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Social stratification is a sociological phenomenon in which people in the society are placed in different ranks with reference to same economic conditions. Normally, there are those of a high standard and others of a low standard. Social stratification borrows classification from earth sciences and thus it refers to its classes as strata. The difference in economic characteristics of persons leads to domination of power by one group to another. Social Stratification is characterized by four core principles namely;

Social stratification has been said to be transferable from generation to another. Every generation adopts the classifications that had been set by a generation that proceeded.

Social stratification is a societal characteristic and not an individual view. The society forms a uniform way of grading persons ‘which is not a sole person’s objective’.

Social stratification is said to be universal and also variable. Though this statement seems contradictory, it means that classification is uniform in a certain society but will vary when compared with other societies.

Lastly, social stratification is not all about equality of persons, but also the beliefs that they hold. This means that social classes in the society are also based on common beliefs.

The classification of the society into various ranks brings about inequality. In the western communities, social stratification adopts three key; the upper, middle and lower class. It is due to these classes that inequality is developed. Those of upper class view themselves as superior and having more prestige compared to their counterparts in lower ranks. Therefore, sharing of common resources in the society is based on the stratification ranks. Inequality is a social evil that emanates from social stratification (Bottero 3-8).

Origins of the Social Stratification Theory

The above theory is said to have emanated from the Judaeo-Christian Bible ‘which presents’ the social idea of the Greeks. Though the idea was not extremely straightforward at the beginning, it has gone through various transformations to the present day where it presents itself clearly.

The Sociological View of Social Stratification and Inequality

Various sociologists have had different views and interpretations on social stratification. For instance, Talcott Parsons who was an American sociologist emphasized that stability of social stratus is partly influenced by universal values. On a different note, Marxism identifies unequal distribution of resources and limited mobility to be factors of stratified societies.

However, numerous sociologists have had a uniform view with reference to the fact that the wealthy ‘in the society’ control the political power. In such a case, the poor ought to submit to orders from the rich. Several sociologists had diverse views on the origin and form of the social stratification theory. Below are some of these sociologists and various discussions regarding each one of them.

Karl Marx

In his theory of Marxism, Karl asserted that social stratification in the society is based on the way people are related to the factors of production. In such, there exist two different categories of persons; those that own the factors of production and those who labor for the owner of the factors of production. The classification by Karl Marx seems to be inadequate especially in the current view of economics. This is because there exist various aspects of the present economy that have been left unsolved by the Marxism theory. For instance; it does not provide accurate categorization as to productive, occupational and economic aspects of society.

Modern scholars of economics have said that the issue of social stratifications requires in depth classifications other than the generalized one provided for by the Marxism theory. In fact, theories behind social stratification need to draw a clear cut between the economic aspects of skilled and unskilled labor, owning and managing a business and also between business and professional occupational roles.

Secondly, the Marxism theory appears to be so generalized to the extent that it overlooks various vital social-structural phenomena that are of a great influence in the society. These include ethnic affiliations, kinship and lineage affiliations. Modern sociologists have ‘however’ not ignored these crucial aspects the way Marx did. Thirdly, the theory of Marx on social stratification seems to be so limited in defining the role of cultural factors in social classification. Cultural factors include legal practices, religious norms and scientific ideas among others. It is crucial to note that science has played a key role in maintaining social classes. In summary, Marx defined the relationship between people and property as the key aspect behind social stratification (Jackson chapter 2).

Max Weber

Weber was thrilled by the propositions of his predecessor, Marx, and hence he thought of making corrections to Marx’s theory. Weber designed a model based on status, class and a more explicit and systematic differentiation with reference to social stratification. Unlike Marx who identified property to be the sole determining factor in social stratification, Weber identified status and class as additional factors. Weber built an interconnected model that would define the relationship between these three factors. Any one of factors can affect the other two, and in any case any of these factors can be replaced with another. In his model, Weber also did not cover several key influencing factors like education, ethnic and kinship factors.

Below are the definitions that Weber gave to his three factors of influence;

He defined class as an individual’s economic position in the society with reference to birth and their personal achievement. Secondly, he defined status as the position occupied by an individual in the society as a result of their social honor, popularity and prestige. Weber also defined power as the ability of an individual to progress despite various factors offering resistance in the society (Rossides, 186).

Wright Mills

Wright sought to advance Weber’s thoughts on social stratification with no discrimination whatsoever. Similar to Weber, he identified power to be economic oriented but ‘in addition to be influenced by’ political and military domains. Through his famous book titled ‘The Power Elite’, Mills brings out a clear connection between political power and social status in the society. He asserted that the very power embodied persons occupy a certain class in the society. In order to keep themselves relevant in the society, the power elite tend to develop close ties in ideas, work and marital issues. To him, the power elite are clearly defined in education institutions whereby the persons of the high status group attend prominent schools thus preparing them for high class tertiary schools.

Conceptual Model to Social Stratification

A conceptual model for the current nature of social stratification ought to be multidimensional. It should have considerable measurement techniques and be flexible to accommodate various ideological biases. There appears to be two factors that have led to the resistance of such a conceptual model. These are ideological and methodological oriented. Looking at ideological issues, we find sociologists who still hold on to the traditional ways of classifying people. They want to maintain definitions that are straightforward, clear and self explanatory. However, straightforward definitions have proved to be incompetent in the current nature of society that presents changing and complex situations.

With reference to methodology aspects, scientists have had fear of exploring a multidimensional concept because they fear the complex resources and methods that could be involved. The more differentiated a model is the more involving it will be in terms of equipments needed to analyze and the processes that will be involved. Researchers have committed themselves in exploring models that are multidimensional ‘however’ significant success has not been realized. Studies by the Hindu caste society show that a multidimensional model is necessary.

Various dimensions of stratification are closely related to one another, but this does not mean that they are not exclusively autonomous. For instance, such dimensions as power, prestige, income and education are in a way related to one another. However, in some cases, it can be noted that power is independent of the other factors. In fact, in certain circumstances, power may be attained irrespective of occupational prestige. Again, a certain level of education grounds may not be strong enough if not accompanied by money. The key role of a multidimensional model is to address issues of interdependence and independence of social stratification factors.

