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All along with the existing trend of consuming organic and confined foods, one of the burning issues that has flickered debate amongst scholars and researchers alike is the subject of being, or not to exist as a vegetarian, have an effect on the surroundings. According to Spencer, those who consider that vegetarianism has a constructive effect on the setting argue that the enormous invention of animal foodstuffs for human utilization can assert to land dilapidation, water and atmosphere contamination, and even modify climate (21).

Educational research designate that these damaging effects ensue as we persist to produce red meat foodstuffs. However, an appraisal of observations from vegan and meat consumer social network bloggers depicts that the individual desire for preference – especially choices concerning the crucial want for foodstuff – is the mainly important stature in this argument (Spencer 23). To report for persons who opt to consume meat regardless of the reimbursement of vegetarianism for the surroundings, the problem then crop up and stand to be: how can people formulate meat- consumption in extra sustainable manner?

The responsibility of meat in the person mode of eating has been positioned as the middle of attention of an extensive variety of studies. In addition, proficient persons from diverse environments have scrutinized its edifying and nutritional consequence. Various types of foods all along have not received much criticism and are highly appreciated by different cultures than meat. This may occur due to complications, in health, regarding meat eating or due to principles and surroundings of the product production (Waldman and Lamb 34). As such, various arguments confront the meat consumption in different countries dietary patterns.

Many research conducted shows that vegetarian diets or extremely little consumption of meat are associated with less or no complications and diseases and higher life expectancies. Many nations are also in progress showing concerns on ethical matters, like animal wellbeing and the ecological costs of their utilization outlines. This is because meat creation is particularly supply inefficient in contrast to further types of provisions’ production. It incorporates a load on the ecological unit by taking up a great quantity of water, territory and power (Gardner, Starke and Rosbotham 56). These factors have been having a great impact and shaping the growth of contemporary vegetarianism.

Meat use has negative and positive results. The report that an individual is what he or she eats ought to make people to change their view on eating a lot of meat if they need a healthy prospect. Today, a variety of diseases like hypertension, obesity and high cholesterol among many others are wide stretch in many communities (Waldman and Lamb 78). Meat is extremely high in content of fats particularly saturated fat.

At hand, are plentiful claims nowadays about saturated plump. Some say that we do not need any soaked fat to live, or that all saturated fat is awful, while others tell us to eat liberally and that this stuff is essential for our wellbeing. While not all inundated fat is bad, saturated fat from mammal products like meat seems to directly affect the role of our cardiovascular structure in many negative habits (Bishop 51). Not only is it connected to putting a sprain on one’s heart through probable fat deposits in the arteries, mounting one’s blood pressure and causing artery harm, but also it is the main fat responsible for hazardous weight increase. Today’s meat is still higher than ever in fat as a result of how the animals are brought up, with no exercise or natural grazing capabilities (Spencer 89). For this reason, such animals sit in an enclosed area and eat extra food, which causes higher harmful fat deposits than usual.

Meat is extremely dense in calories. This is because meat contains a lot of fats, and cholesterol is considered as a nutrient with the most calories. It is a substance that if eaten repeatedly or in extra doses can easily cause an increase in weight. Production of meat is seriously responsible for change in climate. Flora and fauna cause the production of natural gas, which is mainly methane. Methane is an extremely strong greenhouse gas. This is because it readily and easily traps more heat and in large amounts than carbon dioxide. Actually, animal production is accountable for about eighteen percent of the climate change in the globe. In essence, this can be compared with transport in the world with animal production exceeding global transportation (Silva and Webster 92).

Meat raised under demanding conditions has a harmfully altered biochemistry that negatively alters ours. Immediately one thinks about himself or herself and what transpires during a strenuous moment. The most significant thing that occurs to all animals during a stressful period is stress hormones’ elevation. This initializes an entire slew of other reactions of biochemicals, which causes the health of a healthy animal to deteriorate. This of course leads to various illnesses. When we consume this meat, whether one holds the Eastern outlooks of changes in qi energy, Karma and, therefore, chakra disturbances or not, consuming meat from strained animals is connected with various negative psychological and emotional states of persons in us, as well (Gardner, Starke and Rosbotham 137).

Meat manufactures carcinogenic compounds when safe to eat. It also adds to chances of colon cancer. Away from the heterocyclic amines talked about on top, meat cannot clear instantly from the person’s intestines. This is unless sufficient fiber becomes a part of each food. This is mostly due to the fact that meat is lofty in protein and protein takes an extremely long time to get fully assimilated; thus, it sits in our bowels the highest. This time issue allows any carcinogenic complex to do the most harm to the lining of the intestinal walls (Silva and Webster 193)

Having seen the above numbers, now think of the amount of water wasted every year to raise the food to feed these animals. Also, the amount of water wasted to ensure that they are hydrated while they continue developing. In order for land to be fully suitable for animal creation, land must be properly cleaned, and this usually involves the cutting and clearing of many trees. Production of stock accounts for thirty percent of the whole land surface of the globe (Bishop 164). Just think of how many people in the globe can be fed and have clean water to take if such a resource was not being used by the billions in the natural world.

As eating too much meat can be treacherous, meat can be said to be a great source with complete proteins. The body needs these proteins to maintain a cellular hankie. As such, it is a brilliant idea to feed on some amount of meat each time. The Agricultural Department of America highly suggests that adults need to feed on 5-6 ounces of meat each day (Silva and Webster 125).

Another reason why people should eat meat is based on the cultural other than nutritional importance. Various scholars like to relate meat consumption with virility as well as the patriarchal traditions. Women are viewed to be less meat consumers because of their great concern on health issues while men tend to take a lot of it basing on the gender attitudes placed by their cultures. High meat consumption; for example, in Western countries, their diet is compared to an expression of authority of humans in control of all the natural humanity. This can explain the reason behind the historical value placed on meat by the strong and influential elites. Their denial to marginalize the fewer dominant groups further explains the value placed on meat consumption (Bishop 121).

Meat consumption is also related to various values and attitudes. Individual values are recognized to be the best attitude shapers but their sway on actions is not straight. The breach between thoughts and behavior is known, moreover, has been investigated by a number of instigators Silva and Webster (125) clarified that when mind-sets are on a broad concern, which is hard to relay with the action itself, people will less likely indulge in it. Therefore, when a populace is inquired they utter being concerned on climate alteration, although they do not decrease their regularity in smoking, driving or red meat ingestion.

The proposal plan to help curb the problems caused by excessive meat consumption is as follows. The arrangement to be followed to make certain a healthy future involves banning all meat manufacture. In order to make the nearly all drastic impact on the emission of climate shifting gases, this proposal propose that all meat products, and their production, ought to be halted instantly. If one is consuming too much meat, one should incorporate other protein sources that are non-meat instead of meat (Spencer 110).

Dairy products, legumes, beans and whole grains products of food all have protein. Soy foods, nuts, eggs and seeds can be considered good options. While seafood and fish may technically be regarded as meats, such products do not have the same risks compared to poultry, pork and red meat, since they are so low in soaked cholesterol and fats and cholesterol (Waldman and Lamb 77). Seafood and fish can comfortably replace meat in a person’s diet; they supplement well.

The suggestion will work as the body requires approximately 8 grams of protein in each twenty pounds of body weight per daylight. You can get a lot of this protein from non-meat foundations. Protein sources of non-meat mostly do not have as much cholesterol or saturated fat as meat, especially red meat (Waldman and Lamb 79). These sources also mostly consist of minerals, vitamins and healthy fats that one’s body requires.

Societies eating animal pedestal diets tend to have extremely poor wellbeing. The Inuit’s have the lowest life expectancy in North America, the uppermost rates of osteoporosis in the planet, and epidemic rates of stroke, cancer, and parasitic illnesses. Inuit mummies have exhibited symbols of the same diseases, so it is not just a difficulty with their modern go on a diet. The Masai are notorious for aging rapidly, and have high rates of bone deformities and atherosclerosis. Their arteries were analyzed and found to be comparable to old men in the United States (Bishop 139). Something ironic is that proponents of a high meat diet point to these peoples as examples of physical conditions.

The same approach can be compared to tobacco legislation that bans all types of promotion and support to protect community health, the surroundings and reducing deficiency. Tobacco just like meat has a great negative impact on health. Knowledge of the lethal harms rooted by tobacco goods is not latest, but the strenuous internationalization attempt to decrease the exploit of tobacco by regulation and rule is more current. I know simply transiting such a regulation is not sufficient. Proper execution is needed to attain the anticipated profits. The same implies to the proposal on meat consumption (Spencer 163).

The suggestion that complete burn on meat production has a counter disagreement and rebuttal since it favors the vegetarians in a wider viewpoint is flawed. Some individuals believe that meat consumption gives them a lot of nutrition values as compared to other foodstuffs. Accordingly, I think being a vegetarian out of “compassion” is unreasonable. I mean that in the common sense: it is a non sequitur, and thus irrational. It is like treating animals as people, and yet they are not. I have looked and paid attention far and wide and there is just no logically valid argument that proceeds from “I ought to be empathetic” to “I ought to be a vegetarian.”

Agricultural and eating animals is simply not vice, for the reason I affirmed: our own overall life satisfaction depends on being sympathetic, and compassion compels us not to like or want pointless torment, and to continue living, no matter what or who is experiencing it. This would cause you pain, and thus lessen your life satisfaction, to be an unkind or wholly indifferent being. However, demolishing an animal humanely is not brutal. In addition, it is not destroying a person. Once more, an animal’s life is indifferent to when it passes away since it becomes nothing and is unaware of being somewhat. Thus eating animals is fine as long as you are not torturing them (Gardner, Starke and Rosbotham 245)

Conclusion

I consider that the development of vegetarianism is a slow procedure and that the shift from red meat to white meat intake, the perceived negative attitudes towards our commercial food system and the shift towards more socialist values are certainly part of this progress. Modern vegetarianism has developed over the past 200 years. It has established institutions which have promoted vegetarianism and the creation of alternatives to meat use.

There is a vast literature on Caste system in India with a long and diverse background. This chapter aims to review some of the relevant literatures pertaining to the caste system prevailing in India. Different authors might have varied perceptions about this particular topic for discussion.

According to Louis Dumont (1980) in his book Homo Hierarchicus which has details about the caste system and its implication, demonstrates that Indian society was structured on a firm notion of hierarchy that was based on the relationship between the pure and the impure. It is more of a religious than a political or economic notion. He defines hierarchy as “the principle by which the elements of a whole are ranked in relation to the whole, it being understood that in the majority of societies it is religion which provides the view of the whole, and that the ranking will thus be religious in nature”(Dumont,L.1980). He also points out the prevalence of traditional hierarchy which was based on ‘varnas’ or colours whereby people were divided into four categories namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras and; untouchables are outside the classification.

M.N.Srinivas (1962) in his book Caste in Modern India and Other Essays, highlights the “part played by caste in democratic processes of modern India in administration and education”. The author came across certain conflicting attitudes among the people of the elite class whereby one group wanted legislation to eradicate the social evils pertaining to the caste system and on the other hand, there were people who were not only determined not to fight the evil but also tried to practise this system. In his work he tries to explain the concepts of two social processes namely ‘Sanskritization’ and Westernization. Sankritization is ‘the part of social mobility as well as the idiom in which mobility expresses itself’. This is said to occur within the framework of caste whereas Westernization happens outside the framework of caste. However, Sanskritisation may lead to caste’s becoming unpopular with their neighbours whereby the leaders of upper or dominant caste may show their bitterness by even torturing the members of the lower castes. In independent India, the reservations and safeguards granted to the backwards sections especially the Scheduled Caste and Tribes have helped in the upliftment of the lower caste. He also brings into notice the effects of British rule on the caste system which in a way helped in taking over the power previously exercised by the caste panchayats. A new principle of justice was introduced by the British which said “all men are equal before the law, and that the nature of a wrong is not affected by the caste of a person who is committing it, or by the caste of the person against whom it is committed” (M.N.Srinivas, 1962). This has not been fully followed in the rural areas where caste panchayats are still functioning strongly. The author argues that the ‘Varna’ system has certainly warped the caste but it has enabled ordinary folks to comprehend the caste system by providing them with a simple and candid system that is applicable to all parts of India. To the question of can castes exists in the India of tomorrow the author opines that only a minority considers caste as an evil to the whole nation and that this minority is gradually increasing every day. Moreover in rural areas it is possible to come across urbanized young people who consider caste detrimental to healthy relations between people. He concludes by saying that nothing else but the people themselves must understand that caste ‘necessarily means casteism and that benefits it offers are bought at a heavy price for the country as a whole’.

