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What if one of America’s most illegal plants was also one of the world’s most beneficial plants? Marijuana has a wide variety of different applications in society, but remains illegal by federal law.A Some states have decriminalized cannabis, but federal law does not recognize state law.A Suppose that by federal law, cannabis were a decriminalized or legal substance.A An entire new world of research could arise and each of its uses would become definitive.A Perceptions concerning the use of marijuana would likely be altered.A The decriminalization or legalization of marijuana would presumably cause many economical, industrial, and medical adaptations focused towards the benefit of the United States of America. Being an activist plays a key role in the decriminalization of marijuana.

Activism consists of efforts to promote, impede or direct social, political, economic, or environmental change. Activists for the legalization of marijuana have made great strides in 20 states to date based upon the supporters of its medical uses. Although Congress classified marijuana as a Schedule 1 substance (a category of drugs not considered legitimate for medical use) in 1970, instantly making it the most widely used drug in the U.S. Many disagree with this and the fight (in the media, courts, and on the streets) raises ethical issues, such as whether or not the government should be allowed to govern what people do in their own homes. In fact, up until the government started imposing restrictions in 1930, physicians still widely prescribed marijuana to their patients for a variety of reasons that are similar to the reasons people use it today (Bostwick, 2012).

Marijuana, as most people commonly know it, is actually a plant called hemp, or “cannabis sativa.” Hemp is any durable plant used since prehistory for many purposes, such as rope, paper, and clothing. The cannabis plant also produces three very important products that other plants do not (in usable form): seed, pulp, and medicine. The cannabis sativa plant grows as weed and cultivated plant all over the world in a variety of climates and soils (Legalizing Hemp 2). Marijuana has been used throughout history; in 6000 B.C. cannabis seeds were used as food in China; in 4000 B.C. the Chinese used textiles made of hemp; the first recorded use of cannabis as medicine in China was in 2727 B.C.; and in 1500 B.C. the Chinese cultivated Cannabis for food and fiber (Legalizing Hemp 2).

MEDICAL USES

PaulA Armentano, Deputy Director of the NORML (The National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws) Foundation, stated at the beginning of this year that scientists are investigating cannabinoids’ ability to moderate the pain associated with disorders such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and inflammatory bowel disease, as well as the cannabinoids’ role in the treatment of several neurological disorders including Alzheimer’s disease and Lou Gehrig’s disease (par.A 3).A The cannabinoids contained in marijuana have the potential to provide therapeutic relief for a multitude of diseases.A The potential therapeutic uses of medical marijuana include relief from clinical conditions like gliomas, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s, ALS, fibromyalgia, tourette’s syndrome, dystonia, HIV, hepatitis c, hypertension, diabetes, sleep apnea, gastrointestinal disorders, pruritis, incontinence, osteoporosis, and rheumatoid arthritis (Armentano, par.A 8).A ArmentanoA also stated in his report in theA Recent Research on Medical Marijuana:A Investigators are currently studying the anti-cancer properties of cannabinoids.A A growing body of preclinical and clinical data concludes that cannabinoids can reduce the spread of specific cancer cells via apoptosis (programmed cell death) and by the inhibition of angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels).A Arguably, these latter trends represent far broader and more significant applications for cannabinoid therapeutics than researchers could have imagined some thirty or even twenty years ago (par.A 4) If cannabis were to be decriminalized, an entirely new domain of medicinal research could possibly be unlocked.A The medicinal properties of marijuana including the transient as well as therapeutic relief to a broad list of clinical conditions could be further researched and bestowed upon society.A Allen F.A St.A Pierre states in his articleA About Marijuana:

Modern research suggests that cannabis is a valuable aid in the treatment of a wide range of clinical applications.A These include pain relief – particularly of neuropathic pain (pain from nerve damage) – nausea, spasticity, glaucoma, and movement disorders. Marijuana is also a powerful appetite stimulant specifically for patients suffering from HIV, the AIDS wasting syndrome, or dementia.A Emerging research suggests that marijuana’s medicinal properties may protect the body against some types of malignant tumors and are neuroprotective.A (par.A 10)

Newer and healthier methods of the application of THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol) could be researched in order to prevent any negative effects that inhaling the combusted material of cannabis may have on your respiratory system. New branches of research dedicated to showing the positive aspects of marijuana could be possible decriminalization were set in motion. Canada has already benefited tremendously from their nation-wide legalization of marijuana. Andrew D.A Hathaway and Kate Rossiter state in their article on Canada’s society involving medical marijuana that “In 2001, Canada announced it would be the first country to legalize cannabis for therapeutic purposes and earmarked funding for clinical trials.A By June, 2007, legal access had been granted to about 1,800 patients with terminal illnesses and serious medical conditions” (1). Not only does cannabis have the potential to provide the United States with an extremely broad range of medical application, but this plant also has the potential to provide various industrial applications.

INDUSTRIAL USES

Hemp’s uses include but are certainly not limited to: fuel; food (hemp seeds provide an incredible source of protein-not only for people but for birds who seek out hemp seeds which have been mixed with other seeds); paper; textiles, (i.e. canvas, paper, cloth, rope); paint; detergent; varnish; oil; medicine; and building materials. Almost any product that can be made from wood, cotton, or petroleum (including plastics) can be made from hemp.

Every year the United States government spends billions of dollars to fund the war on drugs, which is conducted mainly by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). More specifically, the extremely well funded Domestic Cannabis Eradication/Suppression Program (DCESP) is the portion of the DEA that specifically deals with the enforcement of cannabis laws. In the last 25 years, the enforcement of cannabis prohibition has grown stricter. Despite this, marijuana production in the U.S. has increased ten-fold since 1982 (Crop Report 17). Along with this increased production and DEA enforcement, the cost of the war on marijuana has increased greatly in the last few decades.

For example, in 2002 roughly 730,000 people were arrested for state marijuana charges meaning they did not possess enough to get charged federally. The total criminal justice cost of these marijuana arrests was about $7.6 billion, which equates to roughly $10,400 per arrest (NORML 131). The legalization of marijuana would eliminate the need for all these arrests which would result in an economic boost, not to mention save the money required to incarcerate someone for said offense.

In addition to reducing the amount of money spent keeping marijuana illegal, the legalization of marijuana would free up much needed space in our already overcrowded jails. U.S. citizens account for about 5% of the world’s population, yet U.S. prison inmates account for 25% of the world’s prisoners (Eitzen 368). By eliminating the need for marijuana related arrests, a great burden would be lifted off of our police force. Our police would be able to focus their energy on the real criminals in our nation as opposed to wasting money charging citizens with minor marijuana offenses. Most importantly, the legalization of marijuana would eliminate all of the crime involved with marijuana such as sale, possession, paraphernalia, and cultivation.A

The Author of Social Problems, Stanley Eitzen explains the concept behind why the legalization of marijuana would do so:A “organized crime, which now acquires most of its income from providing illegal goods and services, would no longer be able to hide its investments and profits. Thus, laws against victimless crimes are indirectly responsible for maintaining organized crime” (Social Problems 352).A

By making marijuana legal, it makes it impossible for criminals to conduct crimes involving marijuana. However, the prohibitive laws regarding marijuana provide organized criminals with one of their most lucrative source of income: the sale of illegal marijuana. Legislation against marijuana does not eliminate the demand for it amongst society either. Due to marijuana being illegal, the price of marijuana is much higher than what it would be if legal. This unintended result of the prohibitive laws against marijuana has caused a slight increase in crime revolved around the purchase of the herb. New crimes are being committed to produce money so that users can afford the high prices; though not as severe as a crime directly related to the sale and cultivation of marijuana, any crime eliminated because of legalization helps. The eradication of crime associated with marijuana and the corresponding money earned as a result will only become possible through the regulation and production of marijuana by the U.S. government. These would not be the only benefits legalization would have to offer either; the government could generate substantial contributions to the economy through the taxation and sale of marijuana within our borders. Ultimately, the war on marijuana has failed. Marijuana use and production continue to increase from year to year despite the increased efforts against marijuana. New regulatory policies need to be researched and tried if the government ever wants to have control over one of theA biggest issues in the war on drugs.

ECONOMIC BENEFITS

Today marijuana is the number one cash crop in America, generating over $35 billion in dirty money each year (Crop Report 14). That is $18 billion more than second most generated crop corn. Although the prices of marijuana would decline if legalized, the government could still make enormous amounts of money through the taxation, production and sale of marijuana. Marijuana is the fourth most widely used psychoactive drug in the U.S., following caffeine, nicotine and alcohol (Eitzen 385). Caffeine, nicotine and alcohol, are all legal, regulated by the government and all contribute greatly to our economy. Why not do so with cannabis? Tobacco addiction resulting from cigarette smoking kills more Americans than alcohol, cocaine, crack, heroin, homicide, suicide, fires, car accidents, and AIDS combined (Eitzen 389). Yet the government encourages and regulates the sale of cigarettes, this is because the tobacco industry is a major contributor to the U.S. economy. Roughly $158 billion are generated each year by the tobacco industry (Eitzen 389). Aside from the sale of cigarettes, tobacco companies spent $21.2 million professional lobbying firms in 2003, which amounts to more than $127,000 for every day Congress was in session (Eitzen 390). Government intervention in the theoretical cannabis industry could produce monetary gains similar to that of the tobacco industry through essentially the same means. Alcohol, the third most used drug in America, is another example of how government regulation of a drug can be successful. Each year, the government makes billions off of the regulation and sale of alcohol. In addition to the revenues that could be generated through the sale of marijuana, the government could institute a marijuana tax, which would only increase revenues.

POLITICAL ASPECT

In California On November 2, 2010, Proposition 19 failed at the polls. If it passed, marijuana would have been decriminalized, and the government would have been allowed to regulate and penalize marijuana use and distribution to generate additional revenue (Viswanthan 1). Small groups have risen throughout the United States, primarily in California, advocating for marijuana legalization. One of the most well known groups and California’s largest medical group, the California Medical Association, has also endorsed the legalization of marijuana. But if a similar proposition is proposed, President Barack Obama will not support it. In a press conference in Colombia, Obama said he would engage in a debate regarding legalizing drugs, but elaborated that his administration will not support any bill to legalize them (2). With elections approaching, his stance from 4 years ago has shifted greatly.

PresidentialA GOPA candidate Mitt Romney has explicitly expressed his dissension around medicinal marijuana in his campaign. After hearing from an individual with muscular dystrophy about his need for medicinal marijuana to survive, Romney repeated fervently that he was not in favor of legalizing medicinal marijuana. The young man with the degenerative illness expressed his worries to the candidate and showed genuine concern for his survival. Five different doctors had recommended the use of medicinal marijuana for this patient, yet the federal government continues to impose fear by prosecuting those who use and prescribe such treatment. Romney continued to ignore his pleas and ended the conversation by walking away from the wheelchair-bound man (CNN).

Potential third party candidates such as Ron Paul and Gary Johnson have voiced their support concerning the legalization of marijuana, and have clearly made it known that if they are elected, they will take measures to legalize the drug nationwide (Viswanthan 2). During his 30 years in the House of Representatives, Paul has authored and co-authored multiple marijuana-friendly bills. He’s proposed laws toA decriminalize marijuana, permit industrial hemp farming, and constitutionally delegate to states how to enforce extant medical marijuana (Camia 1).A

For those who favor the legalization of marijuana, the ideology revolving around the subject is conveyed perfectly byA Thomas Szasz, a libertarian,A

“I favor free trade in drugs for the same reason the Founding Fathers favored free trade in ideas. In an open society, it is none of the government’s business what idea a man puts into his mind; likewise, it should be none of the government’s business what drug he puts into his body” (74).

Though the federal government did not adopt this ideology, there are other valid reasons that the legalization and regulation of marijuana in the U.S. would provide our nation with significant benefits. The taxation and sale of marijuana alone would provide immense economic contributions. The ending of the war against marijuana would save billions of dollars spent each year hunting down and incarcerating marijuana offenders. The potential that marijuana has to offer as a medicine are all possible results of the legalization of marijuana in the United States.

OPPOSING VIEWS

Scientific studies may have conflicting results, but overall they link smoking marijuana to heart and lung disease, throat cancer, and a decreased memory capacity. Making marijuana legal would increase the number of people being affected by these diseases. Others point to the staggering amount of drugs that have been seized coming into the United States. They point to how drug use is strongly linked to criminal activity, and predict that legalizing marijuana would lead to an increase in violence and crime (Two Sides of the Conflict Anti-Marijuana).

The federal government, which overall is working to keep marijuana illegal, agrees that there is no real benefit to legalizing marijuana. Gil Kerlikowske, director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy wrote “As a former police chief, I recognize we are not going to arrest our way out of the problem. We also recognize that legalizing marijuana would not provide the answer to any of the health, social, youth education, criminal justice, and community quality of life challenges associated with drug use.”(Gane-McCalla)

SOLUTIONS

One of the main reasons that cannabis has not been legalized in the U.S. is the perceived danger that smoking it presents to its user; the perception that getting high is harmful. Yes, smoking cannabis is bad for you, but smoking anything is bad for you. Most of the negative health effects that cannabis users experience are a result of the act of inhaling smoke into their lungs, not the actual THC present. Cannabis can be consumed in ways that do not involve combustion, such as edibles or the use of a vaporizer. Through healthier consumption, marijuana can be used medically to relieve certain patients of pain and other ailments as well as serve as a basis for newer, more effective cannabinoid drug development. The legalization of marijuana would help capitalize on the medicinal benefits that THC and otherA cannabinoidsA present in marijuana have to offer. Though large amounts of THC have been found to disrupt short-term memory and impair motor skills, THC has also been proven to help relieve symptoms of many common health problems (Joy 51).

In particular, medical marijuana has had the most significant effect on patients suffering from symptoms such as chronic pain, nausea, appetite loss, muscle spasms, insomnia, and glaucoma (Joy 51). There are plenty of legally prescribed drugs that are often used to treat symptoms like those mentioned above; however many of them can be expensive, cause undesirable side effects, and in several cases can become addictive.

For example, Xanax and Vicitin are two of the most widely distributed prescription painkillers on the market today despite their high cost and high risk of dependence. In addition, they are most frequently prescribed to patients experiencing symptoms that THC has been found to alleviate. Not to say that medical marijuana, or THC, will always be better than Xanax or Vicitin or any other prescription drug because there are extreme cases where medical marijuana would not suffice. However, medical marijuana would offer a cheap alternative to expensive prescription drugs without the negative side effects or risk of addiction. Despite popular belief, marijuana has not been proven to be physically addictive. Studies indicate that day-to-day marijuana users will develop a minor physiological addiction to the drug, but no evidence was present of a physical addiction one might face with cocaine, heroin or even caffeine abuse (Joy 92). This trait of THC is but another reason that the development of more advanced cannabinoid based drugs should be looked into if marijuana were legalized. The idea of synthetic THC or a pill form of THC is not a new one.

