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The purpose of this essay is to focus on the historical and contemporary construction of ‘British-Muslim’ identity in U.K. and analyse its perceived relationship with radicalism. The first part of the essay will shed light on the problem of this ‘umbrella’ term ‘British-Muslim’ by highlighting the extent to which the religious identity of Muslims in Britain is beyond ethnic and national identities. In addition to this, this section will discuss whether putting a label of ‘British-Muslim’ identity is legitimate, in terms of structure, meaning and a body of people who subscribe to the label. The next part of the essay examines why and how the ‘British-Muslim’ identity has come to be associated with radical extremism. This section will include debates of integration and assimilation and discuss why some Muslims in the UK fail to achieve a sense of belonging in Britain and thus consequently turn to radical extremist organisations. In the end pertinent conclusions will be drawn based on the preceding arguments.

Contemporary estimates suggest that the total population of British Muslims in the UK is approximately 2 million, or around 3.3% of the national population. This population is comprised of people from approximately 56 national backgrounds speaking around 70 languages including groups originating from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, North-Africa, the Middle East, South-East Asia, Iran and more recently Somalia, Iraq, Nigeria and Afghanistan as well as an increasing number of European Muslims including English converts. [1] Within these national backgrounds are a host of further ethnic divisions. For example, within the British Pakistani Muslim population there are Kashmiris, Punjabis, Sindhi’s and Pathans (Dahya, 2004: 77). Even further, many differentiate themselves based on Biraderi or clan, so that within the British Paksitani-Kashmiri Muslim population, there are Chaudaries, Rajputs, Kumars, Mistries and others. Such divisions based on Biraderi can heavily inform day to day relationships, marital and business partnerships as well as political allegiances (Shaw, 2000: 137). Within the wider framework of the British Muslim population there are strong denominational differences. There are the more widely known differences between Sunni and Shia Islam and the classical differences between the Hanafi, Shafi’i, Maliki and Hanbali Sunni schools of law. Then there are relatively recent denominational sects such as the Wahabi, the Deobandi, the Barelwi, the Ahl-e-Hadith as well as various Sufi brands of Islam (Raza 1993). Amongst British Muslims there are newly arrived immigrants, second and third generation immigrants whose parents and grandparents were born in the UK as well as indigenous converts to Islam whose ancestors came to the UK hundreds of years ago. On top of all these wide ranging attributes we must include the full spectrum of ‘practicing’ and ‘non-practicing’ Muslims, beginning with the very practicing for whom Islam is a complete way of life that informs every decision he/she makes, and ending with those for whom Islam is a mere relic of an ancient heritage, no longer important in contemporary life. In addition, socio-economic status can play a decisive role in the formation of identity within Muslim communities. Ansari notes that ‘middle and upper-middle class Jordanians, Lebanese, Palestinians and Syrians appear to possess more multiplex relations with each other than with their own working-class compatriots’ (Ansari, 2004: 3). With all of these multifaceted differences it is clear that the term ‘British-Muslim’ is one that is extremely complex and any accurate picture of the typical ‘British-Muslim’ must be absent of colour, ethnicity, nationality, socio-economic status, political or denominational affiliation. However, one may then wonder, that despite such disparate and potentially conflicting sub-identities, how this term ‘British-Muslim’ he come to be used so commonly among social scientists, academics, policy makers and the mass media. The next part of the essay discusses how, to a significant degree, many Muslims in the UK have overcome these internal differences and increasingly represent themselves as a united group of ‘British-Muslims’.

Over the past few decades there has been heightened awareness and a greater level of self-representation of a ‘British-Muslim’ identity among all sectors of Muslims in Britain. There are several reasons for this. Firstly, despite the vast array of varying cultures from which Muslims in the UK descend, Islam as a religion has inculcated a high degree of cultural uniformity across all regions in which it has spread. In the Development of Islamic Ritual, nineteen authors explore different aspects of Islamic ritual that are observed and performed through the Islamic world including the ritual performance of prayer 5 times a day, pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca and fasting during the holy month of Ramadan. [2] Many Muslims learn Arabic as a common language, share common names, use the same form of greeting and have the same dietary prohibitions. In recent years, the wearing of the Islamic headscarf has been adopted by females from a diverse range of ethnic and national backgrounds as a powerful and expressive form of Muslim identity. In Why the French Don’t like Headscarves, Bowen argues that for many Muslim women, the wearing of the Islamic headscarf is a conscious and deliberate display of Muslim identity that promotes social solidarity and community consciousness amongst the Muslim population. Thus, despite wide variances in the way Muslims from different backgrounds dress, there are numerous outward markers of Islamic identity that bind together disparate groups, whether they be in the performance of Islamic rituals or the wearing of Islamic clothing.

Secondly, there has been a consistent drive from leaders amongst Muslims in the UK to form organisations representing Muslims at a national and international level. Mandaville (2003) argues that the media plays a key role in the development of ‘British-Muslim’ identity, catering to second and third generation Muslims in the UK creating a public space in which issues relating to citizenship and belonging can be discussed. In Imagined Communities, Anderson argues that the invention of the printing press and the subsequent production of literature in vernacular languages across different regions of Europe helped to solidify nationalist sentiments by creating a sense of ‘imagined community’ amongst those of the same linguistic background. Similarly, the growing ‘British-Muslim’ media industry promotes a greater consciousness of Muslims from different backgrounds within the UK. The satellite TV channels named above cut across cultural, national and ethnic boundaries and serve as a unifying platform of dialogue, news coverage and religious transmission heightening a sense of imagined community amongst Muslims in the UK. ADD STUFF FROM MANDAVILLE and CESSARI

Thirdly, despite the differences between the range of backgrounds from which Muslims in the UK originate, there are certain common interests which have brought together disparate groups of Muslims to lobby the government at a local and national level. For example, in 1994, Muslims in the UK launched the Halal Food Authority, an organisation to monitor and authenticate the halal meat and poultry trade in the UK, a service pushed for by Muslims from all backgrounds. Several arbitration tribunals, such as the Muslim Arbitration Tribunal, have been set up around to provide Muslims in the UK with legally binding dispute resolution mechanisms based on Islamic Sharia principles on family matters, inheritance and various commercial and debt disputes. During the outbreak of the Iraq War in 2003, much of the frustration felt by Muslims in the UK towards the government was channelled through peaceful protest facilitated by organisations such as the Muslim Council of Britain and Muslims of all backgrounds galvanised to speak with a louder and more unified Muslim voice. Such initiatives have required cross-cultural co-operation to achieve common aspirations amongst Muslims in the UK.

Furthermore, Muslims in the UK have rallied together to show solidarity against perceived threats towards their community both nationally and worldwide. Samad (1996) and Saeed (1999) view the mobilisation of a ‘British-Muslim’ identity as a response to the public devaluation and disparagement of Muslims that has lead to increased in-group solidarity. According to Ansari, the publication of the Satanic Verses (1988) and the first Gulf-War (1991) meant ‘Muslims, more than ever, came to be imagined as “outsiders”, excluded from the essential notions of “Britishness” which, steeped in nostalgia, continued to be perceived as homogenous, Christian, white and rooted in past centuries’ (Ansari, 2004: 1). Such feelings of exclusion strengthened during the conflict in Boznia-Herzegovina (1993-1996), the War on Afghanistan (2001 to present), the War on Iraq (2003 to present), the publication of the cartoons depicted the prophet Mohammed (2005), EU immigration, asylum, race and security polices, including the Terrorism Act 2006, which target Europe’s Muslim communities (Fekete 2009), the continuous demonization of Muslims in the media (Poole 2002, Gottschalk 2007) as well as Islamaphobia on a street level, which have all contributed towards a defensiveness among Muslims in the UK and a sense of common hardship. Ballard (1996) argues that that the increasing self-identification of second and third generation Pakistanis as Muslim is a reaction to their external rejection by the White majority and it is religion rather than ethnicity that takes prominence because it is the Muslim aspect of their identity which they feel is under attack. Thus, the increased ascendency of the Muslim aspect of a highly complex individual identity among some Muslims in the UK can be partly explained as a defensive reaction to perceived external threats.

Moreover, Archer (2001) and Hopkins (2006) have argued that the transcendence of a ‘British-Muslim’ identity above an ethnic or national based identity among young Muslims in the UK can be partly explained through an analysis of gender stereotypes and the performance of masculinity and femininity. Archer (2001) argues that young men construct a ‘strong’ Muslim identity to counteract stereotypes of a weaker passive Pakistani or Bangladeshi identity and that talk of violence, action and hardness through religious idealism and martyrdom, drawing inspiration from ancient tales of Islamic conquest and bravery, can be seen as evoking a particular form of Muslim masculinity. Further, Archer argues that Islam provides a channel, whether scripturally legitimate or not, for men to discuss and define female behaviours as un-Islamic and thus an Islamic identity is expedient for the control and domination of women. Conversely, Akram-Nadwi demonstrates in Al-Muhaddithat: The Women Scholars in Islam, that Islam has for many generations, provided an avenue for female empowerment as an escape from the culture-bound patriarchy. [3] In Women and Islam: Images and Realities, Moghissi (ed.) expound upon the highly complex multifaceted realities of Islam, gender and female empowerment, revealing how both women and men selectively appropriate elements of Islamic doctrine in order to maximise their own empowerment within the scope of their circumstances. The politics of gender has made at least some contribution to the ascendency of a Muslim identity above ethnic or national identity for the UK’s Muslim population.

Finally, Muslim identity is used as an act of empowerment and to promote sense of belonging to an international body of people. Glynn’s study of Bengali Muslims in London (2002) shows that Islam provides young Muslims a positive alternative to the drug-culture to which they are exposed to within inner-cities. He writes ‘the growing polarity between the drug culture and Islam is often remarked on. Islamic brotherhood is a potent antidote to alienationaˆ¦ Islam is something to be proud of, with a great history and international presence as well as religious promises of future glory, which can all transport its followers from the grey confines of the inner city’ (Glynn, 2002: 975). Through Islam, many Muslims obtain a sense of purpose, direction, history and belonging to a community broader than the narrowly restricted confines of their own neighbourhoods. Islam has also been used as a tool for empowerment within the family context. Macey (1999) suggests that Islamic prohibition on forced marriage is used by young Pakistanis in the UK to challenge parental pressures. Further, Islam is used to justify inter-racial marital relationships and to challenge the emphasis placed on colour, caste and ethnicity found in many cultural practices. Through Islam, many young Muslims in the UK find internal empowerment and tools to challenge parents and communities. For all of these reasons, a ‘British-Muslim’ identity has emerged to unite disparate groups of people from a wide range of ethnic and national backgrounds. That there are Muslims in the UK is a fact, but the idea of a strong ‘British-Muslim’ identity has only relatively recently come in to fruition and begun to assert itself. However, while many Muslims in the UK increasingly subscribe to this identity, it is not yet clear what it means to be a ‘British-Muslim’. We are now entering into the period in which the definitional boundaries of the ‘British-Muslim’ identity are being constructed. In this period, competing forces, both internal and external to the British Muslim population, are actively contesting the details of the identity, pushing forward varying images of what a ‘British-Muslim’ is ‘supposed’ to be. A key arena in which this contest is taking place is in relation to ‘radical extremism’.

In light of these discussions, the next part of the essay will focus on radical extremism and the ‘British-Muslim’ identity. In the aftermath of the 9/11 terror attacks in New York and the 7/7 bombing in London, much work has gone in to identifying the root causes of how a Muslim, born and raised in the UK, could be brought to take his own life and the lives of others with the sole aim of creating maximum devastation within his home country. Rather than limiting research to the exploration of the potential psychopathic tendencies of those individuals responsible for the terror atrocities, much research has suggested that the terror attacks were symptoms of deep rooted nation-wide problems with ‘British-Muslim’ identity as a whole. It is alleged that such problems are responsible for the creation of radical extremist mentalities, broadly regarded as mentalities that foster violent hostility towards aspects of the British state. It is within this context that efforts by the UK Government to prevent violent extremism operate. In order to better understand this context, it is necessary to explore how the perceived problems with ‘British-Muslim’ identity have come to be associated with radical extremism.

In Radical Islam Rising: Muslim Extremism in the West, Wiktorowicz provides a detailed study of Al-Muhajiroun, a UK based organisation aspiring towards the re-establishment of an Islamic Caliphate through both non-violent and violent means. [4] Al-Muhajiroun are a banned organisations in the UK under the Terrorism Act 2006 for ‘glorification’ of terrorism. Wiktorowicz argues that Muslims in the UK who join this group are initially inspired by a ‘cognitive opening’ which provides individuals with a willingness to expose them to the ethos of the organisation. This ‘cognitive opening’ takes the form of an internal identity crisis that causes the individual to question what it means to be a Muslim in a non-Muslim society. Wiktorowicz suggests that one of the key triggers to this type of identity crisis is an individual’s perception that Muslims are not accepted by British society. It would follow therefore that perceptions of discrimination would precipitate feelings of not belonging to British society and leave an individual vulnerable to the message and ideology of organisations such as Al-Muhajiroun. Maxwell’s study of the 2003 Home Office Citizenship Survey revealed that according to the survey, there was no significant relationship between an individual’s socio-economic well being and their perceptions of being discriminated against on the whole. However, the analysis showed that young university students were more likely than others to perceive that they were being discriminated against, despite being socially and economically better off than those who either could not afford or were otherwise unable to attend university. Wiktorowicz writes ‘the experience of both racial and religious discrimination has prompted some young Muslims to think about their identity and how they fit into British society. This is particularly true of young university students who suffer from a sense of blocked social mobility’ (Wiktorowicz, 2005 :56). According to this theory, it is frustration at being unable to accomplish what the individual perceives as being rightfully theirs that results in a heightened sense of alienation. This alienation provides some individuals with the ‘cognitive opening’ necessary for joining organisations such as Al-Muhajiroun. An alternative theory suggests that young university students are more likely to perceive greater levels of discrimination due to knowledge acquired within the university environment. Taji-Fouraki’s work on Hizb-at-Tahrir (1996), another organisation aiming towards the establishment of an Islamic caliphate, suggests that the main appeal of Hizb-at-Tahrir for young university students is the organisation’s intellectual sophistication. University environments provide young Muslims the tools to research and debate issues relating to injustices of European colonisation and the partitions of the current ‘Islamic world’, giving some individuals the impetus to question their own place within the wider framework of international political identities. Fouraki suggests that Hizb-at-Tahrir are able to capitalise on such thought processes and provide an avenue for such individuals to channel their grievances in a way that provides them with an opportunity to be a part of the supposed re-assertion of superiority of the Islamic world. According to these analyses, issues of identity play in to some individual’s feelings of inferiority and rejection by the dominant host society. Such feelings provoke hostility, particularly among young highly educated Muslims, and lead to individuals wanting to become part of a greater force capable of retaliation towards the UK Government and institutions.