Taya.Zinkin (1962) in her book Caste Today describes the caste system in India. She considers its origin, the way it works, what democracy is doing to caste and vice versa. In her work she states that caste is not class and that every caste has educated and uneducated, rich and poor, well born and ordinary born. The author also says that caste is not dependent on colour because a Brahmin will not stop being a Brahmin if he is black skinned nor does an untouchable stop being one if he is fair skinned. She also argues that caste is not based on occupation, however various other literatures may not completely agree to what this author states. According to her “caste is a way of life which divides society into small groups, each of which lives in a rather different way from the rest”. Due to these differences, tiny groups and important aspects of life like marriage take place within them, these groups have immense control of power and thus a better survival. Before she goes into the details of castes, sub- castes and untouchability she tries to explain the concept of re- incarnation. It is said that the whole system is based upon a combination of status fixed by birth and rebirth. This means that a person’s birth in the existing life depends on the consequences of his deeds done in past life i.e. if one performs his duties well complying with what he is supposed to do then he may be reborn in a better situation or not be reborn at all. Marriage customs vary with castes and sub-castes. Untouchables usually make late marriages unlike the Brahmins who make early arranged child marriages. Finally Tan Zinkin(1962) talks about the beginnings of the breakdown and the loss of belief of the Hindu society. Change of attitudes among the castes and sub-castes were witnessed. “More recently, loss of belief has been the result, of the spread of education to the rural areas. With education came an arousing of new expectations, which through much of the Indian peninsula produced a new non-Brahmanical leadership, a leadership which was not only non- Brahmin but positively anti -Brahmin” (Tan Zinkin, 1962.pp38).

Tan Zinkin has been pretty much argumentative on the concept of caste. She strongly says what caste in not rather than what caste is. The theory about re incarnation has helped me to know more about the birth and rebirth cycle with regard to the caste system.

Marc Galanter (1963.pp 544-559) in his article Law and Caste in Modern India focuses on caste and laws pertaining to it during the British rule in India. He describes the way in which the legal rules and regulations affect the caste as an institution. The legal view of caste is explained under three headings namely personal law, caste autonomy and precedence and disabilities. First being legal rights and obligations of a person which is determined by the identity of the caste group to which he belongs. During the British period caste was little used for the occurrence of legal regulation and moreover all castes irrespective of their ranks had to follow the same rights and duties. However caste customs varied when it came to law of succession, law of adoption and law of marriage. Marriages between different castes or varnas were not allowed. Caste autonomy conferred some right to the caste groups to enforce certain rules which were not disturbed by the government. Precedence and disabilities dealt with the legal interventions with regard to the relations between castes. Courts imposed certain rules such as restriction on the entry of a particular caste into temples. This shows that even though the British did help in reducing the caste discrimination, on the other hand they ended up aggravating it to a certain extent. The author also talks about the independent India where the higher castes have lost their dominance over legal matters and moreover the lower ahs castes have acquired certain government benefits regarding equality and other preferential treatments. Marc Galanter (1963) concludes this essay by saying that “British period may be considered as a period of’Sanskritzation’ in legal notion of caste”. (1963.pp559)

“Caste- based oppression in India lives today in an environment seemingly hostile to its presence: a nation-state that has long been labelled the “world’s Largest democracy,” a progressive and protective constitution; a system of laws designed to proscribe and punish acts of a discrimination on the basis of caste; broad- based programmes of affirmative action that include constitutionally mandated reservations or quotas for Dalits or so- called Untouchables; and a aggressive economic liberalization campaign to fuel India’s economic growth.” Says Smitha Narula(2008) in her article Equal by Law, Unequal by Caste: The ‘Untouchable’ Condition in Critical Race Perspective. The author talks about the caste system and the discrimination attached to it and the inequality witnessed in India today focusing on the caste and gender- based discrimination and its impact on the Dalits of India.

Dr.Santosh Singh Anant(1972) in his work The Changing Concept of Caste in India enumerates the psychological aspects of caste, inter- caste relations and of untouchability. He comments on the theory of ‘status consistency’ and it is defined as “the extent to which an individual’s rank positions on a given hierarchies are at a comparable level (Rush, 1967). A Brahmin working as peon in an office and an untouchable or anyone from the lower caste working as a senior officer would be an apt example for status inconsistency. This is however happening due to the spread of education. He brings in one of the several views about the origin of caste system which dates back to 1500 B.C with the advent of Aryans from Central Asia. According to Nehru (1960) The Dravdians were the conquered race and Aryans the conquerors. Since the Dravidians were advanced in their civilization, Aryans considered them to be a potential threat to them. This is considered to be one of reasons why Aryans tried to push the Dravidians to an inferior position and thus created the theory of four- Varnas or the caste system. The author also points out that socio-economic factors such as education, industrialization, and increase in mobility have abated the rate of discrimination of caste system.

Sree Narayana Guru the Ascetic Who Changed the ‘Lunatic Asylum’ into God’s Own Country is a biography written by Murkot Ramunny about a saint who lived in Kerala state in the Southern part of India. Narayana Guru was a philosopher as well as reformer who immensely contributed to the upliftment of lower castes in Kerala. He helped in bringing about freedom of prayer and education to millions of under privileged in Kerala. It is due to his selfless service to the society that Kerala has attained 100 percent literacy rate compared to other states in India. The author in his article informs us that, even the father of the nation, Mahatma Gandhi paid him a visit and took inspiration from Guru for the social Upliftment of the lower casts or Harijans (Untouchables). One caste one religion one god for man was his motto. “It is years since I left caste and religion. Even then some people are working on presumption that I belong to their community. As a result, a wrong impression has been created in the minds of the people. I do not belong to any caste or religion. In order that only people who do not belong to any caste or religion should succeed me” (Narayana Guru, 1091). This piece of literature has helped me in this dissertation to know more about the caste system prevalent in the state of Kerala.

According to Harsh Mandir, in his article Burning Baskets of Shame (2010 August 9.pp3), he illustrates a real incident of manual scavenging which had happened in India couple of years back. The statistics shown by him in this article concerning the number of people doing manual scavenging was about 6.4 lacs according to the Planning Commission in 1995. He describes about a campaign named ‘Safai Karmchari Andolan’ (SKA) which was started as a non-violent mass resistance to end this hideous practice of Manual Scavenging. This campaign was started by an individual who himself was born into a scavenging family who witnessed this abhorring practice from his childhood. As reported by Harsh Mandir in this article SKA is the first movement to end Untouchability in India. But it should be right to say that this was one of the many movements which had taken place in different part of India during different period.

In the article The Indian Caste System by Madhudvisa Dasa (August 9, 2010) he tries to explain the caste system in relation to what has been written in the ancient scriptures. He quotes certain ideas from the Holy Book of Hindus, The Bhagavad Gita. The author sheds some light on the’Vedas’, which says that the Varnas or castes are not differentiated on the basis of birth but my mere qualification (Guna) and work (karma). He assumes that the present caste system has degenerated to the extent that people consider men born in Brahmin families as a Brahmin even if he does not exhibit the qualities of a Brahmin. The author agrees to the fact that one takes rebirth according to his past deeds or ‘karma’ but at the same time he says that in order to become a Brahmin adequate training is required and that it is not conferred automatically by birth as seen in the present generation.

India’s “hidden apartheid” (UNESCO Courier, 2001.pp27-29); an article written by Gopal Guru and Shiraz Sidhva criticizes the abhorrent caste system in India. The article opens with a note which says “India’s ancient caste system persists, subjecting millions to degrading poverty and human rights abuses. Attitudes die hard, despite government legislations to usher in change.” They comment on the caste system as a means of deployment by the upper caste to suppress the lower caste and thus attain a monopoly over the wealth, knowledge, power and education. The extent of discrimination was immense that these so called untouchables were forced to use drums in order to announce their arrival so that the upper caste is not polluted even by their shadow falling on them. This article informs us that the term ‘untouchables’ was abolished in 1950 under the constitution of India but there still exists a glimpse of discrimination against them. India has however tried to reduce the discrimination by reserving quotas and reservations for the lower castes in education and for government jobs.

Caste in doubt: The Indian Census and Caste (2010.June 12, pp46), an article which had been recently published in ‘The Economist’ has details about the reservations and quotas being introduced for the lower castes. This article also brings into notice the issue relating to the inclusion of caste system in the census which is to be declared in the ten yearly plan in 2011. However this had been faced with criticisms because since 1931 India has not counted caste in the census. Moreover it is impossible for it be included in the census because India’s caste system has not only the four Varnas but also various other sub-castes which may not be evidently recognised by the authorities. In spite of certain obstacles, the economic growth of the country has contributed to the lessening of discrimination on the basis of caste because a number of individuals have moved from the rigid social surroundings to the urban towns and cities in search of jobs where family background is irrelevant. “Many Indians are becoming caste- blind and marrying across caste lines. Anidhrudda, a 20 year old software engineer in Calcutta, says his inter-caste marriage was no big deal. But even he concedes that there are limits. If he had married a dalit, he says, ‘my family would not have been able to face the society’” (The Economist, 2010.pp46).

Leaders: Untouchables and Unthinkable; Indian Business (The Economist.2007.pp17) is an article which highlights the point that says that Indian business does not discriminate against the Untouchables or lower castes. Moreover, it condemns the practice of reservation in private sector because it would damage the whole business system. “Responsibility for lower castes’ lack of advancement does not lie with the private sector. There is no evidence that companies discriminate against them. The real culprit is government and the rotten educational system it has created” (The Economist.2007.pp17).It is not possible to have reservations in Business like they have it educational systems. This article says that as people get richer their concern about the caste fades. Nowadays middle class Indian families are to be seen marrying outside their caste than the rural poor and less likely to wrinkle their nose at a Dalit.

Harold A. Gould in his work The Adaptive Functions of Caste in Contemporary India (1963.pg427) informs us that caste has not fully disappeared even with the advent of modern technology and other social structural changes. His research found out that in rural areas, the existence of caste in the form of ritual purity, occupation, and system of hierarchy still exists in its own way. In contemporary India, however caste system has not disappeared completely but has declined in the urban areas among the educated middle class families.

From the above review of Literature and from various other reliable sources it can be understood that it is not possible to witness an India without a small aspect of Caste system. This is because it has been deeply rooted in the minds of Indians since ages and it still continues in certain spheres of their life. Caste system has been a topic of great interest to the Westerners as it fascinates them about the two ideologies- of caste system being important and not being important, existing within the same country and people. Recent articles from The Economist which are mentioned above, mainly talks about the reservations and quotas based on caste rather than discriminating against them on the basis of ritual purity and occupation. However it is not completely true to say that caste system has vanished from the Indian society. “Educated Indians know that caste exists, but they are unclear and troubled about what it means for them as members of the society that is a part of the modern world. No one can say that it is easy to give a clear and consistent account of the meaning and significance of caste in India today” (Fuller.C.J, 1996.Caste Today.pp153)

A family structure forms a base for the social setup and is a pivotal part of every society and its norms. Family is defined as “the collective body of persons who live together under one head and a household which includes parents, children and grand children.”

The Census Bureau defines a family household as “group of people living together in one housing unit owned by the householder and one or more people related by blood, marriage, or adoption.” The family structures in various societies may vary in terms life styles, values, and social norms but all in all the family structures prevalent in all societies are more or less the same.

Social Norms Followed in all types of Societies:

In spite of all the disparities in different societies, all family units follow the same ensuing social norms such as:

Tradition of marriage to normalize gender behavior.

Accepting the responsibility of giving birth to children and follow with the responsibility to nurture, protect, and support their children emotionally.

Cultivating moral values in the children by keeping the traditions alive

Taking up the financial responsibility by the family members collectively

Maintain the culture, ethnicity, and wealth inherited from the ancestors

Family Structure can be broadly divided into four categories:

Traditional Family Setup: These types of families are strongly knitted and maintained by a married couple and all the different generations of one family stay together in this type of family setup. Traditional family structure generally includes mother, father, children, grandparents, and extended family also referred to as joint family structure.

Nuclear Family Setup: These types of families are considerably small and consist of a married couple and their children. This type of family structure is available in all societies, although the living style and culture the nuclear families may adopt vary even in the same society.

Multigenerational Family Setup: These types of families generally include three or more generation living together in the same household. Multigenerational family structures are becoming increasingly popular nowadays due the increasing inflation and cost of living.

Other Family Setups: Families run by a single parent, or dysfunctional families come under this category. In these families, siblings are sharing a home or a number of people related are staying together not necessarily belonging to the same family structure.

Major Benefits of Different Family Structures
Joint Family Benefits

Joint family structures promote unity, bonding, attachment, and relationship.

Joint family offer social, economic, & moral support to persons living in it.

Joint family help in keeping up the cultural and traditional inheritance.

Warmth, affection, kindness, love, care, concern are more in joint families.

Joint families preserve towering societal status and extend it to next level.

Responsibility and accountability is more in the case of joint family setup.

Nuclear Family Benefits

Nuclear family gives the authority to sway over family and own life.

Nuclear family offers higher independence and privacy.

Nuclear family has less financial responsibilities.

Nuclear family structures alleviate disputes and ego issues.

The cost of living is lesser in case of nuclear families.

Accountability is lesser in case of nuclear families.

Multigenerational Family Benefits

Members of multiple generations offer a unique support to each other

Children get to know about their grand and great grand parents and relatives.

Committed family members provide care to each other in difficult times.

Multigenerational Family facilities also save tax paying liabilities.

Major Drawbacks of Different Family Structures
Joint Family Drawbacks

Some egocentric and selfish people can cause conflict in joint families.

Big accommodations are required to fit all the members of the family.

Cost of living and overall expenditure is higher in joint families.

Privacy issues can crop up in case of joint families as the number of members is more.

Nuclear Family Drawbacks

Social and family responsibilities are higher in nuclear families.

Loneliness and insecurity is a problem in case of nuclear families.