Scientists developed Marinol, the only cannabinoid approved for marketing in the U.S., was introduced in 1985. Although Marinol was not a huge success and is rarely used today, it did lead to the discovery of the neuroprotective qualitiesA cannabinoidsA possess. Janet Joy, author of Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base, explains neuroprotection: “One of the most prominent new applications ofA cannabinoidsA is for ‘neuroprotection,’ the rescue of neurons from cell death associated with trauma, ischemia, and neurological diseases” (202). This quality ofA cannabinoidsA could prove to be valuable in the development of medicines designed to slow the deterioration of the brain, such as certain types of brain damage and other illnesses causing brain damage. If the use of medical marijuana were legal, people would be provided with a cheaper, and if consumed properly, sometimes healthier alternative to certain ailments they may be experiencing. Along with the numerous medical uses marijuana already has to offer, the legalization of marijuana would enable scientists to develop state of the art medicines involvingA cannabinoids.A Investigators are currently studying the anti-cancer properties of cannabinoids.A A growing body of preclinical and clinical data concludes that cannabinoids can reduce the spread of specific cancer cells via apoptosis (programmed cell death) and by the inhibition of angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels).A Arguably, these latter trends represent far broader and more significant applications for cannabinoid therapeutics than researchers could have imagined some thirty or even twenty years ago (par.A 4) . If cannabis were to be decriminalized, an entirely new domain of medicinal research could possibly be unlocked.A The medicinal properties of marijuana including the transient as well as therapeutic relief to a broad list of clinical conditions could be further researched and bestowed upon society.A Allen F.A St.A Pierre states in his articleA About Marijuana: Modern research suggests that cannabis is a valuable aid in the treatment of a wide range of clinical applications.A These include pain relief – particularly of neuropathic pain (pain from nerve damage) – nausea, spasticity, glaucoma, and movement disorders. Marijuana is also a powerful appetite stimulant specifically for patients suffering from HIV, the AIDS wasting syndrome, or dementia.A Emerging research suggests that marijuana’s medicinal properties may protect the body against some types of malignant tumors and are neuroprotective.A (par.A 10)

DISCUSSION

There are laws in place making it illegal for anyone under the age of eighteen (in most states) to purchase Nicotine products, and twenty one to purchase alcohol products. Thoughts are that at eighteen/twenty one, one is old enough to have been properly educated and understand what it is they are doing when they purchase these products. Why can’t we do this with the legalization of marijuana?

A Maybe we should look to European countries for the answer to marijuana legality. Many have made their laws less strict or repealed them entirely, which were fashioned after laws made here in the United States, in favor of the legalization of marijuana. Commander Brain Paddock in a neighborhood of London called Brixton ran a small experiment. Over a six month period, he instructed his officers to warn those caught with small amounts of marijuana rather than arrest them. At the end of those six months, Scotland Yard issued a report that stated more than 2500 hours of manpower was saved by giving warnings (Katz). Not making arrests meant not spending valuable time transporting prisoners and filling out paper work, not to mention court time and costs saved prosecuting those arrested. That time could then be spent on investigating and enforcing other more serious criminal activities.

Marijuana use is legal or otherwise overlooked, in many European areas such as Holland. In an article called Europe Loosens It’s Pot Laws, written for Rolling Stone Magazine, Gregory Katz wrote that Senior Drug Policy Advisor to the Dutch Minister of Health, Bob Krizer, has said marijuana consumption in Holland has been consistently lower over the past twenty-five years than it has in the United States. During those same twenty-five years, the United States had been waging the “War on Drugs,” while Holland had been embracing a more liberal policy. Mr. Krizer also states that their rate of harder drug addicts is largely lower than many other countries that have stricter drug policies (Katz). If true, this goes a long way towards proving education is a much better way to get a message across than making laws and arresting people.

CONCLUSION

Marijuana has the potential to be one of the most useful substances in the world. Even though cannabis prevails as possibly one of the most useful plants on the face of the Earth, it still remains illegal in the United States. With countless uses, whether they be industrial, medical, or economical, it is hard to believe that marijuana still remains a regulated and prohibited substance. It seems as if this harmless flower is considered illegal for no other reason than to be considered illegal. Cannabis is a possible nationwide head start towards the economy’s stability and withholds the potential to assist in the addressing of some of the United States’ most pressing issues.A The decriminalization of cannabis has the potential to become one of the greatest economical advances in the history of the United States of America. If people took action and the government legalized it today, we will immediately see benefits from this decision. People suffering from illnesses ranging from manic depression to Multiple Sclerosis would be able to experience relief. The government could make billions of dollars off of the taxes it could impose on its sale, and its implementation into the industrial world would create thousands of new jobs for the economy. Also, because of its role in paper making, the rain forests of South America can be saved from their current fate of extinction. No recorded deaths have ever occurred as a result of marijuana use, it is not physically addictive like alcohol or tobacco, and most doctors will agree it is safer to use than those substances. A quote by Abraham Lincoln describes the situation perfectly. “Prohibition…goes beyond the bounds of reason in that it attempts to control a man’s appetite by legislation and makes a crime out of things that are not crimes. A prohibition law strikes a blow at the very principles upon which our government was founded.” Marijuana being illegal has no validity at all. Due to all the positive aspects of marijuana it should be legalized in the United States.A

Language, gender and society are three complex and closely interwoven terms that I will attempt to explore in this chapter. The question of whether language reflects or shapes the social life and consequently gender relationships and expectations is a central one which I will also attempt to tackle. In other words, is it language which transmits gender thoughts, beliefs and actions? Or, conversely, does language determine men and women’s relationships and behavior? Is it possible to define language as a naA?ve mirror translating the social and cultural reality? Or it is the norms, traditions and values that introduce a basis for the creation of any language? Does society define women and men’s language, choices and action?

Or it is simply the interaction between language and society which gives birth to gender stereotypes and sexist language? The answer to these questions will help us understand how men and women’s space, speech, perspectives and choices are both determined and reflected by language.

There are so many questions that I would like to answer and examine in this chapter, but will not be able to answer them all. Instead, I will try to highlight some important notions related to the subject. For example how do the socio-cultural factors interact with language in order to determine men and women’s relationships in society? Why and how is gender deemed to be an important and powerful component in social interaction? How does its influence go beyond people’s thoughts, attitudes and beliefs? How can society explain the learning and maintenance of gender?

How is gender negotiated in language and across cultures? How does the social construction of society shape women and men’s personalities in terms of social roles, expectations, language choice, traditional beliefs and so on?

The aim of my work will basically be to explore the importance of both language and society in determining and reinforcing female and male differences in speech (form and content), beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. The emphasis will be on how gender is negotiated and represented in language and society, and how the linguistic form may reflect and shape the social and cultural conditions under which women and men live.

Language, a product of society, is considered to play a significant role in human interaction; “the human being, language and society are an interwoven texture.” (Bennouiss, 2001:20). Accordingly, society is conceived to be the mold which shapes people through determining not only their behavior, but also their identity.

Society controls individuals through gendered practices, which are defined as a social process “created and renegotiated in interpersonal relationships and encouraged and maintained through social interaction” (Weatherall, 2002: 85). Therefore, gender is considered to be social because it connotes “all the complex attributes ascribed by culture (s) to human females and males” (Lott & Maluso, 1993: 99). One may conclude from the two quotes that gender is used by society as a basis or a support to the socialization of both females and males, and is also maintained by social and cultural forces.

Gender issues and stereotypes seem to be universal. They are heavily rooted in history and through the social and cultural life, which has a strong influence in defining the individual’s identity, behavior, role and occupation. All societies consist of men and women who use language in the interaction of everyday life, and develop ideas and thoughts about how women and men should think and act in relation to social norms.

Therefore, it is believed that gender is socially constructed and is reinforced by cultural forces; however, gender contents may differ across cultures. Beall (1993: 131-132) argues that across cultures, “one’s biological sex does not necessarily imply that one will engage in certain activities or that people will believe that one possesses certain attributes”. She goes on to say that “some cultures perceive more than one gender, and cultures vary in their beliefs about the nature of males and females” (1993: 134).

This means that cultures are rich and curiously different from each other. Women’s beliefs and actions in Morocco are different from women’s thoughts and behavior in England, even if sometimes it seems that British women are not so different from the Moroccan unveiled women in physical appearance. However, there are many variations concerning their ways of thinking and acting. In the Muslim society, boys are given more independence and freedom, and are expected to achieve or occupy different roles and positions. The difference between the two sexes in terms of appearance, behavior, role, and occupation is very much strengthened and encouraged by the traditions, the customs and the habits of the Moroccan society, whereas in the British context, norms and traditions are transgressed, and modern ideologies present men and women as equals in all life spheres.

Besides, the authority or dominance of one gender over another is not practiced openly anymore. In other words, “the strength and activity differences between the male and female stereotypes are greater in socioeconomically less developed countries than in more developed countries”. It also tends to be greater in “countries where literacy is low and the percentage of women attending the university is low” (Best & Williams, 1993: 227) although in many cases, the education people receive in school and universities does not mean that they are not influenced by gender stereotypes.

In short, there is a lot to be said about the universality of gender prejudice. Class, education, religion and geography all play a part in determining subtle differences and peculiarities, some of which this work aims at revealing.

First, some claims:

1) Men interrupt women more than vice versa.

2) Women are more communicative than men.

3) Men do not give verbal recognition of the contributions in the conversation made by women.

4) Men curse more than women.

5) Women gossip more than men.

6) Women talk more with one another than men do.

7) Men speak more comfortably in public than women.

Gender and sex

Sex: a biological condition, i.e. defined as a set of physical characteristics

Gender: a social construct (within the fields of cultural and gender studies, and the social sciences)

“Today a return to separate single-sex schools may hasten the revival of separate gender roles”

– Wendy Kaminer, in The Atlantic Monthly (1998)

General usage of the term gender began in the late 1960s and 1970s, increasingly appearing in the professional literature of the social sciences.

The term helps in distinguishing those aspects of life that were more easily attributed or understood to be of social rather than biological origin (see e.g., Unger & Crawford, 1992).

Linguistic origins of Gender

According to Aristotle, the Greek philosopher Protagoras used the terms masculine, feminine, and neuter to classify nouns, introducing the concept of grammatical gender.

Many languages specify Gender (and gender agreement)

(1) Greek

o andras i gyneka to pedhi

the.masc. man the.fem. woman the.ntr. child

(2) German

der man die Frau das Kind

the.masc. man the.fem. woman the.ntr. child

(3) French

l(e) homme la femme

the.masc. man the.fem. woman

?† Indoeuropean had gender distinction; Swahili has 16 gender distinctions. And many others don’t! (e.g. English, Astronesian languages)

But gender appears on pronouns:

(1) He left.

(2) She left.

(3) It left. (what types of things does “it” refer to?)

Gender correlates with other perceptual (and possibly grammatical) categories like humanness, agentivity, and animacy.

In this paper I talked about the discrimination in the labor market and how it is specified in the market of Croatia. Discrimination in the labor market is much easier to define than to identify. There is no information about when the discrimination in the labor market in history. History has recorded some certain phenomena that could be characterized as the first rudiments of discrimination in the labor market. Croatia is a country which is heading to be a member of the European Union and it has tasks and regulations that need to be fulfilled. One of these is the elimination or preventing of discrimination in the labor market. In this paper I have discussed about the major issues and how the Croatian government handled it.

Introduction

Equality of treatment can be expressed arithmetically, which means that each worker is in proportion with equal conditions. The principle of equality and non-discrimination is determined by the moral values aˆ‹aˆ‹and social policies, which were adopted by the legislature or judiciary. The value of the corpus of the founding principle of equality and non-discrimination variable as a function of the potential conflicts that may arise between the selected values, and other values aˆ‹aˆ‹that can be decided by policymakers or judges in their judgments, which in turn is a function of the social movement.

The concept of equality and non-discrimination supposed to ban all discrimination, separation, or preference in employment regardless on the basis of unequal treatment. The most common places for discrimination that are mentioned in the regulations are: race, color, sex, religion, political opinion, nationality, social origin, while the other basics, such as age, disability, family commitments, personal life, place of birth, sexual orientation, marital status, motherhood, physical and mental health status, medical history, physical appearance, membership in the union organization, etc., may be added after consultation of workers’ and employers. The doctrine of equal treatment and non-discrimination in employment has found its way into numerous international regulations and is recognized as a law in many national constitutions. In Europe the modern labor law occurs with the advent of industrialization in which the relationship between labors law typical is the male worker. The time in which a woman is for the first time more equal in the labor market entrants with the time of recognition of the right for women to vote in the early twentieth century (Machado, Jose A. F. and Jose Mata, 2005). [1] Employers within their prerogative used the freedom to discriminate against workers based on just sex, pregnancy and maternity. Given the dating of activities were undertaken for the subject of equalization of women with men in the job market is considered that the issue of gender discrimination in employment and occupation is the oldest, most comprehensive and most elaborated part of European labor law which was used in the design and development of a number of important principles and strategies as What is the principle of proportionality in terms of indirect discrimination, the principle of effectiveness, transparency principle, the principle of effective judicial protection, etc. The new legal regulation that was presented 1999 regarding discrimination in employment, but on other grounds other than sex, is largely based on the concepts and techniques developed for the legal right of discrimination based on sex.

Literature review

Discrimination is a distinction. Equality of all people is one of the basic human rights of non-discrimination requirements. Modern law protects privileged principle of non-discrimination policy that prohibits interference or damage to individuals or groups because of their race, nationality, religion, disability, social or marital status.

One of the fundamental principles in any civilized society is the principle of equality, which confirms the view that all people are equal in rights and equal worth, dignified treatment, regardless of their mutual differences on the basis of innate or acquired personal characteristics. Therefore, any treatment of individuals that because of these differences made aˆ‹aˆ‹his exclusion and / or limitation, and it is in this way that endangers or prevents the realization of social rights or giving him precedence over other persons excluding and / or limiting the time the latter in exercising their social rights constitute discrimination, which is also a violation of the dignity of the person. The principle of equality of opportunity and treatment is an integral part of the right to work in a broader sense. Discrimination in the workplace and related work occurs very frequently and is difficult to control because the interest behind is the world’s capital due to gain economic benefits.

Labor market discrimination

Wage discrimination occurs when certain races, minorities and women receive the same job for lower wages than majority of workers. Therefore, the difference in wage rate is not due to differences in productivity, but in the characteristics of workers. This type of discrimination in the labor market can be very subtle and it is very difficult to detect. Discrimination in employment occurs when the majority of the unemployed are concentrated among minority groups, thus discriminating against minority groups of different races; religions, etc. Discrimination of human capital occurs if the education and training of certain races or minorities invest less money than in the education and training of the majority race.