Key Dimensions of Social Stratification

Power

As defined earlier in this paper and with reference to Karl Marx, power refers to the ability to pursue goals despite resisting factors. Power will be addressed with reference to size and various natures of societies. The degree of division of labor in the society is related to the way typical social classes will be formed. Power exists in two diverse forms; legitimate and illegitimate and hence there cannot be established a direct relation between power and social stratification.

Occupational Prestige

The various productive roles in the society are accorded different level of prestige. It has been evident that though societies may be different, there will always exist a similarity in the way they accord prestige to various occupations. For instance; some professions like law, medicine and pilot, are given a high level of prestige because they are associated with good amounts of money. The variability of the way occupations are valued is dependent on the way the society values those occupations. Therefore, it is vital to note that prestige accorded to various occupations will differ with reference to the values of the societal setting.

Income/Wealth

Wealth plays an extremely significant role in social stratification. Whether earned or inherited, wealth will impact the class that a person will occupy in the society. Various profession and business roles in the society offer diverse opportunities in accumulating wealth. Sometimes, the so high ranked roles have proven to accumulate low wealth when compared to low prestige roles. Looking at the example of a professional doctor who uses intellect and professionalism to accumulate his wealth yet he may not gather a lot like a bandit. The latter can accumulate in one night, money equal to that a professional doctor earns in an entire month. ‘When money is used as the determining factor in social stratification,’ business and professional roles lack relevance.

Social stratification on the basis of income influences to a significant extent other dimensions of societal classification. For instance; the level of education gained by a person may be determined by the relative amount of income they have. Disposable income has also not been left out in studying how it influences social stratification.

Family and Ethnicity

The status of kinship groups and family lineage plays a vital role in determining the social classes in the society. Not once and not twice have persons being seen as wealthy and hence prestigious because their fore fathers were wealthy. The role played by a family in the society in terms of monetary contribution and influence holds a significant support as to why it holds a certain class in the society. The class occupied by a certain family in the society determines the social class it occupies and hence the treatment they will be accorded by the entire society. Family and ethnic position do not ‘however’ hold a one to one relationship in far as social stratification is concerned.

Local Community Status

Individuals and families do not live in isolations or islands ‘in the society’. Their day to day activities are influenced by norms set by the nature of the community. Families and individuals by extension are given placed under certain social classes due to the way the society operates. The position of the local community in the society is determined by the nature of influence it has on the entire community (Andersen 216-220).

Modern Stratification Systems

In the contemporary world, there exists three key systems of stratification which are; slavery, the caste system and the class system. Despite various laws disregarding slavery, many people in the world today live in conditions that can be classified as slavery.

Slavery

Slavery is still eminent in nations such as Ghana, Benin and Mauritania among others. Also, Asia has been mentioned numerously for prevalent cases in sex slavery.

Caste System

The above is a social system that is based on characteristics and traits those persons posses by virtue of their birth. These traits include body type, race, gender and age among others. The caste system is said to be a rigid one. This means that it assigns various unchangeable castes to persons which cannot be varied. However, persons have in various situations tried to change their ascribed statuses by lying about their age, changing nationality or performing plastic surgery, but not at all times do these attempts yield positive results.

Class System

Class system classifies individuals in reference to statuses earned and not those individuals were born with. Persons born in a certain social class can choose their careers, education level and spouses. The class system is characterized by social mobility nature. Social mobility refers to the act of moving either up or down the various social strata (Levine)

Conclusion

Every society has various classes that are assumed by members of the society based on various factors. Common held belief in the society model the way a society sets up these classes. Most common factors that determine classification are education and knowledge, power, prestige, and religion among other factors. Sociologists have formed various theories to address the determining factors of social stratification though no one theory seems to have provided comprehensive coverage. Every society exhibits unique factors and believes, but there exists a close relationship between the way these diverse factors influence social stratification.

The self-concept involves how we think about and evaluate ourselves. In psychology self means the collection of cognitively held beliefs that a person possesses about themselves. However it is also seen that the “self” is an important tool with the help of which human beings make their mark in the society and manage themselves to satisfy and fulfil their needs. Traditionally the concept of “self” was seen as a tool which only represented the stable, genetically determined character or which later came to be called as “personality”. Though recently it was found that “self” keeps on evolving throughout the lifetime of person. With more developments in science and research it has been found that “self” is seen as dynamic and changeable, hierarchical, situationally and cognitively influenced and culturally constructed.

In marketing field it is seen that every customer has a unique image of himself/herself. These self-images or perceptions of self have close relationship with personality, customers tend to buy those products and services whose images or personalities they can relate in a meaningful manner. The purpose of self is to gain social acceptance and play social roles, the society creates and defines roles, and the individual seeks and adopts them. For example farmer, soldier, businessman etc. are all various roles in a society pursued by individuals. Aristotle the Greek philosopher said “man is by nature a social animal, an individual who is unsocial naturally and not accidentally is either beneath our notice or more than human. Society is something that precedes the individual”. This is where the social self comes into picture. In social self a significant portion of “self” and its “behaviour” are socially directed and influenced. The social self and socialization comprise of an intrinsic bond which is inseparable when it comes to identity formation. Socialization is imminent and inevitable consequence of human existence in society, the reason why an individual receives inclusion into society is to produce social and cultural continuity. Thus it is seen socialization plays a vital role in the prevalence of a culture and without adequate forms of socialization, culture may cease to exist. An individual’s life depends on other individuals, human infants are born unable to care for themselves. Their survival depends on another individual’s efforts. Thus the relation with individuals is the key not only to survive but also to fulfil needs, desires, attain success and reach highest potential.