Herriot’s (2007) work on social identity theory suggests that people join groups and internalise the group’s identity for two main reasons. The first reason is to fulfil the human need for self-esteem. Herriot suggests that many of those attracted to organisations such as Al-Muhajiroun and Hizb-at-Tahrir are those potentially lacking in a sense of dignity, acceptance or approval from the wider society. As such, some individuals substitute a divine power in place of society as the source of their self-esteem, finding dignity and validation in the performance of that which is understood to be ‘god’s will’. The second reason is to fulfil the human need for certainty. Again, such organisations provide members with defined beliefs, values and norms, with the weight and authority of ancient and sacred texts that provide clear guidelines on what should and should not be done. Further, Herriot argues that the process of internalising a group’s identity leads to the loss of an individual sense of self in favour of acting in accordance with the definition of identity provided by the category to which they belong. He writes ‘individuals then behave as group members. Their actions are those of, for example, a radical Muslim or a born-again Christian. They are no longer those of Mohammed Atta or Howard Ahmanson as unique individuals with personal identities, but rather those same persons as members of categories to which they perceive themselves to belong’ (Herriot, 2007: 30). The individual is then less concerned about the elevation of the ego and more concerned about the advancement of the organisation as a whole. From this perspective, it is perhaps easier to understand why the actions of some members belonging to such organisations may seem self-deprecating or counterproductive to the individual’s status or security, or even, as was the case with the 7/7 bombers, suicidal.

Such explanations of the processes by which individuals join radical extremist organisations attribute blame to problems associated with ‘British-Muslim’ identity. It is suggested that many Muslims in the UK struggle to find a social identity among the mainstream population in which they feel a sense of dignity, self-esteem and belonging and therefore resort to a competing identity which defines itself in opposition to the mainstream. It is within this context that the UK Government’s policy directive towards preventing violent extremism finds justification for direct intervention in to the construction of ‘British-Muslim’ identity. The rationale of such intervention supposes that violent extremism is caused by deep-rooted issues with the way in which Muslims in the UK conceptualise their belonging to British society. As such, the prevention of violent extremism requires intervention to neutralise such complications and promote a greater sense of belonging to British values, beliefs and practices among British Muslims. The manifestation of the UK Government’s decision to intervene in the construction of ‘British-Muslim’ identity is the PVE Fund.

Chapter One analysed the construction of a ‘British-Muslim’ identity, identifying the process by which a hugely diverse range of people from different backgrounds increasingly subscribe to this identity. The perceived problems associated with this identity provided a pretext for government intervention in to the ‘British-Muslim’ identity through the PVE Fund and related measures to prevent violent extremism

China

Traditional Elderly Care

In China, elder care has been confined to the family sphere over thousands of years (Liu et al., 2014). Under the tradition Confucian concept of Filial Piety or xiao, it encompasses a broad range of behaviours for children to fulfil the duty of care to their aged parents, including ‘respect, obedience, loyalty, material provision, and physical care’ (Zhan & Montgomery, 2003. pp. 210). Children were expected to raise for the security of their elder parents by providing emotional, financial and physical care activities (Zhan et al., 2006).

In China, elder parents are commonly live with sons because the blood tie relationship have been seen as a crucial kinship culture concept (Zhang & Goza, 2006) and sons are recognized to pass on the family name uniquely. It therefore indicates that sons are are expected to provide the ultimate financial and physical care to their aged parents in the cultural value of Filial Piety (Zhan & Montgomery, 2003). However, wonmen have traditionally been care provdiers for parents in China as well as in the West countries (Zhan & Montgomery, 2003). The major difference is Chinese women were expected to take care of their parents-in-law, whereas daughters have been more likely to provide personal parnetal care in the West (Zhan & Montgomery, 2003). According to Chinese patrilocal tradition, after women married to their husbands, they were recognised have been given over to husbands’ families and are not responsible for their birth parents’ elder life (Zhan & Montgomery, 2003). As a result, daughters are not invloved in their own parents elderly care, but instead, they share the responsibilities with husband for parents-in-law. Regardless the gender of care, the traditional forms of family care dominates the major elderly care provision in China.

Aging issue factors

Since the communists came to power in 1949, the total population of China was not only young, but also at a level of 541.7 million (Zhang & Goza, 2006). However, Mao Tse-tung believed that more people meant additional strength to build a strong socialist state for the fight against capitalism (Blumenthal & Hsiao, 2005). As a result, the population nearly doubled over the next 25 years (Zhang & Goza, 2006). By 1971 when Mao relaised the population issues and started encouraging Chinese family later marrige, fewer children and longer birh intervals, the population still growing continously. The consequences revealed by more than 1.35 billion population in 2013 (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2013).

Flaherty et al. (2007) point out that China is becoming to an aging society as its aged population grow dramatically since 1970s. National Bureau of Statistics of China (2013) clearly states the aged 65 or over residents increased from 4.9% to 8.9% of the total population over thirty years from 1980. In 2012, there are 127 million of aged 65 or over elder people which dominate 9.4% of national population in China (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2013). These patterns should continue and there will be 400 million aged 60 or over Chinese residents by 2040 (Zhang & Goza, 2006). Zhang and Goza (2006) comment it will represent 26% of the total population and be more than the combined current population of Japan, France, Germany and the UK. In addition, followed by the improved life condition, the Chinese Census data reveals the life expectancy in China extended from age 68 in 1982 to 75 in 2010 (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2013). Zhang & Goza (2006) also commnet a reduced replacement fertility level shed lights on the limitiations of available care provider to take family care responsibilities in future. China is facing a great challenge to provide sufficient aged care.

Family structure

However, the low replacement fertility is criticised by voluntary action. In contrast, followed by the rapid population growth from 1940s. The Chinese government established the one child policy from 1979 which indicates each household is only allowed to have one child when either parent has siblings (Flaherty, et al., 2007). The policy was introducted to alleviate social, economical and environmental issues by control the population in China (Zhang & Goza, 2006). It reached 85%-96% of one child rate by the end of 1990s (Zhan & Montgomery, 2003).

However, the rapid ageing and diminishing family size means China faces a called ‘4-2-1’ family structure. The phenomenon confronts each couple is responsible for four aging parents and their single child (none, 2012 economist). It is criticised by Chinese younger generation as they will unable to afford such a burden to look after their aged families by themselves even they have sufficient savings (None, 2012 economist). It therefore demonstrates only 57% of older people live with children in 2005 compared to 73% in 1982. In large cities, there are more than 70% of elderly only live with spouse or live on their own (Zhang & Goza, 2006). The elderly were concerned to live in ‘empty-nest’ families.

Although the Chinese constitution, Criminal Law and the Law on the protection of the Rights ans Interests of Older People, the altered family structure resist children to provide comprehensive care practices to their elder families. Therefore, the increased demand of social healthcare services emerged in China by the change of care practices of the aged-old pattern of xiao (Zhang & Goza, 2006).

Elderly care facilities

Elder homes which used to be literally called ‘Homes of Respect for the Elderly’ in China. They were built by government for physically dependent childless elders. However, the Health Care System became privatised by 1980s (Zhan et al., 2006). The central government transferred much of its responsibilities to provincial and local authorities for funding the medical and health facilities (Blumenthal & Hsiao, 2005). Former public-sponsored elderly homes were decentralised and a large number of private homes merged in the market (Zhan et al., 2006).

Blumenthal and Hsiao (2005) argue the the reduction in governmental support of the health caere system largely effects health care facilities by forcing private organisations heavily rely on sale of services to subsdise their expenses. In hospitals, the major revenues are generated from sales of expensive new pharmaceuticals and high-tech services (Blumenthal & Hsiao, 2005). In nursing facilities, residents monthly accodmendation and sercice payments are crucial to support each home’s daily operations. It therefore indicates that the private organisations are operated by profit-driven approcah becme more and more expensive compares to government facilites which emphasis on residents’ social and walefare benefits. It therefore results unafforadable for most Chinese citizens.

In addition, Blumenthal and Hsiao (2005) also citisied the qualtiy of care that patients or residents received from private facilities. As a result of privatisation in social and health care sector, there is limited fund invest into elderly care services from Chinese central government. In particular, training is a primary concer as private orgnaisations are mainly implement afforts on fiscal restraint to maximise their profitbaility (Blumenthal & Hsiao, 2005). The insufficient government supply encouraged private nursing homes to enter the market and they have dominated the major growth of care providers since 2000 (Liu et al., 2014). However, it raise the concern of care quality as the short history of operating with insufficient experience of community elderly care practices in China.

UK

Community and Family Care

In contrast, the United Kingdom has a long history of community care for elderly. The initial communally life for older people to live in the UK was emerged from the eighteenth century. People were living in workhouses which accessed to better conditional on behaviour, sponsorship and health. The workhouses remained throughout the nineteenth century and became to residential care facilities or hospitals for the long-term sick since 1940s when the National Health Service established (Jolley, Dixey and Read, 1995?). The public assistance institutions were spartan in 1950s but the local authorities were keen to offer appropriate capacity to meet the social demand. Therefore, the UK Health secretary defines residential care is seen as first option for elderly to spend their aged life rather than care by families in Britain (Butler, 2013).

However, Bambra et al. (2007) state there is a renewed interst in family caregiving across developed countries, including the UK. It is been recognised that families to make considerable contributions to the care of elderly people. Argubely, carers in the younger age are generally provide less hours of care compared to carers who are older in the UK families. Bambra et al. (2007) point out the age between 45 to 69 are major care providers to their families or friends and people over the age of 70 spent the most time on caregiving. In particular, the age 80 to 89 are reported more likely to provide as much as 50 hours family care per week (Bambra et al., 2007). The family caregiving is therefore described in terms of burden, stress and strain for carers in the UK (Bambra et al., 2007), not only by the hours of service, but also by the age of carerproviders themselves.

Aging issue factors

The ageing population is a global issue, including the United Kingdom. Ageing of the population refers to both the increase in the age of the population and the growth in the number and proportion of older people in the total population (ONS, 2012). Over the period from 1985 to 2010, the percentage of older people in the UK increased 2 percent by 2010 from 15 percent in 1985 (ONS, 2012). According to Age UK (2014), there are currently more than 11 million aged 65 or over people which indicates one in six of the UK population is old people and it is the first time in history. ONS (2012) announces there will be 23 per cent of the UK population is projected to be 65 or over by 2035. In addition, it is estimated that the elderly number will raise to 19 million which represent every one in four by 2050 (UK Parliament, 2014). Although the UK ageing growth rate represents a less trend compares to China, it is a result of the improvement and continuing improvements in mortality rates combined with declined in fertility rates (ONS, 2013).

The improved mortality rates in terms is reflected to a longer life expectancy. Over the 25 years period, the UK life expectancy at birth rose from 71.7 years in 1985 to 78.5 years in 2010. It is estimated to increase 4.9 years over the next twenty years to 83.4 years by 2035 (ONS, 2011). In addition, the total number of centenarians is projected to rise from 14,000 in 2013 to 111,000 in 2037 (ONS, 2013) and almost 85,000 aged 65 in 2013 are expected to celebrate their 100^th birthday in 2048 (ONS, 2013). In contrast, after reaching a peak birth rate of 2.94 in 1964 in United Kingdom, there is steady decline from 1965 until to a low of 1.63 in 2001. However, it has remained stable for nearly a decade between 1.88 and 1.94 until 2013 (ONS, 2013). Comparing to China’s mortality and fertility rates, the UK demonstrate a more optimism scope in ageing population issues.

Health care system

The British health care system is dominated by the National Health Service as part of the postwar welfare settlement (Busfield, 2000). The NHS provides publicly funded and incorporates universalism principles of equality and firness services with entitlement to contribute its popularity to the whole popultion (Busfield, 2000). The entitlement based on labour market for those who are employed are eligible for health care through compulsory insurance. In addition, it also build on financial subsidise for the residual group who cannot afford to purchase themselves and who are not covered by their emoloyment (Busfield, 2000). It is mostly like China that the majority of funding comes from taxation rather than complulsoy state insurance.