Lack moral support towards children and senior members of the family.

Lack of cultural inheritance to the new generation as per the traditions of the family.

Children remain underprivileged of love of grandparents, uncles and aunts and cousins in the family.

Multigenerational Family Drawbacks

Certain people are hardly ever prepared to give care to the children and older relatives.

In a number of associate arrangements of multigenerational families, householders are worried about food shelter and medical needs.

The daily demands of raising children and caring about the elderly member may create tension in the atmosphere.

Multigenerational families are beyond the barriers of race, ethnicity and socioeconomic status.

Changes in American Families

In 1950s, the traditional family setup was more common in United States but with time the trend of nuclear families became popular. According to statistics, by 2000 the number of traditional family structure reduced to 10%. Lot of factors caused the breakdown of the traditional joint family structures, some of them were economic drifts, liberal government policies, inexpensive financial schemes, etc. Nuclear families became more existent because of the changing lifestyles and economic strata.

The change was slow and gradual, it started happening in the 1960s and 1970s with the increasing inflation causing it difficult for people to manage household with limited income. The women of the family who normally handled the home duties moved out to do jobs; this brought the first change in the traditional structure of joint families. Doing job and becoming financially independent made women more powerful which definitely led to a big change in the cultural norms of joint families.

With women taking up the financial responsibilities, the rift in relationships increased resulting in higher number divorces. The divorce rate accelerated at huge pace which automatically changed the dynamism of family structures. The equality of responsibilities between both the parents started to take place and the members started moving out to make nuclear families.

Further, vanishing affluence percentage also resulted in smaller families. The ratio of married couples with children also turn down and proportion of single women giving birth to children is ever-increasing. According to the reports of Census Bureau, many unmarried couples stay together in a living relationship without getting married which is referred to as cohabitation. Another type of family is based on open adoption, where all the terms of adoption of child and adoptive parents are stated legally led to new family setups.

Finally, social economic and scientific influences brought a huge change in the family life. It is more probable that New American Family will transform quickly during 21st century. Education about the different family structures can help out in discovering ingenious and flexible alternate for raising children and maintaining strong relationships with completion.

Using examples critically assess one sociological theory of religion

In most traditional societies, religion is an important form of social ‘togetherness’. It augments a feeling of ‘community’ and promotes a set of shared values and beliefs in some form of god. Religion also plays a central role in cultural life; people often synthesize religious symbols and rituals into the material and artistic culture of the society: literature, storytelling, painting, music, and dance. It is the focus of the ‘society’ that is of interest to religious sociologists, in particular theories concerning the way religious behaviour differs between and within societies. Beckford notes that theories’ revolving around ‘how social interaction benefits or holds back societies’, has made sociology a renowned area of study.

In order to establish a fundamental starting point in this thesis, the foundations of sociology and the sociology of religion will be described in context. Furthermore, it will discuss, in some detail, the sociological theoretical approach of functionalism by sociologists; a critical analysis will aim to show the differences in their approaches to functionalism and will include supporting and critical statements from preceding and subsequent sociological theorists. Sociologists generally define religion as a ‘codified set of moral beliefs concerning sacred things and rules governing the behaviour of believers who form a spiritual community’ . Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857) describes sociology as the study of human societies. A classical view is that, ‘it is a social science’ that, ‘uses varied methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis’, and is often used to develop theory about human social activity. The sociology of religion therefore takes into account the aforementioned and also includes the practices, historical backgrounds, developments, universal themes and roles of religion in society. Jones (2003) describes Comte as the first to proclaim the virtues of an empirically based social science, a type of sociology that would have enormous implications for someone like Comte, who had been born during the aftermath of the French Revolution. Bilton et al (1996) explain this further:

Positive social knowledge could offer the means for peaceful reconstruction of social order by the elite of enlightened scientists and intellectuals…Social change need not depend upon revolutionary violence and the manipulation of the mob’

Comte was able to make use of the new science for the progression of society and the re-establishment of order as well as being able to apply the positive method to social theory . Comte and his fellow Frenchman Durkheim are said to be the forerunners in creating the discipline of sociology. Thompson (1982) describes Comte as ‘giving the subject its name and an ambitious prospectus,’ whilst Durkheim gave it, ‘academic credibility and influence.’

Functionalist sociologists focus their attention on the ‘nature of institutional relationships in society’. To understand this further, one can use Talcott Parsons’ functionalist ideas as an example. Parsons, [who supported functionalism in the United States] used the functionalist perspective to group institutions in society into four related functional sub-systems; economic, political, kinship, and cultural. This theory stressed the importance of interdependence among all behaviour patterns and institutions within a social system to its long-term survival. In a similar way Durkheim In trying to explain the value of social and cultural character, illuminated them in terms of their contribution to the operation of an ‘overall’ system. Furthermore, Malinowski, who promoted functionalism in England, endorsed the idea that cultural practices had psychological and physiological functions, such as the reduction of fear and anxiety, and the satisfaction of desires. Another Englishman Radcliffe-Brown contended that, ‘all instituted practices ultimately contribute to the maintenance, and hence the survival, of the entire social system, determining the character of inter-group relations.’ It is Parsons ‘sub-system’ of culture that encompasses religion that we now turn to.

A functional definition of religion is fundamentally based on the ‘social structure’ and ‘drawing together’ of people, it pays particular attention to how religion guides and influences the lives of people who are actively involved, and through this promotes ‘unity and social cohesiveness’. Durkheim believed and argued that, religion was a socially constructed institution, serving the needs of society by socialising members into the same norms, values and beliefs, therefore reinforcing the collective conscience upon which the stability of society rests. He looked in depth at the origins, meaning, and function of religion in society. His belief was that religion was not so much about God, but more about the consolidation of society and the sense of identity that this creates within a particular society. He fully believed that individuals who accepted their role within their own society develop a form of ‘social conscience’ as part of that role, which Durkheim labels as the ‘Conscience collective,’ which in simpler terms could be labelled as, ‘ a common understanding’.

Published in 1921 and penned by Durkheim,’ The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life’, is renowned as the best-known study on the sociology of religion. Using secondary data, Durkheim studied native totemism in primitive Australian tribes, in effect the totem is a symbol that is an integral part of the group, and during ceremonies will be the magnet that draws everyone together to form a collective whole. Therefore, totemism in this instance is explained not in terms of what it is, [what the content of its doctrines and beliefs are] – but what it does, that is, the function it performs for the social system. Durkheim claims that, ‘the totem, the sacred object is a representation, by which society symbolises itself,’ which according to Fulcher and Scott, he believed to be the ‘real basis of social solidarity.’ From his observations Durkheim developed his theory of the sacred and profane, believing that all things in society can be separated into these distinct categories, as a fundamental dichotomy the sacred and profane are seen as two separate domains or worlds. For Durkheim the sacred meant the unity of the group embodied in symbols, as in his example of totems, the profane was more about the mundane or the individual, and less concerned with the ‘group’. However the British anthropologist Evans-Pritchard (1937) observed that sacred things may be profane at certain times, an example he gives is the case of the Azande , who, when their shrines were not in ritual use, were used as props to rest their spears. This analysis of the sacred and the profane was extended to all religions by Durkheim and his followers, making a focus on what is similar about what they each do, and about the integrative functions all these religions perform on their social systems. He therefore viewed religion within the context of the entire society and acknowledged its place in influencing the thinking and behaviour of the members of society. Furthermore he believed that order flowed from consensus, from the existence of shared norms and values, for him the key cause of social upheaval stems from anomie, the lack of ‘regulating’ norms. ‘Without norms constraining behaviour’, explains Durkheim, ‘humans develop insatiable appetites, limitless desires and general feelings of irritation and dissatisfaction.’

Radcliffe-Brown continued Durkheim’s sociological perspective of society; he particularly focused on the institutions of kinship and descent and suggested that, at least in tribal societies, they determined the character of family organization, politics, economy, and inter-group relations. Thus, in structural-functionalist thought, individuals are not significant in and of themselves but only in terms of their social status: their position in patterns of social relations. When regarding religious ceremonies Radcliffe-Brown contends that ceremonies, for example, in the form of communal dancing, promoted unity and harmony and functioned to enhance social solidarity and the survival of the society, in this he agreed with another renowned anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski.

Malinowski’s functionalism was highly influential in the 1920s and 1930s, a British anthropologist, he conducted one of the first major studies of religion from an ethnocentric perspective, on the people of the Trobriand Islands. The first anthropologist to undertake a long-term piece of field research, Malinowski lived among the Trobriand islanders for four years. In studying the functions of religion in a small scale, he agreed with Durkheim that ‘religion reinforced social norms, values and promoted social solidarity.’ Malinowski also believed that religion could relieve social anxiety and could provide a sense of security especially when people are faced with situations in which they have no control, an example Malinowski gives is based on his observation of the Trobriand islanders fishing in a calm lagoon, no religious practice was attached, however when faced with the perils of fishing in the open ocean, religious rituals were always performed. In this way Malinowski believed humans could exert a perceived control over a world in which they held no significant, individual power. This individual, perceived control can be seen to be used by people facing a personal crisis. Often in a situation where they have no control over the outcome, people will turn to religion looking for guidance and sanctuary; thereby giving them a sense of power.

For Malinowski then, religion also helped to conciliate periods of life crises and events such as death, marriage and birth, these rituals, known as ‘rites of passage’ are marked by ceremonies, that by their very nature, are a form of ‘social togetherness’ that help to create social order and contentment. These ‘rites’ however can be seen to be controlled in that to a certain extent one is prepared for new life, death and marriage, these events form part the ‘circle of life’ and therefore come with some prior knowledge. Ceremonies that relate to these life events could be seen as a ‘predictable’ common bond that will help to reinforce social solidarity. Malinowski argues that religion minimizes the disruption, in particular, of death. He believes that the assertion of immortality gives rise to feelings of comfort for the bereaved, whilst the act of a funeral ceremony binds the survivors together. Coser (1977) explains further:

Religion can counter a sense of loss, which, as in the case of death, may be experienced on both the individual and the collective level therefore religion as a social institution serves to give meaning to man’s existential predicaments by tying the individual to that supra-individual sphere of transcendent values which is ultimately rooted in his society.

So far we have seen that collective or communal gatherings are generally aimed at promoting social solidarity and cohesion, this is backed by the empirical evidence offered by Malinowski in his study of the Trobriand Islands. Hamilton (1995) offers that these gatherings can also be interpreted as involving the ‘recognition of divisions, conflict and disharmonies inherent in the society and rituals may be seen as a means of coping with and defusing them’.

Concerning Malinowski’s empirical evidence, a contrasting point is noted by Casanova (1995) who questions functionalism on empirical grounds, he argues that religion does not provide consensus and unity, instead he says that most conflicts [an example he gives is the Iran/Iraq war] in society have religious foundations. Marxist sociologists also criticise functionalists on a theoretical level. Marx claims that religion does not create societal consensus, instead it creates conflict between those that have wealth in the ruling class and those that do not in the working class. Therefore according to Marx, the only norms and values that are conserved by religion are those of the ruling class. Functionalist theory could therefore be said to neglect the areas in which religion has been dysfunctional for society, whereby religious divisions have caused disruption and conflict rather than promoting social order. History provides numerous examples of this including the aforementioned Iran/Iraq dispute, Northern Ireland and Bosnia.

An “Extreme functionalist assessment of religion,” declares William Stevens, is put forward by American sociologist Robert Bellah. Bellah fuses Parsons’ argument that America derives its values from Protestantism, with Durkheim’s belief that the worship of god is the disguised worship of society. From this Bellah develops a new kind of religious concept, that of a ‘civil’ religion. Therefore despite the individual belief systems of American citizens, it is the overarching faith in America that unites Americans. Wallis (1983:44) cited in Jones, explains that Bellah finds evidence of civil religion in Presidential inaugurations and ceremonials such as Thanksgiving Day and Memorial Day are similarly held to integrate families into the civil religion, or to unify the community around its values. A further point to be made here is that generally civil religion does not hold to a belief in the supernatural. Bellah disagrees and says examples of confirmation in the supernatural can be seen or heard on a daily basis, phrases such as “God Bless America” and the words ‘In God we trust’ on the national currency, he believes are prime examples of this. However Stevens asserts that this is not the god of any particular creed, but a god of America. For Bellah then civil religion creates a social cohesiveness by gathering people together to collectively partake in some form of ceremonial event. Therefore flag waving at a sporting event or lining the street to celebrate a royal marriage or death can bring about a united outpouring of joy or grief that in itself generates order. A contemporary example is the untimely death of Princess Diana. Her funeral witnessed a monumental combining of people, faiths and nations in a symbolic act of grief.

Functionalist sociologists tend to emphasize what maintains society, not what changes it and are criticized for being unable to account for social change because it focuses so intently on social order and equilibrium in society. Functionalists have to take into account that change does happen in societies and that change is a good thing, and can represent progress. Jones says that the functionalist way around this is to use an organic analogy – social progress occurs as it does with organisms – as an evolutionary change. Bilton et al explain that this takes shape in the form of structural differentiation…’differentiation is a type of splitting or separation of a previously undivided unit, the new units differ in that they are more specialised in the functions they perform’. Talcott Parsons, in his approach to social change, emphasises differentiation. According to Parsons, ‘Institutions change, if the need of the system changes.’ An example of a system change stems from The Industrial Revolution, which was facilitated by capitalism, was increasingly demanding technological advances to increase profit. In order to make this possible there was a need for more educated workforces. As a result the industrial economy needed a new form of family to perform these specialist functions. Thus, as one aspect of society changed – the economy and production – it required a comparable change in the educational system, bringing social life back into equilibrium.