Sociology and marketing are closely interrelated. Marketing involves creating the value for people, making it accessible, retaining old customers and attracting new ones. It is hard to create and spread it without understanding human relations and behaviour of consumers. Once marketers understand how consumers think, what makes them tick, why do they choose specific products and services compared to other ones then they will be able to pitch their product/service in more efficient and visible manner. This in turn will be beneficial for the company as well, as with increase in sales profit will rise and eventually more and more consumers will begin to buy products/services. So sociology and marketing do not involve focus groups or media, they involve real life observations and digging into human nature and nature of interactions. Social media and the digital technology are just enhancers of social behaviour. Human beings just keep interacting and express themselves and their opinions, in the current scenario which is powered by technology that makes it wider and allows them to reach more people. The motivations remain the same as before social media – belonging and conviviality, to mention two most relevant drivers.

Development of concept of self has two aspects:-

The existential self – this is the most basic part of self-concept, sense of being separate and distinct from others and the awareness of the constancy of self. According to psychoanalysts the existential self begins as young as two to three old and rises in part due to relation the child has with the world. For example when the child smiles and someone smiles back.

The categorical self – the self can be put in categories such as age, gender, size or skill. In early childhood the categories children apply to themselves are very concrete. Later, self-description also begins to include reference to internal psychological traits, comparative evaluations and to how others see them.

Social Self and Self Image:-

The social self is simply any idea, or system of ideas, drawn from the social life that the mind cherishes as its own. The social self involves how the society perceives the individual, and the ideal social self involves how the individual would like the society to perceive him/her. In a society individuals are unique and different from one another however their “self” is thoroughly socially constructed. The social self can include ethnicity, gender, age, and place of residence or any other categorization that helps characterize a person’s identity. There are two types of socialization: primary and secondary. Primary socialization involves the beginning stages of accepting social ideologies like for example a child’s embrace into cultural practices and norms. Secondary type of socialization manifests on primary and becomes the true test of identification and the social self. The social self exists within the parameters of subjective reality, but selfhood is a part of larger objective reality that is intrinsically connected with socialization. Without socialization the social self and identity would not exist. Social self is on-going process combining the “I” and the “me”. In this on-going process social self is influenced by four factors:-

The “I” – the unpredictable and unorganised self.

“Me” – the image of the social self seen through other people’s reactions.

The generalized other – organized set of information about the general expectations and attitudes of a social group.

Significant others – a person or persons who have great influence on one’s behaviour and self-esteem.

The social self maintains complete cohesion based on its societal influences, the generalized other and primary socialization respectively. A number of theories explain how people become socialized and develop a sense of self. The looking-glass self refers to the interactive process by which we develop an image based on how the individual imagines he/she appears to others. Other people act as a mirror, reflecting back the image we project through their reactions to our behaviour. Seeing oneself as how others perceive is only the beginning. Eventually one sees how others see us, but also takes on or pretends to take the roles of others. This act of role-taking forms the basis of the socialization process by allowing us to anticipate what others expect of us.

The figure on next page (fig-1) shows the hierarchy of social self and the various components that govern social self.

Fig-1

Throughout history individuals have been thought to have a single self-image and to be interested as consumers, in products and services that satisfy that single self. When consumer behaviour is taken into consideration, the idea of individual embodying a number of different selves suggests that marketers should target their products and services to consumers within the context of a particular self. Every individual has a certain image of himself or herself with certain traits, skills, habits, possessions, relationships, and ways of behaving. Individuals develop their self-images through interactions with people, initially their parents and then other individuals or groups with whom they relate over the years.

It is the image people create of themselves that is the psycho-cultural basis of their strengths and weaknesses, triumphs and failures. For a nation’s self-image tends to be self-fulfilling. If individual thinks that he/she will be defeated, then he/she has already lost the cause. If one thinks he or she is inferior, then one will tend to lower standards and will be satisfied. Negative self-images, whether individual or collective, can cause untold social and cultural damage. Human beings have nothing to lose by creating and working for the most exalted and inspiring images of themselves, because, as scholar Dr. Perlas “any social self-image is a self-fulfilling prophecy anyway”. Some people may ask how one person can be a potent force for social transformation, but as the prominent leader in Indian nationalism Mahatma Gandhi once remarked “if you like the world to change, you can before by being the change you want to see in the world”.

Today, seemingly immutable ideas about people and organizations are being directly challenged and transformed on an unprecedented scale. Indeed, as human beings are moving towards a post-modern global society they are breaking out of their parochial perspectives and are recognizing that organizations in all societies exist in a wide array of types and species and functions within a dynamic spectrum of beliefs and lifestyles. A significant leading light towards this expansive direction is the illumination provided us by the profound insights of scholar Dr. Nicanor Perlas. His radical message is that “organizations are products of human interaction and imagination rather than some blind expression of an underlying natural order”. This contemporary insight is still shattering many beliefs-one of which is the longstanding conviction that bureaucracy, oligarchy, and other forms of hierarchical domination are inevitable. In direct contradiction to materialist and behaviourist doctrine, where everything is supposed to be governed from below upward through micro determinist stimuli and physiochemical forces, the new ideational view upheld by scholar Dr. Perlas gives subjective mental phenomena a causal role in brain processing and thereby a new legitimacy in science as an autonomous explanatory construct. Future reality, in his view, is “permeable, emergent, and opens to the mind’s causal influence”. That is, reality is conditioned, reconstructed, and often profoundly created through individual’s anticipatory images, values, plans, intentions, beliefs, and the like. To a far greater extent than is normally acknowledged, he asserts that human beings create their own realities through symbolic and mental processes and, because of this consciousness evolution of the future is a human option. It is the image of which in fact determines what might be called the current behaviour of any organism or organization. The image acts as a field. The behaviour consists in gravitating toward the most highly valued part of the field. By deliberately changing the internal image of reality, people can change the world. This is what led Einstein to admit that “imagination is more important than knowledge”.