This is, unfortunately, a circular process. In fact, many of the unemployed who are not members of the dominant race are poor because of their lack of education, and considering that the poor cannot finance education. Discrimination towards professions or businesses, if there, is limited or prohibited access to minority groups of workers preferred or better paying jobs, so they are focused on the poorer or lower paying occupations. It is important to note that the wage discrimination, discrimination in employment and discrimination by occupation called a post market or direct discrimination, as reflected by the entry into the labor market. Discrimination of human capital is called the pre-market or indirect discrimination, because it happens before entering the labor market (Baumol Blinder, 1994). [2]

Workers should regularly invest a part of their personal income in various forms of education and training, to help them in the future to bring more income. If workers adhere to that principle, the market rewards them in the future with a higher wage. Nowadays, more and more employers invest in continuous training and education of its employees. Workers with more work experience have higher wages. More work experience also brings many other advantages. Thus, we conclude that the difference in wage rate may not be entirely the result of discrimination, but partly influenced by the non-discriminatory factors. All the studies that have tried to distinguish the differences in wages, which are the result of measurable characteristics than the differences are the result of discrimination. Three quarters of half the gap between the wages of men and women, blacks and whites, can be explained by differences in education and work experience. (Nestic, 2010). [3] That leaves the possibility that a quarter to a half of this gap can be explained with immeasurable discrimination and other sources.

Measures of anti-discrimination policies

Western countries attach great importance to discrimination in the labor market, and it was always the center of interest and researches. First of all, discrimination in the labor market affects the distribution of reduced national income. Since it reduces the fundamental macroeconomic variables, it is of interest, not only in economics but also in politics. All these governments of the developed countries of the West, after the Second World War, practiced a few ways to prevent discrimination in the labor market.

Improving education and training of workers discriminated groups conducted in qualitative and quantitative dimensions, in order to prevent this form of pre-market or indirect discrimination. Specifically, a group of workers who do not have adequate education and employment are placed in a worse position. Application of appropriate monetary and fiscal policy is necessary in order to achieve a coherent labor market, because it allows curbing discrimination. The third measure is the only direct measure of anti-discrimination policy. It is a well-established law that prohibits employment practices. So, back in 1963 the United States adopted the Law on Equal Rights. According to this law, men and women who perform equal work, and have the same abilities and responsibilities in similar conditions, should receive equal wages. Civil Rights Act of 1964 is the basis underlying the overall anti-discrimination policy of the USA. This law does not take into account only the wages, but prohibits all forms of discrimination in employment for example, with regard to occupations, etc. (Pastore, Francesco and Alina Verashchagina, 2007). [4]

Finally, it should be mentioned the concept of values, which occurs in the 1980s. The whole concept is based on the theory that jobs with comparable values aˆ‹aˆ‹should be paid equally, and all the opposite of that would be discrimination. The concept of comparable value claims that wages should be based on what the job is worth. The method is applied for evaluation and scoring performance. Major difficulties in the application of this concept are: Different characteristics represent a different value for each employer; the use of credits in order to predict the value of employees is baseless and the application of this concept would lead to an increase in the number of industrial workers in some occupations.

This concept argues that companies uses, i.e. equalization of wages for jobs that have comparable overall performance could stop the decades of discrimination and eliminate the wage gap between women and men.

Open Croatian legislation

The labor market is an essential segment of the social and economic system that has to experience radical reforms in order to fully comply with the labor legislation of the Western countries, especially the EU labor legislation. In the Republic of Croatia in the early 1990s was designed a new legal framework of labor relations. The adoption of the Law of work, for the modern Croatia, received a general regulation of labor relations, who responded with the requirements established by the labor market supply and demand. This law is somewhat harmonized system of industrial relations in Croatia with those that exist in the EU. Croatian labor legislation is based, with the adoption of international standards, on the achievement of constitutional social rights, primarily the right to work, and the autonomy of the social partners to regulate their relations. Labor law is systematically defined as the basic minimum rights in employment. The last amendments have implemented detailed compliance with EU labor legislation. Partly reflect the tendency of modernization and democratization of labor relations. As such, we can observe the expansion of non-discrimination in employment (specifically in terms of wages), in particular the prohibition of harassment and sexual harassment in the workplace, and the introduction of procedures to protect the dignity of workers (Igor Grabovac, Marija AbramoviA‡, Gordana KomlenoviA‡, Jadranka MustajbegoviA‡, 2011) [5] . The Act governs the whole matter in a new way of non-discrimination of persons seeking employment and for employees. It will in the future affect the advancement of women in the labor market because they are more often exposed to discrimination.

The act is prohibiting direct and indirect discrimination against persons seeking employment or employed person (employee, officer or other employee) on the basis of race, sex, sexual orientation, age, color, family responsibilities, marital status, property, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, social status, birth, membership or non-membership in a political party, membership or non-membership in the union, and physical or mental impairments.

The Act defines direct and indirect discrimination. Direct discrimination is any action based on any of the grounds referred whereby a person is seeking employment and worker puts or has been treated or could be put in a worse position than another in a comparable situation. Indirect discrimination happens when an apparently neutral provision, criterion or practice, a person seeking employment and workers due to its specific characteristics, status, orientation, beliefs or value systems that form the basis for the prohibition of discrimination referred to put at a disadvantage in relation to other people.

Discrimination and the position of women in employment

Throughout history, it has become clear that women were more frequently employed in those areas where they were not willing to hire. It is evident that women are employed in the areas and sectors of the economy that are technologically backward, with low productivity, low incomes and often harsh environment. Significant progress in this area does not even have the newer, more modern and democratic era. It is often said that the newly developed technologies provide greater employment opportunities for women. Data suggest that in those economically developed areas, women’s employment reaches or even surpasses some European countries. The constant development of the economy gradually changes the division of labor by sex and so formally opens wider opportunities for women’s employment. But there is the issue of the extent to which women can take advantage of it, because their employment is dependent on their qualification, education, professionalism and other structures.

Despite the progress being made in terms of equal employment of women, women’s employment flows have not developed satisfactorily. Women are still not able to integrate into an equal economic sphere. Women are mostly employed in those sectors and activities where the male workforce is leaving space for employment. So women are not employed in lighter and better paying jobs. One of the causes of declining female employment is lower qualification and occupational structure of the employed women. Specifically, women still on average have lower vocational education than men. (Lovorka KuA?an, 2011) [6] . The propulsive industries and women are present in very small numbers. When women tend to come to a job, they agree to such requirements in hiring and employment that they are currently offering, which means that they agree to lower income, less favorable conditions of work, less possibility for greater professional development and advancement, etc. The fact that there are male and female occupations is not necessary to prove.

Even today, in a modern and democratic society, it is still present traditionally male and traditionally female occupations. In traditionally male jobs are sought mainly male perpetrators, thereby almost completely abolishes the right and the ability of women to possibly try to hire some of these occupations. This is especially stressed on the need for workers vocational education where the requirements for workers of a particular gender are still present in a relatively large number of professions. At the level of higher education, they are much less pronounced. Thus, for example, carpenters, smiths, machinists, car mechanics, painters, electricians, etc. look almost exclusively by men.

Requirements for female perpetrators are particularly accentuated to typists, nurses, secretaries and preschool teachers. Certainly the most feminized of all industries is the textile industry. The problem of economic inequality of women in Croatia has deep roots in the patriarchal, socialist and communist legacy and the disastrous consequences of the war in all economic sectors. After the war in Croatia, the political and economic scene is dominated by male. The position of women in Croatia in recent years has developed at a considerable distance from the main European and global trends focused on equality and equal opportunities in the daily life of women and men. Labor law is prohibiting discrimination based on gender, stipulating equal pay between women and men, as well as the special protection of working mothers and pregnant women. A significant barrier to women in employment is the lack of a sufficient number of institutions and services that care for children of preschool age.

The high cost of these services is forcing many women to stay at home and look after the children, but to work. This is particularly a problem in the smaller towns and rural areas. Negligence government on this issue once again is reflecting the general attitude that is created in the society as a whole, which includes the opinion that the woman belongs in the home. In that way, the state strengthens the unequal treatment of women and men. Both concern the choice of occupation, and the opportunities to work in their chosen profession. Faced with the high costs of child care, many families with limited financial resources simply cannot afford to have children of women who work outside the home. This stifles the economic independence of women and diminishes their influence in society in general.

Though the educational status of women is increasing, they are still a minority in the parliament, the government and ministries. Although women are well represented in the state administration, practically they are not in leadership positions. Finally, the high prevalence of the gray market in Croatia requires special attention. According to some sources, the number of labor engaged in this way is extremely high. It is likely that this sector provides employment opportunities for a greater number of women than men. The informal nature of this sector significantly reduces the level of safety to all, especially women. It is known that in the case of pregnancy, women simply remain without her job. So far, the state has not taken hardly any concrete steps to further investigate these violations of labor law in this sector, or try to appropriate measures to protect and expand this sector.

European policy of equal opportunities

The most significant issue related to discrimination against women in employment is certainly a question of frequent absences due to family roles of women. As for the absences, the statistics prove that women suffer less of absent for it and that most of their absences is related to children. The problem of post-natal leave and sick leave, especially later due to illness of the child, it is also the cause of the negative attitudes of employers towards hiring women. Founding family for many years for a woman means removal from work, and training and experience become obsolete over time. This is often an obstacle in terms of promotion and career development in general.

Conversely, a full professional engagement means often abandonment of family life and constant vacillation between family and work. Thus, the woman is placed against wall or-or-choices: either family or career. As far as men are concerned, they successfully juggle both these spheres of life, because the vast majority of private and family responsibilities traditionally left to the woman. In other words, the question is whether a woman can successfully balance between professional and private commitments. (MatkoviA‡ Teo, 2008) [7] . During the second half of the twentieth century, there has been much progress made and a huge step forward with regard to the release of women from subordinate positions in the private life of the labor market.

Antidiscrimination laws are measures for the protection of maternity (pregnancy, lactation), along with the implementation of positive action to promote women in the working world, have led to an entirely different position of women in society-to their economic independence and the “new” balance of power between women and men in society in general. However, still most of the activities are related to the private sphere of woman’s life. Still the biggest challenge remains creating the social conditions that helped successfully align interdependent domains of professional, family and private life. It is evident that the future emphasis should be put on the joint participation of women and men in family and business life. In Europe, many companies have long implemented family-friendly programs. Such programs take into account the monthly, weekly or daily needs of their employees and act flexibly with their needs related to the private sphere of life.

Conclusion

We can conclude that the difference in wage rate may not be entirely the result of discrimination, but on her partly influenced by the non-discriminatory factors. Croatian labor legislation Labor Act and amendments to the Labor Law governs the whole matter in a new way the prohibition of discrimination against persons seeking employment or already employed workers. The Croatian legislation was first introduced norms of harassment and sexual harassment, and represents new legal norms on the protection of workers’ dignity. The road to the EU has not been completed and it will continue in our labor laws incorporate those regulations adopted by the EU in the period up to our entry into it. The common trait of all European labor legislation is that the situation at the beginning of the 21st century is much more favorable to women than the past few decades, especially with respect to the position of women in employment.

To start off, the San culture is the kind of people that share food with the other families in their culture, the women, and the men work their butts off going out everyday hunting or even planting and growing crops like: berries, nuts, and fruits the women do most of the work. All the men do is go out and hunt for meat and all that adds up to 20% of the work and the other 80% belongs to the hard work the women put in to taking care of their culture. Another thing that I want to say about the San culture is, the San culture is known as (“Bushmen”) of the Kalahari Desert, and they

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get better grades have lived in that region for thousands of years.

There are a couple of more things I want to talk to you about this San culture is, after they get all of their work done the rest of the time is spent in leisurely pursuits: visiting, playing, sleeping, and just enjoying each other’s company. Not only do families pool the day’s production, but the entire camp, residents and visitors alike, shares equally in the total quantity of food available. The evening meal of any one family is made up of portions of food from each of the other families in the band. Foodstuffs are distributed raw or are prepared by the collectors and then distributed.

The three examples of how the kinship system of the San culture impacts the way this culture behaves is: Generalized Reciprocity, Negative Reciprocity, Balanced Reciprocity and first the Generalized Reciprocity impacts the way they behave is, a form of exchange in which there is no expectation for the immediate return of an item in exchange for something else; in the long… Kinship of the San Tribe

Kinship of the San Tribe

Kinship of the San Tribe

The San tribe of South Africa has an amazing story. Their way of life and the ability to survive in the desert speaks volumes to their kinship system. They are a people that have built their entire life on the ability to survive on what the land provides and the families they create. The following summary of the San will comprise of who the San are and the ties that bind them together. How does an indigenous tribe with limited resources live in the desert?

The San, or also known as the Bushmen, are a small yet mobile foraging band that resides in the Kalahari Desert in South Africa (Nowak&Laird, 2010, p. 3.1). As foragers the San hunt for their food, whether it is berries, nuts, or meat. The women of the San spend their time taking care of their children and searching for food. The men of the San spend their time hunting either individually or in groups. Because the San is a

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get better grades foraging band this means they are required to move from place to place in order to find food when resources become scarce. However, they aren’t always hunting for food. The San find it very important to take time out of their day to spend visiting with family and friends. Family is very important to the San as will be described later in this summary. In addition to family, water is just as important as family. Because of the desert environment in which they live, it requires them to be aware of their resources and call upon other San tribes if assistance is needed. When resources are scarce, that’s where the San’s kinship structure comes in to play.

The San’s kinship system is structured is considered bilateral. Nowak and Laird (2010) describe bilateral descent as “the kinship connections through both the mother and the father are equally important” (p. 3.7). In the United States, a bilateral descent system exists. Individuals are related to both parents equally. Foragers,… San Tribe

The San Tribe

When compared to our society, the San people have similar value systems. The San are the oldest inhabitants of Southern Africa, where they have lived for thousands of years. The term San is commonly used to refer to a diverse group of hunter-gatherers living in Southern Africa who share historical and linguistic connections. “Some foragers have lived in their present location for thousands of years, such as the San in southwest Africa” (Nowak and Laird, 2010, p. 3.2). The San were also referred to as Bushmen, but this term has since been abandoned as it is considered derogatory.