This new modernization of society, explains Marske, ‘is associated with the increasing indifference of the individual from the traditional social bonds of an intimate network of diffuse social relationships.’ Due to a greater demand in the workforce people from all walks of life came together causing an increase in the cultural diversity within a particular society. As a result individuality became a more prominent feature; religion it seems was becoming less social and more personal. Durkheim would disagree with this statement as he believed it was possible to be an individual as well as social institution, he explains,

In reality, the religion of the individual is a social institution like all known religions. It is society which assigns us this ideal as the sole common end which is today capable of providing a focus for men’s wills.

Dillon (2003) explains that social scientists and Western intellectuals have been promising the end of Religion for centuries,

Comte announced that, as a result of modernization, human society was outgrowing the ‘theological stage’ of social evolution and a new age was dawning which the science of sociology would replace religion as the basis or moral judgements.

Durkheim predicted the gradual decrease in formal world religions; in post-enlightenment society he felt that there would be a greater emphasis on the ‘individual’. This he believed would lead to a ‘weakening of ties’ in the modern world. In addition he envisaged that ‘social solidarity’ and the ‘collective conscience’ would be taken up by other institutions that would evolve into new forms of religious experience. Furthermore a maturing modernity would see scientific thinking replace religious thinking. As a consequence, Durkheim considered the ‘concept of “God” to be on the verge of extinction.

In its place he envisioned society as promoting civil religion, in which, for example, civic celebrations, parades, and patriotism take the place of church services. If traditional religion were to continue, he believed it would do so only as a means to preserve social cohesion and order. Parsons disagrees with this synopsis, ‘with modern life will come structural frameworks that are more competitive and specialised, however they would still persist because religion is an adaptable structural framework for the explanation of inexplicable social phenomena.’

A criticism applied to the functionalist’s perspective stems from Durkheim’s analogy that societies and social institutions have personalities. To imagine that a ‘society’ is a living, breathing organism is a difficult concept when in fact it is seen as an inorganic object. This creates what can said to be a philosophical problem and an ontological argument that society does not have needs as a human being does; and even if society does have needs they need not be met. The view here is that society is alive in the sense that it is made up of living individuals. What is not taken into account is that each individual is a different entity, with their own wants and needs. As part of the unit they can function and integrate within the group as a viable member. However individual life choices may not always create a positive function for the society as a whole. Functionalists in general tend to have a too positive view by believing that everything that exists in society does so because it has some kind of functional purpose. Robert Merton believed that it was entirely plausible for society to have dysfunctional elements. Durkheim also recognised that some forms of social life could be seen in the same way, however he did not use the term dysfunctional. In his work on crime, he noted that crime was functional to society, this seems to be a contradiction in that he also said, ‘too high a level of crime’ might not be functional, because it could create a state of confusion regarding what constitutes the ‘norms’ that applied to peoples lives. As a society dysfunctional actions, in particular criminal actions are frowned upon, and as a society we can become ‘mob-handed’ in the way people come together to condemn an act of crime. Durkheim has a point to make here in that, ‘people combine together, forming a collective cohesion in defining themselves against what they are not.’ Picturing society like a vast machine, Merton argues that a society should best be considered as a cross between the cultural “goals” of a society-what it holds its members should strive for-and the “means” that are believed, legally or morally, to be legitimate ways that individuals should attain these goals. In an ideally organized society, the means will be available to deliver all of its members to their goals.

One must take into account when analysing such theories that at the time of writing the world was a very different place to the one we live in today. Social anthropology has come under criticism for looking into primitive societies as a representation of unchanged societies – criticism in particular stems from the lack of historical records that could confirm or deny any findings. Radcliffe-Brown considered this type of work a mistake…his belief was that the religious and ritual systems ‘had to be understood in the context of the existing society and their role in that society.

One could linger on Durkheim’s prediction that religion would decrease with modernity, religion here being in reference to the act of attending a social gathering in the worship of some form, whether it be totemic or divine. However an important point to note is that at the time when the ‘Sociology of Religion’ was in its infancy, religious practice was more of a regular occurrence than one would perhaps find in today’s society. However individuals are still irrevocably influenced by the role of religion in their own lives. Their beliefs and values allow them to feel supported in their everyday life; religion sets aside certain values and infuses them with special significance. Culture plays an important part here, as values, customs and beliefs combine to become a moral code by which societies adhere to and live by and pass on to future generations. Religion encourages collective worship be it in a church, mosque, temple, home or some other specified gathering place. Through the act of collective worship the individual is encouraged to feel part of a wider community.

Today, societies are classed as more secular in their nature, yet if one consider the earlier statement about religion being an important form of social ‘togetherness’ it would be easy to make analogies with the different groups that make up the society we inhabit. For example schools hold assemblies, awards evenings and performances all which can be seen as an example of community spirit and social cohesion. People as individuals, have interests outside of their immediate social groupings, this does not make them an outcast or outsider, and instead it promotes a sense of identity, individualism and the ‘self’. The writings of sociologists such as Durkheim, Comte, Radcliffe-Brown and Parsons are still important today, especially in comparing the way society sees religion. However, in contemporary society sociologists have a different set of problems to contend with as belief in ‘modern society’ and ‘materialism’ for many becomes a more vital ‘moral value’ than partaking in a religious practice.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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WEBLIOGRAPHY

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Human Capital Theory advanced by Backer (1985) states that individuals are rational beings. Therefore, they make choices to invest in human capital (i.e. education and training) in order to increase their productivity in their jobs thereby future earnings. Individuals with higher productivity are rewarded with higher pay (i.e. those who have invested in human capital will receive higher wages because wage is the reward given for the use of labor productivity) (Becker, 1985). Similarly, it is assumed that as number of years in work increases, it increases the level of skill through experience. Hence more experienced workers will be more productive and will have higher pay.

Selectivity Hypothesis

The second explanation for the marriage premium is put forwarded by the Selectivity Hypothesis which states that men with higher earnings and higher productivity potential are likely to marry because they are valued more in the labor and marriage market (Backer, 1985; Ginther and Zavodny 2001). Nakosteen and Zimmerman (1997) interpret the observance of higher wages for married men as an effect of the mate selection process done by women. Therefore, men with higher earnings are more often selected for marriage. For men, their likelihood of marriage depends on their earnings and some personal traits (Chun and Lee, 2001). The attributes that lead to success in the workplace (responsibility, honesty, dedication etc.) overlap with the attributes that lead to success in finding and keeping a spouse (Backer, 1985; Ginther and Zavondy, 2001). As men with higher income are also less likely to divorce than those of men with lover income (Waite and Galladher, 2000), male with higher incomes are most likely to get married and when married, less likely to divorce, therefore likely to have higher earnings than unmarried men. However, the Selectivity Hypothesis does not explain why women are likely to be married. If high earnings or financial security increases the value of men in marriage market, the women with high earnings or with higher productivity potential are likely to defer to marry or prefer not to marry. However, increasing egalitarian gender-role attitudes may mitigate this hypothesis and as stated by Waite (1995), there are other significant benefits of marriage for women.

Productivity Hypothesis

This hypothesis is based on the role of traditional household specialization or division of labor by sex where men are assumed to join workforce whereas women are assumed to go in domestic labor. Therefore, men are regarded as more productive in labor market as they have spend more time to their career and labor market goals (Chun and Lee, 2001). Furthermore, married men have more commitment to their jobs, they are seldom fired and frequently promoted, and in addition receive a larger share of the profits distributed according to individual performance (Backer 1985). Backer (1985) states that men have competitive advantage in labor market whereas women have competitive advantage in household work. In this regard, the unmarried or single men have to specialize in both the labor market and household works, which causes them to exert more time and energy. Waite (1995) also suggests that married men are likely to be benefited from both economic and social benefits.

This hypothesis is not able to explicitly explain the marriage premium for women. The empirical studies that investigate the emerging adults’ work and family commitments (Brielby and Brielby, 1989; Brown and Dickman, 2010) reported that college men and women were equally committed to work and family. Stickney and Konrad (2007) found that women with egalitarian attitudes (career-oriented and independent) have significantly higher earnings than women with traditional attitudes (family oriented and dependent on their men). However, does marriage increases the productivity of women? Treas and Widmer (2000) state that married women likely to prefer to stay at home or part-time work once they have preschool child and they prefer to go back to full time work only after the children leave home. This discontinuation at work and preference over part-time work may reduce the productivity of married women. Some studies observed that women are penalized for their motherhood by underestimating their competencies and by paying lower starting salaries (Peterson and Morgan, 1995; Corell, Benard, and Paik, 2007). Byron (2010) also suggests that pregnant women are penalized for their promotions and discriminated for firing. As married women at work are likely to be pregnant as of their motherhood, they are likely to suffer from low paid or unpaid works.

Summarily, the individual models emphasized the individual level characteristics, like level of education and training, work experience, and behavioral traits as factors influencing earnings inequality between married and unmarried women.

2.2 Structural Approach

Structural approach believes that individuals are shaped by the bigger structures of society. Structural theories focus on the interrelationships between the larger social structures or institutions of the society, and also how these structures and institutions affect individuals in the society (Ritzer and Goodman, 2004). However, in structuralism conception, individual is not the subject matter of analysis in both research and theory construction, and psychological interpretation of human behaviors is not entertained in sociological understanding (Mayhew, 1980). Thus structural approach argues that earnings inequality is a structural phenomenon, and it is determined by the organizations and organizational structure. The job positions in organizational structure are based on an organizational hierarchy often owner, managers and workers, in descending order, where positions towards the top receive higher wages than positions towards the lower hierarchy. Furthermore, Coverdill (1988) states that wages are affected by the structure of the market where the company is operating. There are two models of the structural approach that explain the wage difference – Dual Economy Theory and Segmented Labor Market Theory, which are explained below.

Dual Economy Theory

The dual economy theory assumes that the economy is not homogenous and, therefore, can be divided into monopoly sector and competitive sector (Gordon, Edwards, and Reich, 1982). Sorting of a particular firm in either of the category depends upon the nature of business, size of the firm, industrial location, and market concentration (Tolbert, Horan, and Beck, 1980). In monopoly sector or concentrated markets, the company will have high profit therefore employees in the monopoly sector earn higher wages, have better benefits, more opportunities for mobility, and greater work satisfaction than employees in the competitive sector (Reid and Rubin, 2003). In addition, the monopoly sector requires a stable and trainable workforce, which means education and work experience are the important aspects of gaining entry into the monopoly sector (Coverdill, 1988). In contrast, the competitive market contains small firms with limited markets, low wages, little or no training and skills, minimal job security, and limited career development opportunities (Reid and Rubin, 2003). Hodson (1983) further states that monopoly firms have higher rate of unionization than competitive firms which may lead to higher wages and greater benefits being provided to workers.

While linking these theoretical explanations with the marriage premium, as married men are preferred by employers, married men are likely to be attracted to and employed by the monopoly sector then unmarried men. The attraction of married men in monopoly sector is also linked with prestige, higher pay and benefits. Coverdill (1988) states that women get more job opportunities in the competitive markets than in the monopoly markets because of some institutional barriers created by firms in the monopoly sector. By understanding these explanations, and considering changing labor force and market structures, unmarried women are more likely to work in the monopoly sector and earn higher wages then married women who because of their household responsibilities are likely to be found in less challenging, flexible and part-time works.

Segmented Labor Market Theory

Another structural explanation for earnings inequality is explained by the Segmented Labor Market theory. The theory states that there are different job markets and different job professional works in different job markets. These different job markets are often segmented based on occupation, geography and nature of industry. The occupational labor markets arise from the division of labor, increasing differentiation and specialization. Since each occupational labor market requires specific skills and knowledge, the workers are less likely to switch in to another occupational labor market. It also applies in geographic market segments and industry-wise market segments. Therefore, this theory suggests that wages are directly related to professions and positions in the labor market, not to the workers attributes (Weitzman, 1989). The employees at so called white-collar professions and white-collar positions are liked to have higher earnings than employees at so called blue-collar professions and blue-collar positions. This theory further segregates labor markets into primary labor markets and secondary labor markets. The jobs in primary labor market were characterized by higher wages, better working conditions, more stable employment, and higher return to human capital (Weitzman, 1989). These explanations indicate higher job opportunities in primary labor market for married men then unmarried men and women. The empirical literature that examines income inequality across different professions, particularly white-collar, professional women experience the largest gender wage gap within similar job rank and similar profession. The disparity emerges quickly with a small gender wage gap among college graduates then widens over time as women’s professional careers progress (Peterson and Morgan, 1995). The research on lawyers (Noonan, Cocoran, and Courant 2005), physicians (Boulis and Jacobs 2003), scientists (Prokos and Padavic 2005), financial professionals on Wall Street (Roth 2003), and faculties in higher education (Toutkoushian 1998) indicate that women are earnings less than their men counterparts.