All individuals hold self-images, images of their race, profession, nation, and cultural belief systems; the underlying images held by a civilization or culture has an enormous influence on its fate. Human beings also have images of their own potential as well as the potential of others. According to mind-body studies, merely an anticipatory image, for example, of a hostile encounter can raise one’s blood pressure as much as the encounter itself. Similarly, numerous new studies now show that consciously constructed images can lead directly to such things as blood glucose increases, increased gastric acid secretion, blister formation, and changes in skin temperature and pupillary size. The positive image of the future is the single most important dynamic and explanatory variable for understanding cultural evolution: “Any student of the rise and fall of cultures cannot fail to be impressed by the role played in this historical succession of the future”. The rise and fall of images of the future precedes or accompanies the rise and fall of cultures. As long as a society’s image is positive and flourishing, the flower of culture is in full bloom. Once the image begins to decay and loses its vitality, the culture does not long survive.

Digital trends set to trigger changes in the social self:-

1. The inner circle: Individuals seek to mirror their social personals in the digital world. But so far, digital has forced individuals to bring together not only their social selves, but also their professional and familial ones, and present a single persona to everyone they keep in contact with online. The average Facebook user has 130 friends, from best friends to new acquaintances. Examples: Google circles, Facebook Groups, Twitter Lists

2. Personalized news: It is seen that human beings currently create more information in a year than they ever have historically. Understandably, overwhelmed by the plethora of information online, people need ways to navigate relevant information and choose what to read. Already, RSS feeds and social networks facilitate the process through integration with news sites that allow users to generate passive status updates by posting content to the wall. Now applications that sort content based on digital friendship are emerging. The result is social reading is the new standard in online content consumption. Examples: Percolate, News.me, Flipboard, Zite

3. Rent: Today one can get more entertainment for less. The average Netflix user spends over 11 hours per month watching movies. Digital has changed the sense of ownership and the behaviour of renting is extending into categories beyond media and car rental where human beings realize that their use for certain products is limited and therefore does not warrant a purchase like for instance infant clothes or art for home or office interiors. Examples: Plumgear.com, Artsicle.com

4. Seamless transactions: People are always demanding that their processes become more efficient, quicker and safer, especially when it comes to their bank account. People can now carry at least one screen with them at all times. 40% of US consumers own a Smartphone, which has becomes so much more than a phone. Transactions are quickly becoming fully integrated with screens in multiple ways, from paying with their phones to executing financial transactions. Examples: Bitcoins, Google Wallet, Monitise, Square Card, Facebook Credits

5. Home, body, web: Technology is fast reaching a tipping point where it is both sufficiently small and affordable to allow people to monitor their bodies and adapt to their environment automatically. People’s interest in leading healthier lifestyles, and automating the process through technology and sharing results and experience, is increasing dramatically. Examples: Nest.com, Jawbone Up

6. Ubiquitous accessibility: Market researchers and data analysts have found that data storage capabilities double every two years, so the demand for data and data accessibility is huge. With the increase in cloud computing usage, physical storage space is becoming obsolete. People access data from multiple devices, whether at home or on the go. Not long ago people stored their digital files locally, but the development of the cloud allows them to store larger amounts online. This is a storage solution that will become more prevalent as companies allow cloud access and service offerings drop in price. Examples: Bitcasa, DropBox, Google Docs, Instapaper, iCloud, SkyDrive

7. The reliable subscription: Human beings are creatures of habit and they want availability of the products they love in their busy lifestyle. In the past decades people have become an increasingly time-starved society, limiting their availability to maintain routines. Subscription services are utilizing this opportunity to greatest extent possible. Examples: ManPacks, PlaneRed, Lollihop, Memberly

8. Short-term nostalgic obsessions: Nostalgia has always been embedded in culture and society. People like to analyse their recent life through check-ins and status updates and to enhance their tactile experiences by bringing digital things to life. As people become more immersed in digital objects, their desire to revisit the not-so-recent past will increase. Examples: Little printer, Instaprint

9. Location-based discovery: Seeing the same place through someone else’s perspective enriches it with new meaning. Interactive websites and mobile social apps are helping people to make creative archives on locations. Examples: Trover, Foursquare Radar, Google Maps, Tour Wrist

10. Control over data: Data has become an intricate part of human life. People are now able to quantify all their digital actions and more services catering to specialized activities have emerged. People are becoming aware of the value of the data they share online, and may start making decisions differently. Examples: Ford Sync, LastFM, Goodreads, reading.am, Voy.url

Manifestations of self in online social networks:-

Over the past 5 years, online social networking sites (OSNs) like Facebook and MySpace have become a central, virtually unavoidable medium for social interactions. OSNs started by catering to specialized communities and niche groups but have since expanded their reach substantially, permeating virtually every stratum and demographic group in the developed world. As such, they now provide fertile, ecologically valid, and empirically tractable domains in which to examine on-going, real-world phenomena and processes in social and personality psychology.

To map out the basic connections between self and OSN behaviour, two descriptive exploratory studies are observed and studied to examine how traits are expressed on Facebook, currently the most widely used OSN in the world. The personality correlates of self-reported Facebook usage and ways in which personality traits are expressed in terms of observable information found on Facebook profiles are also studied as well as the extent to which observers are sensitive to the ways in which personality is manifested on profiles. Two competing hypotheses have been proposed to describe the relationship between offline and online behaviour. The rich-get-richer hypothesis argues that “individuals with pre-existing social structures and socially adaptive personalities will reap larger social benefits from Internet use and will use the Internet more for social communication” than will “individuals who are less socially adept”. In contrast, the social-compensation hypothesis argues that individuals who struggle to make social connections in face-to-face interactions will use the Internet as a place to enhance their inter- personal lives by forging social relationships online.

Some early research on aggressive behaviour online suggested that online personality could diverge from offline personality, but others have argued that those studies were based on forms of media in which users had no expectation for future interactions.

Supporting the idea that online social processes mirror those conducted offline, recent research suggests that people largely use online tools to maintain their existing relationships, people who are liked in offline context are also liked online, and mirroring offline findings, those who use OSNs more frequently also possess greater social capital.

Despite this research pointing to similar socialization processes in offline and online contexts, research focusing specifically on personality processes in online contexts is scarce. The deliberate processes by which personality traits become expressed in physical, aural, social, and virtual environments could play the same role in OSNs.

