to Press (2006), companies advertised for job vacancies in the newspapers listed separately for men and women, as well as women’s pay was greatly lower than men. In no doubt, the historical factors generated the hypothesis that women’s works are semi-skilled and unskilled (Smith 2009). This hypothesis was supported by Lander & O’Neill (1991) and Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia (2009) that women’s skills and works are always under-valuated and unrecognised, which causes the social stereotypes on the perception of female’s capability to work in certain occupational categories. In other words, women may earn less than men as a result of their skills and works were devaluated by the community and organisations based on the social stereotypes.

Direct Gender Discrimination

There are many theorists agreed that direct gender discrimination partly account for the gender wage gap (Curlew & Weber 2010; Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia 2009; Hatt 1997 & McAuley 1981). It happens when women and men are treated unequally facing the same job requirements with the same educational level and work experience (Education International 2010). Although it is unlawful to discriminate women from being recruited in male-nominated occupations in most of the developed countries, gender discrimination indeed moderately initiates the gender pay differences. It was even reported that gender discrimination and bias comprise half of the gender pay gap (Lander & O’Neill 1991). Consequently, no matter the organisational and societal sex discrimination is intentional or unintentional, it is clear that gender bias is an essential element of the persistence of wage gap between men and women.

Other Reasons

Apart from the major factors brought up previously, there are other reasons which should account for the wage gap as well in terms of the problem of the merit-type payment systems, union affiliation, and women’s value on non-wage benefits such as health insurance. Firstly, it is important to understand the rise of the individual contracts together with the meaning of less collective bargaining like the decline of trade unions at workplaces (Bamber, Lansbury & Wailey 2004). Also, merit-type payment including merit increments and merit bonuses is the most popular individual performance pay plans that are widely used in the USA and many other Western countries today (Shields, 2007). One of the disadvantages of the merit-type payment systems is that it lacks of transparency of the pay structure, hence, it is always up to the management’s discretion of any individual performance and pay where there are probably the existence of discriminatory components (Grider & Toombs 1993). Secondly, it was claimed that the formation of a trade union will bring a wage rate of 17.6 percent up for union members (Hatt 1997, Amaram 2010). With the significant rising trend of women participating in part-time and casual employments stated earlier, it is less possible for women to become union members that they comparatively earn less than men who normally work as full-time employees and are union members. Lastly, research was also done by the CONSAD Research Corporation (2009) that there is a greater probability that women may relatively value more on non-wage benefits and other employee benefits such as childcare, health insurance and advisory services when comparing to men. Accordingly, women may value other aspects of benefits other than wage that may cause the gender wage differences.

Advantages of the Existence of Gender Pay Equality

Despite the limitations acknowledged which block the way to gender pay equality, there are a series of advantages for individuals, families, organisations and economy as a whole provided that gender pay equity exists. Pay equality increases the empowerment of women and reduces the chances of women’s experience to harassment, violence and exploitation at work (Cornish 2008). Additionally, it brings positive effects to the well-being and wealth of the families as a result of the increased income, which ultimately improves the situation of poverty, economy and social justice (Lander & O’Neill 1991; Education International 2010 & Curlew & Weber 2010). For the organisations, staff morale and productivity will be increased and absenteeism will be decreased if gender pay equity exists in the workplace because employees feel fairness among others (Curlew & Weber 2010). Thus, organisations should proactively take actions to address the problem of the persistence of gender pay inequality in order to benefit itself, employees, community and other stakeholders involved.

Organisational Strategies for Tackling the Challenge

Although government’s intervention of implementing fair pay legislations among male and female employees is indispensable, as Smith (2009) claimed that the legislative reform alone is not enough. Strategic non-discriminatory workplace practices and policies should be carefully planned, designed, implemented and monitored at the organisational level in order to build positive images to the public without violating any relative discriminatory issues, as well as maximise the benefits of balancing the gender pay differences. Therefore, human resource management teams play major roles in making every single decision to align with the organisational strategies. First of all, it is recommended to use objective, systematic and consistent process of job evaluation systems to deal with gender-based inequities in pay (Lander & O’Neill 1991). De Corte (1993) suggested a model-based approach to job evaluation to calculate the probability to gender bias related to pay at work. Secondly, male and female recruiters should be involved in the recruitment and selection stages so that female candidates will not be excluded in a discriminatory way. Thirdly, training and development should be regularly provided to all employees with the intention that women are given chances to promotion in a higher hierarchical level in the organisations. Fourthly, mentoring programs with professional consultants or management should be offered to female employees, who have competent knowledge and capabilities, to encourage them participating in senior positions (Equal Opportunity for Women in the Workplace Agency 2010). Fifthly, flexible workplace arrangements such as home-based assignments as well as childcare services should also be available to allow female employees having work-life balance (O’Donnell & Hall 1988). Lastly, organisations should conduct a gender pay audit annually, which provides detailed information regarding the gender pay structure and figures of the whole organisation and the percentage of female employees being promoted to the senior positions (Equal Opportunity for Women in the Workplace Agency 2010). The strategies proposed above are only few subtle pieces of a complex jigsaw puzzle; beyond doubt organisations should proactively look for other approaches to address the problem of gender pay inequality.