With reference to above explanations the unmarried women or single women are likely to have higher earnings then married women. The unmarried women tend to have higher investment in education and skill development for better career opportunities which make them success in white-collar professions and positions. Boston (1990) states that having never been married is one of the most significant factors in determining the likelihood of upward mobility from blue-collar to white-collar positions and profession.

To sum up, the structural models suggested that occupational level and type, market structure and labor market conditions are responsible for earning difference.

2.3. Gender Level Model

In addition to individual and structural approach, the gender theories explain the earnings inequality between men and women. The gender models state that women are devaluated at work and often sorted for particular segment of work or occupation so-called pink collar jobs (South and Spitze, 1994). Women are made responsible for household work whereas men look over external affairs (i.e. jobs, earning). This separation of women from labor force systematically discriminates on women’s earnings (South and Spitze, 1994). Similarly, employers use gender, race and individual’s background as a job screening mechanism (Gupta, 1993). For example, women are likely to be sorted into clerical and secretarial jobs. Women are thought to have better skills for these jobs compared to men. As a result women receive less pay than men. The discrimination also applies to race and ethnicity. Employers may have certain rank of preference for appointing and promoting employees for job type and job position (Gupta, 1993). Women receive lesser preference on high pay and high ranking positions (Beggs, 2001).

The Gender theories can also be used to explain the earning differences between married and unmarried or single women. Corell, Benard, and Paik (2007) state that mothers experience disadvantages in the workplace in addition to those commonly associated with gender. The women engage more in household works. The household responsibilities further increases as they get married, and become a mother. Furthermore, literature suggests that there exist motherhood wage gap and factors such as reduced investment in human capital by mothers, lower work effort by mothers, and discrimination against mothers by employers are responsible for lower earnings of mothers compared with non-mothers (Corell, Benard, and Paik, 2007). Therefore, these gender based attitudes, functions and responsibilities make married women less pay at work.

3. An Alternative Model and Research Hypotheses

The individual models state that individual characteristics such as education and skill, work experience, and behavioral traits (honesty, commitment, etc.) are important factors explaining wage differences whereas structural models state that structural variables like job position (rank), occupation, and market structure are important factors to explain this wage gap. The gender models further state that the bias towards particular gender, race or ethnicity, and marital status is important reason for wage differences. Since these models individually are not sufficient to explain wage gap between married and unmarried women, this thesis attempts to synthesize individual models, structural models and gender models, and proposes an alternative model for earnings inequality.

The alternative model presented in Figure 1 above shows that individual level characteristics like level of education, work experience determine the level of earnings of individual. This relation is further affected by gender issues like sex, race, ethnicity, marital status, etc. as explained by gender theories. The structural variables like occupation level, industry, etc. determine the level of earnings as explained by structural theories. The structural variables may also have influence on relationship between individual level characteristics and level of earnings. Furthermore, as explained by gender theories, gender issues also influence the structural variables thereby the level of earning.

Figure 1. Alternative Model
Independent Variables Dependent Variable

Individual level variables

Education

Work experience

Structural variables

Job position Wage gap (women)

Job occupation

Gender/Race variables

Gender

Race

Marital status

As explained by individual theories, individuals having higher education qualification, and more work experience will have higher earnings than individuals with lower education qualification and lesser work experience. Similarly, as explained by structural theories, individuals working higher position in job hierarchy and working in white-collar professions will have higher earnings. Furthermore, as stated by gender theories, unmarried women will attain higher job positions in organizational hierarchy. When mapping these relationships, unmarried women tend to invest more in human capital, tend to be sorted for higher positions and white-collar professions, and tend to have less household responsibilities. Therefore, unmarried or single women tend to have higher earnings than married women.

The following hypotheses are formulated and will be tested in this thesis.

Hypothesis 1a: Net of other factors, with an increase in level of education, there will be an increase in earnings.

Hypothesis 1b: Net of other factors, with an increase in work experience, there will be an increase in earnings.

Hypothesis 2a: Net of other factors, the higher the position in hierarchy of jobs, the more earnings.

Hypothesis 2b: Net of other factors, high-skill occupations will have higher earnings than that of low-skill occupations.

Hypothesis 3a: Net of other factors, unmarried women will attain high-skill occupations than married women.

Hypothesis 3b: Net of other factors, unmarried women will have higher earnings than married women.

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In this essay, we shall be discussing the 3 main structural approaches in society; Functionalism, Marxism and Feminism, and how useful they are in todays understanding of society. We shall look at the similarities and differences between each approach and critically assess them, by looking at the strengths and weaknesses for each. The key terms and concepts will be mentioned, as well as the key sociologists associated with each approach.

The term sociology is defined in the dictionary as ‘the study and classification of human societies’. Overall, this is the study of people in different social groups, the way they behave, and how different parts of society influence peoples ideas and social behaviour. Belonging to a social group can affect how we see ourselves and how other people see us. Both of these factors can affect how our life works out.

The main groups we tend to belong to are gender, class, ethnicity and age.

The first approach we will be looking into is functionalism. This approach is a balanced, social equilibrium. A system in which there is a dynamic working balance among its interdependent parts. The ruling class benefits in every way from the operation of society, they believe in meritoctracy which basically means that they ‘believe’ that they deserve to have the most powerful positions. The workers get far less than they deserve, but they do not question this due to the way they have been ‘socialised’. People are the product of social influences on them.

Functionlism is closely associated with Talcott Parsons who was a key sociologist in the 1940’s. This approach still provides us with a useful framework for the study of sociology today. Parsons came up with the idea that society is like a human body. Each part of the body has a function to keep it alive and healthy, just like each part of society work together and depend on each other. People are socialised into key values of society such as respect for authority and importance of family life, the result of this is value consensus. Functionalism provides good links between social institutions, it is a simple and clear approach to understand, however it completely ignors the freedom of choice. People have different values and attitudes, as well as the unequal distribution of wealth and power in a capitalist society. A Marxism view on the otherhand views conflict and division as normal features of society.

Marxism is based on social class dominant ideology, just like functionalism it is a macro structure which means it is based on a larger scale.

Karl Marx was around in the 19th century, he believed that a capitalist society is divided into two groups. All of societys dominant ideologies worked to favour the first group ‘the bourgeoisie’ (Those with power, the owners of production) against the second group ‘the proletariat’ (The workers, those without power). Marx also thought the ideologies worked to keep the power balance constant and he called this society’s status quo. The relationship between the bourgeoisie and proletariat is however unequal and as such based on conflict. The majority of the population accept the inequalities of the system because of the way that dominant institutions such as religion and educstion justify the economic and social situation. Marx describes them as suffering from false class consciousness due to the fact they are not aware of their real identity, they are exploited by the bourgeoisie. Marxism is a approach which suggests that we are brainwashed by ideology; ‘you must respect authority, if you work hard you will do well, you must respect the rule of law’.

Lois Althusser (1971) was another marxism sociologist. He believed in ideological state apparatus which is basically another term for the agencies transmitting ruling class ideology such as schools and family. A good reason for the marxism approach is that it can account for large scale change, however there are many critisms such as it emphasised too much on conflict. People choose what to do and think and are not brainwashed by ideology. It could also be argued that capitalism has now improved peoples standards of living. The fact woman are now seen as being equal to men in the work place is one result of this. Marxist feminists argued that the ratio of woman to men was directly linked to their position within a capitalist society. Thus bringing us onto discuss our final approach, feminism.

Feminism is a conflict between the sexes. It also takes a macro approach to studying society. Feminist sociologists argue that women do not have equal rights to men. There are four main tendencies within feminism; liberal, radical, marxist and black. Liberal feminists look for equilibrium with men and woman, they believe people should be treated fairly and given better paid jobs etc in accordance with theyre skills and effort and not due to what sex they are. Radical feminists believe that we live in a patriarchy society, which means woman are over powered by men. They believe that we no longer need men to procreate due to new technology available. Marxist feminists also believe in patriarchy, in a capatilist society, woman are neglected certain legal rights and therefore excluded from certain areas of work compared to men. Black feminism argue that white feminists ignore the position of a black woman as they have a double disadvantage due to racism and patriarchy.

Famous feminism sociologists include Ann Oakley who in 1969 registered for a PHD on women’s attitudes to housework, this subject pizzled the academic establishment at the time. She is best known for her work on sex and gender, housework, childbirth and feminist social science. Ann first became interested in feminism when she herself became a subject in the 1960’s becoming a mother of two and realising herself how deeply undervalued and isolating womans work in the home can be. Ann believes that we still have ongoing sex equalilty issues today, woman still earn less and have less political power and do most of the worlds menial (but important) domestic work. She also has strong beliefs that gender issues in violence and crime cause huge social problems in todays society. Suggesting that most crimes of violence are committed by men.

‘A sociological perspective enables social workers to step back from taken for granted assumptions about social life and encourages them to critically unpack these assumptions, to develop skills which enable them to link issues in their own lives (and in the lives of service users) to the ‘bigger picture’ (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2008:7).

With reference to this statement, outline how sociological theories and concepts may be useful to social workers?

Human society consists of many complex and interconnecting systems. Individuals, through the process of socialization, learn the rules and norms of society and adopt a way of life through cultural and environmental factors which instil perception and behaviour (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2008). Culture varies among different societies and is often unconsciously taken for granted but its impact determines the learning process, behaviour, thoughts, feelings and values based on pre-existing inbuilt guidelines (Haralambos, 2000). Sociologists aim to explain how a person’s life can be shaped by institutions and other social influences. Sociology was described by Charles Wright Mills as “the study of public issues that derive from the private troubles of people” (Brewer, 2004). Key theories emerged from varying perspectives most predominantly structural: consensus or conflict and agency: social action/interpretation. Structural theories focus on the institutions and structures which emerged from the process of industrialisation whereas agency theory is based on individual interaction to the social world.

Traditional consensus theory of functionalism, derives from its principal figure Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), viewing society as a system of interlinking parts and institutions working together to achieve stability and solidarity (Cree, 2000). Social order and control are maintained through shared values and collective ways of thinking resulting in mutual agreement and social harmony. Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) believed, like Durkheim, that socialisation through institutions such as the family develops the normative framework of social and cultural beliefs which ensures social stability (Cree, 2000). Inequality is deemed inevitable in society and necessary to maintain equilibrium as through social stratification individuals strive, performing different roles according to their ability enabling an effective society (Llewellyn, 2008). The influence of main institutions and social roles allow regulated and predictable behaviour ensuring social order (Haralambos, 2000). Critics of this approach, particularly conflict perspective originating from Karl Marx (1818-1883) which also examines the structures in society, but point out that functionalists only consider the consensus in society and dispute the idea of shared morals and values in society arguing these are defined by those with power and people are expected to conform accordingly. Marxists claim society is divided by the class system of bourgeoisie and proletariat, which, following industrial capitalism resulted in social exploitation and alienation of the proletariat, creating inequality and struggle (Llewellyn, 2008). Those with the means of ownership and production are able to access all parts of society whereas those without are restricted, having less opportunity for advancement together with variations in life expectancy, health and education. Marxism emphasises how social structures and institutions produce divisions of power creating domination and control over others. Unequal power is deemed responsible for disadvantage and fewer life chances for some members of society (Giddens, 2001). Individual problems are blamed on social institutions and class status, unlike Functionalists who believe people can be educated to fit in with the mechanics of society (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2008).

Feminist perspective of society is similar to Marxist; society is divided through exploitation, but highlight the division is gendered; women are dominated and controlled by men. Institutions are patriarchal, powered and ruled by men which oppresses all areas of a woman’s life: family, economic, professional (Haralambos, 2000).

Whereas the aforementioned perspectives emphasise structures in society, agency perspectives centre on how an individual is free to act upon the environment, therefore society is not wholly responsible for individual choices (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2008). Social action perspectives, derived from the thinking of Max Weber (1864-1920), concentrate on individual choices within the social setting. Symbolic interactionism bases theory on members of social structures and how language, meaning and symbols are interpreted and understood, which in turn influences interaction and behaviour within society (Giddens, 2001). G H Mead (1934) claimed “individuals give meaning to the world by defining and interpreting it in certain ways” these meanings are constantly changing throughout the life-course (Cree, 2000:14). Mead believed even unintentional communication and information received from others allows an individual to become self aware, more able to develop and refine their social identity, thus able to adapt in different social situations. Cooley (1902) previously described this in his description of the ‘looking glass self’, constantly developing in accordance with the perception received from others, the social self is constantly being refined (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2008). Reflection on reaction of others allows development of self concept which in turn influences action, people act in terms of their definition of self (Haralombos, 2000). The focus of social action approaches is based at micro level: individual encounters, rather than macro level, which critics argue overlooks the bigger picture including the larger issues of power which underpins oppression and inequality (Jones, 2003).

There are multiple views on the social world, more recent developments such as postmodernism theory highlights how society has moved on and advanced therefore traditional universal theory is no longer relevant in a diverse and cultured society. However combining insights and different aspects from the varying perspectives develops what is termed a ‘sociological imagination’ which, as Giddens (1984) identified, having an informed approach is necessary to allow an understanding of how both micro and macro factors impact individual lives and behaviour (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2008). Recognising how social settings and institutions influence human action together with self perception built on the reaction from interaction with others, helps to provide explanations and reasons as to why people behave differently (Jones, 2003). C Wright Mills believed the sociological imagination allows understanding of how personal troubles are derived from public issues, having a broader outlook of the social world provides enlightenment of viewpoints other than our own and heightened awareness of how others live and the problems encountered (Giddens, 2001).