Here are three examples of how the San are like many American societies. Like many American families, the San people have no true leader. Leadership among the San is kept for those who have lived within that group for a long time, who have achieved a respectable age, and

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get better grades good character. In many American families this is also true. The eldest person is treated with the most respect and families often try to discuss their problems together in order to keep peace in the family. The San also believe there is one powerful God. In our circles this belief is also true. They also respect the dead; we pay our respects to the dead as well by the various small things we do. We pull our vehicles over during a funeral procession, we do not walk on anyone’s grave, we lower flags for dead dignitaries, and we have large lists of things that we consider respect for the dead.

Lastly, the San have religious aspirations. We also share this trait. There have a person they hold in high regards as we would a priest of preacher. They call their holy man a Shaman or medicine man. The San are big on having strong family ties and bonds. Let’s look at how the family is thought to work or structure itself.

Most foraging societies consist of a nuclear family setting. When looking how a… The San Tribe

The San Tribe

One of the best-known hunting and gathering communities in the modern world are the San (“Bushmen”) of the Kalahari Desert. The San have been living in this region for thousands of years. Their diets are composed primarily of nuts, fruit, melons, and berries gathered by the women. The women are the primary gatherers and are responsible for contributing nearly 80 percent of the San diet. Men, the hunters, provide the remaining 20 percent of the diet in the form of meat. Even though they live in one of the most marginal environments in the world, the San search for food only two or three days a week. Women can collect enough food in one day to feed their families for a full week, while men hunt two or three days a week. The rest of the time is spent in leisurely pursuits: visiting, playing, sleeping, and just enjoying each other’s company. (Lee,

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get better grades 1979) The San use Generalized Reciprocity, sharing what they have with other people in their band. Each San is not an island unto himself or herself, each is part of a collective. The group pools the resources that are brought into the camp so that everyone receives an equitable share. They do not do this out of nobility of soul or because they are made of better stuff than we are, they do it because it works for them and it enhances their survival. Without this core of sharing, life for the San would be harder and infinitely less pleasant. The San have rights to waterholes, and if others need to use them, they must obtain permission from the group holding the rights. Among the San, the “owner” of a hunted animal is not the hunter who killed the animal but rather the owner of the arrow or spear. The San migrate based on water availability and their shelters are built quickly, typically in one day, and are made from materials found locally and available to anyone. Among the San, the oldest woman in a… San Tribe

San Tribe

San Tribe

The San tribe of South Africa has an astonishing story. Their way of life and the aptitude to survive in the desert endowers wonders to their kinship system. They are a people that have built their entire life on the ability to live on what the land provides and the families they design. The following synopsis of the San will include who the San are and the ties that bind them together. How does a native tribe with scarce resources live in the desert?

The San, or also known as the Bushmen, are a small yet mobile foraging band that resides in the Kalahari Desert in South Africa (Nowak & Laird, 2010, p. 3.1). As foragers the San search for their food, whether it is berries, nuts, or meat. The women of the San devote their time taking care of their children and exploring for food. The men of the San devote their time hunting either individually or in groups. Because the San is a foraging band

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get better grades this means that it’s necessary for them to move from place to place in order to find food when sources become limited. However, they are not continuously hunting for food. The San find it very significant to take time out of their day to spend visiting with family and friends. Kinfolk are very important to the San as will be described later in this synopsis. In addition to family, water is just as significant as family. Because of the desert environment in which they live, it makes them to be aware of their resources and call upon other San tribes if help is needed. When resources are scarce, that’s where the San’s kinship binding comes to the surface.

The San’s kinship system is considered bilateral. Nowak and Laird (2010) describe bilateral descent as “the kinship connections through both the mother and the father are equally important” (p. 3.7). In the United States, a bilateral descent system do exists. Individuals are related to both parents alike. Foragers, like the San,…

Kinship System of the San People

Kinship of the San Bushmen

The San or “Bushmen” people as they are sometimes called are a foraging group. Most foraging societies consist of a nuclear family setting. When looking how a family is laid out you must pay attention to descent. Descent is the passage of kinship though the parent-child links and the joining of the people into groups. There are two patterns for identifying descent: unilateral and bilateral. When looking at unilateral descent the relationships are followed through the mother and the father. The descent within the bilateral relationship is just as important. Most of all the foraging bands have bilateral descent. A San tribe member can find a blood relative in every tribe that he/she visits. This type of kinship is important if the family is low on resources, they can relocate, find family, and survive until they are once again able to thrive on their own.

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get better grades To have a family member in every band that you travel to, a marriage has had to occur. Marriage between the men and women between the bands helps strengthen the social links. Once again these types of family ties are a survival tool for the bands desolate times. When a man is to consider marriage in the San tribe he must first make sure that the woman he is considering to marry does not have the same name as a parent or sibling. Marrying of a second cousin or closer is also prohibited. By doing this the tribe insures that there is no incest helping create future generations of children that can marry without the high chance of incest. With these rules in place it limits the number of women that can be married though out the region. Women would gather, and men hunted using poison arrows and spears in laborious days-long excursions. Children had no duties besides to play, and leisure was very important to the Bushmen. They spent large amounts of time with conversation, joking around, music, and sacred dances…. The San Kinship System

KINSHIP OF THE SAN PEOPLE 1

KINSHIP OF THE SAN PEOPLE 2

KINSHIP OF THE SAN PEOPLE

The San people are indigenous cultures that are referred to as the Bushmen they live and have lived in the deserts of the Kalahari for many thousands of years. The San people are foraging band of families that gather and hunt for their livelihood traditionally “women are responsible for eighty percent of the food gathering which consists of nuts, fruits, melons and berries while the men are responsible for twenty percent of the meat” Nowak, B. & Laird, P (2010).

The family structure of the San people is one of kinship in which could include many family member such as uncles, aunts, cousins, brothers, sisters, maternal, paternal grandparent and their parents. It is a band of families that work together as a group

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get better grades to provide food for all family members if another person killed a big animal they will share it with another family who wasn’t as fortunate in hunting that day this is their way of life. This kinship reinforces the importance of family and keeps them close thus providing safety and comfort for all involved.

The numbers of the San people can include over 30 members in their group or village; families can live in other parts of neighboring camps are usually interconnected by kinship and marriage: a brother and sister can live with spouses in one camp and in troubled times when food and their basic necessities are scare they have the option to move to another camp and live with their in-laws this type of family connections is referred to as a bilateral kinship. In bilateral kinship one cannot marry another family member who consists of second cousins or even people whom share the same name as her or his parents.

KINSHIP OF THE SAN PEOPLE 3

The kinship of the family is very important to them the children…

The Sans Kinship System

The Sans 1

The San 2

The San Kinship System

The San are foragers who reside in the Kalahari Desert in Africa. The San people have survived and flourished here for thousands of years. In a foraging culture the people live in mobile groups called Bands (Nowak & Laird, 2010). Typically, they move every few weeks to location were food and water is thriving. In foraging cultures continuous movement and the sharing of food and water are part of what builds kinship ties. These kinship ties build a greater sense of obligation to each other (Nowak & Laird, 2010). I will explore a general reciprocal kinship system between the San people. I will provide three examples of this kinship system to display how it affects the San culture.

General Reciprocal Exchange

The San people live in a reciprocal economic system. This is defined as a mutual exchange

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get better grades of goods and services which occurs between members of a kinship group (Nowak & Laird, 2010). To be more specific the San people live in a generalized reciprocity. A generalized reciprocity is a form of exchange where there are no expectations for an immediate return of an item in exchange for something else (Nowak & Laird, 2010).

Sharing of Food and Water

One example of generalized reciprocal culture lived by the San is their sharing and pooling together of food gathered for the day with all members of the Band. This sharing helps to ensure the survival of the camp. For example, a hunter’s family will not go hungry if he is unable to make a kill. Another hunter who was successful will provide equal shares of his kill with all members of the camp. This generalized reciprocity is

The San 3

based on family and kin relationships (Nowak & Laird, 2010). Typically, the neighbor they are sharing with is a parent, parent-in-law, or sibling.

When thinking about how the San people…

The San Kinship System

Introduction

The San are foragers who reside in the Kalahari Desert in Africa. The San people have survived and flourished here for thousands of years. In a foraging culture the people live in mobile groups called Bands (Nowak & Laird, 2010). Typically, they move every few weeks to location were food and water is thriving. In foraging cultures continuous move

Sin Kinship System

ment and the sharing of food and water are part of what builds kinship ties. These kinship ties build a greater sense of obligation to each other (Nowak & Laird, 2010). I will explore a general reciprocal kinship system between the San people. I will provide three examples of this kinship system to display how it affects the San culture.

General Reciprocal Exchange

The San people live in a reciprocal economic system. This is defined as a mutual ex change of goods and services which occurs between

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get better grades members of a kinship group (Nowak & Laird, 2010). To be more specific the San people live in a generalized reciprocity. A generalized reciprocity is a form of exchange where there are no expectations for an immediate return of an item in exchange for something else (Nowak & Laird, 2010).

Sharing of Food and Water

One example of generalized reciprocal culture lived by the San is their sharing and pooling together of food gathered for the day with all members of the Band. This sharing helps to ensure the survival of the camp. For example, a hunter’s family will not go hungry if he is unable to make a kill. Another hunter who was successful will provide equal shares of his kill with all members of the camp. This generalized reciprocity is based on family and kin relationships (Nowak & Laird, 2010). Typically, the neighbor they are sharing with is a parent, parent-in-law, or sibling.

Environment

When thinking about how the San people… The men and the women work together to make their…

Kinship System

Cultural Thinking Paper: Kinship Organization

Kinship remains at the core of social relations, but marriage customs and other kin-related rules change to deal with new relationships in terms of property, denser population, and conflict. People are related to each other as sharing a common ancestor or as in-laws. The way people are related, determines how they behave towards each other. In general there are two basic patterns for calculating descents: unilineal and bilateral. San kinship system is based on bilateral descent. In bilateral descents, the kinship connections through both the mother and the father are equally important. Because of this kinship relationship, a San will find a relative in every band he or she visits. If a family is facing shortage where they live, the can go to another band’s territory and find kin, a place to stay, and access to water. San society

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get better grades is groups of people whom love each others company.

San live in the most marginal environments in the world. Hunters and gathers such as the San, who live in the desert, migrate based on water availability. San have many hours of free time for leisure activities, including socializing with their kin and friends. San is a very generous society; evening meals are shared among all families. Generosity maintains kin and social relationships while providing a safety net. Each San does not have an island unto him or herself, each is part of a collective. Because the San is apart of a band and are very generous you would think they share with no problem, in fact the often gripe about sharing. Without the core of sharing, life for the San would be harder and infinitely less pleasant. The way our cultures kinship system works is based on the way one is raised. One may have been raise to only give to you relatives and friends if the were to receive something back, on the other hand, one may have been raised…

Kinship System of the San People

Kinship of the San Bushmen

The San or “Bushmen” people as they are sometimes called are a foraging group. Most foraging societies consist of a nuclear family setting. When looking how a family is laid out you must pay attention to descent. Descent is the passage of kinship though the parent-child links and the joining of the people into groups. There are two patterns for identifying descent: unilateral and bilateral. When looking at unilateral descent the relationships are followed through the mother and the father. The descent within the bilateral relationship is just as important. Most of all the foraging bands have bilateral descent. A San tribe member can find a blood relative in every tribe that he/she visits. This type of kinship is important if the family is low on resources, they can relocate, find family, and survive until they are once again able to thrive on their own.

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get better grades To have a family member in every band that you travel to, a marriage has had to occur. Marriage between the men and women between the bands helps strengthen the social links. Once again these types of family ties are a survival tool for the bands desolate times. When a man is to consider marriage in the San tribe he must first make sure that the woman he is considering to marry does not have the same name as a parent or sibling. Marrying of a second cousin or closer is also prohibited. By doing this the tribe insures that there is no incest helping create future generations of children that can marry without the high chance of incest. With these rules in place it limits the number of women that can be married though out the region. Women would gather, and men hunted using poison arrows and spears in laborious days-long excursions. Children had no duties besides to play, and leisure was very important to the Bushmen. They spent large amounts of time with conversation, joking around, music, and sacred dances….

Impact of the Kinship System on San Culture

Impact of the Kinship System on San Culture

ANT 101: Introduction to Cultural Anthropology

August 21, 2011

Impact of the Kinship System on San Culture

In this paper I will describe the kinship system of the San (Bushmen) and how it impacts their lives. First I will give a brief description of their culture. Then I will provide three examples of how the kinship system impacts the way the culture behaves. Following each of these examples I will discuss how this aspect of the kinship system compares with American society and also how it may impact behaviors in my life. Finally I will summarize the paper’s key points. Let us begin by learning a little about the San.

The San live in the Kalahari Desert of South Africa which is one of the most inhospitable regions of the world. They survive on hunting wild game and also gathering roots and tubers. They are considered to be one of the oldest cultures in the world. The culture is expected to be over a

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get better grades hundred thousand years old. Only until the last two thousand years have the San began living in the inhospitable desert. They have gradually been pushed here by modernization and farmers that have taken their old, more fertile lands (Tishkoff, 2009). I will now provide some examples of their kinship system and how it relates to Americans today.

Generalized reciprocity plays a huge role in the San Culture. They do a very good job of making sure that everyone in the camp has equal amounts of food. This includes both family and visitors alike. The evening meal of any one family is made up of portions of food from each of the other families in the band. Food can be distributed either raw or will be prepared by whoever has collected the food and then it will be distributed. There is a constant flow of nuts, berries, roots and melons from one family to another. This will continue until everyone has an equal amount of food (Nowak & Laird, 2010). This continuous movement of goods between families… Kinship of the San

Throughout the southern land of Africa live the native Bushmen also known as the San. According to the National Geographic video on The Bushmen, the San are recognized as one of the oldest cultural societies that still remain active. One of the strongest qualities epitomized by the society is their cohesive support system they operate in order to survive on a daily basis. As indicated by our text, the San are a foraging culture, meaning they generate only enough food and resources to consume for a day or two; lessening the amount of surplus and need for storage. The San believe in maintaining strong unions within their nuclear families and often joining with related nuclear families to assemble their bands. These bands look to each other for support within their community while harvesting, gathering, and operating daily duties within the community. Since the San are considered a band society, they are habitually on the move in search of new grounds to cultivate and develop. But regardless of where

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get better grades they move and who joins them, the San continue to stay linked with family that is near or far.

Since the San believe in strong bonds with related kin, the choices made in their communities are decisions made as a group. Their preference for leaders comes from within their kinships. The San delegate a leader from inside their band as their informal headman or woman. San people look to their own people to find that one person who can help lead them in times of decision-making. San kinships look to elderly members to be their leaders. They use their age as a sign of “experience and knowledge”. There is no formal or political organization of leadership, but instead they choose a member who is well respected, has lots of charisma, and has been “experienced” through age. Since both genders are equally respected within their culture for their contributions, the headman or woman can be a male or female. This leader is the person they look to when in search of new territory or…

I Chose the San

In this paper I have chosen to write about the San. I will be telling you about many different things that I have read in this the beginning of our studies in anthropology. I will cover kinship as it relates to the San tribe, and how it impacts their lives. I will make a comparison in how current day culture and kinship differs from theirs also how kinship today impacts our daily living.