Conclusion

The condition of gender pay inequality has been steadily improved in the last few decades. However, in reality it does persist due to an array of complex reasons in terms of occupational and vertical segregation, parenthood, women’s propensity of education and occupation choices and patterns, historical stereotypes and under-valuation of women’s skills and work, direct gender discrimination, the setback of the merit-type payment systems, union affiliation, and different values on wage and non-wage employee benefits between men and women. These factors illustrated are merely the key causes and further research should be done to elaborate the thorough formation of the wage gap. It is clear that the pursuit of gender pay equality brings individuals, families, organisations, community and economy positive effects. Consequently, organisations should better equip themselves and contribute to the attainment of eliminating the gender wage gap. Systematic and appropriate non-discriminatory workplace practices and policies should be well implemented to encourage fairness among male and female employees in pay and promotion according to their knowledge, skills and competencies. On account of the increased staff morale and happiness at work, organisations can also build a healthy and positive public image that in turn increasing the organisational attractiveness and competitive advantages in the labour market. In conjunction with the practical support by government, community and unions, it is believed further reduction of the gender wage gap is feasible.

Gang association of juveniles is the concern of researchers and field workers .Why do the youth join these gangs yet most of them are involved in criminal activities? This study aims to understand the various factors that contribute to youth gang membership. With these factors it may be possible to conceptualize a practicable plan that will effectively prevent or reduce the juveniles from joining gangs.

1.0 Introduction

Currently, it is well known that the issue of street gangs, and the operations of the gang wars have been something quite common to people. What should be agreed is that there have been increases in enmity springing between a number of groups of certain people as well as personal rivalries who have been slowly by slowly taking dreadful stands or thirsty and bloody fights. This has led to an upsurge of cases and numerous instances which are comprised of gangs who are wrestling towards achievement of own supremacy and dominance over the others (Visher, 2006). Therefore, all the way from the streets to the cells and prisons, such criminal sides have been able to strengthen themselves beyond the national level to become a global issue. Having achieved that, these groups have continued to get engaged in illegal activities or actions which have seen a continued spill of blood on the side of the foes. Criminal gangs have hence become a commonplace term which has been in use to denote different kinds of gang-related activities even in the major correctional centers and prison facilities (Stearns, 2009).

Basically, the term gang has always been in use to stand for any kind of approach or performance that stands for any group of individuals who team up towards establishing an interest that seems to undermine the performance of a given system. In countries where majority of the gangs have been able to effectively establish themselves, it has been noted that they have been going a step farther other than protecting the members of the gangs (John, 2009). For instance, it is well known that, more often than not, all kind of gangs in a country like United States have been responsible for any kind of drugs spread across the country, and found inside the correctional centers and prisons. These individuals give the necessary modalities on how drugs, tobacco, and even alcohol are handled within the society. Furthermore, a number of observations have gone ahead to observe that these gangs have also been greatly involved in issues such as assaults, prostitution, muggings, murders and even kidnapping (Bourdieu, 2007). Another important thing to be noted with gangs is that they do seek ways through which they will intimidate other people by pressuring forcing them to submit their resources .This research will therefore dig deeper towards understanding why the young people involve themselves with gangs and come up with useful findings which can be applied in addressing the issue reforming the youths and ensuring proper security and peace concerns in the society (Richard, 2007).

2.0 Literature Review

There are various reasons as to why the youth join gangs; the reasons vary from culture to the gang itself. Gangs can replace family units for some young people and provide a sense of protection, some young people are displaced and these gangs offer a means of survival .For instance most gangs that are made of Latinos are based on members of real families. The pop culture positions gang leaders as heroes and therefore most youth want such acceptance. Poverty also forces the youth to join gangs, they want to be able to provide for themselves. Young people from minority groups tend to join criminal gangs, further most young people have social adjustment problems and are looking for a place where they can adjust without much pressure, and gangs provide a safe haven for them.

2.1 Poverty

Research has shown that most of young people that are in criminal gangs come from broken homes where the single parent has to work two or three jobs just to survive. In the eyes of these children there is a sense of wanting to be rich, they are never content with there lifestyle and constantly compare themselves with the rich .Gangs propose some sense of being stable, crime offers an opportunity to have more than what they had even with the risks. In addition, the juvenile system of justice is not harsh and does not deter the youths from joining gangs. Anyone who comes from a poor background has felt a sense of hopelessness that can result from being unable to purchase wanted goods and services. Young people living in poor neighborhoods find it difficult to meet basic needs that may be physiological or psychological which can lead to a lack of self-worth and delight. The only way for these youths to earn money is to join a gang involved in the drug trade. Conditions of poverty and lack of opportunities to improve their situations lead these young individuals to participate in gangs instead despite them knowing the risks involved.

2.2 Minority groups

A minority group can be described as a group of people whose members have less power and control over society compared to members of the majority group. In America, Latinos and black Americans are considered a minority. Ethnic youth are more prone to joining street gangs in order to adapt to the way of life. Research has shown that minority groups face education disparity and therefore do not get good jobs; this cycle continues for generation and even becomes the way of life. Most children in the minority groups drop out of school, dropouts significantly diminish their chances to secure a good job and a promising future. There are certain group of people that are at a higher risk for this type of appeal; to join criminal gangs (Giblin, 2002). People who belong to minority groups, may feel left out gang up in order to experience a sagacity of belonging. Gangs time and again come up along racial or religious lanes. Teens experience trouble fitting in or have been out of favor from the mainstream social group are at risk a, as they often will seek any associations that will accept them.