Developing a ‘sociological imagination’ is essential for those in the social work profession to perceive problems of vulnerable groups and individuals. Issues of disadvantage and inequality are at the centre of practice with service users being of the most impoverished people in society faced with issues of poverty, unemployment, ill health, crime and social exclusion thus awareness of how social processes can lead to marginalisation and isolation is vital to develop empathy and understanding (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2008). Social work aims to empower others therefore it is important to recognise that personal problems may not be self made but due to social practices and influencing structures, to assess strengths and weaknesses of individuals the wider context of ecological, environmental and social factors must be considered due to the impact they have (Cree, 2000). Berger (1963) claimed that in order to see the world differently it is necessary to deconstruct the familiar taken for granted assumptions allowing a more comprehensive view which for social workers better equips understanding of the lives of others when intervention is required (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2008).

Another important aspect to consider for the social work profession is the issue of power and how it can perpetuate social problems. Social workers hold powerful roles both legally and working as agents of institutions, as theory suggests power in itself underpins inequality, being conscious of this enables an anti-oppressive approach to practice which is crucial. Social work practice needs to be based on an empowering approach rather than control therefore practitioners must have a clear understanding of the dynamics of power and its ability to exercise control over others (Smith, 2010). Those with positions of power are also capable of assigning labels through pre-existing stereotypical views which can result in marginalisation of individuals who may internalise these attached labels through social processes and interpretation and behave according to the perceived role (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2008). Theory is essential for practitioners when formulating strategies for service users as social work intervenes at the points people interact with society therefore unless the underlying reasons for disadvantage, inequality, discrimination and oppression are known, appropriate and effective intervention is not possible (Thompson, 2006).

Urban Planning & Urban DesignABSTRACT

The effect of over exploitation of nature resources by human and also lack of awareness of good planning and design in the cities causes many problems to many cities in the world. That is why it was crucial to have good planning system in the city and also to put the planning into practice with the design of the city itself. Urban planning is a mixture of planning in physical (like roads, maps and land use plan) but also it is dealing with nonphysical planning like regulation, policies in the city or regional levels. Furthermore urban designs are more focusing on the art of making places; this includes the way places work and matters such as community safety. The integration between these two fields is that urban planners are more focusing on the function of the city as a whole, and the urban designers will try to interpret it in the design of the city.

One of the main elements in urban planning and urban design is green open space. The latter is the region or ground surface area which is dominated by plants that are promoted to a particular habitat protection functions. Green open space has many various functions which vary from social, economical and environmental aspects.

One of the better ways to improve the green open space and conserve it is by implementing smart growth. The latter is one of the researches that have been conducted in USA to approach a sustainable development in America. These researches have produced ten principles of successful community from every part of the world. The principles in smart growth are considered to be good examples to be also implemented in other countries. Furthermore, the use of the smart growth principles needs to localize these principles regarding to the country condition, culture and legislation.

In general, the understanding of the characteristics of different types of open spaces in an urban and rural matrix may guide authorities (local and country) in the long term planning process. The assessment of change in green open space system is equally important to take measures in maintaining livable countries and cities. Also planning and designing for a green open space are very important in promoting the development of any country.

URBAN PLANNING AND URBAN DESIGN (Green open space)

Since the existence of humankind, planning was among the main issues to deal with; this is so because planning helps him to organize his activities and to predict his future. It is on the basis of this that cities have also been put into account in planning. However, as the human society is growing up, this development is bringing some problems to our earth since there is over exploitation of the world resources. Due to this over exploitation of the earth, natural resources; and other mal- human activities (socio-economic), such as pollution and waste problems, lose of natures conservation, biodiversity, ecology and green coupled with the emergence and dangers of climate change, global warming and its negative implications on living quality in recent times and in future to the whole world, there is a growing interest in sustainability, sustainable development and its incorporation into plans of all sorts.

Despite this issues of global warming, researches have shown that green open space can be one of the solutions of that problem. Green open space has effect on microclimates. Trees and planting can result in the reduction of peak summer temperatures by up to 5° Celsius. Thus, trees can be included in the City’s street scene designs wherever possible, to provide shade and cooling and consequently reduce global warming (City of London, 2009). Basing on the above said, we found important to discuss about urban design and urban planning: Green Open Space.

CONNECTION BETWEEN URBAN PLANNING AND URBAN DESIGN

According to Peter Hall, 2002, the verb ‘’to plan” and the noun ‘’planning” and planner, have in fact only the second general group of meanings: they do refer to the art of drawing up a physical plan or design on paper. They can mean either ‘’either ‘’to arrange the parts of” or ‘’to realize the achievement of ‘’or” more vaguely, to ‘’intend”. The most common meaning of planning involves both the first two of these elements; planning is concerned with deliberately achieving some objectives and it proceeds by assembling actions into some orderly sequence. It is on the basis of this that Gallion and Eisner, 1993, defined urban planning as an attempt to create an orderly development in urban areas and reduce social conflicts and economic conditions that would endanger the lives and property.

On the other hand, urban design is about how to recapture certain of the qualities (qualities which we experience as well as those we see) that we associate with the traditional city: a sense of order, place, and continuity, richness of experience, completeness and belonging. Urban design lies somewhere between the broad-brush abstractions of planning and the concrete specifics of architecture. (Cowan, 1997).

As we can see it through the definitions, there are some similarities and differences between these two subjects. Though, the above definition can be summarized as follows (see the table below):

From this table, urban planning has a role to make sure that a city is working and functioning well that is why urban and regional planning is focusing on various issues such as economical, social and environmental issues while, urban design is more focusing on aesthetical values like sense of place, building character, pedestrian design and design of public space. Furthermore, sometimes urban planners can become very micro like urban designers. They can make some designs of the cities which is the main task of urban designers. In revenge urban designers can make plans for policies and guidelines. Because urban planning and urban design are very wide, we found important to discuss about green open space as a focus point.

GREEN OPEN SPACE

Green Open Space is the region or ground surface area which is dominated by plants that are promoted to a particular habitat protection functions, and / or facilities neighborhood / city, and / or network security infrastructure, and / or agricultural cultivation. (Directorate General of Spatial Planning, Indonesia Ministry of Public Works, 2007). Nowadays, the concept” open space” in complex matrix is not limited only to the urban park and preserves but also non park-non natural-places. Public spaces such as streets, school yards, outdoor sport complexes, cemeteries, and public squares are important green open spaces (Hall, 1998).

Why plan and design for green open space?

The process of getting everyone together to think about community needs is worthwhile endeavor in itself. An urban open space plan is much more than a land acquisition plan. It can make a wide variety of recommendations about the future of a country.

So, we have to plan for a green open space because:

· A green open space plan is the flip side of a development plan. After identifying important green open spaces, it will be much more apparent where development should occur.

· It recommends land use regulations that will help to protect the community from uneconomic and inefficient sprawl. (Department of Environmental Conservation , California, 2004)

It is for this reason that it is essential for urban planners to determine the function of green open space in order to increase its value (such as water conservation, wetland area, city lungs). When you talk about why plan and design for green open space, it is essential to look at the size and levels of green open space.

Green Open Space (size and level)

It exists two types of green open space: rural open space and urban open space. Rural open space is made of habitat, recreation, health/ safety (flooding/seismic), agriculture/ rangelands, river and stream parkways while urban open space is constituted by recreation, trails and parkways, stream and canal corridors, natural resources and public space (Department of Environmental Conservation, California, 2004).

However, it is too difficult to determine an international size of green open space by different levels because every country has its policies, own physical characteristics and culture but we have an example from United Kingdom which can be a best practice.

The United Kingdom Accessible Natural Green Space Standard (ANGS) mentioned that:

· No person should live more than 300 m from their nearest area of natural green space of at least two (2) hectares in size;

· There is provision of at least two (2) hectares of Local Nature Reserve per 1,000 population;

· That there should be at least one accessible 20 ha site within two (2) km from home

· That there should be one accessible 100 ha site within five (5) km;

· That there should be one accessible 500 ha site within (10) km.

We can not only discuss about the size and levels of green open space in urban planning and urban design, we need also to recognize the functions of green open space because the latter are always planned for certain purposes.

Function of Green open space

Green open spaces are vital part of landscapes with its own specific set of function. Open spaces (natural or manmade) contribute to the quality of life in many ways (Burke and Ewan, 1999). Beside important environmental benefits (such as improvement of the quality of air, soil and water, decrease of noise levels, reduction of thermal amplitude variations, protection against the winds, waste Management, improvement of the infiltration and drainage of storm water, reduction of flood risks), these areas provide social psychological services (such as Recreation and Leisure, Increasing physical and Psychological well-being, Sociability) which are critical for the livability of the city and well being of urbanites (Chiesura, 2004). Thompson (2002) sees green open space as places to celebrate cultural diversity, to engage with natural processes and to conserve memories. Green open space has also economic function: it promotes the image of the city, increase the selling point. It contributes ecologically because it diminishes the process of erosion and promotes biodiversity.

These above functions can be combined each other. For example in Houten, we saw that green open space is combined with wet land area. The functions of green open space are water conservation and recreation. Also, green areas are used to encourage people to cycling. This is done by planning green open space along the bicycle pathways. Here, green space has multifunctional purpose like encouraging cycling and enhancing community health.

As it is stated above, today, green open space is mainly planned with a purpose of fighting against global warming; this is why we found important to talk about its role in combating against this worldwide issue.

THE ROLE OF GREEN OPEN SPACE IN FIGHTING AGAINST GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE

There is a growing consensus that global warming is one of the greatest threats facing humanity.

Different researches have shown that greenhouse gases are the first to keep the earth warm, human use of fossil fuels is the main source of excess greenhouse gases. By driving cars, using electricity from coal-fired power plants, or heating our homes with oil or natural gas, we release carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gases into the atmosphere. Deforestation is another significant source of greenhouse gases, because fewer trees mean less carbon dioxide conversion of oxygen. This is why some scientists say that: “The bigger are the cities, the more the urban citizen is deprived of contact with the environment, the more he despises or simply ignores the other elements of ecosystem. He becomes more and more hostile and the men look for refuge during more time inside artificial environment” Monteiro, 2001. This author wanted to express that the growing of the city affects the environment because the forest, trees or green in general are replaced by urban infrastructures like houses, streets, public building, etc. This idea is also supported by Sing Chew, 2001 in his book: world ecological degradation. Accumulation, urbanization and deforestation, he said that: “In all the process of urbanization, depending on the nature and levels of consumption and production, generates ecological degradation when the nature becomes extremely exploitative”.

It is true that if you build a bigger city you will consume more sources and also you could have big impact to the environment, and if you are not limiting the growth of your cities you will lose a lot of nature area. However, big cities have a lot of advantages and opportunities thus we cannot do away from them because of green open space. Big cities are good for economy so to have big cities is not a problem; it depends upon of how you plan for them. You have to limit the growth of the cities, integrate cities with environment and make sure that people have more contact with environment. And as you know, you cannot achieve this without good planning, this is why it is important to discuss about green open space and planning.

GREEN OPEN SPACE AND PLANNING

According to Knopf, 1987; Gerlach-Spriggs et al., 1998; Cooper Marcus and Barnes, 1999), for thousands of years, there have been ideas to the effect that human health and welfare are influenced in a positive way by his spending time in natural surroundings – wild nature as well as enclosed gardens. It is for that reason that green open space is the main issue to be prioritized in city planning. It can be primarily planned if you consider the green open spaces as your main priority; it means that you emphasize the environmentally friendly concept rather than other issues. For examples: Green Cities and Eco-Village.

On the other hand, open space and green must be planned at the same level with other activities. Example if you are planning for a residential area you cannot prioritize green open space but you have to plan for it at the same level with housing. This is very important for sustainability and as we know, sustainability takes into account social, economical and environmental aspects.

It also depends on the situation that occurs in that country, for example if the transportation issues like traffic congestion or urbanization are more dominant more than any other issues then the planning will give emphasis more on the transportation issues.

Concerning the role of urban and regional planners, they can develop plans for long-and short-term land use and growth and regeneration of green spaces. Planners seek to optimize land for parks and other public facilities related to the green open space. They can help local leaders to lessen social, economic and ecological issues by recommending sites for green space. In order to enhance the awareness and understanding of this, urban planners could use media such as mass media, magazines, online media, radio, news papers, and television as tools of communicating with community and stakeholders, about how the urban planner arranges the space in the same understandings and meanings (Edison, 2009). There should be at least a diversion of responsibilities of all stakeholders in arrangement and using of spaces. In that way we could make a comfortable, safe, productive and sustain living environment (Fauzi, 2009).This work includes forecasting future needs of the population. Planners consider the public opinions to ensure that these facilities meet the needs of a growing population and development. They can also help to make decisions about resource development and protection of green spaces. The planners can also help to legislate on the environment thus green open space will be well protected and will always be attractive. On the side of finance, they can look at the aspect of taxation, though they can plan for green open space near high class residential areas (taxes can be paid by high level income people).