Residing in South West Africa the San are foragers. The San are considered to be “one of the best-known hunting and gathering communities in the modern world” (Nowak & Laird, 2010); they are also known as the “San (Bushmen) of the Kalahari Desert” (Nowak & Laird, 2010). The San are a foraging band of families, they live off of what they can either hunt or gather from their surroundings this is part of the reason that they move every so often as not to put a strain on the environment also to be

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get better grades able to provide for them self. “women are responsible for eighty percent of the food gathering which consists of nuts, fruits, melons and berries while the men are responsible for twenty percent of the meat” (Nowak & Laird, 2010).

The type of kinship that the San follow starts as nuclear and can go as far as the extended family. This seems to make the idea of general reciprocal exchange easier to deal with. The San live in an economic system of general reciprocal exchange. In the text generalized reciprocity is defined as “a form of exchange where there are no expectations for an immediate return of an item in exchange for something else” (Nowak & Laird, 2010). The members of the San would hunt and gather food and share the wealth with everyone in the band, making sure that everyone can eat even if they were unable to contribute, Sharing of this kind helps strengthen ties.

Although the killing of Stephen Lawrence in 1993 was one of the few racist murders in British history to result in extensive media coverage, a public investigation and a change in the law, the reporting of black crime in the United Kingdom has remained subject to distortion and moral panic, especially in the conservative tabloid press. Since Lawrence and his family were portrayed as aspiring members of the middle class, the media in general did not really regard him as part of black culture at all, at least as the media has defined it over the last thirty years: guns, drugs, gangs, street crime, poverty and school drop outs (McLaughlin and Murji, 2001, p 263). Therefore, despite much sound and fury, there is no evidence that Lawrences murder and its aftermath led to fundamental change in the systematic racism of the British media, and other institutions such as the police and education system. Nor is there evidence that the racist ideology that is used towards blacks, immigrants, Muslims and asylum-seekers has disappeared as a resultfar from it.

This dissertation will consider the definition of racism as socially and historically constructed, and part of the institutions and ideology of society, and then examine how it has applied to the treatment blacks and other ethnic minorities in the UK since the 1940s, focusing on the Lawrence case and its aftermath. Finally, it will consider whether racism in the media has gradually been transferred to other targets in the wake of the attacks of September 11, 2001 and July 2005, with less emphasis on street crime, gangs, drugs and the crack wars of the 1970s-90s. This does not mean that young black males are no longer the target of racist stereotyping in the media, since as late as 2007 even a committee of the House of Commons agreed that they still were, only that racist impulses and ideologies seem to go through phases in which certain targets receive more attention than others (House of Commons, 2007)

CHAPTER 1.1: WHY THIS TOPIC IS INTERESTING TO ME

This topic first came to my attention several months ago during the summer, when it seemed that everyday young people were being killed by young males carrying knives. At the time the newspapers that covered these stories made it seem that it was only young black males that carried knives and the problem that the police had to deal with was not that of a few individuals who were carrying and using knives but that of a wider more prevalent issue with black culture.

At the time of reading these stories I found it quite strange that over time the underlying story seemed to be the same but the details had changed. For example, I remember not too long ago, it was young black males that were most likely to mug you, it was young black males dealing drugs on estates and young black males being involved in gang shooting (McLaughlin and Murji,2001, p 265). These acts seemed to, in my opinion come in waves. Due to reports like these, the general public is of the assumption that young black males are very dangerous individuals and should be feared (McLaughlin and Murji, 2001, p 265). I wanted to find out whether the newspapers and the media in general were justified in their approach on reporting black crime or whether they are scare-mongering for the sake of sales.

CHAPTER 1.2: AIMS

As stated above, the main aim of this dissertation would be to see if in fact the general media are in fact correct in the way in which they report crime or do they fuel public panic, and in turn fuel racism. I would like to find out whether the media is helping or hindering the general publics understanding of black people. Also, I hope that my research will enable me to answer questions on the way media is used and misused. In addition to that, I would like to find out whether the events that took place that lend to Stephen Lawrences murder was a turning point in the way that journalist conduct their articles and if after the Macpherson report has anything changed. Lastly I would like to find out if I am right in my assumption that the way in which the media (especially the tabloid press) have place black people on the back burner for the time being, and are concentrating on other ethnic minorities, such as Asian etc.

CHAPTER1.3: POSTMODERNIST THEORY ON RACISM

The term postmodernism is generally over used, as just about everything has a postmodern twist to it. For example the term postmodern can be used to describe music, art, architecture, film etc, but as well as all these, it is a sociological school of thought. According to Giddens postmodernism is the belief that society is no longer governed by history or progress. Postmodern society is highly pluralistic and diverse, with no grand narrative guiding its development (Giddens, 2006, p1029).

According to the postmodernist Ramon Flecha, racism is described as describes a condition wherein racial and ethnic differences become incommensurable and subjects fail to address the important issue of inequality in the face of difference (Gillborn and Ladson-Billings, 2004, p123). When one takes a closer look at history, one will realize that there is a major paradox in European imperialism. As colonisers, one of their goals was to disseminate their culture in their colonies. However, Singh believes that European cultural imperialism was dedicated to denying the colonised subject any identity other than one which that renders him/her a non-person (Singh, 2006, p 7). This cultural invasion happens when the invaders impose their own beliefs and views on another group and make them inferior by suppressing their creativity and expression (Freire, 1970, p 151). Colonisers have propagated their culture among their colonies but many of them still emphasized the importance of drawing a line between them and their colony. They regard their culture as superior to that of their colonies.

It is this difference where postmodernist beliefs of racism are founded upon. In Murphy and Choi, it is defined as a myriad of practices that are designed to subjugate a large segment of the population (Murphy and Choi, 1997, p3). In postmodernist belief, differences are recognized just as long as each racial group acts according to their race. Postmodernism racism puts more emphasis on the segregation rather than the hierarchy. With respect to the racism that existed fifty or a hundred years ago, postmodern racism recognizes multiculturalism and diversity. Old theories on racism were centred more on hierarchy and which race was more superior to the other. But times of crisis and uncertainty over the course of social and economic change have often proved to be the periods in which new racist ideas and movements have emerged and provided basis for social mobilisation and exclusion (Solomos and Back, 1996, p 211). So therefore over the past 50 years it is clear to see that anytime there was an incident of economic, social or health related down turns, ethnic minorities have been have been thrust into the limelight, in a way that could be described as negative. In the 70s and 80s it was black men who were a social menace, then in the 90s refugees from the former Yugoslavia were blamed for the lack of public housing and any subsequent rises in welfare benefits. Now in the 00s, with the west waging a war against terror people of Asian descent are now referred to as terrorist.

However, postmodern racism is not any different from the old racist beliefs. According to Leonardo, postmodern racism simply assumes the guise of tolerance only to be usurped by relativism, a proliferation of differences rather than a levelling of power relations (Leonardo, 2009, p216). It was stated earlier that times of crisis have prompted racist ideas to change but they have only changed in theory. Reality states that they have essentially remained the same, crimes motivated by racist beliefs have proven that up to the present, racial supremacy still lingers in peoples minds.

Lawrences murder is one of the few racially-motivated crimes that have been publicized. But it required a careful effort from the media to publicize his death. His economic background, for instance, was taken into consideration. Other black victims of racially-motivated crimes, for instance, do not receive sufficient publicity because the journalists thought that their image as a vagrant would not illicit a sympathetic response from the public (McLaughlin and Murji, 2001, p 276). Stephen Lawrence was the opposite because he came from a middle class family and his family was not, as stereotypes would say, the typical black family everyone feared.

The discrepancy between the medias treatment of Stephen Lawrence and Duwayne Brooks respective murders will easily reveal how media still holds racist beliefs. Moreover, it goes to show that media is sensitive to the fact that the general populace is still governed by old racist beliefs that there are certain races that are superior to the other. Postmodern racism, then, does not completely hold true and it may only be a sugar-coated version of the old-fashioned 19th century racism.

CHAPTER 1.4: STRUCTURE

Firstly I will be looking in to the methodology that is to be used in this dissertation as well as any ethically issues that may arise from doing research and writing up my dissertation. In chapter 3, I will be looking at the background history of black people in the United Kingdom and the media. In chapter 4, I will be looking in depth at the Stephen Lawrence case and asking whether Lawrence was a turning point in media reporting and the publics perception of young black males in general. I will then be covering in chapter 4.1, when the media circus surrounding Lawrence died down whether the media returned to their old ways of racially biased reporting or did the Macpherson report make a difference in the institution that in the media world. Finally in chapter 5, I will conclude and make any recommendations that are fitting. After this the references will follow.

CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY

This dissertation is a library based dissertation so therefore it uses secondary research as I feel primary research would not be suitable for this dissertation. I will be concentrating on collecting all my information from books, journals and publications that focusing on media reporting of the Stephen Lawrence case, history of black people in the UK and post Stephen Lawrence.

CHAPTER 2.1: ETHICAL ISSUES

Racism is a delicate issue and if the research is not conducted properly, the outcome could possibly be dangerous to all parties involved in the research, whether they are a minority ethnic group or not. It is therefore important that I must be sensitive towards the needs and safety of those who would likely to be involve in the study (Babbie, 2008, p 440). As this essay will be library based researched I must make sure that whilst conducting the research and evaluating my findings, I am as transparent as possible. I must also make sure that throughout the research and evaluation process I am aware of the studys objectivities and other significant details, therefore reducing any clear bias, which in turn would allow my work to be clear and objective. Also, I must make sure that whenever I quote anything it must be written in context and that I dont plagiarise. To make sure this doesnt happen I will make sure that all my references are correctly stated. And finally I will make sure that if during my research I find articles that disagree with any statements I have made are noted not ignored.

CHAPTER 3: RACISM IN GREAT BRITAIN:
THE MEDIA AND BLACK BRITISH HISTORY

For the British media, especially the conservative, mass market tabloids, blacks have been defined by images of black crime for decades, especially as the economy began to decline in the 1970s as unemployment, poverty and social pathology increased in the declining industrial cities. If black crime has always been defined as a social problem in the media, racist attacks by whites against minorities almost never was before the Stephen Lawrence Family Campaign (McLaughlin and Murji, 2001, p 263). From a purely capitalist view as well, crime reports are among the most headline-catching of news commodities and media everywhere in the world follow the somewhat cynical principle of if it bleeds, it leads. Crime journalists almost invariably take their cue from the police as experts on the subject and also depend of police contacts for their very livelihoods, providing them a routine and predictable source of newsworthy stories. Naturally, crime journalists never want to alienate that source and end up left out in the cold, for the economics of the news business is a particularly raw, competitive form of capitalism (McLaughlin and Murji, 2001, p 264). Van Dijk studied 2,755 headlines in the British press in 1985-86 from The Times, The Guardian, Daily Telegraph, Mail and Sun, and found that except for The Guardian, almost all the reporting about blacks and other minorities was seldom positive, occasionally neutral, and often negative (Van Dijk, 1991, p52).

After the major shift in both fictional and news coverage of crime in the 1960s and 1970s, there were increasing complaints from the elderly, minorities and young people in general about how they were depicted. Elderly citizens were shown as muggable and disempowered, while the young and minorities felt like they were continually portrayed as dangerous youth, potential perpetrators of crime, and thus welcomed films and news stories with a civil rights focus and the questioning of police authority. On the other hand, young women were more aware of their possible victim status, particularly their vulnerability to male violence, and so welcomed coverage of such crimes, which had been mostly ignored before the 1960s (Reiner et al, 2000, p 120). In general, the cultural shift of the 1960s and 1970s has not been reversed in films and news accounts in the more conservative era of the 1980s and 1990s: there is still far more depiction of sex, drugs, violence, corrupt and tarnished authority figures than before 1965, and also an increasing tendency toward more anarchic and nihilistic violence or a Hobbesian war of all against all, mixed occasionally with more reactionary and nostalgic themes. Overall, the post-1960s media and film culture has remained less deferential and more de-subordinate and demystified than it was before 1965 (Reiner et al:, 2000, p121-22).

For decades the British media portrayed Britain as a white society with a minority and immigration problem. Accordingly, the coloured population is seen as some kind of aberration, a problem, or just an oddity. One of the most popular BBC television programmes in 1958-78 was The Black and White Minstrel Show, supposedly set in the Deep South of the U.S., featuring actors blacked up. As late as 1998, only 2% of journalists in England and Wales were Arab, Asian or black even though these minorities made up 5.26% of the population, and the media often remained blind to ethnic minorities (Wilson et al, 2003, p 21). According to the British Social Attitudes Survey of 2003, 31% of white admitted to being racist, about the same percentage as 1987, and many people also practised aversion racism in which they believed intellectually in equality but at the same time felt aversion toward minorities with negative stereotypes, and thus avoided interaction with them if possible (Crisp and Turner, 2007, p 162-65).

In the media, blacks became synonymous with drugs, gangs and street crime, and misleading police statistics asserted that young black males were the majority of street criminals, generally unemployed and on welfare. Equally untrue in the standard media portrayal, their victims were often white, female and elderly (McLaughlin and Murji:, 2001, p265). Abercrombie and Warde agree that a conception of the black community as particularly crime-prone took hold in the 1970s in press treatments of attacks on and thefts from, innocent people in the streets. In 1983 The Sun actually ran a headline Black Crime Shock and stated falsely that blacks carried twice as many muggings as white sin London last year (Webster, 2006, p 32). In general, the media conveyed the image that the attackers were predominantly black and the victims predominantly white, no matter that there was no evidence for this. Just the opposite, the British Crime Survey of 1988 and 1992 showed conclusively that ethnic minorities are much more likely, in fact, to be the victims of crime than white people, and these crimes are under-reported because it is believed the police will not be interested and will not follow up a complaint. According to a 1981 Home Office report, victimization rates for Asians were 50 times, and for blacks 36 times, higher than for white people, but the media treated this information like it did not exist and almost never reported the extent and seriousness of racially motivated attacks on black communities (McLaughlin and Murji, 2001, p 268-69). Nevertheless, into the 1990s, young black males continued to be profiled and targeted for stop and search policing, especially in high crime areas. Studies of police attitudes found that they generally regarded blacks as trouble-makers, drug dealers, robbers and nothing else (Abercrombie and Warde, 2000, p258-59).