2.3 Social adjustment problems

Gang members time and again come from homes where they feel estranged or neglected. They may turn to gangs when their desires for love are not being met at house. There is an increased risk where there are no programmes or recreational facilities that are provided by the community as an alternative to violence. Gangs often do in reality well is provide a teen with a sense of belonging, something that every teenager craves. Teens who join gangs often describe the gang as a “family”, or a reliable group of acquaintances that they can lean on in every situation that they face. This social advantage is very potent – it entices the teenager to join and then cements the gang’s hold on the individual making it very hard to leave. Leaving the groups makes the teenager feel like he or she has lost a group of very important friends and at times feels like a traitor.

2.4 Family traditions

There are various aspects of a family that increase the chances of a young person joining criminal gangs, disorganization in the family, including broken homes and parental drug/alcohol abuse .Troubled families, including incest, family violence, and drug addiction or having other.

Gang members often come from homes where they feel left out and neglected and more often than not there have been cases where other immediate members of the family have been members of criminal gangs. They often turn to gangs when their desires for love are not being met at home.

2.5 Problem Statement

The youth make up a very large population and therefore any illegal activity they engage in should be addressed as quickly as possible since it can easily go out of control. The occurrence of gangs has compromised societal bonding and life in our communities while going ahead to distort economic and social structures of the country and at the same time causing a lot of losses and fear within the communities. This calls for means through which the issue can be addressed and come up with better measures of addressing issues that make the youth join gangs and how to deal with the youths already in these gangs.

2.5.1 Hypotheses

Gang membership enhances status among the youth.

Probability of a young person joining a gang is high if they come from a neighborhood whose level of integration is low.

All gang members come from poor families

3.0 Research Methodology

The sample is comprised of self-identified gang members from the community, drawn using respondent-driven sampling by Heckathorn (1997, 2002). It samples individuals through their acquaintance networks. Thus, it has the ability to get to individuals who might not otherwise participate in the study using other methods of sampling. It begins by having the first participants of the study, known as “seeds.” Seeds then start the chain referral by recruiting a specific number of their peers who also look for their other peers to participate in the study.The process goes on until the targeted size of the sample is achieved. In this case the sample size will be very small therefore will take a very short time. Because this kind of sampling is based on networks of peers , it may give overrated results in certain subgroups especially the subgroups many people who who form big networks or networks of people who are more well-organized in recruiting. The experiment is designed in such a way that there is no bias in order to make sure that the sample is representative of the entire population. Reports collected ensures that ‘inclusion probabilities’ will be calculated. This helps in assessment of any bias that may be present in the population es, and to estimate any variabilities of indicators (e.g., standard errors).

This study aims to: a. Determine if independent variable(s) – Poverty, Family

bonding, social adjustment problems that lead to the youth wanting to belong somewhere and belonging to ethnic minority groups – have a strong correlation with the dependent variable (Joining gangs);

The study utilizes qualitative and quantitative study approaches, and comprises of administered questionnaire.

Since most gangs are illegal, it will be important to ensure the confidentiality of the information that will be given by the participants. There will be no real names used in the study and the participants will not be required to sign any documents.

3.1 Significance of the study

The findings of this study will advance our understanding of why the youth join criminal gangs and will enlighten us on how to avoid teenagers from joining these gangs.The experiments will provide an insight on how to deal with teenagers who are already in the gangs. Youth gangs have compromised societal bonding and life in communities while going ahead to distort economic and social structures of the country and at the same time causing a lot of losses and fear within the communities. This has hence been the reason why it has been necessary to carry out a study which has been able to come up with proper findings, and which can be competently adopted towards maintaining of proper justice within our country through practical applications. Generally, all what the study will be able to come out with can be given a theoretical approach hence being able to contribute towards this fight. This shall ensure that the mutual benefits commonly noted in the streets is addressed in a better manner and have more individuals who are responsible given the job. This study therefore holds the key for the rightful future practice in dealing with the youth gangs.

Nursing and sociology are terms that rather tightly connected with each other, because nursing is a profession that is focused on helping patients, their families and whole communities in recovering optimal health whereas sociology is the study of society and how people should live in it. The main question to answer in this paper is: why sociology is important to nursing? It seems easy and hard question at the same time. In the beginning of this paper I want to quote Porter’s words that were presented in Cooke’s and Philpin’s (2008) book and they will be introductory words to this paper: “The activity of nursing inevitably involves the social interaction of human individuals. As a consequence, if nurses are to do their job properly, they require an understanding of the nature of those interactions, and of the context in which they take place. In other words, they require a knowledge of sociology”.

In this paper, I will give the definition of nursing, the definition of sociology and will explain why nurses need sociology studying in their nursing practice. I strongly believe that this paper will show the necessity of sociology to the development of reliable and more professional nurses.

First of all it is necessary to define the term “nursing” and according to Kim and Kollak (2006) “nursing encompasses autonomous and collaborative care of individuals of all ages, families, groups and communities, sick or well and in all settings. Nursing includes the promotion of health, prevention of illness, and the care of ill, disabled and dying people. Advocacy, promotion of a safe environment, research, participation in shaping health policy and in patient and health systems management, and education are also key nursing roles.” This definition shows us that the essence of nursing profession is to take care of people and help them not only when they ill, but also when they are healthy but need some help.