CONCLUSION:

Grosso modo, green open space is among the infrastructures that contribute to the smooth development of our world because it has social, economical and environmental functions. Due to the functions and the role green open space plays in the cities, they are fundamental elements, inductors of quality of life. When they get organized in systems like the green structure, their value is potentiated and incremented then contributing more efficiently to the quality of life. It is for that reason that green open space has to be promoted in the whole world. In nowadays, green open space is well thought-out because of its role in fight against the global warming and climate change. That is why it is incorporated in different spatial plans around the world. At this juncture, urban planners are identifying important green open spaces and determine always much more apparent where development should occur. So, land use regulations that will help to protect the community from uneconomic and inefficient sprawl will be put in place. This planning is done at different level with various size of green open space (we have to note that this differ from one country to another).

After analyzing the importance of green open space, we discovered that smart growth can be a solution for green open space (in planning) because it takes into account the concept of sustainability. (Heberle and Susan M.Opp, 2008) and it is in smart growth that we find the principle of mix land uses which always gives room for green open space (Wheeler, M. and Beatley, T. (2006). Thus, it is suggested to urban planners to think about smart growth when planning for green open space in cities. Here, urban planners are obliged to work with national, regional, and local partners to give the tools and means needed to ascertain and prioritize areas to realize smart green open space. The implementation of locally based, long term green open space plans is a critical element in achieving smart growth. Well-managed open space programs can safeguard the natural green infrastructure of a place, offering opportunities for recreation, preserving important environmental and ecological functions, and enhancing community quality of life.

REFERENCES

Burke. and Ewan, J., 1999. Sonoran Preserve Master Plan for the Phoenix Sonoran Desert, City of Phoenix Parks, Recreation and Library Department.

Chiesura, A., 2004. The Role of Urban Parks for the Sustainable City. Landscape and Urban Planning. 68, pp. 129-138.

Cook, E. A., 2000. Ecological Networks in Urban Landscapes. Wageningen University, Wageningen.

Cook, E. A., 2002. Landscape structure indices for assessing urban ecological networks. Landscape and Urban Planning, 58, pp. 269-280.

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English Nature,( 2003). Accessible Natural Green Space Standards in Towns and Cities: A Review and Toolkit for their Implementation. External Relations Team English Nature. Northminster House. England

Hall, P., 1998. Sociable Cites: The Legacy of Ebenezer Howard, Wiley, Chichester.

Hall, 2002. Urban and regional planning. Fourth Edition. Routeledge. New York.

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(Eds.), Handbook of environmental psychology (pp.783-825). New York: John Wiley.

Morris, C. 1971. Writings on the general theory of signs. Approaches to Semiotics 16, 1-486.

Lauren C. Heberle and Susan M.Opp, 2008.Local Sustainable Urban Development in a Globalized World. Ashgate publishing limited. Hampshire.

Laboratory of Landscape Planning Department of Landscape Architecture – Faculty of Agriculture – IPB. 2005 .Workshop Papers – Development of Green Open Space System in City. Directorate General of Spatial Planning. Indonesia Ministry of Public Works. Retrieved from: http://www.penataanruang.net/taru/Makalah/051130-rth.pdf at 1 December 2009.

Thompson, C.W., 2002. Urban open space in the 21st century. Landscape and Urban Planning. 60(2), pp. 59-72.

Wheeler, M. and Beatley, T. (2006). The sustainable urban development reader, Routledge publications, New York.

Internet reference:

Bowo, Fauzi. 2009. http://www.jakarta.go.id/v70/index.php/en/bangunan-cagar-budaya/176-latest/2569-hari-tata-ruang-dki-kembalikan-fungsi-jalur-hijau. Spatial Planning Day – The Restoration of Green Lines function. The Official Website of Jakarta Province. Consulted at 13 December 2009.

City of London (2009). www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/openspaces. Parks and open spaces. London. Consulted at December 8, 2009.

Edison Naiborhu , Bahal . 2009. http://www.penataanruang.net/eng/detail_b_en.asp?id=841. Important Role of Mass Media towards Spatial Order. Jakarta. Directorate General of Spatial Planning, Indonesia. Consulted at 13 December 2009.

In what sense are aggressive behaviors, i.e. conflict, competition, and dominance, universal characteristics of humans? What is the evidence that in some cultures aggressive behaviors are rarely observed and strongly sanctioned? How is such an outcome achieved?

Humans are innately social animals, whose existence depends on a continued complex relationship with other human beings. Expressed aggression will inevitably lead to an individual or group as the dominator, and an individual or group as the dominated. Since human origin, individuals and groups have had continuous conflicts in search for the best economic resources, the most fertile land, and the most sustainable reproductive social group. For this reason, human history is full of aggressive conflicts and sanctioned aggressive behaviors. This essay is a brief composition summarizing the outcomes of aggressive human behaviors, specifically focusing on whether dominance, competition, conflict, and war are caused by nature, nurture, or both. This essay also presents case studies of rare amicable, nonviolent societies and their achievements of peace and human security.

It is widely agreed among evolutionary anthropologists and sociobiologists that aggression is a biologically universal human characteristic (Dennen & Falger 1990; Schmookler 1995; Wrangham & Peterson 1996); however, many contemporary cultural anthropologists advocate that aggression is a cultural construct (Kropotkin 1914). Indeed, the historical debate between nature and nurture is vigorous, as the categories of human intrinsical, interactional, and environmental traits are blurred. Hobbes (ed. Tuck 1991) argued that war is a functional part of human nature that maintains a balance of power and solidarity. Rousseau (Jonathan 2005) defended the position that war is independent from human nature, and is therefore a dysfunctional social construct invented by states intended to protect societies. In contrast, Malthus (Pullen 1989) believed war to be a functional mechanism imparted by God to humans to reduce populations at necessary intervals through an innate expression of aggression and a need for in-group cohesion to maintain a sustainable equilibrium.

The nature-nurture debate continues still, from early philosophers to contemporary scholars with no definitive answer. The debate however has recently grown more complex with a greater comprehension of biological predispositions that effect human behavior. The most compelling explanation is that many biological predispositions, like aggression and competition, can be distinguished from, but influenced by, the cultural environment (Renfrew 1997). Every living organism, Ridley (2003, p. 236) argues, is an instrument for ‘genes to grow, feed, thrive, replicate, and die’, but most importantly its primary survival function is reproduction. Reproduction undoubtedly catalyzes a competitive force to create descendants. This essay reputes the position that biological factors influence the cultural, or as Ridley (2003) describes it ‘nature via nurture’. More specifically, reproduction and aggression biologically entail phenotypic outcomes.

All humans feel the need to eliminate competitors, or the offspring of competitors to protect reproductive capital such as territory and mates (Low 2000, p. 214). This can be achieved through aggressive non-violent dominance or aggressive violent conflicts. Anderson and Bushman (2002, p.28) defines human aggression as ‘any behavior directed toward another individual that is carried out with the proximate (immediate) intent to cause harm.’ This, however, does not mean that the individual has carried out the harmful conduct. It can be inferred then, that aggression is a means to create an inverse relation to achieve a goal through someone without the use of harm or violence.

The definition of violence, such as war, conflict, competition, and dominance is arbitrary. For example, violence in one culture can be very different to another culture, or even to individuals of the same culture. Anderson & Bushman (2002, p.29) defines violence as ‘aggression that has extreme harm as its goal (e.g., death)’. When comparing the two definitions, it is clear that violence is aggressive expression but, conversely, aggression does not always lead to violence. These definitions lead to the conclusion that aggression is biological and universal among humans and furthermore, violence is nature via nurture. In fact, human expression of violence is minimal compared to aggression. Aggression can be observed in almost every human interaction in the form of non-violent dominance and competition for social capital (Dennen & Falger 1990).

Culture arbitrates in inverse relations with norms, mores, folkways, and taboos to prevent aggression turning into rampant violence. With the mediation of culture, aggression via violence serves multiple functions and dysfunctions within human societies (Dennen & Falger 1990). Established in-out groups create and maintain group identity and boundary lines between societies. This stratification then creates reciprocal hostility between groups and creates the need for social institutions. These institutions often act as social filters preventing impulsive social conflict between in-out groups (Dennen & Falger 1990). These filters also act as a mobilization mechanism, unifying the energies of group members, thus increasing group cohesion or reaffirming state sovereignty (Dennen & Falger 1990).

Without group unification, powerful charismatic people cannot rally a society toward a collective interest. Social order is achieved through rules and commands issued by these powerful people to maintain a normative system of society and influence the weaker people to represent their will (Dennen & Falger 1990). The example of aggression (nature) via dominance (nurture) complies with the laws of mutual aid and mutual struggle (Wrangham & Peterson 1996; Kropotkin 1914 ). Through these two laws humans directly benefit from achieved power, status, and resources through competition; however, as a result, 60 percent of all human societies engage in warfare at least yearly (Low 2000, p. 223). War would be inevitable if the genetic basis alone dictated human action.

The above arguments have uncovered that the universal character of human conflict, competition, and dominance is contingent on biological aggressive behaviors. Ethnographic records and historical accounts tell a clear story of hominid catalyzed aggression (Carmen 1997). From primate pack raiding, to Homo habilis tribal skirmishes, to Homo erectus group battles, to Neandertal societal armed conflicts, to Homo sapien civilization wars (Schmookler 1995 p. 74-87; Otterbein 2004), humans have perpetually constructed cultural systems to solve the recurrent problem of violent aggression via mutual aid and mutual struggle.

Through history, humans have been actively altering their environments through problem solving to best suit intellectual development, which has caused an inevitable in-group/out-group competition (Schmookler 1995). The more humans mutually support each other, the more intellectual development occurs; conversely, the more human intellect increases, the larger civilizations become, and more blood is shed (Schmookler 1995). That is, greater levels of population pressure are associated with a greater likelihood of warfare. Furthermore, ‘warfare is more likely in advanced horticultural and agrarian societies than it is in hunting-and-gathering and simple horticultural societies, and that it is also more likely in hunting-and-gathering and agrarian societies that have above-average population densities’ (Nolan 2003). Thus, the denser human population becomes, the laws of mutual aid and mutual struggle become more imposed. This is evidence that culture can intensify or suppress expressions of aggression. For the most part, however, culture has been unsuccessful at eliminating violence.

Since mutual aid and mutual struggle has failed to resolve the problem of universal conflict, surely something must provide a solution. Kropotkin (1914, p. 74) argues that, ‘better conditions are created by the elimination of competition by means of mutual aid’, thus establishing a cultural ecology of pacificism. This argument fails because, as presented above, innate aggression induces competition for optimal human survival. To completely eliminate competition, aggression must first be entirely suppressed. Complex human culture is unable to hinder aggression to the degree of elimination, but Kropotkin inadvertently made a good point. Once competition is reduced, social disparities and meritocracy will also decrease, thus preventing the less dominant group from obtaining the subordinate position (Schmookler 1995). The latter part of this essay will draw upon case studies to argue that competition reduction has been the primary objective for many tribal societies and welfare states.

Kropotkin (1914) uses numerous examples to argue that societies with intra-group cohesion rarely encounter intra or inter-group conflict. Among them is a Papuan tribe located in Geelwink Bay, studied by G.L. Blink (1888). Kropotkin (1914, p. 94) interprets Blink’s account as, ‘never having any quarrels worth speaking of’ and ‘never had he any conflict to complain of’ which is unsupported because Blink, in his field notes writes, ‘war prisoners are sometimes eaten’. Kropotkin does not completely overlook this statement of warfare, but this case study fails to prove his point that inter-group peace is achievable. Kropotkin, therefore, makes a detrimental mistake in his argument for exemplifying paramount sociability and inter-tribal peace. It seems Kropotkin was attempting to persuade readers through an anarchist agenda by centering on the Papuan peaceful in-group relations and describing the Papuan tribe as having a primitive communist system (Kropotkin 1914, p. 93-95).

By using examples of Inuit tribes, Kropotkin once again glorifies in-group mutual aid, but abandons emphasis on inter-group conflict. In summarizing Veniaminoff, Kropotkin (1914, p. 100) writes, ‘one murder only had been committed since the last century in a population of 60,000 people’, irrespective of mass infanticide to maintain a sustainable population. In truth, Inuit tribes rely heavily on cooperation and reciprocity for intra-group survival; however, they are not exempt from inter-group hostility as Kropotkin omits (1914, p. 95-104; Gat 1999, p. 26). Anthropologist Reynolds (1985, p. 24) asserts that, ‘Eskimos had limited their aggressiveness in past fights with other Eskimos, but had been more brutal in fights with other North American Indian peoples’. Although restrained and ritualized, Inuit did wage combat against each other and engaged in inter-ethnic conflict (Gat 1999, p. 26). Even Veniaminoff, whom Kropotkin (1914, p. 99) quotes, writes that for Aleoutes ‘it is considered shameful toaˆ¦ask pardon from an enemy; to die without ever having killed an enemy’. Once again, Kropotkin relates the primitive society with his anarchical communist agenda to prove in-group solidarity and peace is achievable, but avoids out-group enmity.