While state or public health sercies are available to all as a right of citizenship, however, it vary in precisely what they cover such as mental health and unavailable for enormous number of elderly to cover all range of care aspects. It thereofre indicates that pharmaceuticals and equimpment are healy depend on private sector supply on the one hand, and private hospitals, nursing homes and doctors on the other (Busfield, 2000). The UK is depended upon voluntary or private sector to provide enthusiastic ‘sheltered’ schemes which include supervision, physical assistance and accommodation to aged population from 1970s (Jolley et al., 1995?). The private long-term care places increased from 28 in 1977 to 164 in 1994 (Jolley et al., 1995?) and the market grew even faster in past twenty years. In present, the care homes are provided primarily by the private sector since the early twenty-first century (Johnson et al., 2010) and over half of all beds allocated for older people health care are in independent nursing homes (Kerrison and Pollock, 2001).

According to Kerrison and Pollock (2001), it is well known that the UK private sector has established a crucial role in providing long term care of the elderly. The private provision of nursing homes is provided by individuals, partnerships or companies not limited by guarantee. It sometimes referrers to as the ‘for profit’ sector and except in special circumstances there is no far on the amount of profit made nor on its distribution (Challis and Bartlett, 1988). Arguably, Busfield (2000) states that invariable coexist with private health care is only for those who can afford it. In addition, the quality of service is also critisied by Busfield (2000) which initialled by the profit driven oriention in private facilities.

As the private sector dominates the majority elderly nursing care market in the United Kingdom as well as in China. However, the care quality in private facilities are debatable in both countries. It is mostly demonstrated by the financial monetary such as the lack of investment and profitability. But the major discovered fact which directly affect the quality of care will be explained on the following section.

References

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Age UK, 2014. Later life in the United Kingdom [online]. Available from: www.ageuk.org.uk/Documents/EN-GB/…/Later_Life_UK_factsheet.pdf [Assessed 08^th August]

Butlet, P., 2013. Jeremy Hunt: UK should adopt Asian culture of caring for the elderly [online]. Available from:

http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2013/oct/18/jeremy-hunt-uk-families-asia-elderly [Assessed 08^th August]

Office for National Statistics, 2012. Population Ageing in the United Kingdom, its Constituent Countries and the European Union [online]. Available from: www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171776_258607.pdf [Assessed 08^th August]

Office for National Statistics, 2013. One third of babies born in 2013 are expected to live to 100 [online]. Available from: http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/lifetables/historic-and-projected-data-from-the-period-and-cohort-life-tables/2012-based/sty-babies-living-to-100.html [Assessed 08^th August]

Office for National Statistics, 2013. Why has the fertility rate risen over the last decade in England and Wales? [online]. Available from: http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/vsob1/birth-summary-tables–england-and-wales/2011–final-/sty-fertility.html [Assessed 08^th August]

Minorities are almost part of every society and today minority exists in different forms like religious, cultural, ethnic, tribal, racial, linguistic, national, refugees, sexual and immigrant. Singh et al. (2009) pointed that, in most pluralistic societies social groups vary on a number of overlapping dimensions such as religion, caste, language, tribal / non tribal and geographical and so on and so forth.

Issues of cultural, linguistic, religious, and ethnic differences have taken renewed and increased importance in many countries, institutions and local contexts (Brug, 2007). Recognizing and accommodating diverse ethnicities, religions, languages, and values is “an inescapable feature of the landscape of politics in the 21st century” (United Nations Development Programme, 2004).

Mutatkar (2005) has pointed that, in most pluralistic societies social groups vary on a number of overlapping dimensions such as religion, caste, language, tribal / non tribal and geographical and so on and so forth. Berween, (2006) has reported that almost all societies are composed of at least two groups that differ in race, nationality, language, religion, class, or regional cultures. These societies are usually ruled by a dominant group or a coalition or alternatively by one determined minority that has a monopoly over the means of force. He described two main types of minority: Substantial (or permanent) minorities and Mechanical (or non-permanent minorities).

In social psychological literature, majority and minority groups usually are defined in terms of size (Leonardelli & Brewer, 2001), power and/or status (Blanz, Mummendey, Mielke, & Klink, 1998; Sachdev & Bourhis, 1991). Further more, Blanz, Mummendey and Otten (1995) avowed that the terms majority and minority reflect positive or negative social conditions and treatment. Minority denotes negatively stigmatized, ostracized, oppressed, and outcast individuals, whereas majority denotes positively valued or high status groups (Tajfel, 1981).

The widely acceptable definition for minority was given by Capotorti (1991) who defined “minority” as “a group numerically inferior to the rest of the population of a state, in a non dominant position, whose members being nationals of the state possess ethnic, religious or linguistic characteristics differing from those of the rest of the population and show, if only implicitly, a sense of solidarity, directed towards preserving their culture, traditions, religion or language”. Deschenes (1985) also defined criterion of citizenship for minorities as: “A group of citizens of a state, constituting a numerical minority and in a non dominant position in that state, endowed with ethnic, religious or linguistic characteristics which differ from those of the majority of the population, having a sense of solidarity with another, motivated, if only implicitly, by a collective will to survive and whose aim is to achieve equality with the majority in fact and law”. Eide (1993) also includes non-nationals in the concept of minorities in his final report to the UN Sub-Commission. He stated that: “minority is any group of persons resident within a sovereign state which constitutes less than half the population of the national society and whose members share common characteristics of an ethnic, religious or linguistic nature that distinguish them from the rest of the population”. These considerations are also relevant to the definition of United Nations (UN Department in Geneva. Geneva, July 1992, which states that there is such description of this concept, which one is widely used, namely “the minority is a national, ethnic, religious or language group distinguished from other groups on the terrain of a sovereign state”.

In literature specific minority like ethnic, racial and sexual minority mental health issues continue on focal point, while other form of minorities especially religious minority relatively obtain a less attention. Although it can be clearly attained from minority definitions that declaration of minority is not based on single trait, indeed it is based on non dominant position whose members vary from rest of the population on certain features and these features varies across societies. In Pakistani society, the declaration of minority is based on religion, though ethnicity exists but does not comes under regime of minority in Pakistan. Regarding minority and majority distribution of population in Pakistan, Census Organization of Statistics Division of Pakistan (1998) declared population of Pakistan more than 140 million (although at present informally is estimated up to 180 million). Census Organization of Statistics Division, 1998 (It was last and recent census conducted in Pakistan) officially figured religious demography of Pakistani population as approximately 96 percent of the population or 148.8 million people in Pakistan are Muslim who are considered as majority or dominant group, while 2.02 percent or 2.44 million people to be Hindu, 1.69 percent or 2.09 million to be Christian, and 0.35 percent to be “other,” including Ahmadis, Sikhs, Parsi, and Baha’i etc. In Pakistan Non Muslims are officially declared, considered and labeled as minority on the basis of having their non dominant position in all spheres of life, dissimilar in many characteristics like values, languages, customs, traditions, religious belief and practices.

Positive mental health is a value in its own right; it contributes to the individual’s well-being and quality of life; and also contributes to society and the economy by increasing social functioning and social capital. Positive mental health refers to human qualities and life skills such as cognitive functioning, positive self-esteem, social and problem solving skills, the ability to manage major changes and stresses in life and to influence the social environment, the ability to work productively and fruitfully and to make contributions to the community, and a state of emotional, spiritual and mental well-being (Hosman, 1999; WHO, 2001). In general, mental illness affects wide life aspects, ranging from internal world to external world, of people from all social, economic, geographic, age, gender, religious, and occupational groups. People with certain behavioral and emotional problems have been recognized by the societies in which they live as differing significantly from the general population (Thompson, 2007).

World Health Organization (WHO) has included mental well-being in the definition of health. WHO defines health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” and has defined mental health as “state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community” (WHO, 2001). Although the regime of mental health is massive but certain ingredient like self esteem and depression are highlighted frequently and are considered as important indicators of well-being. Variables like self esteem and depression continued to be prime concern for researcher where the element of anger is relatively overlooked in studies. Additionally in mental health literature, multiparty studies of these three variables are not considered thoroughly.

Mental illness is considered as the product of a complex interaction among biological, psychological, social, and cultural factors. The role of any one of these major factors can be stronger or weaker depending on the disorder (U.S. DHHS, 1999). The evidence on the personal, social, and environmental factors associated with mental health and mental illness has been reviewed by a number of authors (HEA 1997; Lahtinen et al. 1999; Wilkinson & Marmot 1998; Eaton & Harrison 1998; Hosman & Llopis 2004; Patel & Kleinman 2003). Researchers have sufficiently demonstrated that discrepancies in health are intimately associated with differences in social, economic, cultural, and political circumstances (Bloom, 2001; Rogers, 1997).

Social divisions and inequalities are observable features of advanced societies and their study has been one of sociology’s main preoccupations. Many minority ethnic groups are subject to forms of social exclusion and marginalization (Ahmad & Bradby, 2008). The study of minority influence has a long tradition in social psychology (Crano & Seyranian, 2007; Moscovici, 1985; Mugny & Perez, 1991; Wood, Lundgren, Ouelette, Busceme, & Blackstone, 1994).

Bourguignon, Seron, Yzerbyt, and Herman (2006) have stated that human beings are prone to create hierarchies that relegate some groups to the bottom of the social ladder. Being part of a so-called low status group is not a pleasant experience because it is associated with prejudice and discrimination in all aspects of daily life.

According to Wittkower & Dubreuil (1968), social groups also become vulnerable to mental disease when they are reduced to positions of inferiority. Such seems to be the case for minority groups which have been ‘colonialized’ by a more powerful majority group. It has been suggested that colonialized groups suffer from a complex of depersonalization; that is, many persons perceive themselves in accordance with the stereotypes which the dominant group entertains about them. This complex of depersonalization undermines and confuses their ego identity and quo.

Belle & Doucet, (2003); Sidanius & Pratto (1999) have inscribed that; dispassionate analysis of discrimination reveals that members of subordinate groups lag behind dominants on many societal indicators. They earn less money, are more often unemployed, and have lower diplomas and poorer health than high status group members. All these aspects (Chakraborty & McKenzie, 2002; Klonoff, Landrine, & Campbell, 2000) should logically impact on their psychological well-being and, indeed, studies generally show that stigmatized group members have a higher prevalence of psychiatric disorders than their dominant counterparts. House, Landis & Umberson (1988) have also reported that people who are more socially isolated and people who are disadvantaged have poorer health than others. Cross & Phagen-Smith, (2001) and Kim, (2001) stated that minority groups based on ethnic are often deemed inferior to the dominant group and stress associated with such stigma can negatively impact individuals who are in the ethnic minority. Minority groups (Kusat, 2001) categorized by race, nationality and religion generally suffer from the prejudices of majority groups and especially from political authorities. Because of their stigmatized social status, minorities are believed to encounter discrimination at greater frequencies than non-minorities (Kessler et al., 1999).

The minority status stress model describes the unique or excess stress, as compared to general stress, to which individuals in oppressed groups are exposed as a result of their minority status in society (Allison, 1998; Meyer, 2003). Sociological and psychological researchers have promoted the conceptualization that groups occupying multiple disadvantaged social categories (e.g., race, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, particularly stigmatized minority groups, are exposed to multiple risk factors and stressful social environments that may increase their vulnerability to the effects of stress and compromise their health (Allison, 1998; Meyer, 2003; Williams et al., 1994). Investigators have argued that minorities like ethnic experience stressors associated with their minority status, in addition to the daily life stressors that non minorities face, and that this heightened stress places them at increased risk for health and mental health problems (Allison, 1998; Harrell, 2000; Turner & Avison, 2003; Williams et al., 1997). Children in socially disadvantaged families are more likely to be exposed to multiple stressors, increasing their susceptibility to mental health problems (McLeod & Shanahan, 1996).

Further more, members of minority status groups tend to be well aware of their group’s devalued status (Jones et al., 1984) and recognize that they are likely to be seen and evaluated in terms of their devalued group membership (Goffman, 1963). Consequently, they live with the constant threat of becoming targets of prejudice (Crocker, Major, & Steele, 1998), at the same time as they tend to receive inferior treatment due to their group’s devalued status (Swim, Hyers, Cohen, & Ferguson, 2001; Swim, Hyers, Cohen, Fitzgerald, & Bylsma, 2003).

Exclusion from groups as a function of ethnicity (i.e. ethnic minority) contributes to depression and low motivation in adults (Baumeister, Twenge, & Nuss, 2002). Siegrist’s (2000) reported that exclusion from core social roles and from participation in society’s ‘structure of opportunities’ creates conditions that account for health disparities.

The Psychological Costs of Exclusion a sense of belongingness and attachment to others appears to be a universal need. Indeed, numerous theorists have argued that humans are motivated to seek inclusion and avoid exclusion (Michael T. Schmitt et al. (2003); Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Brewer, 1997; Maslow, 1968; Rosenberg, 1979; Williams & Sommer, 1997). Because ‘finding one’s place’ in the social world is necessary to subjectively experience one’s existence as meaningful (Simon, 1999), being rejected is likely to harm self-esteem and other markers of psychological well-being. Indeed, empirical research has found that being rejected by others causes psychological harm by increasing anxiety (Baumeister & Tice, 1990; Bowlby, 1973) and depression (Frable, 1993); lowering self-esteem (Leary, Tambor, Terdal, & Downs, 1995), and creating the feeling that one’s existence lacks meaning (Williams, Shore, & Grahe, 1998). Furthermore, literature suggests that, “The relationship between social exclusion and mental illness is complex, with many of the elements of ‘exclusion’ (low income, lack of social networks, joblessness) being in different circumstances both causal factors and consequences of mental illness” (Brown & Harris, 1978; Jahoda, 1979; Link et al, 1997; Perkins & Repper, 1996; Department of Health, 1999; Sartorius, 2000; Sayce, 2000).