Defining the notion “sociology” we should mention that this word has a very long history and the beginning of the term comes from the Latin word Socius that means companion and term’s ending comes from the Greek word logos. In general terms sociology can be understand as the science of society, certain social institutions (government, law, morality, etc.), social processes and social communities of people. Contemporary sociology – is a lot of streams and scientific schools, which in many ways try to explain its subject and the role of different answers to the question what is sociology. There are various definitions of sociology as a science of society. And according to one of them sociology – is a science, in which focused social communities, their origins, interactions and trends. Each of the definitions is rational. Most scientists tend to believe that the subject of sociology is a society or certain social phenomena. Therefore, sociology – is the science of generic properties and fundamental laws of social phenomena. Sociology is not simply selects the empirical experience that means sense perception only by means of valid knowledge, social change, but theoretically it generalizes it.

Thinking about nursing, Godin (1999) said that “ideologically, nursing attempts to emphasise differences between itself and medicine. Nursing thus portrays medicine as reductively bio-medical, and itself as holistic. It is perhaps a false dichotomy. Both medicine and nursing knowledge have in recent decades become more informed by a broader conceptualisation of the patient as a whole person, but medicine could well claim to have been influenced by such holistic ideology much earlier than nursing.” He also added that “furthermore, psychology and sociology were included as discrete subjects in the curriculum of doctors’ training much earlier than in the case of nurses.” It becomes understandable that nursing in its turn can not exist without specific knowledge and it draws on knowledge from various disciplines and sciences such as medical science, biological science, psychology, sociology, ethics, politics etc.

Connecting nursing and sociology it is possible to say that connection between these two directions were formed long time ago. For example, with appearance of sociology new possibilities of penetration in the internal world of personality were opened, understanding of individual’s vital aims, interests, and necessities were discovered. However, sociology in the nursing context studies a not person in general, and his concrete world, but it studies social environment, communities which he is interested in and live in, the way of person’s life, social connections, social actions. These new knowledge also open new opportunities in patients’ care, because it allow nurses to understand not only personality of the patient, but also circumstances of his existence and his reaction on surrounding world and surrounding reality.

Do not diminishing the value of numerous areas of social science, however, sociology is unique ability to see the world as integral system. In the frames of sociology the system is examined by this science not only as functioning and developing system, but also as experiencing the state of deep crisis. Modern sociology tries to study reasons of crisis and find the ways of exit from the crisis of society. According to Earle and Denny (2005), nurses in their nursing practice should to know that basic problems of modern sociology are a survival of humanity and updating of civilization, its raising on more higher stage of development. Sociology searches the decision of problems not only at global level but also at the level of social communities, concrete social institutes and associations, social conduct of individual. Sociology is multilevel science, presenting unity of abstract and concrete forms, macro and micro theoretical approaches, theoretical and empiric knowledge.

Thus, taking into account above discussed information it is possible to come to the conclusion that sociology is an important tool that will help nurses to understand the communities where their future patient’s live in and will make them more effective in nursing practice. The sociological vision will help to find the essence of problems and then solve them in a right way. Sociology has positive influences on nurse’s mind and it allows them to deal with people, to understand main mechanisms of society and make horizons of problem perception wider. In the paper were given definitions of nursing and sociology and also were presented their connections between each other.

Which type of feminism do you think has the most relevant political program for the society and economy of today? Explain why with reference to at least three traditions of feminism.

All through history, women have struggled to achieve equality, respect, and the same rights as men. Various people believe that this is due to the notion of patriarchy, an ideology in which men are superior to women. It is said that this type of ideology has permeated the social arrangements of societies throughout the world and as a consequence, even in the new millennium, women are still struggling for rights that most men take for granted. In order to fight patriarchy, feminism and feminist theory was created; it attempts to offer a critique of current political ideologies, attempting to create more equality amongst the genders.

Feminism is based on social, political and economical equality for women, and is a philosophy in which women and their contributions to society are valued and appreciated. It is a diverse collection of social theories, political movements and moral philosophies, largely motivated by or concerned with other political ideologies.

Feminism as a whole can be broken down in to three main different traditions and movements. Some of which are valid and relevant to today’s society and economy. Liberal Feminism, Marxist/Socialist Feminism and Radical Feminism are traditions or movements of feminist theory and ideology, contributing to what we know as today’s feminism. In my opinion though all the traditions of feminism overlap, and none have more or less right and wrong, there does remain one where its’ political program is more relevant to the social and economic structure al ready established. Liberal Feminism remains least radical and extreme when in comparison with the other two main traditions. It is due to this more conservative nature of liberal feminism that I tend to a-line myself with this ideology over another, however, I do also believe that all three have their strengths, and that for a true visionary and socially encompassing ideology all three need to be combined to form a more relevant political program. In essence however, that is what feminism is, all three traditions in one, fighting generally for the rights of women. To understand how I came to such a decision as supporting liberal feminism over the other two traditions I will illustrate what each strand is and what their political program is for society and the economy.