Specifically, Kropotkin takes a Rousseauean social Darwinist stance on aggression and conflict by arguing that humans are innately peaceable and cooperative. Nevertheless, Kropotkin shares a commonality with Rousseau, Malthus, and Hobbes; each has constructed two functional and universal explanations for aggression and conflict (Dawson 1996, p. 7). Firstly, interspecific aggression occurs when one group attempts to exclude another group through competitiveness and dominance. This can be achieved with or without violence and is distinguished from predation, when an individual or group dominates the other for the economic gain of a food source. Secondly, group cohesion results in a synergistic in-group relationship, consequently producing an ethnocentric view of superiority toward other groups (Pope 2000, p. 161; Dawson 1996, p. 7). Although Kropotkin downplayed group ethnocentrism and rallying, he realized it is inevitable, as explained above. Indeed, the laws of mutual aid and mutual struggle universally obligate humans.

As explained above, innate competition and group solidarity has, throughout the history of man, led to conflicts. With the rise of large-scale societies, these conflicts evolved into primitive warfare. During the early Paleolithic, H. s. sapiens began to spread rapidly across the earth’s surface (Dawson 1996, p. 26). Fissionings and fusions occurred often, and competition intensified because of seasonal scarce resources. According to Dawson (1996, p. 26) ‘all theories of primitive warfare have recognized that whether or not it [war] is “innate” it has to be triggered by competition’. Warfare is certainly not innate, but it may account for the wide dispersal of early Paleolithic humanity. Conversely, it would have limited the possibilities for offensive/defensive competition because early humans most likely fought for land and resources and the winner would assume ‘ownership’, while the other group found new economic capital (Dawson 1996, p. 26). This method would prove effective until groups could no longer diffuse due to a limit of land and resources.

At the beginning of the Neolithic culture, large groups could no longer easily avoid neighboring groups by seeking new land, therefore resource limitations compelled people to live in larger, more cohesive societies (Dawson 1996, p. 26-27). Dense populations compelled groups to become territorial, with semi-permanent settlements. Human societies, consequently, were forced to create caches of food to survive. In order to protect these caches, defensible resources became a defensive strategy against raiding groups, especially for agricultural societies (Dawson 1996, p. 26-27). Defensive logistics were designed to deter war but, according to the archeological evidence, war was more often and more brutal (Dawson 1996, p. 26-27). As a result of militarism, the individual became an expendable resource for the good of the group.

The democratization of warfare among states is the current solution to the consistent and universal competitive strive for dominance. The democratic model originated during the French Revolution, when states were not yet nation-states and nationalism had not yet developed as a significant political force (Baylis, Smith, Owens 2008, p. 546). For the first time, humanity mustered an enormous and unprecedented amount of human energy into one single national service and mutual protection (Schmookler 1995, p. 99-100, 287-288; Baylis et al. 2008, p. 546). When France democratically handed over this vast army to Napoleon, neighboring nations were compelled to enhance and enlarge their military to deter domination. However, Napoleon was able to dominate Europe because of the newly devised national political system, enabling him to conjure unequalled armies (Schmookler 1995, p. 99-100, 287-288; Baylis, et al. 2008, p. 546). Once again, the laws of mutual aid and mutual struggle intertwine.

In conclusion, Hobbes, Malthus, Rousseau, and Kropotkin all had a static view of competition. Competition inevitably leads to war and peace. The laws of mutual aid and mutual struggle are innate, universal, and are not mutually exclusive. They secure orderliness and allow humans to act freely to preserve their genes, however, the knowledge and values shared by a society influence and, to some degree, determine the thoughts and actions of an individual to behave synergistically and symbiotically (Schmookler 1995, p. 13).

Through time, humanity has used solidarity, anarchy, fissioning, defense, militarism, social institutions, and democracy to sanction or repel conflict and violence with no prevail. In each case study presented, intra-group solidarity brought on inter-group competition and conversely, inter-group conflict caused intra-group solidarity. Because humans are social creatures and are dependent on each other for culture, conflicts are inevitable. The laws of mutual struggle and mutual aid operate within the law of natural selection – gene survival of the fittest individual or group. In/out groups will always be present; however, conflict and war are not innately biological. They are an outward expression of acculturation. That is, human biological aggression is stimulated by cultural norms, mores, folkways, and taboos. A group’s cultural sanctions determine the social consequence for overt aggression.

The following discussion will concentrate on social inequalities in health which have lead to the unequal distribution of resources in the society. Health inequalities refers to the differences in the prevalence of incidence of health outcomes between population groups and range by socio-economic groups and geographical area (Graham 2000). Gender which has socially constructed roles of female and male identity, can therefore compound health inequalities which generate the underlying socio-economic inequalities thereby affecting some social groups badly.

Research on gender inequalities have developed but the rapid social change in the lives of men and women and an increased questioning of an oversimplified established wisdom about gender and health makes a critical retrospective timely development in social theory which raise new questions about gender inequalities (Fried, 2007).

Gender inequalities in society lead to inequalities in health. Most societies give greater status and power to men and this has adverse impact on the health of women. Domestic abuse occurs mostly against women. Thus, women’s health is profoundly affected by the ways they are treated and the status they are given in society (NHS Lothian, 2004).

Distinct roles and behaviours of men and women in a given culture are dictated by their culture, gender, norms and values which gives rise to gender differences. Gender differences and gender inequalities can therefore give rise to inequalities between men and women in health status and the access to health care (World Health Organization, 2009).

Apart from the internalized ideologies of gender that are acquired, all societies are structured around hierarchical systems whereby sex together with age form the vital organizing features. Gender differences in access to and control over key material and social resources result not only in inequalities of health and wellbeing, but also inequalities in power, knowledge, making independent decisions relating to sexual and reproductive decisions and to act on them in health seeking behaviour (Oakley, 1998). So, if biological predispositions form one basis for inequalities in reproductive health and cultural difference (Graham, 2000), then the distribution of resources within the household, family and community forms an additional layer of differences reflecting inequalities of gender.

According to Walby (1997), gender norms and values and the resulting behaviours are affecting health in a negative way. Gender can be one of the major obstacles standing between men and women and the achievement of well-being. Women have lower incomes and make seventy-five percent of single pensioner households and are likely to bear inequality in health related to poverty (Scottish Executive, 2003).Walby (2000) writes that the actions of the European Union are limited by its primary concern with standard employment whereas women are often employed in non-standard forms such as part-time and temporary employment and thus many women do not benefit from its regulations. She went on to explain the extent to which the family form involves women as housewives or workers. This is therefore more complex than the use of gender norms because the different types not only by different types of values but also by the form of the welfare state.

“Gender as well as socio-economic position mediates exposure to material, psychosocial and behavioral risks “(Annandale and Hunt 2000: 1996) Men have traditionally been exposed to the industrial injuries associated with skilled manual work yet women experience the disadvantages of contributing to affective disorder, poor home environment with heavy childcare responsibilities as well as low levels of social support since most women if they are employed, they are on low pay. Women bear extensive caring and nurturing responsibilities and a higher prevalence of poverty. According to Wobbe (2003) stress of making ends meet impacts the health of women leading to mental health illnesses. He explains that enforced childbearing, overwork and poorer access to food compared to men meant that women’s life expectance in society was affected more than men’s.

According to Graham (2000) ,only females are exposed to problems relating to menstruation, pregnancy, abortion, miscarriage, childbirth and lactation. It is only women who experience breast or cervical cancer or pelvic inflammatory disease. (Lorber ,2000) says only men are at risk of prostate cancer, impotence or problems related to vacectomies. But, both sexes can experience infertility. Girls and women are at risk of more varied and serious sexual reproductive health problems than boys and men (Connell 2002).

Gender based inequalities in health cut across and interact with class inequalities (Scott 1988)Thus, health problems such as iron deficiency, anaemia which is common among women, among the poor and in rural areas can result in highly class-specific patterns of reproductive morbidity and mortality among women. However males do have an excess mortality persisting through to later life. They are at risk of dying in childhood and adulthood from diseases such as heart attacks and strokes. Townsend and Davidson (1982:48) writes: “The gap in life expectancy between men and women is the most distinctive feature of human health in the advanced society.” The death of men in different social classes is in most cases double that of women leading to the cumulative health inequalities between the sexes. Gender and class therefore exert highly significant but different influences on the quality and duration of life in modern society. Connell (1987, 1995, 2002) analyses gender and health and writes that men was often reactive to feminism. Men was socialized into the sex-role system in ways which even though they were oppressive to women, they developed men in distorted ways as emotionally repressed and power oriented thus put men at greater risk of early death through suicide and heart disease. Feminist ideologies expressed through by rights and health oriented women’s organizations aim at promoting the sexual and reproductive health services and restrictions on contraception methods that are thought to violate religious norms. Inequalities in access result from the denial of family planning services to the unmarried especially in the African culture and from requirements that married women must obtain their husbands’ consent among other restrictions.

Annandale and Hunt (2000) say “It is hard to argue that male-female mortality difference are statistical artifact.” They suggest that female excess morbidity is socially constructed. Intense social pressure to conform to accepted ideals of ‘masculinity’ therefore leads men to deny illness out of fear that it displays weakness and are less prepared to report symptoms or use health services compared to women.

Health care professionals are faced with challenging social attitude to prevent and manage risk factors to ensure they do not lead to chronic health problems later in life. So professionals have a role in the prevention of abuse by taking challenging actions and condone violence and abusive behaviour that reinforce the gender stereotypes and underpin domestic abuse in women. Women need to be provided with appropriate response which is part of the high quality care that should be delivered. Professionals should feel confident, have access to training, support and adequate information to enable them to support women experiencing domestic abuse. (NHS Lothian, 2000) Professionals should be aware and able to recognize signs of potential abuse in women. They should respond to women in a supportive way and listen to them. The World Health Organisation (2000) say the goals of Gender and Women’s Health Department are to increase health professionals awareness of the role of gender and inequality in perpetuating abuse, disease and death with the view to eliminate gender as a barrier to good health. The Department of Health (2000) aims to develop an approach to take into account performance management between health authorities about key health issues so as to make targets based on gender specific principles. Females and males think and act differently as a consequences of their socialization and of the gendered society (Walby 2004). The challenge still stands that healthy communities which recognize inequalities should be built and achieved by understanding social issues, changing they way things are done and accepting that the needs of people must be at the heart of everything a professional does.

Working with individuals is vital on the part of health professionals and it is their duty to make service users welcome and comfortable especially the one-to-one support which should be client centred. Since women experience child birth, it is the health professionals duty to held the pregnant woman focusing on her individual needs and interest making her understand more about her health care and be able to make decisions about childbirth and caring for her baby. Women often approach health care professionals for help because they need up-to date advice on breastfeeding, solid foods, because the decisions made at the start of a baby’s life require sensitivity and understanding, thus mothers need reassurance and hence the need for health professionals to work with individuals. Even those women who might have suffered domestic abuse, it is essential to work closely with them individually reflecting on what happened and how best they can be assisted. When working with men as individuals, it should not only allow themselves to talk more openly about their problems, but helps the health professional to find out more about men’s psychological ill health. Since most of them will be clinically depressed and the sense of isolation will be profound as they will not be talking to anyone about their concerns or feelings. Thus, health care should be accessible, approachable and achievable for everyone (Department of Health 2000).

Working with group as stated by Drummomd (2000), it is essential to work with and understand the views of men and women of the local community for health promotions. The professionals should think laterally and work in small companies where men are under pressure. Services according to Drummond should be in youth centres, unemployment centres and many small groups in the community. The development of local strategic partnership offers opportunities or health authorities and local authority to discuss health issues. “To build healthy communities, professionals need to work with local men and women by bringing them into partnership within the locality in which services are placed, working within a context of dialogue that leads to action.” Young men are an especially different group to reach because they are not interested in the long-term results of an unhealthy lifestyle but can be persuaded to consider the immediate impact of current ill-health hence the need to change the way health is marketed. (Deville-Almond 2008) it is vital to work with peer support groups such as the prostate cancer a charity which offers men the opportunity to talk to other men to reduce embarrassment when discussing symptom thereby promoting autonomy.

Townsend and Davidson(1988) states “Inequalities exist also in the utilization of health services, particularly and most worryingly of the preventive services.” According to the Health Promotion, women access health services more regularly and it is much easier for health professionals to consult women. Robinson, a community learning consultant explains that if health professionals are to work with men, they must go where they are thereby being flexible I delivering services. She further says that if one is a female professional she should not hesitate to go and work in a working men’s club and talk about health issues as this would improve the younger men’s health. The Department of Health (2000) argues that services should be sensitive to men’s concerns and attitudes. The Health Department Agency (2001) says there should be more men’s health clinics, telephone and online services should be developed since most men prefer the anonymity of such services. Opening hours should take into account the commitment of people who work full-time. The role of occupational health services should be strengthened. Men’s health needs should be taken into account by the local authority community thus providing the opportunity to take an over acting view of inequalities of all kinds.

This essay has shown that women and men share many similar health challenges and the differences are such that the health women deserve particular attention. Even though women live longer men because of biological and behavioural advantages, their longer lives might not be healthy lives because of the biological and social processes they go through which carry health crisis and therefore require health care. Gender inequalities in health are therefore socially governed and thus actionable. Even in health, biology is not destiny, “Sex and society, nature and nurture, chromosomes and environments interact to determine who is well or ill, who is treated or not, who is exposed or vulnerable to ill-health and whose health needs are acknowledged or dismissed” (Equal Opportunities Commission 2002).