However, it is a truism to state that people actually diagnosed with a significant mental illness are among the most ‘excluded’ in society (Sayce & Measey, 1999; Sayce & Morris, 1999; Sayce, 2000). Social exclusion may is a multidimensional process of progressive social rupture detaching groups and individuals from social relations and institutions (Power & Wilson, 2000). People, because of predetermined characteristics in life like caste, gender, religion etc. are faced with very different opportunities in life. They thus differ in schooling they get, education, health status, economic and social mobility, and capacity to influence social and political institutions affecting them. These various types of disadvantages are generally interlinked. Disadvantage in one dimension is reinforced by disadvantage in other dimensions. Social inequalities and injustices may mar individual and group potential (Singh, Pandey, Tiwari, Pandey, and Maurya, 2009).

When a minority group with a separate and distinct culture exists in a larger environment that is strongly influenced by a majority culture, the situation could provide an abundant source of potential problems. There might be conflicting attitudes, beliefs, and values; and differences in language, dress, behaviors, and traditions. Because of these cultural conflicts, it is often assumed that minority adolescents may have a particularly difficult time, since they can be caught between parents and older relatives who have deep roots in the minority culture, and teachers and peers who reflect the majority culture (Oetting, E. R. & Beauvais, F, 1991).

Further more; group inequality as result of cultural diversity may be threat to individual mental health. Despite the newly recognized advocacy and acceptance of cultural diversity, barriers associated with group inequality (Portes, 1996) remain entrenched and painful (Gurr, 1993; Perlmutter, 1992; Ponterroto, & Pedersen, 1993). These barriers are prime sources of various frustrations, violence, confrontations, drop-out, and stop-out rates in cross-cultural contexts (Brislin, 1981; Locke, 1992). Moreover, Trimble, Mason, & Dinges (1983) found that cultural differences are associated with isolation, passivity, increased stress, anxiety, depression, and other psychological problems.

Being a member of a minority group can have a number of psychological costs. Among members of disadvantaged or stigmatized groups, perceiving rejection by the dominant majority is likely to be psychologically costly (Schmitt, Spears & Branscombe, 2003). Membership in a minority group is frequently cited as sources of disparities. Relative to majority, members of minority groups experience poorer health status and greater disability (Institute of Medicine, 2002; Nelson, 2003). In many countries substantial disparities in health outcomes exist between ethnic minority groups (Bos et al., 2004; Davey Smith et al., 2000). Minorities disproportionately experience health problems because they are disproportionately of low socioeconomic status, and they are likely to suffer psycho physiological distress and depressive mood as a consequence (Kolody et al 1986).

Many researchers like Aneshensel & Sucoff, (1996), Brooks-Gunn, Duncan, Klebanov, & Sealand, (1993), Compas, Connor, & Hinden, (1998), Ensminger & Juon, (1998), Fitzpatrick, (1993), Fitzpatrick & LaGory, (2000), Jessor, (1992), Kandel, (1998), Loeber, Farrington, Stouthamer-Loeber, & Kammen, (1998), Resnick et al., (1997) have reported that low income and minority youth are at great risk for a wide range of problematic outcomes affecting their personal well-being. Studies indicate that children of ethnic minority groups are at risk of having more problem behavior than majority children (Bradley & Sloman, 1975; Ogbu, 1988; Pawliuk, Grizenko, Chan-Yip, Gantous, Mathew, & Nguyen, 1996; Rutter et al., 1974).

The impact of minority based on race and ethnicity on health has likewise attracted increasing attention. As with class and gender, race and ethnicity have been strongly correlated with poor health (Blake & Darling, 2000; Bolaria & Bolaria, 1994; Brancati, Kao, Folsom, Watson, & Szklo, 2000; Dana, 2002; Graham, Raines, Andrews, & Mensah, 2001; Schulz et al., 2000; Utsey, Ponterotto, Reynolds, & Cancelli, 2000). Headen, Manton, and Woodbury (2003) reported that there are racial disparities in health including mental health problems. Current epidemiologic evidence indicates significant and persistent ethnic group differences on virtually all major health status indicators in adults (NCCDPHP 2004; Williams and Jackson 2005), as well as in children (Chen et al. 2006).

Substantial research demonstrates that health outcomes are distributed unequally among diverse minority groups based on ethnicity. Choi et al. (2006) found that ethnic minority adolescents, specifically African Americans, Asian Americans, and Hispanic Americans, reported higher levels of social stress and mental distress compared with Caucasians. Rates of hypertension and related complications are significantly higher in Blacks than in non-Hispanic Whites or Asians (American Heart Association 2008). Studies have reported higher incidence rates of psychosis among ethnic minority groups in the UK as compared to dominant group (King et al. 1994; Van Os et al. 1996; Bhugra et al. 1997). Paranoia levels have been found to be consistently elevated among ethnic minority group of African Americans (Combs, Penn, & Fenigstein, 2002; Whaley, 2001a). There is a high prevalence of depression and suicide among Korean Americans (Hyun, 2001; Oh et al., 2002) than those noted by other Asian groups (Donnelly, 2001; Kim, 2002; Sung, 2005). Studies report significantly higher numbers of depressive symptoms among African Americans compared to dominant Whites (Amato, 1991; Jackson, 1997; Myers et al., 2002). There is evidence that member of certain minority groups experience higher rates of depressive symptoms (Crocker et al., 1998). Boydell et al. (2001), in the UK electoral wards within London found higher incidence of schizophrenia among ethnic minorities (Caribbean, African and all minorities).

Research continues to accumulate showing minority segregation based on racial and ethnic is related to poor health (Polednak 1997, Williams and Collins 2001). In this context researchers like, Suzuki, Alexander, Lin, and Duffy (2006) have also reported that, the prevalence of diagnosed psychopathology in children and youth varies depending upon racial/ethnic group membership. One of the reasons for these discrepancies may be that youth from certain racial/ethnic groups are more vulnerable to specific psychological disorders. Braveman & Egerter (2008) reported that, research indicates that socioeconomic status and race/ethnicity both contribute to disparities in health status. An analysis of nationally representative data reported (Harris, Gordon-Larsen, Chantala, & Udry, 2006) that minority adolescents and young adults in general reported worse health status, behaviors, and mental health symptoms.

Increased rates of mental illness in certain ethnic minority groups have been reported in the UK, with high community prevalence rates of depression in some South Asian groups (Nazroo,1997); high incidence rate of psychosis in African-Caribbean groups (Fearon , Kirkbride , Dazzan , Morgan , Morgan , Lloyd , Hutchinson , Tarrant , Fung , Holloway, Mallett , Harrison , Leff , Jones , Murray (2006); and higher rates of suicide in some South Asian groups (Neeleman J, Mak V, Wessely S (1997). Warheit et al (1973, 1975), reported that blacks have higher rates of psychiatric symptoms and dysfunction than whites on a number of scales e.g. anxiety, depression, phobia. Where Indian children who lives in Britain displayed higher levels of internalizing problems than did their dominant English peers (Atzaba-Poria, Pike, & Barrett, 2004).

In United States prevalence of mental health problems among different minorities Saluja et al. (2004) reported that, American Indian/Alaska Native youth (ages 11-15) are most likely to have depressive symptoms (29%) followed by Hispanic (21.7%), White American (18.4%), Asian American (16.6%), and African American (14.6%) youth. Similarly, a large body of literature indicates that Latin American (LA) youth in the United States (U.S.) report higher levels of internalizing problems than white non-Latino (WNL) youth including depressive (Joiner et al., 2001; Roberts et al., 1997; Siegel et al., 1998), anxious (Ginsburg and Silverman, 1996; Silverman et al., 1995), and somatic (PiE?na and Silverman, 2004; Varela et al., 2004) symptoms. Further more; racial minorities are more likely to experience a greater disability burden from mental disorders compared to Whites (Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality 2004; Good et al. 2003; US Department of Health, Human Services 2001).

It can be clearly insinuate from researches on mental health disparities, that minority individuals are more susceptible to mental health problem in many domains as compare to their dominant counterparts. Several studies suggest varying nature of factors that play prevailing role in minority mental health problems. To inspect dynamic impact of being minority on mental health of adolescents the present study is an attempt to investigate uncertain ties about the extent of mental illness among minority and majority religious groups.

For last few decades the phenomenon of psychological problems that emerged as a product of minority status particularly during adolescence is an attractive in the domain of social and developmental psychology. This study which compares minority and majority adolescent’s mental health problems prevalence differences may implicitly help to find out the role of social / cultural factors in development of psychological problems. Examining the role of minority position that predicts fluctuation in the mental health variables i.e. self esteem, depression and anger will provide a useful baseline for researcher and other mental health professionals. It will also serve to test assumptions revealed in the literature about difference of minority and majority adolescent’s mental heath problems.

The key focus of the study i.e. recommendations will be helpful to encourage the development of effective policies and strategies to contest racial discrimination against children of religious minorities in the areas of education, training, and employment. The factors associated and involved in making minority adolescents vulnerable to mental health problems play an important role in the development of psychopathology. The present study will also be useful for psychologists and other practitioners related to mental health discipline in order to pinpoint the causes and to prepare better strategies for prevention of such factors. Mainly it would be beneficial for the social policy makers as there is a dire need to make policies about youth issues specially minority one. In sum, researcher hope that this research work may somehow help to create understanding / awareness about core (central and peripheral) issues of mental health problems of minority youth in Pakistan in comparative context.

The Johnson family Scenario

In this assignment I will explore two sociological theories and two psychological theories impacting on the Johnson family. I shall begin by exploring sociological theories analysing and defining them and in the second half of this assignment will then explore psychological theories. I will also look at the professional interventions available in social work. I shall endeavour to indicate their strength and weaknesses incorporating their relationships to issues of class, race, culture gender and sexuality. I will then reflect on the influence of these theories on my own development to achieve social work professional status.

Max Weber defined consensus as existing when expectations about the behaviour of others are realistic because the others will usually accept these expectations as valid for themselves, even without an explicit agreement. For Marxists, consensus is a highly ideological concept used to perpetuate class rule by attempting to disguise the extent of conflict within society. (Answers.com) Durkheim is known to have drawn an analogue of the functionalist perspective view in which he said that ‘society is a system of interrelated parts each of which relies upon the other parts for efficient functioning.'(Cunningham, J & Cunningham,S).These institutions are essential for maintaining that society works harmoniously and orderly.

The view of the functionalist is that the use of power is acceptable and generally beneficial to society. They share norms and values which help them to determine the right from the wrong. There is an acceptance from the functionalist’s positions that conflicts will occur but will only be temporary and can quickly be resolved. Society should be adequately prepared to deal with instances of anti social behaviour so that society as a whole benefits. In the functionalist perspective schools’ first role is to emphasise proper behaviour and knowledge that is necessary to maintain a civilised society. According to the functionalist, the children in the Johnson’s should therefore be sent to school to be equipped with this weapon and the fact that they are truanting could easily be viewed as anti social behaviour.

Karl Marx did not at all agree with capitalism’s theories of consensus and in his writing highlighted the conflict theory, although acknowledging structural integration of society’s institutions such as political, legal or religious which he described as the superstructure. His view was that workers in the class system like Desmond a car mechanic and Mary a cook at a primary school were being exploited and that there should be equality on control, power, wealth and the best education. Marxists felt that it was those with the means of production that had the power and therefore significantly influenced the rest of the society. This causes a difference of interest among social groups which in turn causes conflict. As both Desmond and Mary are working this creates pressure on parenting skills and has probably forced Desmond to decide sending Eustace to a residential home.

Marxists perceive functionalists as deceiving as they say the norms and values which they claim are the backbone of society are infect their norms and values that only help to strengthen their positions perpetuating the unequal social system. Marxists argued that the workers were being replaced by machines in their roles of employment and this resulted in them loosing their skills, assuming monotonous jobs, separated from each other by the noise and would return home dehumanised and physically exhausted. Marx believed the proletariat would realise the exploitation, join together and revolt overthrowing the system and establishing true systems

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The Marxists view of social work is that it is an agent of the state and as such reinforces the interest of the ruling class. Their view is that the state in capitalists societies saves the interests of the ruling classes and do not treat their citizens equally even in cases of welfare services. They further state that the image of caring that they create is only a myth which serves to enhance the profits of the capitalists that the social workers serve through the state. The Marxists do not see the necessity of the social control role of social work but an agent of state bent on socially controlling those that are already marginalised and excluded. In this view social workers tend to be ignorant of the poverty they are meant to be addressing from the society by empowering service users to take action and bring about change. The Johnson family appears overcrowded in their residence and this is associated with poverty. Social workers have found themselves working with tied hands as the system is tightly regulated and procedural thereby restricting social workers from exercising their knowledge.

Functionalists viewed the institution of family to be the best organisational basis for society. Talcott Parsons (1955) insists that the family retains two ‘basic and irreducible functions’. These are ‘the primary socialisation of children’ and ‘the stabilisation of adult personalities.’ So this view will explain that for the family to maintain stability, it needs support to ensure normality. This perspective then explains that if there are signs of antisocial behaviour such as truanting then the family unit needs to be supported. According to Murdock (1949) family performs four important functions i.e. providing new members of the society by reproduction, providing stability for adults through sexual gratification, providing for the economic well being and educating the young to socialise into society’s norms and values. Eustace’s wondering and confusion could be viewed as hindering by the functionalists because it is affecting Mary who they expect to be participating in the society both as a mother and a worker as it is the institute that will influence good behaviour of children.