Result and conclusion of the research:-

In two studies, this research revealed a number of connections between personality and Facebook-related behaviour. Extraversion predicted not only self-reported frequency of Facebook usage, but also engagement in the site, with extraverts (vs. introverts) leaving observable traces of higher levels of OSN activity. Consistent with socialization in offline contexts, extraverts seek out virtual social contact and are more engaged during online social experience than are introverts. In the case of social networking sites, this engagement leaves behind a behavioural residue in the form of friend lists, picture postings, and so on. Similarly, rather than providing an opportunity for conscientious people to loosen their collar, OSNs may instead provide another haven in which low conscientious procrastinators can avoid getting down to work. Openness is also expressed as it is in the offline-world with evidence of exploring new activities, experiencing new people, and changing the photo- graphic scenery. Thus, rather than being an escape from reality, OSN sites exist as a microcosm of people’s larger social worlds.

The findings converged with other research to suggest that individuals are able to use observable profile information-be it the number of friends, photos, or another feature-to form accurate impressions of at least some basic personality traits. However, the research also showed that observers seemed to neglect some of the valid cues. These findings showing that some traits are manifested more clearly than others are consistent with the growing body of research showing that different traits are manifested in different contexts.

Conclusion:-

The society plays a crucial role in developing the “self” of an individual. Self has evolutionary as well as adaptable functions , the self can serve various psychological functions, having a self is not only knowing who you are, what you can do etc, but also how to get along in a group, observe and understand how to contribute in a group and make oneself visible and important figure. Everyone uses social comparison to understand how are they doing and how high or low do they stand in various situations. The social comparison is done to make oneself feel better by downward comparison and for improving oneself the individual has to look through upward comparison. The self-concept is formed from three major sources of information that humans obtain from others: words, feelings, and behaviours. What one thinks about oneself is often based on other’s comments, how one feels about oneself often comes from other’s emotional reactions towards individual and how an individual behaves is often in response to other’s reactions towards that individual. Another source of information that helps build or reduce self-concept is the set of internal standards used to judge one’s performance. If these standards of ideal performance are too high, a person may feel that he or she does not measure up. Consequently, the person develops feelings that devalue a sense of worth, resulting in a low self-concept or self-image in that area. Children often learn these internal standards from watching how their parents, teachers, and peers judge their performance at school and at home.

When social self is discussed, another important aspect is also considered which plays vital role in development of “self”, this aspect is socialization. Socialization is a sociological approach that attempts to explain how people learn cultural morals and the responses and emotions that differentiate human beings from animals that are driven merely by the drive to survive and reproduce.

Socialization starts from the assumption that humans are more than animals that do whatever it takes to survive. Instead humans recognize that they are part of a group, and they observe other humans for guiding cues on how they should respond. When a baby is born it observes its mother to learn how emotions work and what the proper response to different events should be. Gradually as the child learns that it is a separate being from its mother and other humans it learns to think about its own reactions and responses and how they differ from those of other people. In this stage the child may deliberately test things out by trying a different response than the one approved by other people. Eventually, the child settles into a pattern of being able to regulate their own responses and empathize with what others want and how they respond. In this way socialization is a careful dance in which the developing human learns to balance their own independent desires and responses with those of the people around them.

The social sciences are those sciences or scientific disciplines that deal with aspects of behavior and activities of humans, usually not studied in the natural sciences. Social scientists examine both the physical manifestations as intangible societies andindividuals.

In general, there is a reasonable agreement on what disciplines should be considered part of the social sciences and natural sciences, but the traditional division between the two is doubtful in the case of some. For example, although the language had been almost universally considered a social science, the modern approach initiated in the generative grammar of Noam Chomsky suggests that language is not so much social interaction but must be seen as a part of psychology evolutionary biology, as in the functioning of languages and temporal evolution of consciousness of the speakers or their psychological representations do not seem to play no role. For this reason, some authors have come to see that languages are a natural object that is generated spontaneously and not by deliberate human.

In general, without being excessively rigorous, the following disciplines have been considered by a large number of authors as examples of social science

Science related to social interaction:

Anthropology, History, Economy, Ethnography and Ethnology, and Sociology.

Science related to the human cognitive system: Language and Psychology.

Archaeology, depending on whether one considers the European or American tradition, archeology can be considered a discipline attached to history or anthropology respectively.

Science related to the evolution of societies: Demographics, History, and Human Ecology.

Applied Social Sciences, that try to organize or improve organizational processes or teaching:

Business Administration or Management, Library, Education, Planning, and International Relations.

Humanities. There are other disciplines, which are sometimes located as part of the humanities, but whose status is more controversial science, this group consists of:

Anthropology (Considered by some Universities in the Faculty of Humanities), Communication Sciences, Political Science, and Teaching, which are “teaching” of Social Sciences, Mathematics, Natural Science, Language and Literature: Law, Philosophy, Theology, Semiology, Legal Sociology, and Social Work.

Social science versus social studies. To be specific, a science is defined broadly by the scientific methodology used, which is two: the inductive and deductive. The inductive method is the methodology of the Natural and Social Sciences, being the deductive for mathematics. On this criterion, only the philosophy and theology would be part of the list of Humanities. In contrast, a study may be based on reasoning and observations but not strictly adhere to the scientific method, yet may be of interest, as stated in What are the social sciences?

Many of the social science disciplines have epistemological discussions about what is science. In the beginning was taken as a model of science to physics and other science experiments. However, time has identified the particular object of study, which is society, which does not fall within the methods and assumptions to study the natural sciences. In particular social systems does not generally permit the realization of certain experiments in controlled laboratory conditions and in other cases the predicted effects are qualitative and difficult to set quantitative limits for these predictions. An in-depth theoretical distinction is in the article: Theory of Human Sciences and in other epistemological approaches Critical Dictionary of the Social Sciences.