Radical Feminism asserts that society is a patriarchy that primarily oppresses women. Radical feminists seek to abolish this patriarchy. They believe that women are systematically oppressed and marginalized because of man and that the eradication of our patriarchy society is the only way to give women true equality. The radical feminist’s ideology is, that “male-based authority and power structure … is responsible for oppression and inequality, and that as long as the system and its values are in place, society will not be able to be reformed in any significant way”. They identify that the only way to rid society of patriarchy is to attack the causes of the problems and also to address the fundamental components of society that support them.

The political program of the radical feminist aims to address inequalities based on gender identity, race, and social class, perceived attractiveness and sexual orientation as quick as possible by any means possible. It is often deemed so radical and extreme that rise to such a society means certain death to actual man. This ideology is often associated with the activists of the sixties and seventies because of their extreme rebellion against the norms of society. They often speak out against all social structures because of the belief that they are all created by men, and often, refuse to reproduce so that men can no longer inflict their will on coming generations. Radical feminists are the most fundamental and drastic in regards to all the traditions in feminism and often argue that contemporary society is so drastically patriarchal that the only way to escape is to live in female only communes.

Socialist feminism asserts “focus upon both the public and private spheres of a woman’s life” and argues that liberation can only be achieved by working to end both the economic and cultural sources of women’s oppression. “Socialist feminism is a dualist theory” that broadens Marxist feminism’s argument for the role of “capitalism in the oppression of women” and radical feminism’s theory of the role of gender and the patriarchy.

“Liberal feminism asserts the equality of men and women through political and legal reform”. It is a distinctive form of feminism which focuses on a women’s ability to “demonstrate and maintain their equality through their own actions and choices. Liberal feminism looks at the personal interactions of men and women as the starting ground from which to transform society into a more gender-equitable place”. It fundamentally maintains that all people are created equal and should not be denied any form of opportunity because of gender. Liberal Feminism focuses on social change through the construction of laws and regulations of employment practices.

“According to liberal feminists, all women are capable of asserting their ability to achieve equality; therefore it is possible for change to happen without altering the structure of society”. Issues important to liberal feminists include reproductive rights and abortion access, sexual harassment, voting, education, fair compensation for work, affordable childcare, affordable health care, and bringing to light the frequency of sexual and domestic violence against women.

To understand clearly between the three main traditions of feminism we can draw on prostitution as an example. In liberal feminism, prostitution is thought of as a private business transaction, a contract mutually benefiting two individuals. They contend that a woman should be free to enter into contracts and that their political program would enable women to do so freely. Radical feminists, on the other hand, view a prostitute as a human being who has been reduced to a piece of merchandise. They believe that a prostitute’s desire to enter into such a “contract” is not done of her own free will rather, the patriarchal nature of society combined with a feeling of worthlessness. The radical feminist usually sees prostitution as an exploitative relationship where the woman is intimidated and bullied, their political program would protect woman from such exploitation. “To the socialist feminist, the prostitute is a victim of the corruption of society which accompanies class distinctions. The oppression of class in a materialistic society degrades people by categorizing them in a particular class and objectifying them. They believe that the cause of prostitution is in the structuring of society, and that is where the solution will reside”. Therefore, their political program would be to overrun the class system and this in turn will then make man and women equal.

As we can see from this example, the three traditions overlap to an extent yet remain independent to each other. In my opinion it is actually best to take in aspects and features of all three traditions, because all three are good ideologies and not one is wrong or right. However, if I must choose one straight ideology with no other as influence then as a conservative I would have to a-line myself with more the liberal approach. Because of its conservative nature in regard to the extremes within feminism, liberal feminism in my opinion has the most relevant political program for society in that it builds feminist ideology slowly and sustainably in a society built on patriarchal views and values. Sudden change to feminist ideology could have detrimental effects on the economy through work place relations law and fair work acts. In my opinion, a more conservative non-hurried approach is in the end a more effective result not only for women, but all society in general.

Social Exclusion is a highly debated problem which if left unresolved can have detrimental affects on the individuals involved as well as society as a whole, through public spending and the competitiveness of the economy. These issues have led the government to make tackling social exclusion a priority. This essay will begin by discussing the possible meaning associated with the term social exclusion examining two opposing definitions, before moving on to explain the major factors which are contributing to its development concentrating on education and technology and how this can affect the life course before discussing why social exclusion is a matter for public concern and therefore needs to be addressed.

Historically, poverty was the most common term used when speaking of the most deprived groups in society, more recently however these deprived groups are seen as being socially excluded. It is very important to define Social exclusion in order to clearly understand the social problems that are incorporated within the term and furthermore, the possible ways to measure and therefore tackle the problems that the concept signifies. However social exclusion is a highly contested term used to cover a wide variety of aspects in people’s lives and therefore creating a simple definition to cover these seems to be difficult. Independent research carried out by Peace (1999) demonstrated that within the European unions policy documents, the term social exclusion is deployed in a perplexing variety of ways, within the policy documents searched there were a total of 51 ways which the policy stated as aspects which could allow someone to be eligible and therefore categorised as socially excluded. This research demonstrates that the term social exclusion is very ambiguous with a lack of concise agreed criteria this allows it to be used to cover a wide variety of aspects in social policy. This concept is one that needs to be defined in order to gather a clearer understanding of its true meaning.