Functionalists believed that the family is a positive institution, a view that meets well with the needs of an advanced industrial society. The functionalists would view Eustace’s confusion as costing the society in terms of health care for Mary and himself. Eustace’s problems must be rectified in order to get Mary ‘functioning’ well again and become productive in the society. Functionalists highlight the ideal family type in a modern society, as the nuclear family. The view of the nuclear family comprises of a breadwinner husband ( in the scenario this would be Desmond) and dependant wife and children. Mary cannot be classified as dependant as she is also working and earning.

The functionalist view of the family as ideological is criticised as a conservative stance. Some feminists’ criticise this view as being unrealistic as it does not recognise the oppression of women in families. However, they defend the claim that the functionalist view of family life is shared by many people, if not only as an aspiration. The nuclear family is seen as traditional and positive. Marxism states that the family is a product of capitalism and is therefore an exploitative institution. They argue that families are not built upon love but are founded from necessity. Women therefore become the property of men and all roles within families exist in order to maintain a capitalist state.

There are two classes in the society according to Marxism. One is the ruling class and the other is the subject class. The Johnson family would be classified as a subject class and their employers like the garage owners where Desmond works would be the ruling class. This is opposed by functionalist who claims that there are many classes in society and points to a division of labour.

Eustace’s situation is also causing friction between Desmond (a father and mechanic) and Mary thereby threatening the institution of family. However a Marxist would hold a different view putting the blame on Mary being over worked and thereby causing her to be depressed. They highlight the lack of care from the employers who do not pay well enough keeping most of the profits to themselves prompting Mary to work long hours.

Desmond is said to be impatient with Eustace who he sees as stressing his wife at home ‘while trying to do her job.’ This appears a functionalist view where Desmond is concerned about Mary being disrupted in doing her job hence not able to contribute to the income.

Mary and Desmond might have moved to the UK in response to the big drive for workforce after the world war. They were promised better lives with luxurious facilities only to realise when they arrived in the UK that it was not the case and they had to work extremely hard to earn a living. Desmond’s role would be to provide and Mary also performing this role as she also works. Caring for Eustace could be seen by Desmond as preventing Mary from performing the task expected within her role, a view that the feminists would regard as oppressive.

Whilst various sociological school of thought tries to explain family circumstances and possible interventions that may assist families it is not adequate in itself. In this context I will now turn to psychological perspectives. The essay will examine psychological theories of behavioural approach, which developed through the works of Thorndike (trial and error learning), Pavlov (classical conditioning) and Skinner (operant conditioning) who all believed that the environment controlled behaviour.

Behavioural theory is based on a “scientific method” (Banks, 2001. p. 73) and on what can be “observed, studied, measured and reliably changed” (Feltham, 1995; cited in Adams R, Dominelli L & Payne M, 2002. p.144). It argues that internal states such as thoughts, intentions and feeling are not observable and replicable, hence are not open to scientific analysis, it aims to eradicate or reduce behaviours that are deemed problematic while positive behaviours are encouraged, an agreement between the service user and the practitioner through the process of positively reinforcing and rewarding consequences that a service user consider valuable. Payne (1997) in his “token economies” (Payne, 1997. p.133) argues that this helps reinforce and strengthen the desirable behaviour.

This theory sees the behaviourist assuming that most behaviour is learned as a result of our interactions with our environment, including emotional development, perceptions of the external world, social behaviour and personality.

Milner and O’Byrne (1998 p112) describes Classical conditioning occurring when there is an association of “conditioned and unconditioned stimulus” such that the former stir up a response previously evoked only by the later. This was similar to Pavlov’s (1911) conclusion in his famous ‘Dog-Salivation-Experiment. If applied in this case study it would first try to identify the original stimulus, in this case, the loss of a loved one Susan, the response, Eustace’s confusion and Mary’s anxiety and depression. ‘Those associated with unpleasant or stressful feelings may become conditioned stimuli for feelings of anger and anxiety later on’. (Birch A, 1997, p139).

Another theory of behaviour Operant conditioning claims that learning occurs when voluntary behaviour arises from an individual and becomes more or less likely to be repeated depending on its results as demonstrated by Skinner (1953) in his ‘Skinner-Box-Experiments’ with a cat and a pigeon. In the Johnson family scenario, Mary is a service user with depression and anxiety which Milner and O’Byrne argues “ABC Approach” (Milner and O’ Byrne, 1998. p.114) is necessary in identifying and analysing the behaviour that needs modification in agreement with the service user. Mary has gone to see the doctor on her own accord and therefore there is an agreement. This would involve establishing the Antecedent (caring for her father and the family), and the consequences (depression and anxiety). The consequences will either “strengthen or weaken behaviour by reinforcement or punishment” (Payne, 1997. p. 114). In Mary’s case it is the depression and anxiety that is undesirable. The distinctive characteristic of operant conditioning relative to previous forms of behaviorism is that the organism ( Mary) can emit responses instead of only eliciting response due to an external stimulus (the practitioner). It is likely that Mary would respond positively if the right responses have been reinforced.

Behaviourism models are advantageous due to their easy adaptability and practicability by inexperienced practitioners without extensive training than would be expected of a “psychodynamic approach” (Adams, R, Dominelli, L and Payne, M, 2002. p. 144) in facilitating an effective outcome. Payne (1997) also argues that the prescribed “explicit, structured guidanceaˆ¦and assessment instruments employed” (Payne, 1997. p. 134) gives unskilled practitioners the confidence to apply behavioural theory and procedures in interventions. My perception is that as behavioural intervention focuses on negative behaviour that needs modification, it is empowering the service user to choose and self determine the behaviours that need modification in partnership and therefore the practitioner is recognising and respecting individuality. The role of the practitioner is to facilitate and support the service user. Thus, labelling and making judgement on the service user is avoided and is then directed to the behaviour.

Behavioural approaches have been criticised by some practitioners as being “excessively mechanistic” (Banks, 2001. p.73) and “non-human” (Payne, 1997. p.122) in some of its methods, conducts and terms used, as they do not take into account service user individuality and will to choose. It is true that Mary would be different from other service users who would have used the same theory. The behavioural approach overall intervention emphasis is on the need to change or modify the client behaviour rather than those around the client who may be the problem. In the case scenario it is probably Desmond who we need to convince that Mary and Eustace need his understanding and cooperation as well as dealing with the fact that the family were not offered support to grieve and move on with life after the death of a

loved one. Milner and O’Byrne (1998) point out that social workers tend to do as they find “easier to change an individual than challenge the status quo” (Milner and O’Byrne, 1998.

Attachment has been defined as “an affectionate bond between two individuals that endures through space and time and serves to join them emotionally” Kennell 1976.

John Bowlby described attachment as a “lasting psychological connectedness between human beings” (Bowlby, 1969, p. 194). Bowlby believed that the earliest bonds formed by children with their caregivers had an impact lasting throughout their lives. Adult attachment theory helps Social Workers understand how people feel and act within close relationships, particularly in stressful situations. Attachment is not different in adulthood and in childhood as they all will give and receive support. Attachment relationships can be secure or insecure. Attachment is clearly influential in both professional and personal settings. As a Social Worker knowing about the attachment theory can help to make the right steps in order to protect the child and the family.

Mary Ainsworth expanded greatly on Bowlby’s original work with behaviour experiment which she named “Strange Situation”. In the study children between 12 months and 18 months were left alone with a stranger with the mother returning a moment later. The study revealed three major styles of attachment: secure attachment, ambivalent-insecure attachment and avoidant insecure attachment. A fourth one was later added on by researchers Main and Solomon called disorganised insecure-attachment.

It is clear that Mary has a bond with her father and hence his condition is affecting her psychologically. The fact that Mary and Desmond’s relationship seemed to be strained by having Eustace living with them shows that they are experiencing lack of intimacy support for one another.

The scenario mentions the death of Susan in the family and appears that Eustace, Mary and the Kids have been affected. Loss through death is a normal part of life experienced by everyone. The grief process varies in length and this also depends on the strength of the attachment. This period is usually very painful as the affected seek to adjust or cope without their loved one. Collin, Murray-parkes (1972) describes bereavement as an illness, thus in turn prompted Mary to see her doctor for help. The Johnson family appears not to have gone through the grieving process. Eustace is showing a lack of interest in normal life by wondering and could be his way of searching for his wife. ‘The grieving process involves psychological suffering ( Birch, A ,1997 p251)

Grief is defined as “the process of psychological, social and somatic reactions to the perceptions of loss” (Rando, 1984). This explains that the individual is affected mentally, physically as well as socially. Bereavement is defined as “the state of having suffered a loss” (Rando, 1984).

According to Balwby excessive separation anxiety is usually the result of adverse family experiences, such as repeated threats of abandonment or rejections by parents, or to parent’s or siblings’ illnesses or death for which the child feels responsible. The truanting of the children could be a result of the feeling that they felt ‘abandoned’ after the death of Susan who at one stage raised them for three years when their parents moved to the UK and could have bonded with the children. They have been living in the same house and this could have kept them close.

A key principle of an attachment based practice is the acknowledgment that young children develop a range of adaptive strategies that are designed to help them cope with, survive and function in whatever situations they happen to find themselves, The children could be truanting as way of coping with the loss.

As Eustace is wondering and possibly searching for his wife, it could be that he is thinking of joining her wife where ever she is. This brings Eriksson’s stages of development Integrity v Despair. Integrity is contentment with what you have achieved and Despair is the feeling that you have achieved nothing. As Eustace could be nearing the end of his life he will probably look back with integrity. He had his child who also got married and had her own family. He has lived for more than sixty years and although it does not look like he lived a porch life he was not homeless and up to this day still has a loving daughter taking care of him. Eustace will probably be looking forward to dying with contentment.

Applying sociological and psychological theories as well as social work values has been a challenge for me considering my ethnic background of African origin as much as the Johnson family who travelled to settle in the UK, a country with different norms, cultures and values. I feel I empathise more with the Johnson family, in relation to the impact of new norms, culture and a new way of living.

Studying social work has challenged some of my beliefs and prejudices and hence the toleration of others, provide recognition and ability to challenge discrimination. Adherence of work values have provided me with further understanding of being respectful of other peoples, views, religion, culture and preferences which is of paramount significance to become a social work practitioner. (GSCC 2002).

The study will explore the issue of transnational family relationships and return migration among British-South Asian second generation young people. It will illustrate how transnational family ties and social networks are utilized as social capital resources to facilitate these young people’s migration from Britain to the South Asia e.g. Pakistan, their parent’s country of origin. A combination of internally formed and externally imposed understandings of ethnic identity, home and belonging W2will took into consideration to find out the factors influencing these young people’s decision to migrate to Pakistan, alongside other pragmatic and practical reasons.

Return migration by particular ethnic communities in the UK has received considerable academic attention (Bryon 2000) in recent years. Increasingly, research interest is turning towards second-generation return migration to emphasize the significance of Diaspora and social networks informing the return migration process. This Research Proposal will explore second-generation return migration to the South Asian Countries especially Pakistan and how this is facilitated by social networks and resources generated through family relationships (Reynolds 2010).

Transmigration and cultural diversity could be used interchangably. Ethnic and cultural diversity of Europe is influenced by transmigration from all over the world major proportation from Asian subcontinent (Reynolds 2010).

Immigrants are categorised to be transnational migration when they have and maintain multiple relations, individuals are participating in social relations simultaneously across different borders. The Social relations could be simply ancestral, economic, religious, educational and political (Glick Schiller et al. 1992, Stephen 2007). Transmigration could be more or less permanent between two or more countries. So such transnational migration could raise questions about individual’s identity, rights, race, class, ethnicity, and nationalism (Reynolds 2006, Reynolds 2010).

Studies suggested that transnational connections to the homeland among the first generation remain well-built over time across diverse migrant communities, but these ties are weakened with the next and successive generations (Sutton 2004). Whereas Grillo (2008) suggests the growing connotation of globalization and transnationalism in terms of generational distinction is too plain and matters are now more complex. In contemporary Europe, for instance, migrants, many of their offspring and following generations are rooted into a set of personal and social relationships which connect the individuals to place of birth, ancestral homeland and Diaspora (Christou 2006). Wessendorf’s (2007) study of return migration among second generation of Italians in Switzerland also suggests that these social and personal relationships with their ancestral homeland create a ‘third space’, which enables second generation young migrants to articulate an understanding of identity, home and belonging.

Social capital, as a theoretical concept, will help us to analyse how families represent an important resource in generating networks and relationships of trust and reciprocity across transnational fields (Reynolds 2007). Internationally various empirical studies on second generation return migration across diverse ethnic and migrant groups are investigating the significance of disapora and transnationalism in the return migration process (Levitt 2001,Wessendorf 2007; King and Christou 2008). For example, a number of studies conducted in Britain, Canada and the US explore the social and cultural adjustments, experienced by second generation return migrants (Duval 2004, Bauer and Thompson 2006 ). This descriptive study seeks to build on and complement the growing body of work on in this field primarily focussing on South Asian perspective.

Robert Putnam’s (2000; 2007) ideas concerning social capital will provide the basis for investigating how British – Pakistani young people utilize their family and social networks to make connections across geographical distance, and the extent to which these networks constitute a resource and form a kind of capital that enable individuals to eventually return.

Robert Putnam (2000) also suggests that social networks found in families are valued for binding communities and societies together. These social networks provide the basis for social cohesion, solidarity and civic participation. However reciprocal trust, social support and social connectedness, typically understood as key features of social capital; also represent important social resources within family relationships (Winter 2002; Edwards, Franklin and Holland 2003).