Between science and philosophy. Seeking social sciences, since its inception, reaching a truly scientific stage, achieving, is a certain independence from the prevailing method in philosophy. In this co-exist conflicting views on some aspect of reality, while in the exact sciences, this is not possible. Hence the humanistic branches of science should try to imitate, at least in this aspect, in the exact sciences, as stated in in Social science. William James expressed in the late nineteenth century: “A series of mere facts, small talk and bickering over opinions; parsimonious classifications and generalizations in a purely descriptive …. But not a single law as providing us with physical, not a single proposition which can be derived from any consequences causally… This is not science, it is only a science project”.

Remember that all science must establish objective descriptions based on observables, and therefore verifiable reality. The laws that have to consist of causal links between the variables, are involved in the description. In addition, knowledge should be organized in a way axiomatic, similar to the ethics established by Baruch Spinoza. Such an organization does not guarantee the accuracy of a description, but constitutes a prerequisite for the social sciences to acquire the scientific nature we all seek and yearn, as described in Social science.

Mario Bunge wrote “scientific researchers are expected to be guided by the scientific method, which reduces to the following sequence of steps: prior knowledge, problem, solution candidate (hypothesis, experimental design or technique), test, evaluationcandidate’s final review of either candidate to the solution, considering the procedure, prior knowledge and even the problem.” “Verification of the proposals is to test them for consistency and truth, which often proves to be only approximate. This test can be conceptual, empirical, or both. Nothing except the conventions and the mathematics, is considered exempt from the empirical evidence. Nor is there any science without them, or are absent any search and usage patterns.” “As I believe, the brief description above is valid for all sciences, regardless of differences of objects, special techniques or degrees of progress. It conforms to the social sciences such as sociology, as well as the biosocial, such as psychology, and natural sciences such as biology. If a discipline does not use the scientific method or do not seek or use regularities, proto, unscientific or pseudoscientific “.

Interdisciplinarity. At present there are critical to increasing specialization and low crosstalk between the social sciences. This would undermine a global analysis of society. Encyclopedia of Sociology, focuses on this issue: Sociology is very closely related to social psychology, with social history, with human geography, with the policy but should be more, if it is more related to cultural anthropology, human ecology with, with the demography, with urban planning, with the Estadisticay with philosophy. These relationships are not fully, but in parts or sections of each discipline. Sociology is the subject more open to other contributions from other social sciences and this is deducted from the collections of indices of citations in articles and books, as described in Social science.

The process is that in the border areas are being created hybrids and this is what gives coherence to the necessary interdependencies and benefits. The poor communication between disciplines is even more apparent among social scientists of different countries, mentioning only those of their cultural background, or your own country, mainly to the classics, when in fact the groups Latin American, European and Japanese, than group in American English literature.

Considering the Anthropology, where social science is described along with the race. We will review the race and its variations, differences and peculiarities all over the world. Race -is the system of human populations, characterized by the similarity of the complex inheritance of certain biological characteristics, with the outer phenotypic expression and formed in a particular geographic region. Features that characterize the different races, often appear as a result of adaptation to different environmental conditions, which took place over many generations. The criterion of distinction of race on the form is the absence of significant barriers to create fertile offspring, which leads to the formation of many transitional forms of miscegenation. The concept of “race” in general, more or less clearly perceived by different researchers, but in detail there are significant differences, different schools of anthropologists were isolated from four to seven major races and dozens of small anthropological types, as described in What is race?

The skull was discovered in 1795 in Georgia, launched Blumenbahom as a hypothesis about the origin of the Europeans from the Caucasus. Research considering the race – is the section of anthropology that studies the human race. The research of race examines the classification of races, the story of their formation and the factors of their occurrence, as the selective processes, isolation, confusion and migration, the influence of climatic conditions and the general geographical environment on racial grounds, as described in Are there really different races?

Race was particularly prevalent in the Nazi Germany and other Western European countries, as well as earlier in the USA (the Ku Klux Klan), which served as a justification for institutionalized racism, chauvinism and anti-Semitism. Sometimes research of the race issue is equated with ethnic anthropology. However, the latter is, strictly speaking, to study the racial composition of individual ethnic groups, that is, tribes, peoples, nations, and the origin of these communities.

In the part of racial studies, which focused on the study of ethnogenesis, Anthropology conducts research in conjunction with linguistics, history, archeology. In the study of the driving forces pf creation of race, anthropology comes into close contact with the genetics, physiology, zoogeography, climatology, general theory of speciation. Study of the races in anthropology is important for solving many problems. It is important to address the issue of ancestral modern human species, the use of anthropological material as a historical source, the coverage of systematics, mostly small systematic units, learning the laws of population genetics, to clarify certain issues of medical geography.

Denying the existence of races. In the middle of the XX century was originated the concept of unreality considered as infraspecific divisions of humanity. One of the first was formulated by the Belgian scientist J. Jernej, declaring the race is not a fact, and the concept.

In the recent decades, American and European anthropology forthright has a tendency to deny the reality of the existence of human races.

Division by race. There are many opinions about how many races can be distinguished within the species Homo sapiens. Existing points of view range from the hypothesis of two major racial trunks up to 15 independent hypothesis races. Between these extremes lies a wide range of hypotheses, postulating from 3 to 5 races trunks. It is worth noting that the races themselves (small race) are divided into subrasy, and there is no consensus regarding the affiliation of subras to certain races (small races). In addition, different anthropological schools use different names for the same races.

Typological concept of race historically comes first. According to the typological approach, describing the features of a particular person, can be clearly attributed it to a particular race: racial types are distinguished, and each individual is evaluated by the degree of approximation to this or that ‘pure’ type. For instance, the width of the lips and nose more than a certain size, combined with low head-pointer, a large protrusion of the face forward, type of skin and darker than a certain standard model is regarded as a sign of belonging to the Negroid race. This scheme can even determine the race of a particular person as a percentage. The complexity of the typological concept involves the separation of “pure” types, is distinctly different from one another. Depending on the number of types and attributes are defined as race, will vary, as well racial identification of the person. Moreover, the consistent application of strict typological principle leads to the fact that siblings can be attributed to different races.