One of the most used definitions of social exclusion is that of The Government’s Social Exclusion Unit who describe social exclusion as “a short hand term for what can happen when people or areas suffer from a combination of linked (social) problems, such as unemployment, poor skills, low incomes, poor housing, high crime environments, bad health and family breakdown’ (SEU 1997).” This definition is beneficial as it does move away from a definition which focuses solely on poverty. Instead it presents the problem of social exclusion as multi faceted with various interlinked problems which all need to be addressed. However although it seems to be a broader definition to what has previously been used it is still criticised as being incomprehensive as it does not lead to a clear set of criteria which can be worked off.

The Social Exclusion Unit has been criticised publicly by Levitas (1999) for using an imprecise and narrow definition, which focuses on economic indicators such as high crime, unemployment and low incomes, to define social exclusion. Arguing that these indicators are very implicit and easily identifiable ways to measure, what is an extremely complex concept which involves various interlinked cause and effects. Burchardt, Le Grand and Piachaud (2002a) have argued that, policy makers concentrate on the most visible and extreme issues which are likely to capture the attention of the wider public such as street homelessness, high crime, drug bad health and polices to reduce anti-social behaviour.

The narrow approach that has been utilised in this definition causes various problems in identifying where the government will cut there boundaries as it leaves certain areas of exclusion such as that experienced by gypsies, travellers and asylum seeker at the confines of its definition questioning whether the government view these individuals as voluntary excluding themselves through there lifestyle choices and therefore making them unworthy of any interventions that the government plan to put into place to promote social inclusion. It is clear to see that this definition leaves many questions unanswered although it gives us a set of indicators which may be used to identify social exclusion it subsequently presents the problem of understanding which are viewed the most important aspects and problems which need to be worked on, in order to improve the current situation

One of the possible reasons for the high amount of ambiguity which surrounds the term social exclusion is the limited extent of which attempts have been made to operationalise the term in order to be able to test it empirically. An alternative broader approach, but with some key elements in common, is the working definition of

social exclusion provided by Burchadt (1999) offers a definition which introduces a more objective view of this concept he suggests that ”An individual is socially excluded if (a) he or she is geographically resident in a society but (b) for reasons beyond his or her control, he or she cannot participate in the normal activities of citizens in that society, and (c) he or she would like to so participate’ This is a much more precise explanation of the possible meaning behind the term social exclusion it clearly helps people to see and identify whether they are socially excluded making it a much more measurable and objective definition which solves many problems for identifying those individuals who are socially excluded. Although this definition inevitably presents problems especially around criteria (c) as it clearly abolishes voluntary exclusion as a matter which needs to be addressed or solved it is very useful when establishing whether an individual is socially excluded

It is clear to see that the notion of social exclusion has a subjective meaning for each individual or group concerned which leads to considerable vagueness in the concept of social exclusion which is reiterated in the SEUs pragmatic and flexible definition, as indicated most which leads to different interpretations and discourses connected with the issue. For this essay the main definition used to classify social exclusion will be that presented by Burchardt (1999) as it is very objective and clearly distinguishes its view of the criteria that can be used to define someone as socially excluded.

After investigating the variety of ways in which social exclusion is defined one of the most important factors is clearly distinguishing the areas which are contributing to the problem as these are the issues that need to be solved and tackled in order to prevent social exclusion penetrating further into society in the future.

As was mentioned previously, social exclusion is a very broad concept and as such also involves various contributors. However when investigating the possible contributing factors of social exclusion the government has tended to focus solely on adequate income and the labour market. Nevertheless various other contributors have been identified such as: poor mental and physical health, high risk of crime and high fear of crimeaˆs poor quality neighbourhoods, mobility and access to transport and education are to name but a few of the contributing and interlinking factors to social exclusion and in more recent times technology & ICT is now having an influential effect on segregating society. This essay will focus solely on two of the possible contributions towards social exclusion identifying the prominent issues which rise within education and technology and how these factors can interlink to affect the subsequent life course of individuals and in particular youngsters.

Education is increasingly becoming a key contributing factor to social exclusion it seems that individuals who have become socially excluded see there level of educational attainment as one of the problems that they are facing. Research by The UK’s social exclusion unit reports that young runaways, prisoners and young people in care are all likely to drop out of school early, have high levels or truancy and low levels of reading and writing skills

Research undertaken by The Prince’s Trust has identified that although many underprivileged or excluded young people do not understand how they can go about improving the skills they need to achieve their goals and ambitions in life, 41% of these children recognised that a lack of qualifications can prevent them from achieving their goals these children usually have clear beliefs as to the possible barriers that are holding them back . (Princes Trust) Test scores at school do seem to be the most successful predictor of many adult outcomes. This is drastically shown in evidence collected by OCED (1997) In the UK, which showed that the unemployment rate increases considerably depending on educational achievements with 13% of 25 to 64 year olds unemployed with primary and lower secondary education, 8.3% for those with upper secondary education and only 3.9% unemployed among those with non university tertiary and university level education education offers an important means of social mobility, particularly for the poor. . It is clear to see from this research alone that education for young adults is seen as an extremely important factor in influencing future pathways, decisions, and life courses.