Ties of trust and reciprocity emerging through family relationships enable social capital to be built up over time and transmitted across generations ( Franklin 2007). Family bonds are themselves utilized as a social resource by individuals in the construction of their ethnic identity (Reynolds 2006 ).

Strong bonding ties of ethnic and cultural identity emerged in many participants’ accounts. Those young people who expressed extensive and strong ties to the Pakistan were more likely to participate in transnational family activities, such as family visits ‘home’ and the family reunion in the Pakistan (Reynolds 2006).

According to the analysis of Institute for Public Policy Research (IPPR) 2006 Labour Force Survey data, the countries that send the fourth highest number of migrants to the UK are Pakistan (IPPR2007). With a large settled population of Pakistani origin in the UK along with newcomers those with Pakistani heritage in Britain are among the most conspicuous of overseas origin. The first generation of Pakistani migrants to the UK mainly settled in 1960. The next group is made up of their UK born children and their spouses many of whom come from Pakistan.

Research Question

What are these young people’s understandings of their parent’s homeland?

How do they construct and position their ethnic identity in relation to these cultural and familial bonds?

How strong and extensive are these young people’s ties to their parent’s country of origin?

Does the second generation have any expectation or intention of return migration to the Pakistan?

Methodology

Social and cultural anthropologists have a longer practice of sustained interaction with the research participants in their natural settings in order to investigate the social world. Using the same practise of Anthropologist, In-depth qualitative data will be collected from second generation living in UK and returnees to the Pakistan. Data would be generated through unstructured and semi-structured interviews along with the observational methods.

In depth Interviews with a qualitative sample of second generation living in UK and who migrated to Pakistan will reflect on how these young people manage their adjustment and settlements at both places. The aim of this research approach is to examine the participants in their natural settings at the same time allowing their voices to come to the fore in narrating their own stories. Research finding will focus the views of second generation young people in Britain with strong family ties to the Pakistan. The main focus of debate is the small but distinct group of young people that decided to leave England and migrate to the Pakistan. Finally the analysis would calculate the young people’s motivation for return migration, including the social context in Britain.

The sample criteria

Only those respondents would be included in research project from UK who had family members living in the Pakistan and they had visited the Pakistan within the past five years. From Pakistan those will be selected who has migrated from UK to Pakistan, respondents would be easier to find from Gujrat, Jehlum and Mir Pur Districts. Given the specific nature of the research criteria, access to the research sample will be achieved through a ‘snowballing’ method (Gilbert 1994).

Data analysis

Qualitative research design would be used in order to understand the phenomenon in depth. The analysis of the data involves young people’s understandings of their parent’s homeland in trems of their ethnic identity in relation to these cultural and familial bonds. Analysis of data would also focus on young people’s ties to their parent’s country of origin. Those who are living in UK would be intrusive to get their expectation or intention of return migration to the Pakistan?

Time Frame

Time required for the following research activities:-

Literature review 5 months

Research design 4 months

Data collection 10 months

Data analysis 9 months

Report writing 8 months

Bennet looks at feminism in the traditional marriages where the role of a woman in the relationship was child rearing and taking care of household duties. The man on the other hand provided for the financial needs in the family. According to Bennet for a woman to give up on her career ambitions for the motherhood is a feminine mistake. Bennet explains that economic dependency is a bound to hurt or destroy the relationship (Bennet132). Bennet explains that relationships suffer immeasurably in the event of a divorce, a spouse’s retrenchment, illness, or widowhood especially when one party was dependent on another. It is evident that there is an evolving social phenomenon of masculine and feminine roles in relationships. The transformation disregards the traditional concepts of gender roles and adopts an egalitarian structure to explain masculine and feminine roles in modern relationships.

Thornton, Axin and Xie observe that young prefer cohabitation to marriage. According to Thornton, Axin, and Xie children tend to marry early if their parents married early. It is evident that children cohabit if their parents at some point did cohabit ( Thornton, Axinn and Xie 55). These observations point out the transformation of the western marriage. The rise in divorce cases, acceptance sexual minority group all point to the transformation in the society that explain the change in masculine and feminine roles in relationships. For example, the divorce cases result to the rise of single parent family structures where we have a single mother who takes up the feminine as well as the masculine role in the family. The woman becomes a caregiver, decision make and financial provider in the family. On the other hand, if we have the father making up the full custody of the children the father then takes up a feminine role of being the caregiver, nurturer and at the same time, he retains his masculine role.

Cultural models in the 21st century are transforming and homosexuality has gained acceptance in different societies. The gay, Lesbian, bisexual and transgender groups have societal support as well as federal protection that protects them from any form of harm. Desjardins considers same-sex marriage in the United States. According to Desjardins, the acceptance of same-sex marriage in the United States is evident from the wide support the issue has received from the public and politic figures. Desjardin states that there are states, for example, Maine where sex marriage is constitutionally accepted (Desjardins “Snowe supports same-sex marriage”). Lippa explains that the traditionally the feminine role in relationships involves the nurturing activities. Lippa considers masculine and feminine roles in homosexual relationships. According to Lippa, research shows that gay men exhibit feminine characteristics than heterosexual men. On the other hand, it is evident that lesbian women show masculine characteristics when compared to heterosexual women ( Lippa 41). According to Lippa, parents and the society are responsible for teaching children on gender roles and behaviours. However, the acceptance of same sex relationships redefines masculine and feminine roles.

Goldberg, Smith and Maureen state that same-sex marriages tend to shift the perception of masculine and feminine roles in relationships. In some cases, men take up feminine roles and women take up masculine roles. In same sex marriages, adopting children to raise a family is a way of experiencing a normal life (Golberg, Smith and Maureen 814). Research studies that gay, lesbian, transgender and bisexual parents adopt children to experience normal relationships like heterosexual families. Studies also show the same sex parents, for example, gay fathers’ exhibit better nurturing qualities that heterosexual fathers. The same sex marriages provide good example of egalitarian family structures. Goldberg, Smith and Perry-Jenkins explains that same sex parents’ value equality and both parents work together, share responsibilities for the benefit of the family (Goldberg, Smith and Perry-Jenkins 815).

Lippa explains research shows that there are women who take up masculine roles in modern relationships, for example, the case of single mothers, widowed women, lesbian and transgender relationships. In other cases, involving heterosexuals, lesbians, gay, transgender, and bisexuals’ egalitarianism plays a significant role in the definition of the masculine and feminine roles in the relationship. In such an arrangement, there is an equitable division of roles involving house chores, child rearing and income generation. Children learn marriage, social, and education values from their parents. Thorton, Axinn and Xie explain that studies confirm children learn and adopt values from the family, school and society. According to Thorton, Axinn and Xie children whose parents marry at a tender age tend to do the same (Thornton, Axinn, and Xie105). Children who grow up in a family where parents adopt egalitarianism as a means of raising their families will end up raising their families in the same structure.

Bennet explains that children who have both their parents working benefit from having a secured future in terms of finance and career ( Bennet 98). Bennet criticises the decision of professional women to give up their careers for their traditional roles as nurturers, home keepers. According to Bennet, women who give up their careers for the family end up suffering. On the other hand making a career come back is a greater challenge they face later in their lives (Bennet 102). Traditional marriage set-ups required women to submit to their husbands wishes. However, this has changed with the empowerment of women society now produces women who have a better education, women who compete with men for top paying positions, and women participating in influential activities such as politics. Feminine roles change when women decide to pursue their career. Studies show that women who pursue careers have less time for relationships and families. Those who manage to raise families struggle to balance their careers and being there for the family (Bennet 125). Although the family benefits from financial security, the mother faces health complications resulting from stress especially if her husband is unsupportive in the provision of primary care giving.

Research shows that women who take up masculine roles like providing for their families influence their family structures. Women who dedicate their time to build on their careers influence the size of their families. Bennet states that it is impossible for a woman to take care of a large family and at the same time pursue a successful career. According to Bennet, women opt to sacrifice their careers to raise a family (Bennet 32). On the other hand, the role of fathers in the modern families has changed. The masculine role of aggressiveness has evolved to a compassionate and nurturing role. This is evident especially in same sex marriages involving gay adopting parents. In modern families set ups fathers desire to spend more time with their families. There is the evidence where fathers alter their work schedules to make them flexible in order to create time for their families. Another example of a change in masculine role is depicted in the media where we get examples of male resistance to job relocations this is to avoid separation of fathers from their families. It is common to families where the mother is the breadwinner and the father takes up the role of taking care of the home and rearing the children.

When women take up their positions in the work force, the children’s suffer. The masculine and feminine role of imparting social qualities upon their children is interrupted. It is important for women to perform their role of providing continuous affection and nurturing children at their early stage of development (Lippa 124). However, the women’s fight for equality has rather reversed this role. Children in modern families tend to be left in the care of baby sitters. Lippa explains that parental rearing is an important for children to understand socialisation and the differences regarding masculinity and femininity (Lippa 124). The absence of parents during the initial stages of socialisation the children can suffer from mental distress.

Since 2010, there has been a rise of men’s right movements in regions around Europe and the United States. The movements that seek to advocate for the rights of fathers, and support the changing masculine roles in relationships. According to research studies, the women have outnumbered men in high paying jobs; it is evident that in the modern family set ups a large number of men are taking up the caregiver role. Women in modern relationships have become assertive and a significant number of men exhibit feminine characteristics. Goldberg, Smith and Maureen mention cases of transgender who struggle to express their identity. Transgender male or female who get into marital relationships without confirming their identity suffer from the stress of struggling to lead a normal life in their secretive life. Disclosing ones identity enables once to take up the roles that conform to their identity (820).

It is impossible to ignore the societal transformations that play a big role in transforming families. The modern family set ups provides a perfect example of the changing masculine and feminine roles. However, it is important to note that the masculine and feminine roles both play a significant role in the growth and development of children. Therefore, even with the changing roles it is important for families to maintain their roles as role models for their children. This prevents cases of mental instability that may arise when parents priorities their careers instead of their children’s needs. Goldberg, Smith and Maureen mention some positive parenting qualities that GLTB exhibit society can embrace this and learn on how to merge their masculine and feminine roles to benefit the family.

Question: Make up a list of what you consider to be the traditional Chinese values and/or norms. Does it appear that many of the items on your list are becoming less significant than in the past? Why?

Due to the long term development of Chinese society, Chinese culture are deeply influence the life of people which also known as one of the civilization in world history. Culture can divide into materialistic culture and non-materialistic culture.

Both traditional Chinese values and norms are belonging to the latter one which the thoughts made by the social members.

Culture norms refer to the instructions of human behaviors that people need to follow in the society (Macionis, 2008). Norms can be dividing into the folkways and mores. Mores would be more restricted that it is also the taboo of the society. Punishment may result if someone’s behaviors are violating to mores. Culture value refers to the standards that comment on somebody ( ???,1999).

There are thousands of norms in traditional Chinese society in political, economic and social aspects. Most members in the society need to follow these norms, otherwise, they may be punished especially for those involving moral judgment.

In this article, we may focus on the social aspect. Two concepts are introduced, they are ‘Men work outside while Women work within the household’ and polygyny. Both of them are interrelated which showing men have higher authority in the family and the society.

In the traditional Chinese society, there are so many cultural norms that justify the behaviors of human being especially women. Women are always considering as inferior but men are superior in the traditional Chinese society due the patriarchy which men have greater power and authority in the society. (???,1999)

Due to patriarchy, we may come up with the concept ‘Men work outside while Women work within the household’. This idea deeply takes root in the traditional Chinese society because people generally think that women have physical weakness when comparing with men. It seems common that people use gender specialization on the jobs between men and women. Confucius who is Chinese influential person on moral judgment also supports this. (???,1998)

The phrase ‘Men work outside’ means men have the responsibility to support the whole families by working outside; meanwhile, ‘Women work within the household’ means women should stay at home to deal with family works. For example, taking care of children and elderly, and doing all the household works without any payment. (???,1999) The norms restrict the women activities in the society.

Since men are the labor force of the society who have great contribution to the economy and financial supports of the family. Thus, they have greater authority in the society and governing the family property (???,1998). As the result, women are inferior but men are superior. Women status is low under patriarchy so that they rely heavily on their father before marriage, husband after marriage and sons when they are old.

They all show the function of division of labor between men and women in the family and society in the traditional Chinese society according to the structural- functional approach. However, this concept will not consider the productive power of women in the society (???,1998 ).

However, the concept ‘Men work outside while Women work within the household’ still deeply take place in people’s mind nowadays. Although some new ideas come out such as ‘women work outside and men work within the household’ or ‘both of them share the housework’ due to the rise of human right which both men and women are equal under the law. Women start to work as professionals and engage in the political positions such as Hillary Rodham Clinton, the chairperson of United States Secretary and Anson Chan, the former Hong Kong Chief Secretary for Administration. The position of women is rising nowadays.

Although in the past, the concept refer to women are not allowed to work outside. However, the concept still works nowadays. Women need to take care of children and handle house works after working outside. The concept on the role of women still exists in the modern society. A research (see the appendix I) shows that half of interviews think women should concern more on the family than their careers. About 20% of them think that it is women’s responsibility on taking care of children. According to the newspaper, the chairperson of the Women’s Commission is also thinking that this will affect women’s working opportunities and social involvement.

Some radical feminism thinks that women will be liberated with the abolition of the family system and patriarchy (???,1999).

Despite the generally thoughts toward women’s role, women status increase a lot in recent years. Based on the labeling theory, women are not considering as inferior or subordinator of men anymore. They start to voice out their feeling and enjoy their human right. Many women are financial independent instead of relying heavily on their husband. . As a result, a wonderful and harmony family should depend on the efforts that both men and women pay to the family.