Natural habitat Caucasians – from Europe to the Urals, North Africa, Southwest Asia and the Indian subcontinent. It includes the Nordic, Mediterranean, Alpine, East Baltic, and other subgroups. It differs from other races, especially the strong profiling individuals. The remaining symptoms vary widely. Natural habitat – Central, West and East Africa. Characteristic differences – curly hair, dark skin, dilated nostrils, thick lips, etc. Provided the eastern subgroup and western subgroup (Negro type, round-headed, middle-sized). Of special note is a group of Pygmies. Natural habitat pygmies – the western part of Central Africa. Growth from 144 to 150 cm for men, skin is light brown, curly hair, dark lips rather thin, large torso, arms and legs are short, the physical type can be classified as a special race. Possible number of pygmies can be from 40 to 200 thousand people.

Kapoidy (Bushmen, Khoisan race). Natural habitat – South Africa. Stunted, with infantile features. Are very short and with the curled hair. Skin yellowish-brown, not elastic – quickly wrinkles, droops fold over the pubis. Characterized steatopyga (mostly fat deposits on the buttocks), a strong lordosis. Special fold-century, prominent cheekbones and a yellowish skin attached to the Bushmen some resemblance to the Mongoloids. This occurred in parallel to adapt to life in similar conditions semi-desert.

Race east barrel are characterized by two differences: a greater evolutionary archaic (in particular, runs slowly universal human process of simplifying the teeth). This is due to the geographical features of eastern fire. The abundance of geographic barriers – the seas, mountains, great rivers, as well as the shelves are in a period of glaciation that were naked, then fired up, gave an advantage over migration groups.

Mongoloids. Originally inhabited by Eastern Eurasia, formed on the territory of modern Mongolia. Appearance reflects an adaptation to the conditions of deserts (the Gobi desert – one of the largest deserts in the world by area, located in Mongolia and northern China, the territory which is mainly inhabited by Mongolians). The main feature – is the eye protection from high insolation, dust, cold, etc. For this is a narrow slit eyelids, extra fold – epicanthus, darker iris, thick eyelashes, prominent cheekbones with cushions of fat, long (unless cut) lines and black hair. Identify two contrasting groups: the northern (solid, tall, fair-skinned, with a large face, low cranial vault) and southern (gracilis, short, swarthy, little face and high forehead). This contrast is caused by factors infantilizatsii in crowded southern regions. Young race – is about 12 thousand years.

American race – race, prevalent in North and South America. This race is characterized by straight black hair and an aquiline nose. Black eyes, wider than the Asian Mongoloids, but narrower than in Caucasians. Epicanthus are relatively rare in adults, although often in children, as stated in How race is lived in America.

Australoids (Australian-Oceanic race). Ancient race, which had a huge area bounded by the regions: the Indian subcontinent, Tasmania, Hawaii, Kurile Islands (that is, almost half the globe). Widely displaced and mixed with migrants. Includes groups: Polynesian, Melanesian, Australian, the Ainu. Extremely diverse race. Features of the exterior of indigenous Australians – a light brown skin tones, large nose, long wavy hair, burnable as tow a massive frontal bone, powerful jaws sharply distinguish them from African Negroids. However, among the Melanesians (Papuans) are frequently encountered spiral hair, which, along with the genetic proximity, indicates a slight influx of migrants from Africa.

Metis and migrants. As a result of intermarriage, there are mixed race. Mulatto – the result of combining the Negroid and Caucasian, Mestizo – Mongoloid and Caucasoid, and Sambo – Negroid, and Mongoloid. Moreover, there are entire nation, is now changing its race. For example, residents of Ethiopia and Somalia pass from Negroid to Caucasoid, and the inhabitants of Madagascar – from Mongolian to the Negro. Keep in mind that in the after- Columbian era, huge masses of people have left their natural habitats. Even in pre-Columbian era to the border, races formed metisnye transitional types – Ethiopian, Ainu, South Siberian and others. Active settlement and conquest of the Europeans stepped up the process of mixing and migration. In particular, almost all blacks are not pure Negroids, and mulattoes. To quell xenophobia, in such societies, the social organization promotes negative attitudes towards racial segregation, as described in Mixed-Race People Perceived as ‘More Attractive,’ UK Study Finds.

White people. Ancient mankind, is represented by early tropical populations of Homo (Homo habilis, Homo rudolfensis, Homo ergaster, etc.). Dark skin, hair and eyes were also migrants from Africa, giving rise core of the modern human species Homo sapiens. The loss of pigment occurred only on the outskirts of the area. The combination of light skin, hair and iris in pre-Columbian era was only a small fraction of Earth’s population, concentrated in the White Sea-Baltic “belt blonds.” However, the population of huge territories in North America and northern Eurasia has led to an increase in area and population of people of Caucasoid type. Currently, this population is again reduced due to lower fertility in white families, and mixing with the black population that bear the dominant genes.

Racial differences. Belonging to the form of Homo sapiens, people of every race are able to master all the achievements of culture. The most archaic (preserving the ancient characteristics of morphology) are Australoids. Each race in its own way is better suited for survival in a specific context: the Eskimos in arctic deserts and Nilotic peoples – in the savannahs. However, in an era of civilization, such opportunities appear from all races. Nevertheless, the facts relating to racial physiology continue to exert its influence on people’s lives.

The origin of races. Neanderthal, Neanderthal man – fossil species of humans that lived 300-24 thousand years ago. Neanderthals had an average height (about 165 cm) and a massive physique. Volume of the cranium (1400-1600 cm ? and above), they even surpassed the modern people. They are characterized by strong eyebrows, broad nose, and he is very small chin protrusion. By craniological indicators Neanderthals were dolichocephaly. There is an evidence that among them were red and white faced. Neanderthal genome showed that this species was not a direct ancestor of humans – their evolutionary lines diverged about 500.000 years ago. However, probably there were several episodes of interbreeding with Neanderthals Homo sapiens (in particular, about 50.000 years ago). The genes of Neanderthals were found only in representatives of non-African populations, so that interbreeding with Neanderthals could make some contribution to the formation of races.