It seems as though a major factor which affects the opportunities and level of attainment students can achieve in education is the socio-economic status within the young persons families. Low-skilled parents with either no work or relatively unstable work, who are low-skilled with poorly paid work seem to also have children with poorer levels of education. This has been illustrated clearly in Recent research by West et al suggests that those children who relied upon income support from local authorities was strongly correlated with subsequent education attainment. The research suggested that this indicator seemed to account for 66% of the variation in educational achievements between pupils. This figure seems to suggest a strong correlation between low income from parents and subsequent levels of educational attainment for there children however although from the figures this seems to be the case it is difficult to attribute the cause and effect of this evidence. Although these figures do seem to show clear differences depending on family background, previous educational achievements and future outcomes and therefore an individuals chances of becoming socially excluded. Education alone can not be accused as being the solitary cause or the sole solution to the ever present problem of social exclusion it is believed as suggested by Istance (1997) that education, training and learning cannot guarantee success within society; however this factor is increasingly necessary ingredient of such success.

In the modern world possible contributors to social exclusion are changing, technology is constantly changing, increasing and dramatically affecting peoples lives. In recent years the emergence of a digital divide, unequal access to both technology and information, has increased dramatically (Bangemann, 1994, Joint, 2003), and is now considered to be both an aspect of and a contributor to social exclusion (Hills et al., 2002). In the UK it is therefore seen as important to ensure that this gap does not widen further, as ICT becomes increasingly influential in relation to educational standards, economic competitiveness and citizenship. This gap is apparent, in the latest figures which show that although the majority of people in Britain now have full access to the internet, 10 million still remain offline. Of these 10 million, 4 million are among the most socially and economically vulnerable individuals. Further figures released by the office of National Statistics (ONS) in 2009, revealed that 30% of households in Britain still have no internet access. With increasing emphasis on digital technology in education and the work place and a growing recognition that in the modern world access to the internet plays an important role in helping children gain the essential skills for formal and informal education in order to acquire good jobs in the future. (DfEE 2000b). Social inclusion and developments in the ‘Information Age’ are mutually reinforcing, and it is vital for people especially those in low income neighbourhoods, to gain and exploit ICT skills in order to gain the opportunities required to participate fully in there society (PAT 15 2000).Subsequently this divide needs to prevent and control the interlinked factors that could escalate the problem of social exclusion further.

It is clear to see just from the two contributors identified above how much of a problem social exclusion is becoming and how mutually reinforcing factors can be in affecting an individuals future life courses from a very early age. The research suggests that improving educational attainment may reduce the transmission of social exclusion over the life course. However, it is clear that education is only part of the story, as childhood deprivation is associated with significant reductions in adult

earnings regardless of educational performance. It is clear that modern advances in digital technology must be observed closely to ensure that social exclusion does not continue to increase into the future.

Although there are numerous contributors to this issue of social exclusion it still does not explain why it needs to be a matter for public concern. This problem has been discussed by Barry who proposes two reasons why social exclusion should be an undesirable characteristic which should be a matter for public concern. Barry suggests one reason why this is an important issue is that it dilutes social solidarity. It is seen very much to be inherently valuable to feel included within the society to which you belong and therefore involuntary exclusion can cause various problems for the individual in the form of possible injustices and unequal opportunities for the individual in the forms of education and jobs etc

Another important issue to consider is the psychological aspects of exclusion. Social solidarity is also likely to include the absence of power, voice and independence, and vulnerability to exploitation and humiliation. This is likely to affect an individulas mental health as the feeling of not belonging can be very distressing for the individual involved and therefore detrimental to there well being. Although there may seem to be some capacity for agency that allows poor people to improve the quality of their relationships and to secure respect and dignity for themselves it is also very important that others are welcoming to the changes.

Another reason that this issue requires some public concern is that social exclusion can produce the conditions in which conflict can occur. This can range from domestic violence to terrorist activity as severely disadvantaged groups with shared characteristics (such as ethnicity or religion) may resort to violent conflict in order to claim their rights and voice there inequalities. When individuals or groups, and in particularly youngsters, feel excluded from important structures, and deprived of legitimate chances to express their grievances, violence can provide an opportunity for them to voice there opinions and to gain control over their own lives. This disregards social solidarity and causes many problems for government, police forces and the individuals involved. This is clearly an important problem and reason that social exclusion needs to be solved in order to prevent a divided and very dangerous Britain.

Human history can be divided into three phases: pre-modern, modern and post modern. There is no definite beginning or end to each of these phases; rather they merge into one another, as not all societies moved forward at the same time.

Sociology and modernity have been described as closely intertwined, but it has also been argued that sociology is a product of modernity. Sociology came out of something described by Polanyi (1973) as the Great Transformation, a term which refers to social, economic, political and cultural changes, which were the cause of new forms of social life.

During this piece I will discuss pre- modern society, the impact industrialisation had on society and why the study of this era is important for sociology.

What is Pre- modern Society?

In pre-modern society, work was not highly specialised and the number of roles necessary to produce things were relatively small, therefore the division of labour was simple when compared to modern societies. Most of the labour forces engaged in agricultural activity and produced food through subsistence farming. The majority of pre-industrial groups had standards of living not much above survival, meaning most of the population were focused on producing only enough goods for means of survival.

The term ‘pre- modern’, covers a number of different societal forms: hunter-gatherer, agrarian, horticultural, pastoral and non-industrial. Pre-modern social forms have now virtually disappeared, although they are still in existence in some of today’s societies.