This moral panic against crime in the streets was also fuelled by Conservative politicians, particularly in the Winter of Discontent against the Labour government in 1979. In the Thatcher years, the Tories presided over an era of high unemployment and increasing poverty at the bottom end of the social scale, and knew that they could divert attention by promoting a law and order discourse that put the blame on the most socially and economically depressed sections of the community (Holohan, 2005, p 104). In Britain, as in the U.S. and many other countries from the 1970s to the 1990s, conservative and right-wing populist ideologies reflected a broadly right-wing consensus which, in many news channels (especially the tabloid press)justified as encapsulating the British way of life. This law and order consensus supported more police, more prisons and a tougher criminal justice system, particularly in response to the youth and minority rebellions of the 1960s and 1970s–and indeed, as part of a white backlash against these (Jewkes 2004, p58). For over twenty years, conservative populist punitiveness represented the main attitude of the British government to crime, poverty and the social problems associated with them, and there was no major opposition to imprisoning larger numbers of youth and younger ages, to prosecuting them as adults, more curfews, prohibition of unauthorized gatherings of young people, as well as harsher measures against immigrants, protesters, demonstrators, the homeless and young unemployed, particularly if any of the above were from minority groups. Newspapers like The Sun and Daily Mail have always had a vigorous intolerance towards anyone of anything that transgresses an essentially conservative agenda (Jewkes, 2004, p 59). Socially, economically and culturally, this era was a throwback to the late-Victorian period at the end of the 19th Century.

A 1992 book Beneath the Surface: Racial Harassment described a detailed study of racism in the London borough of Waltham Forest in 1981-89. It found that racial harassment was a fact of life there, including verbal and physical abuse, graffiti and fire bombings of houses of ethnic minorities. In July 1981 a Pakistani woman and her three children died in one of these attacks when petrol was sprayed into their house and set alight. The police did not seem interested in any of these crimes, and were even suspicious of the minorities who reported them. In 1998, The Observer reported that little has changed in the years since and described how one Muslim man was regularly threatened with stones, guns, knives, fire-bombs and death threats over a seven-year period. In 1992-94 alone, there were at least 45 deaths in Britain from what are believed to be racially motivated attacks, but none of them received nearly the same publicity as the Lawrence case (Abercrombie and Warde, 2000, p 260-62). After the riots of 1980-81, Lord Scarmans report emphasized the role of racial discrimination and acknowledged that there was a problem of racially discriminatory policing, as was still the case twelve years later in the Lawrence case. After the report came out, the police gave off-the-record interviews to the effect that London was experiencing a dramatic increase in muggings (McLaughlin and Murji, 2001, p266).

Jamaican immigrants had begun to arrive in the UK in 1948, although even the Labour government of that era preferred white European immigrants if it could find them, even if they could not speak English and understood little about Britain. Indeed, government officials went out of their way to discourage immigration from Africa, Asia and the West Indies, which was not unusual at the time, given the whites-only immigration policies in Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United States that had been in place for decadesand did not change in the U.S. until 1965. The British government even tried to divert a ship carrying 492 Jamaicans to East Africa in 1948. Given the shortage of white immigrants, Britain had no alternative except to obtain most of its cheap labour supply from its colonies, semi-colonies and former colonies in Asia, Africa and the West Indies, although with much bad will on both the governmental level and in (white) public opinion (Skelton, 1999).

Blacks had been in Britain long before this wave of immigration, of course, but it seems to have made little impact on historical memory or popular consciousness. Britain had slavery during the 17th and 18th Centuries at least until Lord Mansfield abolished it in 1772. To be sure, only 10-20,000 slaves had lived in the country during any given year compared to millions in Brazil, the United States and West Indies and the number of free blacks was never large (Segal, 1996). Prior to the post-1945 immigration, few whites in Britain would have ever encountered many blacks at home, except of course for American soldiers in World War II. At that time, however, many white Americans were actually surprised to find that the British press was generally sympathetic to blacks whenever racial conflicts, brawls and other incidents took place on British soil (Katznelson, 2001).

Jamaicans were the largest group to arrive in Britain from the West Indies during this unwelcome ingathering from the colonies. While the majority of White British were antagonistic to all those from the Caribbean, it can be said that the deepest resentment was toward the Jamaicans (Skelton, 1999, p 232). Initially, they settled in Lambeth, Brixton, Clapham and Camberwell in South London, which was considered ideal for blacks and other minorities since it had suffered extensive bomb damage and was full of vacant, old and dilapidated Victorian houses. In other worlds, it was an instant, ready-made ghetto. Black immigrants were crowded into these run-down houses, charged unreasonably high rents, and/or faced housing discrimination. They only got the jobs that British workers would not take and called slave labour or shit work, and often could not even get that. Like many such ghettos in the past, theft, fencing of stolen merchandise, prostitution and drug dealing were commonwith many shops offering illegal goods and services under the counter to supplement their incomes and others acting as fronts for gangs and organized crime. In short, like similar ghettos in the U.S. and many other countries, it had a large informal or underground economy which existed in tandem with the mainstream economy and societyalthough minority young people were mostly cut off and alienated from this (Sanders, 2000, p 33). Mainstream media reported the crime but not the historical, social and economic context of this ghetto society.

From the start, the police and media associated young Jamaican males with street crime, which became an idea so pervasive and powerful that soon everyone who saw a young Black man on the street was convinced they were about to be robbed (Skelton, 1999, p 232). In the 1970s, it was not uncommon to see young Black men being taken to the side of public pavements and being forced to empty their pockets by two of three police officers at a time (Skelton, 1999, p 233). Parliament passed sus laws that allowed the police to stop and frisk anyone acting in a suspicious manneran early example of racial profiling, and arresting and harassing suspects from crimes like shopping, walking or driving while Black. In the media, there were virtually no counter-representations of young, black men, while in the civil disturbances of the 1980s and 1990s it ran the most sensationalistic stories claiming that Britain was becoming a riot-torn society (Skelton, 1999, p 234) caused by an alien disease and angry young blacks who did not share the values of law-abiding society (Skelton, 1999, p 234). Certain geographical areas like Brixton in London, Toxteth in Liverpool and Handsworth in Birmingham were racialised in the media and always associated with danger, destruction and lawlessness (Skelton, 1999, p 234).

CHAPTER 4: THE STEPHEN LAWRENCE CASE: A TURNING POINT?

Identifying a sympathetic victim is a well-known strategy of civil rights movements, and one of the best known was Rosa Parks, whose arrest on December 1, 1955 for refusing to give up her seat to a white person on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama was the spark that lit the modern civil rights movement in the United Sates. E.D. Nixon, the head of the Alabama National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and chief organizer of the Montgomery Voters League had been looking for a test case against the segregation laws for quite some time. He knew that it would have to survive legal challenges all the way up to the United States Supreme Court, and for this purpose the right type of victim was essential (Hare, 2005). It was no accident when Rosa Parks, the secretary of the local NAACP and member of Martin Luther Kings church, was arrested as part of the long-planned test case. Jonnie Carr, head of the Montgomery Improvement Association for thirty years, had invited Parks to join the NAACP and the two women started a friendship that would last a lifetime (Hare, 2005, p 25). Carr, who would later challenge Montgomerys segregated school system I the courts and win the case in the Supreme Court, said that Parks was so quiet that you would never have believed she would get to the point of being arrested (hare,2005, p26), but she did. Once she was committed to this course, she did not look back, and was famous for her quiet courage and determination. She continually received death threats from the Ku Klux Klan during the bus boycott and the legal case, and had to move to Detroit, Michigan in 1957. Even so, she continued to work with Martin Luther King and the civil rights movement, helping to organize the March on Washington in 1963 and the election of John Conyers to Congressone of the first blacks elected in the 20th Century (Hare, 2005).

Other blacks had been arrested before Parks for refusing to give up their seats, but Nixon, Carr and the other organizers did not regard them as the right kind of victims to generate exactly the right kind of publicity they required, or to stand up to the ordeal that was certain to follow, including the very real possibility of death. On March 2 1955, fifteen-year old Claudette Colvin was arrested for refusing to give up her seat to a white person, and when she was convicted of disorderly conduct and resisting arrest, the young straight-A student burst into tears (Hare, 2005, p4). Eighteen-year old Mary Louise Smith was arrested on October 1, 1955 for refusing to give up her seat as well, but Nixon and his fellow organizers did not believe she was quite right for the campaign, either, because of her age and some issues in her background (Hare: 2005). In Rosa Parks, they found their ideal candidate: a mother, gainfully employed, regular churchgoer, mature and respectable, someone Martin Luther King could proclaim as one of the finest citizens: of Montgomery (Hare,2005,p 30). She could play the role of innocent victim of injustice very well, and be the wife and mother that a white audience could identify with, even though as a civil rights movement activist and organizer, she knew from the start that she was part of a legal test case and media campaign.

To be sure, Stephen Lawrence had never planned to become a victim in this way, but civil rights and anti-racism organizers in Britain knew that they could portray him and his family as respectable, middle class people who were really not so different from the white readership of the Daily Mail, and thus generate the type of media interest and political pressure that racist attacks and murders had almost never received in Britain beforeor since, for that matter.

Prior to 1997, the Mail had shown little interest in the Lawrence case and only the announcement of a public inquiry seemed to get its attention. On February 14, 1997, however, it ignored legal and ethical guidelines and controversially printed the names and photographs of the five white suspects, and pronounced them guilty of murder under the blazing headline If We Are Wrong Let Them Sue Us. From 1997-99 it published at least 530 stories on the murder and Macpherson investigation, which some cynics always regarded as a ploy to boost circulation or the result of Stephen Lawrences father Neville once having worked as a plasterer for Paul Dacre, the Mails editor. In an editorial on February 15, 1999, the paper explained that it had thought long and hard before publicly naming the five white men, but this was an extraordinary situation and demanded an extraordinary response (McLaughlin and Murji,2001,p 272-73). Many newspapers covered the Lawrence murder, but the Daily Mails high-profile campaignset the agenda for the terms of the public debate about whom and what was responsible for the murder. This was unusual and unexpected because never before had a racist murder been so graphically and repeatedly described and condemned by a right-wing newspaper in the United Kingdom (McLaughlin,2005,p 163).

In the Stephen Lawrence case, the standard media portrayal of blacks as lazy, criminal and violent was inverted in order to present the victim and his family as clean, drug-free hard-working, educated and middle class, while his five white killers were shown as members of the unemployed underclass, living on welfare in public housing. In this way, the media could uphold the standard narrative of race and class while making Lawrence an exception to the general rule: a good black and an innocent victim. This was not the case for the other young black man attacked with him at the same time, Duwayne Brooks, described as a sort of marginal character perhaps involved with gangs and drugs, unlike Stephen Lawrence, who aspired to become an architect and join the middle class. As for Brooks, journalists

Talcott Parsons (1902-79) was a key functionalist thinker. He suggested a special type of sociology called functionalism. He said that the function of anything is the job that it does. Functionalists see society as a social system made up of interrelated and inter-dependent institutions, such as education, work, religion, law, the family. The overall function of these institutions is to maintain social order. The nuclear family is suggested by the functionalist sociologists as the norm in modern industrial societies, and that it has a number of functions that contribute to the well-being of the society. The family is the primary agent of socialisation. It socialises new members by teaching them common norms and values. The family create consensus and order. Parsons (1995) argued that families are ‘personality factory’; they produce children who shared same norms and values and have strong sense of belonging to society.

There are criticisms of the functionalist view of the family. The idea that the family benefits all individuals has been strongly attacked, mostly by feminist sociologists, who argue that the family is only there to exploit and oppress women. They believe that the rosy harmonious family life painted by functionalist ignores social problem such as increases in divorce rate, child abuse and domestic violence. The analyses are based on middle-class and American versions of family life, and they didn’t add other influences such as ethnicity, social class, religion. They also see children as passive recipients of culture and this view under-estimates the role of children in families. In conclusion, functionalist thinking of the family suggests that biological needs support the nuclear family, even when there is no scientific evidence to support this view.

Feminism is the sociological perspective which examines society from the perspective of women. It contrasts with traditional sociology, which was dominated by men and male concerns. There are at least four types of feminists who identify different reasons for women’s unequal situation in society. They are the Marxist feminists who argued the relationship between capitalism and family, private property and the house wife role. The liberal feminist duels on the lack of equal opportunities in society. The radical feminists talk about patriarchy; this predates capitalism and present in most cultures. The difference feminists in its theory claim that certain groups of women might have unique situation that disadvantages them.

Feminists have been highly critical of the family, unlike other critics; they have tended to stress the harmful effects of family life upon women. This has led them to the development of new perspectives and highlighted new issues. They have for example, introduced the study of areas of family life such as housework and domestic violence into sociology. They have challenged the views about the inevitability of the male dominance in families and questioned the views that family life is becoming egalitarian (becoming equal). Feminists have also highlighted the economic contribution made by women domestic labour within the family. Their theory has gained the attention sociologists to see the family as an institution involving power relationship. They have challenged the image of the family life as being based on cooperation, shared interests and love. It has shown that men obtain greater benefits from families than others. Some feminists have come out to question why other feminists should condemn family life. Some have also argued that feminists should recognise the various improvements in family life for women over the past years. All feminists, however, argue that family life still disadvantages women.

The Marxist theory of the family developed from the work of Karl Marx (1818-1883). Marx believed society was made up of two important parts, the economic base or infrastructure and the superstructure, which includes the family. By economic base, Marx means the capitalist system of production and the capitalist class structure, whereas by the superstructure, Marx means the other institutions of society, the family, the education system, the mass media, the religious system, the political system and the legal system. He argued that the economic base influences the organisation of the institutions of the superstructure so that they operate to maintain the capitalist system.

Federich Engels (1884) was a close friend and colleague of Marx. He believed that early society was based on a primitive form of communism. There was no such thing as private property, wealth was communally owned, there were no rules limiting sexual behaviour and undiscriminating sexual behaviour was the norm. The society was the family. Engels believed that a monogamous nuclear family became more important as private property became more important in society. Property was owned by males and they needed to be sure of the legitimacy of their heirs (inheritors), and marriage was the best the best solution. This increased control over women or patriarchy.

The criticism against Marxism is that there is a considerable working class support for the family and it is difficult to explain this if the family is a source of working class oppression. Families have sometimes helped their members to cope with the injustices of the capitalist system. There has being active opposition to the capitalist system, although such opposition occur only in a minority of families.

According to Talcott Parsons (1950), family structure changed as society industrialised. Families in Britain have changed over the centuries. It has changed from extended family to nuclear family. The extended family was during the pre-industrial society. People needed to have lots of relatives with them to share the family’s work (such as running a farm) and to support them in sickness and old age. The big change came with the Industrial Revolution bringing in the nuclear family. The period of Industrial Revolution (1750-1850) was when modern industry based on factories developed, and people moved in large numbers from country areas to new industrial cities. Before the Industrial Revolution, it was difficult to separate home and the whole family worked together. As time changes, it was men who went to work and women just stayed home to do the cooking and cleaning.