Under the patriarchy, men have the highest authority in the family and the society. Therefore, they are enjoying many privileges in the traditional Chinese society especially in the marriage but women are still being in an inferior situation such as polygyny.

Marriage refers to a woman and a man who are legally living together as husband and wife. In traditional Chinese society, people do not have right to choose their own partner. Instead, parents will arrange marriage to their children to the one with similar social status with them. This is so-called endogamy which is commonly found in rich families. (Macionis, 2008)

Polygamy is the basic formation of marriage in the traditional Chinese family. Due the responsibility of men in generating next generation, they think they should have more wives. As the result, Polygyny becomes the privilege to men. In that case, men have the right to concubinage. Sometimes, they may have more than one concubine.

However, women are not allowed to have more than one husband in fact. Men will not be punished if they have external affairs but women will be harshly punished if they have external affairs with other person. That is because this women behavior is violating to the norms of Chinese society. One common punishment is pushing them to death.

The function of Polygynous marriage is not only focusing on the generation but it is also gratify men’s vanity and fulfilling men’s desire on sex. In the traditional Chinese society, we may commonly say that the emperor have 3000 concubines which show the power and status of him in the country.

In the conflict approach, conflicts take place frequently under Polygyny between the women that will affect the harmony of the family. Trying to get love form their husband and the power of controlling the whole family become the main arguments of women in the same family like men want to get power from the political condition.

Nowadays, due to the rise of equality and the changing of the society, people are freely choosing their partner. In social exchange theory, there is an interaction on marriage and romance through dating. People know each other and find their potential partner during the dating instead of getting married with someone they had never seen before. (Macionis, 2008)

Polygyny is no significant in the modern society because it was abolished after the setting up of new China in 1949 in Chinese society. Hong Kong still have concubine according to the law of the Qing Dynasty until 7th October, 1971, polygamy becomes the legal statement due to the rise of women status and the influence of the western culture. Women started to think about their rights and the abolition of the concubinage in Hong Kong. (Yahoo knowledge, 2009)

Other problems may come out after the abolition of polygyny l in the society of Chinese. External affairs are common in Chinese and Western countries in both women and men as there is no any punishment to women with external affairs. Therefore, the numbers of divorce cases are continuous increasing in Hong Kong and the world.

In conclusion, there are so many Chinese norms and values to guide the human being of the members in the society especially there are many restrictions on women. Most of them are unreasonable in the modern society. Moreover, many traditional norms are abolished due to the change of the society pattern and the introducing of western ideas. At the same time, some of them are still deeply in people’s mind but the restrictions are more relaxing.

References

????????1999?????????????????????????? ? : ????????????? : ????????

????????1994???????????????: ???????

Macionis, J. J. (2008). Sociology (12th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education.

????1998??? ? ? ?????????245 ?

????: 2009?12?3?,??

http://ihome.cuhk.edu.hk/~b051716/TheVoice/sexdf.htm

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http://www.rthk.org.hk/rthk/news/expressnews/ 20090305/news_20090305_55_564399.htm

The World Travel Organisation (WTO, 2012) stated that tourism “comprises the activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited”. Recently, many studies are done to link anthropology studies to tourism, accentuating the interaction between tourism, space, representation and social structures, experiences and identities (Nash and Smith, 1991). Anthropology theories can easily be fitted into the tourism industry because the study of anthropologist concerns the way of life, especially those regarding issues of culture and society (Nash and Smith, 1991). In this essay the author would like to identify the origins of the term liminality relating the adaptation of it to tourism, evaluate the characteristic of the liminal state in tourism, the motivational factor of ‘play’ and relevant tourism examples.

The term ‘liminality’ was derived from the latin word ‘limen’ which means threshold. It does not exist in dictionaries and was first introduced by the French anthropologist van Gennep in 1909 in his writing of les rites de passage where transitional rites was divided into three stages; the separation where the person is detached from one’s natural environment; the transition (liminality) stage describing the ambiguous state of the being; and the stage of reintegration after the person has pass through the threshold and return to society. In the transition stage, it is said that an individual belongs in a phase of being physically and spatially between the ordinary and non-ordinary (Van Gennep, 1960).

Following the path of Van Gennep, Turner (1969) utilised the rites of passage to describe the changes in position an individual face throughout life stages in the pre-industrial era such as puberty and marriage. He described the concept of liminality as the ‘betwixt and between’ stage experienced by the liminal people as they pass through an indistinctive cultural realm while being detached from the structural society, relating the concept to pilgrimages where a person is separated from its profane environment to a sacred atmosphere of religious sites (Nash and Smith, 1991). As society evolves, mandated rituals and ceremonies are transformed into leisure activities (Turner, 1969). Therefore the adaption of the theory for the post-industrial era was affected by the distinctive difference between work and play during that time and one could choose freely whether to enter the liminal stage. He further relates the similarity of the liminal stage in pilgrims to the tourist experience while on holiday. The term liminoid was then derived from liminality to differentiate the liminal stage in tourist to be purely voluntary based on one’s will for leisure and pleasure purposes without ritual association in contrast with pilgrims who goes through more formal and serious rituals in the liminality stage. Tourism scholars supporting Turner’s concept described tourist as liminal people occupying a threshold state between places, times and resolutions (Burn, 1999; Hall, 2001).

The liminal experience occurs in liminal time and place of transition when a person withdraws from the normal modes of social action (Turner 1969). Turner (1974, 13) stated that ‘In this gap between ordered worlds almost anything may happen’. In this stage of ‘between and betwixt’, a person goes through mental transitions when norms are suspended and be free from conceptual blocks (Adam, 2001). Normal routines are replaced by flexibility by being at the state of ‘play’. Travelling to liminal spaces therefore frees a person from the pressures and constraints of one’s own culture and expectations. Furthermore, since a person in liminality does not form part of the new culture, it releases them from being inhibited by any cultural blocks. Adam (2001) identified that liminal experiences also eliminates emotional blocks as a person in the liminal stage is detached from the judgement of people that they consider important and feel the need to uphold a certain image to these people. Another emotional block would be the fear of failure and embarrassment, but the liminality condition lowers the perceived consequences thus reducing the risk of affecting social status.

Liminality can also be related to physically ‘being away’ where a person goes through spatial transition (Relph, 1981) and travels to places which are physically and tangibly different from one’s home town. Motivation for one to travel away is the differences or lacking of infrastructure, language, ethnicity, values, traditions, and routines of daily life (Kaplan and Talbot, 1983). These differences therefore give the intrinsic feeling of being in a new world giving opportunities to tourist to let out one’s inner self or take on an ideal personality. The liminal space of tourism supports temporary forms of transgression for tourist to enjoy unrestrained hedonic experiences (Redmon, 2003). Krippendorf (1987), as cited in Seaton (1997) also suggests that individuals are motivated to seek for elements that cannot be found in society which is shaped by everyday life. For example, people living in the city would be motivated to travel to wilderness area to escape the artificial environment and seek for authenticity in tourism (Mansfeld 1992). Gray’s (1970) travel-motivation theory stated that tourist desires to travel from a known to an unknown place and to provide them with facilities which are absent from own residence area.

Turner and Turner (1978) described the liminal situation of a person being detached from society and institutionalised statuses as ”anti-structure”. The temporary elimination of social boundaries enables the liminal people to interact with one another as social equals with common humanities and homogenised status. Turner (1969) designated the term communitas to describe the bonding and experiences shared by those who are in the liminal state. Touristic communitas therefore can be related to the travel and tourism ambiance outside everyday life and enables the connection into other tourists’ life. While on tour, tourists are given the opportunity to meet and exchange thoughts with those who are outside of their social circle in the liminal time. Wang (1999) stated that touristic communitas creates the liminal and harmonious platform for tourist to engage in authentic and unpretentious connections with others in liminoid.

Liminal landscapes are interrelated to the ludic, consumptions, carnivalesque, de-territorialisation, and the reversal or suspension of normative social and moral structure of norms (Andrew, 2012). Bakhtin (1984, 158) described the carnivalesque as “a topsy-turvy world during a temporal suspension of order where traditional hierarchies are set aside, social divisions are laughingly transgressed.” Several authors have linked the concept of liminality with beaches (Selanniemi, 2003; Preston-Whyte, 2001) due to its nature of being in between land and sea and it allows users to momentarily suspend traditional ties (Moore, 1996). Beach spaces are strongly associated with leisure activities and are perceived as a desirable place to social and relax (Shields, 1990). The carnivalesque characteristic of it symbolises freedom and non-regulation (Moore, 1996) which is the ideal liminal zone for tourist especially the nudist. Nudism are generally not accepted in public and deviates from the normative structure of the society. Evans, (2000) observed the sense of community in nudist and stated that when the liminal people are in nudity, they share a trans-personal sense of belonging in the timeless atmosphere, supporting Turner'(1978) description of communitas.

According to Wang (2000), the modern society is based on Logos, the social orders of people functioning through reasoning and rationality; restrained by bureaucracies and complex communities (MacCannell, 1979). Eros, on the other hand involves the non-rational aspects such as feelings, emotions, imaginations, and drives of play and pleasure. The routinely scheduled life causes boredom and stress, causing the need to find balance in Logos and Eros, which ignites the urge to escape from social responsibilities to a liminal time and space. To be in a state of ‘play’ therefore is the push factor for tourist entering the liminoid stage through tourism. ‘Play’ is defined similarly by researches of different field and is agreed as the activity of behavioural disposition as mentioned by Barnett (2000) and the aim of play in adulthood is to find innocence and simplicity by ignoring reality (Ackermann 1999. The author has identified the most suitable definition of play relating to those experienced by tourist in liminoid is described by Huizinga (1950) as the activity that takes place within certain limit of time and space according to rules which are freely accepted and outside of the scope of necessaries with enthusiasm and is sacred depending on the occasion. His definition of play shows the relation of sacredness which is absent in the definition provided by Kerr and Apter (1991) in the post-industrial era, the period when disposable income and leisure time is available, who proposed that play is a temporary state of mind in a world we created, described as a ‘protective frame’; nothing outside of this bubble matters and the person feels in control and unthreatened by reality. In this liminal state, time becomes unstructured and to be disposed at will, where a tourist can transform from being a slave to the master of time (Wagner, 1977).

Play is recognised to be physically arousal giving feelings of exaltation. Exaltation, as explained by Kristeva (1980), is the extraordinary experience absent from everyday life giving stimulation to all human senses. There are positive and negative arousals depending on the present of pleasure or anxiety. This led Kerr and Apter (1991) to categorise the state of play into telic and paratelic. An individual is in paratelic mode when optimum arousal is achieved with pleasant hedonic tones achieving effortless enjoyment. If the protective frame of play is broken, exposing the individual to danger or life threatening situation, the telic mode takes over through feelings of anxiety and stress through negative hedonic tones. Therefore the motivation of tourist in search for liminality is to escape reality and enter a temporary state of mind to be in control and experience the extreme hedonism of pleasure and anxiety which is absent from their typical daily life.

Ryan and Kinder (1996) claim that sex tourism is a form of deviance, a liminal activity which is usually judged as misshapen behaviour to the norms. It is an activity where tourists go through a voluntary spatiotemporal from their mundane environment which encourages bohemian behaviours and a chance to portray another personality and lifestyle (Bauer and Mckercher, 2003). Famous liminoid playgrounds for sex tourism are developing countries such as Thailand, China, and Philippine where civilised male tourist feel that they can take advantage of the third world women (O’ Connell, 2001) which oppose no intellectual dominance on them. While being in the liminoid playground, tourist can act indecorously by conducting improper conversations and behaviours as they need not uphold their social identity in the liminal space. Concealment is also important to the sex tourists because it eliminates the need of responsibilities (Ryan and Kinder, 1996) and the sexual relationship they are involved in is just for the limited time of pleasure and sense of belonging which is absent from home or they want to escape from their everyday life and gain diverse excitement with different partners once in a while. Another pulling factor of sex tourism is the power of control tourists gets over the prostitutes to fulfil their wildest sexual fantasies and lecheries. Braverman (1974) indicated the transaction between the tourist and prostitute is “not an agreed amount of labour, but the power to labour over an agreed period of time”. However, unlike male tourist who seek only for sex, female tourist who travels in seek for sexual relationships often draw on emotionality and romance, forming long term relationships and provide financial support to the local men who they call lovers (Weichselbaumer, 2011), therefore surpassing the liminal state of tourism as they continue their relationship and incorporate it into their normal life.

Gay people normally travel to temporarily avoid censure, disapproval, abuse, discrimination and criticism within social boundaries (Hughes, 2002) and reach out to those who are like-minded and find their identity. Hughes (1997) suggested that tourism and the gay sexual identity are indistinguishably linked and the acceptance of gay identity is fundamental to many gay men (Hughes, 1997; Cox, 2001). Most gay men live surrounded by heterosexist people and according to Mckercher and Bauer (2003), the liminal role of tourism serves as an alternative for gay men to confirm and consolidate their identity as a homosexual being by providing them the emotional distance from home. Holiday provides the opportunity for gay men to express their sexuality openly with the companion of other gay men as holidays generally enables all to behave out of character and be away from those who may disapprove. They travel to liminal spaces known as gay spaces which are gay-friendly and houses gay communities (Hindle, 1994). These include isolated spaces of bars and clubs, or any public space that allows gay identity to be validated through the social connection with others. This was supported also by Hughes (1997) who suggested that since the society has discourage the public act of homosexuality, holiday provides the perfect chance for the gay men to be himself; at least in boundaries of the liminal time and space. The liminoid state also provides gay men the opportunity to be engaged in sexual relationship with new partners as Monterrubio (2009) suggested that sex is a relevant motivation in gay tourism. However Hughes (2006) believes that sex is not the most prominent motivator depending on the destination choice. Findings of a recent research suggest that places such as South Europe emphasises on gay social life and sex, whereas Africa and Australia attract gay tourist for culture and sight- seeing activities (Gonzales et al, 2010).