An example of a hunter- gatherer society that exists today is the Inuit people, who inhabit northern Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. Due to the lack of vegetation in these areas of the world, most Inuit people live on a diet of meat. Many Arctic people are extremely mobile like the feudal societies of pre- modern times, and travel around the land, often moving with the seasons, in pursuit of migratory animals.

Hunting and gathering societies hunt animals and gather vegetation in order to survive. All humans were hunters and gatherers up until around 12,000 years ago, and although, these societies still exist today in some parts of the world, they are in fast decline as they are being taken over by the advance of industrial society (Macionis J. & Plummer K, 2005, p.75).

Hunting and gathering societies began to turn into horticultural and pastoral societies after new technology was introduced. People began to use hand tools to help them to farm the land and to work the soil in order to sow seeds. Societies living in mountainous or parched regions turned to pastoralism which is based on the domestication of animals. Some societies combined the two technologies so they could produce a variety of foods.

Agrarian societies came about with the discovery of large scale farming, which involved using ploughs which were harnessed to animals. Farmers could work larger plots of land unlike the horticulturists who worked garden sized plots of land. Agrarian societies began to permanently settle and created large food surplus, which they could now transport using animal powered wagons. Increased food production provided societies with surplus materials, which meant the build up of storable produce. This represented a cultural advance for civilisation. With the development of storage, in some rare cases came some social unrest, as what could be stored could also be stolen, although is thought that in pre- modern times there was very little deviance, as communities were extremely close knit and everybody knew each other. This new technology could have also created social inequality as some families produced more goods than others. The families producing more food may have assumed positions of authority and privilege.

Industrialisation and the making of Modern Society:

In order to understand why the study of pre- modern times is vital to sociology, it is important to look to the Industrial Revolution, as this was a time of great change for European society, and the crossing over from pre- modern to modern society.

Industrialisation is the process whereby social and economic change transforms a pre- industrial society into an industrial one. Until industrialism the main source of energy was humans and animals, where as mills and factories now used water, and later steam, to power machinery. “Industrialism is technology that powers sophisticated machinery with advanced sources of energy” (Macionis J. & Plummer K, 2005, p.79).

During the Industrial revolution, an economy based on manual labour was replaced by one taken over by industry and the manufacture of machinery. Rapid industrialisation cost many craft workers their jobs and scores of weavers also found themselves unemployed as they could not compete with machinery. Many unemployed workers turned their anger towards the machines that had taken their jobs and began destroying factories and machinery. These activists became known as Luddites and became extremely popular. The British government took drastic measures against the Luddites using the army to protect the factories.

The Industrial Revolution also saw the emergence of class, urbanisation and the bad conditions in which people had to live and work. Marxism essentially began as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution. As the Industrial Revolution progressed so did the gap between class structures. According to Karl Marx, industrialisation polarised society into the bourgeoisie, and the much larger proletariat.

Ordinary working people found increased opportunity for employment in the mills and factories and in some cases had no choice but to move to the towns and cities in search of work. By the early 1900’s up to eighty per cent of the population of Britain lived in urban centres (Kumar, 1978, cited in Bilton et al, p.28).

Using the clock to time one’s self, as a basis of social organisation, was an indicator of the emergence of a modern society. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries both agricultural and manufacturing labour became set by the clock in a way that was very different to pre-modern production. In pre-modern times factors such as hours of daylight set work rhythms, whereas the factories were regulated by the clock, labour was synchronised and took place for a certain number of hours each day and on particular days of the week. For the factory owners and their employees, time now equalled money. The working conditions were often strict with long working hours and a pace that was set by machinery and production.

With the Industrial Revolution came an increase in population. Education was still limited and therefore children were expected to work. Child labour was appealing to employers as it was cheaper than employing an adult yet productivity was similar. The machines did not require strength to operate and there were no experienced adult labourers as the system was completely new.

The majority of ordinary people were greatly affected by capitalism and industrial production. By the late 1900’s England’s Black Country was one of the most industrialised parts of the United Kingdom and in the 1830’s was described in the following way;

“The earth seems to have turned inside out…. The coal…. is blazing on the surface… by day and by night the country is flowing with fire, and the smoke of the ironworks hangs over it. There is a rumbling and clanking of iron forges and rolling mills. Workmen covered in smut, and with fierce white eyes, are seen moving amongst the glowing iron and dull thud of the forge-hammers.”

(Jennings,1985 p.165)

Societies were changing faster than they had ever done before and industrial societies had transformed themselves more in a century than societies had for thousands of years before. In the 19th century the invention of the railway and steamships revolutionised transport and made the world feel much smaller than it had previously. The invention of Sociology was created out of concern for a rapidly changing industrial world (Macionis J. & Plummer K, 2005).

Conclusion:

The transition from pre- modernity into modernity was important for sociology as people began to see that society was something important to study. Some argue that this was when sociology began as the emergence of modern societies created a new intellectual world aware of its surroundings and concerned with acquisition of knowledge.

As modernity came about, changes in social attitudes within society occurred making society itself interesting to others. Unlike the static pre- modern society, modern societies appear to have created many different groups, causing new and interesting communications and interactions between people. In the pre- modern era, relationships between people in society were extremely similar and perhaps uneventful and society had been static, therefore sociology was not required.