Young and Willmott carried out studies of working-class families in London in the 1950s and 1960s. They found strong extended family networks in Bethnal Green, East London. The most important characteristic of British family today is diversity. The different types of family are the nuclear family; it is made up an adult man, adult woman and their child or children. The lone parent families are one parent, father or mother and his or her child or children. Reconstituted families are new family created after divorce through a second marriage, with stepparents and stepchildren. Co-habitation family is a name for people who live under same roof. The presence of minority ethnic groups (afro-Caribbean families and the Asian families) has also contributed to the diversity of Britain’s families.

A study by Young and Willmott (1973) found that joint role had replaced separate roles in the home with tasks and decision making now shared. But Ann Oakley (1974) criticised this view and argued that separate roles still exist in the home. Stephen Edgell (2000) found that in the middle class, women had sole responsibility for financial decisions in relatively unimportant areas such as home decorating and children clothing. The decisions on major spending were made jointly.

Evidence suggests that many women have dual burden of labour, home and work responsibilities. Sociologists Mary Boulton suggests that women have additional emotional role in the home. She called it a triple burden. Studies conducted in the 90s by sociologists showed that the role of father was changing. They are more likely to attend to the birth of their babies and play greater role in childcare than in the 60s. Burghes (1997) says fathers are now more actively involved in the emotional development of their children. The reason for this, according to Beck (1992) is that father can no longer rely on jobs to provide a sense of identity, they rely more on their children for that.

Feminist have highlighted the influence of patriarch ideology on the way both husbands and wives perceive their respective situations. Ann Oakley’s study, The Sociology of Housework (1974) involve forty housewives, six were employed outside the home. She found that middle class husbands gave more help with childcare than with housework. Oakley’s survey has been backed by subsequent surveys. The above finding contradicts the optimistic view of Young and Willmott. Their picture of symmetrical family in which husband and wife share their work was based on responses to only one question.

Functionalists see the sexual division of labour at home as biologically inevitable. Marxist feminist argue that the housewife role serves the need of capitalism. Radical feminists believe like Delphy (1984) that the first oppression is the oppression of women by men.

As a key factor, the social stratification lies at the core of sociology, which affects our life everyday. Conceptually, the social stratification is defined as: ‘A system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy.’ (Macionis & Plummer, 2008, p. 232.)

In daily community life, individuals are stratified into various hierarchies of class, age, gender, ethnicity, sexuality and etc. Some of those are divided by the nature law and others by the social law. The next few paragraph will focus on the dimension of social law and explain how the related rule of stratification, the class, works in community life. The essay will argue that class permeates in community life.

“The class stratification is a form of social stratification in which a society tends to divide into separate classes whose members have differential access to resources and power.” (Breen, Richard, and David Rottman,1995.) There is always a gap of economy and culture between different classes. Individuals are always born into their class, and then there would be flows between different level of classes through the social mobility.

The wealth would usually be the source power for the class stratification. When people who are on the same economic and cultural level appear the difference between much more wealthier or less wealthier, it begins. Following the change of time, a large number of wealth is congregated into the hand of a small number of people. When the difference between people becomes rich and poor, so that people spread out more from one another economically, the social class is set up. At that time, due to people are no longer belonging to the same economic level, the cultural gap appears. On the other hand, it is not possible for people of different class to roll back to the same start line. The lower class loses more of its influence and wealth as the upper class gains more influence and wealth, further dividing the classes from one another.

As the product of the class stratification, the social class is usually defined as economic or cultural arrangements of group in society. In the modern Western context, the social class is always stratified into three layers: upper class, middle class, and lower class. Each class may be further subdivided into smaller classes.

Stratified according to these rules, there are three levels in Australia’s social class: upper class, middle class and the working class. Mainly by the upper class who is in control, and the owners of capital. The middle class includes those people who take non-manual. Some in this class of professional doctors, accountants, engineers and so on. Mainly by working class occupations, in essence, is the manual.

When it comes to symbols, which show the class are not all adjacent to the two classes can give a clear dividing line. The upper class can wear expensive clothes, driving expensive cars and living in senior housing market.

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It’s not a money talk society. “Take clothes for example, other than money, there are other factors that influence the clothes that a person may choose to put on. For example some well-off teenagers may have clothes in line with the fashion more that those that would be said to be of their class.”(social Australia) In this rule, someone can dress in a style which rather than his class. In the same way, in middle class they may wear expensive clothes and buy fancy cars from a loan. The upper class symbols are such things as the entertainment preference, engagement in certain types of sporting activities, like golf, racing boats, GPmoto, and so on.

The social mobility, it has own definitions, features and some different types of mobility in essence ,and its a great thing to discuss the justice problem of those major types of social mobility, all of these things refers to the degree to which an individual’s or group’s status is able to change in terms of position in the social hierarchy. “On some facts, material wealth and the ability of an agent to move up the class system. Such a change may be described as “vertical mobility,” in contrast to a more general change in position” (Bertaux, Daniel & Thomson Paul , 1997)

So we can get that mobility is enabled to a varying and debatable extent by economic capital, cultural capital (such as higher education or an authoritative accent), human capital , social capital ,physical capital , and symbolic capital .compared with history, In modern nation states, policy issues such as welfare, medicine, education and public transport . In other societies religious affiliation, caste membership, or simple geography may be of central importance. The extent to which a nation is open and meritocratic is fundamental: a society in which traditional or religious caste systems dominate is unlikely to present the opportunity for social mobility.

There are some unique but common phenomenon in societies, which is slavery and its an example of low social mobility because, For the enslaved people, in fact, there is no upward mobility, and their owner, is actually illegal downward.

Social mobility is discuss upward, but it is a double sided phenomena, it has upward mobility, and may have relative downward mobility. If merit and fortune play a larger role in life chances than the luck of birth, someone may manage their social position, and someone may also move downward relative to others. This is the risk of be in power, to encourage people in power to increasingly devise and commission political, law, education, and allow them strengthen their economic mechanism. But, through control this trend, it s possible in a growing economy for there to be greater upward mobility than downward ,as has been the case in Western Europe.

Official or legally recognized class designations do not exist in modern western democracies and it is considered possible for individuals to move from poverty to wealth or political prominence within one generation. Despite this formal opportunity for social mobility, recent research suggests that Britain and particularly the United States have less social mobility than the Nordic countries and Canada. These authors state that “the idea of the US as ‘the land of opportunity’ persists; and clearly seems misplaced.”( Jo Blanden; Paul Gregg and Stephen Machin (April 2005). “Intergenerational Mobility in Europe and North America” (PDF). The Sutton Trust.)( Matthew Taylor (25 April 2005). “UK low in social mobility league, says charity”. London: The Guardian.)( Obstacles to social mobility weaken equal opportunities and economic growth, says OECD study, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Economics Department, 10/02/2010.)

Not only in countries of different types of social mobility, it can also change over time. Comparison of the United States the United Kingdom, existing between the two countries in different historical periods have different degree of social mobility. In the long run, from the mid-19th century, the United States with low inequality and social mobility is very high. In the 19th century, the United States has far higher than the social mobility in Britain, as in ordinary schools movement and open public school system, the greater the agricultural sector, and high geographic mobility of the U.S.. However, in the 20th and 21st century, half of the social dynamics between the two countries the differences have narrowed, because there are two countries, growing social inequality, especially in the United States. In other words, the individual’s family background, social status is more than today’s forecast is 1850.

In this long river, it takes several centuries in social mobility and across types of countries, it can also continue for a long time. Comparing the United States to the United Kingdom, “This progress persist over two countries during different historical periods. In the United States in the mid-19th century inequality was low and social mobility was high. In the late 19th century, the U.S. had much higher social mobility than in the UK, due to the common school movement and open public school system, a larger farming sector, as well as higher geographic mobility in the United States”(new world encyclopedia)

The most typical examples in American upward mobility include Abraham Lincoln and Bill Clinton, who were born into working-class families yet achieved high political office in adult life, and Andrew Carnegie, was a poor immigrants when he first arrived in America, then became a steel magnate. Examples from other countries include Ramsay MacDonald was a farm worker and baby sitter became the UK’s first prime minister. Joseph Cook, was a miner when he was nine and became Australian prime minister.

To sum up, the inequity, especially in wealth area, give the birth to the social class. Under the social stratification, the social mobility makes the community life changeable. Leading upward or downward social mobility effectively is the key for the stability of the community life.

Written in 1847 by Karl Marx, the German philosopher, political economist and communist revolutionary, Wage Labour and Capital is an in-depth text centered around the idea that labour power is sold to capitalists. The book was republished by Engels in 1891 as he believed specific changes needed to be made, “specifically the distinction between ‘labour’ and ‘labour power’” (1). Marx who was “born in Trier Germany in 1818” (2), had a significant impact in developing ideas based around communism and socialism and published these ideas in various works. This specific piece focuses primarily on how a particular economy (capitalist) works, how those in a capitalist economy are exploited and ultimately how the relationship between capital and labour is “dialectically self-destructive” (Marx-Engels, pg. 203). In this essay, I will discuss exactly what Marx is trying to explain to us with regard to wage labour and capital, as well as demonstrate why he believes the capital system is flawed. Furthermore, I will provide my own personal view on the subject by explaining which ideas of Marx I agree and perhaps disagree with.

Marx immediately jumps into the discussion of wage labour by posing two basic questions, “What are wages?” and “How are they determined?” (Marx-Engels, pg 204). According to Marx, any worker(s) in a capitalist economy are ultimately selling their labour power to the capitalist for a specific sum of money. Marx uses the example of weaving a yard of linen or type-setting a printed sheet. The capitalist is in theory buying the labour power with money, while workers are selling labour power for money. It is clear, however, that the money that is given to the worker(s) by the capitalist could have been spent on any other available commodity, thus the labour power a worker offers is equivalent to any other commodity. As Marx explains in his example, “the two marks, with which he bought two pounds of sugar, are the price of the two pounds of sugar. The two marks, with which he bought twelve hours’ use of labour power, are the price of twelve hours’ of labour” (Marx-Engels, pg 204). In other words, “the workers’ labour power has been exchanged for an amount of commodities measured by money” (1). Why is labour power sold by the worker(s) to the capitalist? It is simple, to be able to live! What Marx explains is the fact that the labour which workers engage in is basically the way in which they live their life. Thus, “his life-activity is for him only a means to enable him to exist” (Marx-Engels, pg 204). A worker must sell this labour in order to be able to live. Their work is what lets them live. The worker also does not “reckon labor as a part of his life, it is rather a sacrifice of his life” (Marx-Engels, pg 204). It is evident that Marx is trying to expose the fact that labour was not always wage labour, and that a “slave did not sell his labour power to a slave owner” ((Marx-Engels, pg 205). The concept of wage labour is the result of capitalism, where workers are free to choose whether or not they want to sell this ‘labour power’ they posses to any willing capitalists who might be interested in buying. Likewise, capitalists have the free choice to ‘fire’ workers when they believe profits are not being made. When one worker is worn out he can be replaced by another. I found this section extremely intriguing as Marx exposed me to new ideas that I had never considered prior to reading this piece. At first it was hard to comprehend, but I soon understood what he was trying to say. Originally, when I thought of someone working, that’s all it was to me, someone working. Now, however, I see the relationship between labour power and capital. I can see how Marx tries to show us that man is in essence capital and that the labour workers provide is essentially a commodity like all others. The goal of capitalists is to make the most profit possible while maintaining the lowest costs of production. They don’t care about the workers, because they mean nothing. It is easy to mistake the fact that we think we need the capitalist when in reality, we are the ones who possess the skill and labour power, so ultimately it is he/she who needs us. Though it was somewhat challenging, I felt that Marx made this section extremely rewarding when understood.

In the proceeding section Marx goes into further depth with regard to capital. He explains that it consists of “raw materials, instruments of labour and means of subsistence of all kinds, which are utilized in order to produce new raw materials, new instruments of labour and new means of subsistence”. However, these components are merely “creations of labour, product of labour, [and] accumulated labour. Accumulated labour which serves as a means of new production is capital” (Marx-Engels, pg 207). Additionally, we learn that during production, men must interact between one another, exchanging their activities in order to produce something. Only once a “definite connection and relation” (Marx-Engels pg 207) has been established can their action of production actually occur. We also learn that these social relations which are created between men constantly change over time with new innovations and developments to means of production. It is as if all components are intertwined, whereby social relations of production make up the “social relations, society, and, specifically a society at definitive stage of historical development” (Marx-Engels, pg 207). Therefore, any society at any specific point in time is displaying the stage of development by mankind. For example, the bourgeois society is responsible for the production relation that is capital. But what exactly is capital? Capital in itself must be the sum of all material products, commodities, exchange values, or social magnitudes. So what exactly is happening when this capital grows? In other words, capital thrives solely on exchanging itself with wage labour. When capital goes up so does wage labour, and more wage workers are required, resulting in the capitalist to gaining more power over the worker(s).Growth of productive capital, therefore, means that the capitalists is gaining more power over the workers. Marx then goes on to question what will occur to wages when there is a growth of production capital. What he tells us here is that when productive capital increases, so does the accumulation of labour. As a result the number of capitals in enabled to increase creating more competition amongst them. This increased competition creates tension amongst to capitalists where one wants to ‘be better’ then the other. One thing that’s clear is when the power of labour armies’ increases, the capitalists has the ability to try and ‘ruin’ his competitors. How can he do this? It’s obvious, sell cheaper than your competitors. You must however find the balance where you can sell cheap enough without harming yourself, and Marx says this can be done by boosting the productive power of labour. Marx also makes it evident that by improving machinery one can create greater division of labour, which would result in increase productive power of labour. This is because there is more division amongst a larger labour force and more improved machinery, which causes the cost of production for the capitalist to decrease. Thus, as Marx points out, “a general rivalry arises among the capitalist to increase the division of labour and machinery and to exploit them on the greatest scale possible” (Marx-Engels, pg 212). The question is what will happen according to Marx if this continues? We can conclude by saying that if capital continues to grow, then the competition between the worker(s) will also grow. However, the growth in competition experienced by the working class will be even larger than the rate of growth experienced by capital. After reading the next few sections, I soon realized that they were even more challenging and testing than the previous ones. Marx goes into such depth with regard to the relations between labour power and capital as well as all the components that make up capital. After reading it several times I soon understood how production was ultimately the relations built between men, whereby men had to come to terms by cooperating with one another in a “certain way and mutually exchanging their activities” (Marx’s-Engels, pg 207). Marx makes it clear that the capitalist goal is to try and increase their productive power as much as possible at whatever cost possible and figure they can do this by lowering all costs of production. This is something experienced every day. Company’s attempting to gain market power by improving machinery to lower costs of production, so that they can sell what is being produced at the lowest possible price. It is also clear that workers have to compete with one another more and more. The capitalist doesn’t care about the worker at all. We can see how Marx tries to explain how the capitalists are solely concerned with extending markets, but in doing so are contracting the world market as “fewer and fewer new markets remain available for exploitation” (Marx-Engels, pg 217). As a result he feels the whole system will come down and cave in on itself.