Adventure tourism brings people to journey distant, foreign, novel and exotic places (Hill, 1995; Jensen, 1985) which includes the liminal spaces of mountaintops, tropical rainforest, deserts, the Artic as well as into the air and under the sea. Cockrell (1991) suggested that the traveller would feel the sense of risk, excitement or danger while involved in activities such as rock climbing, whitewater rafting, scuba diving, sky diving, parachuting and backpacking (Ewert and Hollenhort, 1989). The sense of risk and danger intensifies the adrenaline rush provoking alertness, giving the feeling of being ‘quintessentially alive’ as opposed to the highly predictable daily routines.(Gyimothy and Mykletun, 2004) which supports Wright’s (1995) statement suggesting that people breaks the boredom of life and increase novelty of life through participations in adventure tourism. The extreme conditions in the Artic is the perfect ‘play-zone’ for those in seek for liminoid as the wilderness settings creates the feel of being ‘out of this world’ (Viken, 1995; Jacobsen, 1997) which is deceptive, strange, and game-like (Kristeva 1984) giving high arousal of pleasure and anxiety.

In conclusion, tourist goes through the liminal state while on holiday to escape from their social boundaries and routinized lives. The liminal role of tourism is especially significant in forms of tourism which are deviant from the norm of societies such as nudist, sex and gay tourism or for those who are in search of the total inverse of daily life and extreme sensory stimulation. However, Cohen (1974) and Nash (1981) pointed out that only some tourist undergo liminal experiences while some retain their own ‘residual culture’ due to deep rooted habits and principles. The tendency of retaining the culture could depend on the presence of certain family members or peers which exerts certain social norms and values on the tourist, restricting the total withdrawal of the tourist’s from one’s social environment. Barber (2007) has criticised the role of tourism in ‘infantilisation’ of global society as pleasure tourism brings out the impatient child in us who wants the instant gratification to be kings and queens without evaluating the morality value of our action while faced with weights of adulthood. The author suggest that benefits such as self-actualisation and insights could be achieved by those in liminality and those in’anti-structure’ must return to their roles in society to ensure the structural balance of society.

In The Communist Manifesto, the authors Karl Marx and Engels feels that this capitalism with the help of industrialization is the increasing the productivity of economy way beyond expected. This is the main reason for class struggle where the oppressor rule and ruin the oppressed class. In short Capitalism has turned out to be a money making system in which rich people own private properties and to stay in the market, they distribute it according to the growing competition amongst themselves. “Capital is therefore not personal, it is social, power”(Marx and Engels 24). On the other, Thomas More’s “Utopia” is completely a different society called as an ideal society where people do not run their business for sake of profit but still live a peaceful life. The reason for peaceful and happiness in their life is unity and public ownership which solves the main social problems such as poverty and inequality. The political laws, religious principles and social issues are development in such a manner that it benefits not a single individual but the complete utopian society. Not only throughout the history but also in today’s society money is consider as a key to success and people think that power and fame along with the rise our their wealth.

In the Communist Manifesto, the authors Marx and Engels point out that rise of capital as the main source of class struggle. “Society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other – Bourgeoisie and Proletariat” (Marx and Engels 9). The Proletariats are the low working class society that live on the labor power and do not make any profit but rather work under Bourgeoisie to produce goods for the society. On the other hand Bourgeoisies are upper class people that own private properties and business that make profit by exploiting the Proletariats. A business can only make profit when the income of capital is more than the outcome or the expense. This is possible by making the labor class, work more and pay them less. “The average price of wage-labor is the minimum wage, i.e., that quantum of the means of subsistence which is absolutely requisite to keep the labor in bare existence as a laborer” (Marx and Engels 24). This leaves labor with no choice, but to work under the upper class for their daily living. The authors believe that this upper class people should focus more on the improvement of their labor’s living, as they are their sole mode to earn profit. The class struggle has still not ended, in fact the rich are becoming richer and poor becoming poorer and wealth is the one responsible for this status. The case in Thomas More’s Utopia is different.

He has made up a destination named Utopia which is known for the ideal society, a perfect and a social life where there is no competition among the people. This is complete different society which has different principles which treats everyone equally and more importantly, no one owns any property by himself. Agriculture is the main occupation and each family is given a piece of land. One of the principles that is different from today’s time is that Utopian family has head of household that takes the things needed without any exchange for money or direct goods. Certainly fear of want makes all kind of animal greedy and rapacious, but only mankind is made so by pride, which makes them consider their own glory enhanced if they excel others in displaying superfluous possession, and in Utopia there is no place for such thinking. If everyone begins to think in such a manner, than there are chances that we could gain freedom from class struggle and achieve unity.

The Utopian laws are very fair to people because every decision is taken for the benefits of the complete society. However, some of these laws are illogical and hard on people. For example, the son must have same trade as his father. “But if anyone is drawn to another occupation, he is transferred by adoption into another household where he can work at the trade he wants to pursue”. This breaks the bond a child has with his family just to achieve different trade. However, after mastering both the trades, he gets to practice whichever he wants until and unless there is higher demand of the other trade in the city. Moreover, he works for the trade which benefits the society as a whole and not himself as an individual. The education in Utopian society is not mandatory and very few people are allowed to leave their labor work for education. They also believe that value of life is gained through education for which every child is given complete education. It is interesting to find that although the Utopians have labor work as their main career; most of this people are seen doing intellectual studies in their free time. In today’s time, the education system is in danger and needs to be rescued “from the influence of the ruling class” (***). This upper people, with the influence of Modern Industry, are affecting the education of children of working labor class. This leads to transformation of their children to “simple articles of commerce and instruments of labor” (***). Nowadays there are some countries which has public schools providing free education to children.

Utopia is titled as communist state not only by critics but also by the authors of The Communist Manifesto, Marx and Engels. After reading the text, we find Utopia as communist state. It is mentioned in the Manifesto that profit and competition is damaging the importance of the community: “The bourgeoisie, wherever it has got the upper hand, has put an end to all feudal aˆ¦ has left no other bond between man and man than naked self interest, than callous “cash payment”aˆ¦ has resolved personal worth into exchange value aˆ¦ and has set up that single, unconscionable freedom – Free Trade” (11). Similarly, in Utopia, Hythloday quotes that wherever there is property, everything is in the terms of wealth and profit. He further tells that it is hard for the common people to gain justice until “justice is served when all the best thing go to the worst people or that happiness is possible when everything shared among themselves who are not entirely happy, while the rest are plunged into misery” (46). However, some communist nations share few differences with Utopia in terms of religion. We know that religion exist in Utopia and has similar believe like other religions i.e., there is only one God but might have different nature. Whereas the communist nations like China and Russia are among the top atheist country where 59% and 22% of the population respectively, doesn’t believe in God and follow no religion (Atheist). We know also that in Utopia people do not own any money or property whereas in China official misuse power of their position to gain wealth for personal benefit.

The text by Thomas More, Karl Marx and Fredrick Engels shows that there could be two possible societies, an ideal society, i.e., Utopian Society, where everything works with perfection and money has no value and the other society would be our present society, which is divided into upper class and working class based on wealth. People are considering money as the sole source of happiness. This thinking of ours is ruining many lives each year. Although the unfair treatment such as inequality, labor wage, and class struggle had started off in the beginning of Capitalism, still continuing and seems to be an endless one. Today’s society detracts the attraction of being youthful by forcing work onto people in order to succeed. It is unjust to the workers who contribute the most to the society and receive very less in return. We must put an end to private ownership and encourage public ownership. In public ownership people don’t own anything and poverty doesn’t exist. However, people have a guarantees life of happiness and stability.

Work Cited

Marx, Karl, and Frederick Engels. The Communist Manifesto. New York: International Publisher, 2012. Print.

The basis of today’s theoretical perspectives provides sociologists with a philosophical position for asking certain kinds of questions about society and the people that occupy it. The three primary perspectives are functionalist, conflict, and interactionist. These three theories are very relative to education and the whole learning process. These different perspectives allow sociologists the ability to explain how society influences people and their actions. Each perspective uniquely conceptualizes society, social forces, and human behavior.

The functionalist perspective, also known as functionalism, states that each aspect of society is interdependent and contributes to society’s functioning as a whole. The government, or state, provides education for the children of the family, which in turn pays taxes on which the state depends to keep itself running. The family is dependent upon the school to help children grow up to have good jobs so that they can raise and support their own families. With this being said, the children become law-abiding and taxpaying citizens, who in turn support the state. The parts of society produce order, stability, and productivity. If something goes wrong, the parts of society then must adapt to recapture a new order, stability, and productivity. For example, the financial recession we are in right now, with the high rates of unemployment and inflation, social programs and their budgets are usually cut back because funding isn’t available. Families end up having to cut back on their spending and budget as well just to make ends meet. Functionalists believe that society is held together by social consensus and work together to achieve what is best for society as a whole.

The functionalist perspective was popular during the 1940s and 1950s among American sociologist. American functionalists focused on discovering the functions of human behavior and European functionalists focused on explaining the inner workings of social order. Sociologist Robert Merton, who was born in 1910, divided human functions into two different types: manifest functions are those that are intentional and obvious and latent functions are those that are unintentional and not obvious. For example, my manifest function of attending my church is to worship, receive the word, and help children, but my latent function may be to help those children learn to discern religious and personal views. Manifest functions are apparent, while the latent functions have a more sociological approach. A sociological approach in functionalism is the consideration of the relationship between the functions of smaller parts and the functions of the whole.

Functionalism has received criticism for neglecting the negative functions of something such as abuse. Critics claim that the perspective justifies the status quo and complacency on the part of society’s members. Functionalism does not encourage people to take an active role in changing their social environment, even when such change may benefit them. Instead, functionalism sees active social change as undesirable because the various parts of society will compensate naturally for any problems that may arise.

Karl Marx’s writings on class struggles sparked the conflict perspective. The conflict perspective presents society in a different light than do the functionalist and symbolic interactionist perspectives. The conflict perspective focuses on the negative, conflicted, and ever-changing nature of society. Unlike functionalists who defend the status quo, avoid social change, and believe people cooperate to effect social order, conflict theorists challenge the status quo, encourage social change, and believe rich and powerful people force social order on the poor and the less fortunate.

American sociologists in the 1940s and 1950s generally ignored the conflict perspective in favor of the functionalist, the 1960s saw American sociologists gain interest in conflict theory. They also expanded Marx’s idea that the key conflict in society was strictly economic. Today, conflict theorists find social conflict between any groups in which the potential for inequality exists such as race, gender, religion, political views, and economic stance, etc. Conflict theorists note that unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agendas, causing them to compete against one another. This constant competition between groups forms the basis for the ever-changing nature of society.

Critics of the conflict perspective point out its negative view of society. The theory attributes humanitarian efforts, altruism, democracy, civil rights, and other positive aspects of society to capitalistic designs to control the masses, not to inherent interests in preserving society and social order.

The symbolic interactionist perspective, directs sociologists to consider the symbols and details of everyday life, what these symbols mean, and how people interact with each other. Although symbolic interactionist perspective traces its origins to Max Weber’s assertion that individuals act according to their interpretation of the meaning of their world, the American philosopher George H. Mead (1863-1931) introduced this perspective to American sociology in the 1920s.

According to the symbolic interactionist perspective, people attach meanings to symbols, and then they act according to their subjective interpretation of these symbols. Verbal conversations, in which spoken words serve as the predominant symbols, make this subjective interpretation very evident. The words have a certain meaning for the “sender,” and, during effective communication, they hopefully have the same meaning for the “receiver.” Words are not static “things”; they require intention and interpretation. Conversation is an interaction of symbols between individuals who constantly interpret the world around them. Of course, anything can serve as a symbol as long as it refers to something beyond itself. Written music serves as an example. The black dots and lines become more than just marks on the page; they refer to notes organized in such a way to make music. Symbolic interactionists give serious thought to how people act, and then seek to determine what meanings individuals assign to their own actions and symbols.

Applying symbolic interactionist perspective to the American institution of marriage, symbols may include wedding bands, vows of life-long commitment, a white bridal dress, a wedding cake, a Church ceremony, and flowers and music. American society attaches general meanings to these symbols, but individuals also maintain their own perceptions of what these and other symbols mean. For example, one of the spouses may see their circular wedding rings as symbolizing “everlasting love,” while the other may see them as a financial expense.

Critics claim that the symbolic interactionist perspective neglects the macro level of social interpretation or the “big picture.” In other words, symbolic interactionists may miss the larger issues of society by focusing too closely on the “trees” or the size of the diamond in the wedding ring rather than the “forest” or the quality of the marriage. The perspective also receives criticism for slighting the influence of social forces and institutions on individual interactions.

All of these perspectives have valid points as well as constructive criticism that holds value. The one perspective that sticks out to me is the conflict perspective; to me this perspective is real. I think being able to identify the many things that are wrong with our society today, makes the blows less painful when something goes wrong. The conflict perspective focuses on the negative, conflicted, and ever-changing nature of society. With this being said the conflict perspective can also be viewed in a positive light. Someone learning about this perspective their eyes could be opened up to many different issues that they might not necessarily experience.