To conclude, I felt this piece on wage labour and capital was extremely insightful. I was able to penetrate into the mind of Karl Marx and uncover his personal views on the capitalistic economy and the way in which he feels it is flawed. As he is a strong believer in the communistic ways, it is clear Marx is determined to expose why we mustn’t follow the ways of other economies. Though I felt the work was somewhat demanding to understand, after reading it several times I slowly began to make the connections to what he was trying to say. Personally, I enjoyed learning how a strict communist views capitalism and why he thinks it’s a bad system.

“Social exclusion is a complex problem that requires a multi-faceted solution” Exclusion is a word that is used in everyday life and within the educational world of geography. An example of exclusion is – a situation in which someone is deliberately prevented from being involved in an activity or from entering a place’ (www.macmillandictionary.com). ‘Exclusion’ is strongly associated to stigma, this is because stigma refers to the way in which certain groups or individuals may become detached and differentiate from mainstream society and follow the deviant sub-culture. However we can question how you define ‘deviant’, it is a highly contested term as what we consider unacceptable or inappropriate behavior may be perfectly normal and tolerable in other parts of the world. Stigma is a social process which over time leads to disapproval of a group or individual, who are recognized as having negative qualities which go against cultural norms.

According to Giddens (1998: 104): ‘Exclusion is not about graduations of inequality, but about the mechanisms that detach people from the social mainstream.’

Burchardt et al. (1999) also accentuates the relational and normative features of the concept: ‘An individual is socially excluded if a) he or she is geographically resident in a society and b) he or she does not participate in the normal activities of citizens in that society.’ Nevertheless, this explanation does not make apparent the geographical scale of ‘society’. We can question whether it refers to a city-region, a nation state or smaller area?

‘Social exclusion’ puts forward and brings to attention a concern with material inequality such as education, housing, healthcare and employment. One sociological definition of social exclusion is as follows: Social exclusion is a multidimensional process of progressive social rupture, detaching groups and individuals from social relations and institutions and preventing them from full participation in the normal, normatively prescribed activities of the society in which they live. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_exclusion)

Whilst addressing the numerous different problems and causes of exclusion, we understand that social exclusion is a multi-dimensional complexity to overcome. However, unemployment still stands out as a major factor. It may be the root cause to explain social exclusion. This can be said as paid work is the primary source of income for families and without work, they may feel worthless and have no goals to achieve or work towards. (Foley 1999) ‘Social exclusion is not only about shortage of money, it is about rights and relationships; and about how people are treated and how they regard themselves; about powerlessness, exclusion and loss of dignity. Yet the lack of adequate income is at its heart’.

Social networks are also limited as many people’s lives revolve around work and being secluded and cut-off from work can heavily impact on a person’s pride, identity and self-worth, thus making the person depressed and wanting to stray from society. This can cause extreme tension and anxiety physically, socially and mentally, as it is a vicious circle of low mood and self-esteem which can day by day result in the person becoming isolated from mainstream society.

Monetary income generally comes from working; as a result people who are not employed become vulnerable to poverty and homelessness. Without an income, material possessions decrease therefore a person’s standard of living is also affected and they may consequently suffer material and cultural deprivation.

To tackle the issue of unemployment as one of the principal factors of social exclusion, policies and laws need to be looked at in the labour market. By making the unemployed group of people more attractive to employers – e.g. more “employable” Another solution may be to encourage employers to be more inclusive in their employment policies and selection processes.

Gender can also have a negative influence on social exclusion as when looking at city planning through a sociological view; the outcome is that being a female can restrict you from obtaining positions of power in the hierarchy of work and society. This is also known as the glass ceiling. This term describes discrimination that women and minorities often experience when trying to advance into an organization’s senior management levels. The glass ceiling approach can also be elaborated and come to describe the limited advancement of the deaf, blind and disabled. David R. Hekman et al. (2009) findings showed that customers favor white male employees more than equally-well performing women and minority groups, meaning males earn an average 25 percent more overall.

A customer’s preference for white males can clarify why white men hold the most prestigious, most powerful, and highly paid jobs in the occupational structure. This is referred to as occupational segregation which can increase social exclusion, as it is an example where male domination occurs and sexism can be seen. Men tend to be highly concentrated in the top professions, and dominate jobs such as supervisors, managers, executives, and production operators. Conversely, women tend to be over-represented in the lowest paid occupations, such as secretaries, sales associates, teachers, nurses, and child care providers. As a result a negative stereotypical stigma is attached, and occupations become “sex typed” as either being specifically male or female jobs.

This segregation of women into less-prestigious and lower-ranked jobs decreases a woman’s chance of being promoted and excludes them from having any type of managerial power over others. Moreover, occupational segregation reduces women’s access to benefits, insurance, and pensions.

The role of transport in contributing to social exclusion is the availability of (or access to) transport and transport services can act as a facilitator or barrier to participation. The inability to access certain services, opportunities, goods or networks because of inadequate transport of restricted personal mobility is a main cause of social exclusion. Kenyon et al (2002) defines mobility-related exclusion as: ‘The process by which people are prevented from participating in the economic, political and social life of the Community because of reduced accessibility to opportunities, services and social networks, due in whole or in part to insufficient mobility in a society and environment built around the assumption of high mobility.’ The definition implies there is a co-relational link between transport and social exclusion, as it is a cause as well as a consequence. Thus, those with insufficient mobility are more limited in their ability to participate, leading to an inequality of opportunity.

Exclusion in one area can significantly impact another area and this can be further looked into and argued. An example of this can be seen when discrimination against ethnic groups and young people takes place which leaves them more vulnerable to economic exclusion, as they may suffer from degraded housing conditions where job opportunities are low and unattainable. Analysis of Department for Children, Schools and Families data quoted in a report on vulnerable groups for the National Foundation for Educational Research has shown: Young people living in poorer areas appear to have lower levels of attainment at key stage 5 and at other key stages than those living in more affluent areas. Further evidence to support this comes from the Youth Justice Board (YJB) Accommodation study states’ Young people living in disorganized inner-city areas, which have a prevalence of physical deterioration, overcrowded households, high residential mobility, and social housing are at higher risk of becoming involved in offending as well as homelessness’.

Conclusion

To remove one form of exclusion, the primary cause of exclusion has to be tackled in order to solve the predicament, hence why a multi-faceted approach needs to be taken into consideration. A strategy to overcome social exclusion requires looking at social inclusion. Social inclusion entails affirmative action to change the circumstances that lead to (or have led to) social exclusion.

It can be argued that just providing decent housing would eliminate most of the problems of social exclusion however this solution will not work because a simple one dimensional approach is not enough to challenge all the complexities of social exclusion.

Three goals need to be achieved:

Preventing- reducing number of people who have suffered from bad experiences which may make them susceptible to becoming socially excluded and take action to compensate if they have.

Reintegrating – those who have strayed from society, by providing them with services and infrastructure to get back into work and education, and giving everyone the same opportunities to succeed.

Basic service standards to everyone – by delivering basic minimum standards- in health, housing, education, jobs, wages so that they are more inclusive.

Consequently, to combat social exclusion from top to bottom governments need to find a way of preventing social exclusion occurring in the foremost stage. As earlier stated various methods need to be put in place and affirmative action is required such as, empowering individuals, and communities to help themselves. Governments and councils need to get involved and bring about agendas to change rules and regulations, and new laws need to be laid down and changes in attitudes brought about. This should then be passed down to local communities who can then work their way up and slowly eliminate each problem at a time, thus reducing social exclusion.

The issues of gender discrimination in Saudi Arabia seriously need to be alert to every woman out there. Public need to understand how vulnerable these Saudi Arabia women been living throughout their whole life and the misery they went through. There is no freedom for them. This happens because of the extremely conservation of religious culture. They are not just being retracted by the Islam law, also by the social norms and tradition.

SECTION II – THE ISSUES AND WHO ARE INVOVLED

I have chosen to focus on prejudice and discrimination against women in Saudi Arabia and comparing it with Singapore. The reason why I have chosen this is because I realized in Saudi Arabia, women have a pitiful life. They have been categorized by men for over many decades. Men are being more prioritized over women in their country in terms of gender, education, society which I will be covering in this topic. There is no freedom of speech. Their life is being controlled by men. Hence there is a need to bring up this issue to everyone so that the discriminated gender in Saudi Arabia can be reduced and the women’s quality of life can be improved.

Women in Saudi Arabia are normally seen wearing dull colours veil, head covering and a full black cloak. They must cover the parts of their body except the eyes. The clothing must be thick and loose-fitting which will not interest male. The reason of dressing so is because no seduction is allowed to men.

According to Saudi culture, “women’s employment place is at home whereas man’s is at the workplace.” Women are not allowed to neglect their responsibilities of house chores.

A new report released by Human Right Watch (HRW), it state that “Requirements that each female, regardless of age, be assigned a male guardian – be it a father, a husband, or even a son – who must give permission for their charges to do everything from travel abroad or locally to study, seek medical care, work and marry effectively deprives women of their most basic rights and makes their participation in public life far more difficult.” (Jim Lobe, 2008 Apr 21) Also in the same article, “One 40-year-old Saudi woman, who was divorced from her husband and whose father had died, who had to seek permission from her 23-year-old son to travel outside the kingdom” (Jim Lobe, 2008, Apr 21) This is an extremely absurd information for any Singaporean women to believe if this act was to be implemented in Singapore. In normal situation in Singapore, it is usually the children be it of gender have to seek permission from parents to leave a country. However in Saudi Arabia, they are being based on gender where men have all the authority over women. And in most cases, women are needed to be accompanied by a man on streets.

It is extremely common to see women driving on the road in Singapore. Unlike Saudi Arabia, women are allowed to own a car but they are not given the rights to drive. “Women can still own cars in Saudi Arabia, but they are banned from driving them.” (Associated Press, July 5 2010) They are the only county that does not allow women to drive. In addition to such extend, Saudi Arabia women actually threaten to breastfeed their male colleagues or men that they often come in contact with. The reason why they will do so is because they think that by breastfeeding the men, it will create a symbolic maternal relation. Within the same article, it also stated that “if the women give their drivers their breast milk, the chauffeurs would be able to mingle with all members of the family without having to worry about violating Islamic law.” In both scenarios, women are at disadvantage because despite of breastfeeding those strangers, they are still not allowed to drive. But if they do so, it also means giving the chance for those strangers to associate with their family members without fears breaking the Islamic law.

SECTION III – WHY IS IT IMPORTENT FOR US TO TALK ABOUT IT?

Women are often being seen as more inferior as compared to men in Saudi Arabia, especially where the lack of education further verifies this. Majority of the women are not allowed to attend school just because of gender. It affects the society as it does not give a good impression to other countries.

Women in Saudi Arabia do not have any say in almost everything even basic human rights like receiving medical care or working. As stated in the first example, they must seek permission from their male guardian before doing so. They are also being forbidden from participating in political issues such as election.

Giving men the authority over women could means a higher danger for them. An article stated that “The power given to male guardians actually contributes to women’s risk of abuse and family violence, according to the report. Even when guardians are found to be abusive against their charges, social workers, doctors, and lawyers who work on such cases told HRW that it was almost impossible for their guardianship to be dissolved or transferred.” (Jim Lobe, 2008 Apr 21) As women are considered the substandard ones in the society, majority of them are not literate. The only jobs that are suitable for them are those that do not required any skills as such being a domestic worker. In the same article, it also added that “Many migrant domestic workers, mostly women, were kept in highly abusive conditions, being made to work up to 18 hours every day, in some cases for little or no pay. Domestic workers have no protection under Saudi Arabian labour law and have little possibility in practice of obtaining redress against abusive or exploitative employers. The government said that a law against domestic violence was being drafted.” (Amnesty International, 2009) In most situations, women can only bear with all the misery and feel so helpless regarding it.

The rate of discrimination in Saudi Arabia is extremely high and need to be brought up to everyone. Women are not given a fair chance when it comes to employment. ‘Women remained subordinate to men under family law, were denied equal employment opportunities with men, remained banned from driving vehicles or travelling alone’ (Amnesty International, 2009)

Women tried to protest against the discrimination act that men put on them, however the way they protest has limited effect. Such as the incident of being banned from driving, women protest it by threatening to breastfeed the men. This behavior will never happen in Singapore because it is never practiced in here. One woman who was being interview by the Gulf News said “Is this all that is left to us to do: to give our breasts to the foreign drivers?” She commented this because she understand even such threaten will only put women at disadvantage.

SECTION IV – WHERE CAN WE START TO FIX PROBLEM?

I believe equal rights exist for everyone regardless of age, gender.

This inequality treatment women received is the society is causing women to protest.

Although the International committee such as United Nation (UN) has already stepped into Saudi Arabia to help those women, nevertheless there is still much limitation they can do. “There isn’t much that can be done by outsiders as it’s my belief that sustainable change is only change that happens from within.” (Eman Fahad Al Nafjan, 2010, September 9)

In 2001, the UN has a Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). Its purpose was to ask Saudi Arabia to take action to end discrimination against women in all forms. The convention oblige Saudi Arabia “to pursue by all appropriate means and without delay a policy of eliminating discrimination against women,” including “any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.” (Human Rights Watch, 2009 July 8) However, this convection has little effect.

“The Saudi government sacrifices basic human rights to maintain male control over women. Saudi women won’t make any progress until the government ends the abuses that stem from these misguided policies.” (Jim Lobe, 2008 Apr 21) To end the misery of women, firstly the government have to start their part. The Islam law is the biggest factor causing the restrictions for women in the country. Men should stop being chauvinistic and mentality that they are superior, where women should be stay home, this mindset needs to be highlighted.

Various actions done by the Amnesty International USA of helping these vulnerable women in Saudi Arabia was to create awareness to people all over the world about how are they being treated. They even urge readers to send in appeals to the Head of Election Committee and the Ministry of Interior to help these women. “Write to the Head of the Election Committee and the Minister of Interior, calling for women in Saudi Arabia to be given their basic fundamental right to universal suffrage without delay.” (Amnesty International USA, 2004 November)