Cro-Magnon. Cro-Magnons, the earliest representatives of modern humans in Europe and partly outside it, who lived 40-10 thousand years ago (Upper Paleolithic period), the possible ancestors of Caucasians. The Cro-Magnon was less massive than the Neanderthals. They were taller (up to 180-190 cm) and had extended “rain” (that is typical of modern tropical human populations), body proportions. They comparing to the skull with the skull of Neanderthals, had a higher and more rounded arch, more direct and smooth forehead, protruding chin (Neanderthal people had beveled chin). Cro-Magnon people type is characterized by low broad face, angular orbit, narrow, strongly protruding nose and a large brain (about 1600 cm ?).

For Valentine, social geography is “the study of social relations and the spatial structures that underpin those relations” (Valentine, 2001). Social geography covers a vast range of ideas and subjects; it looks at the inequalities in society such as sex, class, ethnicity and disability which are missed in other fields of geography (Johnston, 2001). One of the most important topics is the study of how people interact and use the space around them. These classifications and social markings make’s us what we are and how we are seen by others (Jackson, 2005). The ideas which Valentine thought described social geography can be shown through the issue of homelessness. This essay will look at: what homelessness means, social relationships within homelessness and spatial structures within homelessness.

Homelessness is becoming an ever growing social problem. The obvious definition of homelessness would be simply a person without a home, but it could also be seen as a “condition” where someone is ejected from society because of a lack of relations within a social structure (Chaplow in Bahr, 1973). Valentine has outlined different categories of homelessness. There is official homeless, where people are recognised by the state and have applied for housing. Single homeless is people who have no legal rights to housing and live on the streets. Hidden homeless are people that are not officially recognised by the state and living with friends or in other precarious situations. Protohomeless are people who could become homeless in the future due to their current circumstances (Valentine, 2001). These definitions from Valentine already show there are more social issues behind the issue of homelessness than first appear. The growing number of homeless people can be shown through a 58% increase in people in Scotland (between 1989/90-1999/00) applying under the homelessness legislation (Scottish Gov’t, 2009). It is believed that every night in England up to 500 homeless people sleep rough on the streets (Crisis UK, 2006) and that 10,000 people will do this over the course of a year. The largest majority of people sleeping rough is made up of young males, up to 52,000 young people were found to be homeless by local authorities in England during 2003 (Crisis UK, 2006). There are a number of common factors seen as the cause or lifestyle choice of the homeless, which often comes as a stigma to some of the homeless population. The next section will look at how social relations can often be the cause of homelessness.

Valentine claimed that “social relations” are a fundamental concept of social geography (Valentine, 2001). Social relations are about how different people/groups interact with each other and the bonds/relationships they form. Relationships (small or large) in society can have big effects on people. This can be shown through the example of domestic violence (small scale) compared to Local Authority Tolerance towards the homeless (large scale), both issues can have equally important effects on individuals.

Domestic violence is seen as one of the route causes of homelessness. It is the second most common crime in the UK, one incident is reported every minute (Womens aid, 2009). On average 1-2 women are murdered each week at home by male partners and 63% of women aged 30-49 cite domestic violence as the key reason for their homelessness (Crisis, 1999). Although the vast majority of domestic violence is targeted at women, men are also at risk. Especially those who are: young, old, frail or have disabilities.

The home is often associated with the ideas of security, comfort and family, this has not been the same throughout history. It was only in the late 19th/early 20th century where the home was separated from the work place. This new lifestyle changed the role of the wife and gender relationships (Madigan, 1990). Behind the closed doors of private homes there are no prying eyes or means of protection, the home could alternatively be associated as a place of violence and secrecy. The breakdown in relationships within the house such as couples (through domestic violence) or between family members (especially young members) leads to people being forced or choosing to leave the home. Family conflict is a main cause of homelessness amongst two thirds of homeless young people and 86% of young homeless people are forced out of their home, rather than leave on their own will (Crisis, 2006). Once the social relations breakdown and people are on the street, they are consumed by the stereotypical image of the homeless.

The homeless are associated with drug and alcohol culture, mental illness, crime and violence, for example ? of those who sleep rough have been to prison (Crisis, 2006). These views are primarily meant for the street homeless, the visible homeless population which only make up a small proportion of all the homeless. However these images which are the face of homelessness often are unfair on a number of people and create a new problem in the way of tackling a much larger issue (Ravenhill, 2008).

The state and public can see the homeless as not worth helping, due to these stereotypical associations. One example of a state approach towards the issue of homelessness is the *anti-bum ordinances” in America where local authorities tried to rid homeless populations by displacing them to neighbouring cities. In other areas of America authorities were seen to be punishing the homeless. On a cold winters night (30th December 1987) in Miami, 41 homeless were arrested by police in order to uphold there policy of no sleeping on the streets. The state was seen to be cleaning the streets of “the unsightly presence of homeless individuals” (Baker, 1990). Both these examples show the poor social relationships between the homeless and the state, the issue was in most cases not treated fairly or just passed onto another person.

The idea of the state moving the homeless away from the city streets links into the idea of NIMBYISM (not in my back yard), creating a spatial structure where the homeless are not wanted or don’t fit in anywhere. This idea of NIMBYISM relates especially to residential and business areas, as the presence of homeless could reduce housing prices and create security concerns. The homeless don’t fit into the spatial pattern of the city, seen as a nuisance or an eye sore. It is however important that homelessness is not just seen as an urban issue.

Rural homelessness is an almost hidden issue from society and is often not even pictured when regarding the subject of homelessness. In rural England the number of homeless grew by 30% from 2002-2004 (Countryside Agency, 2004). It is an issue which is growing larger in the UK as people adopt new spatial structures of living. People are moving out of urban areas into rural areas, these are often wealthy families looking for the rural idyll (the more glamorous view of the countryside). In 2003 only half of those who purchased property in the countryside with land attached were farmers (Countryside Agency, 2004). There is a growing lack of affordable housing for rural locals, due to this structural switch and a lack of planning for the future in the countryside. This rural homeless population are normally forced to stay in cars or make shift camps/shelters, exposed to the elements. One of the most common outcomes of rural homelessness is known as “sofa surfing” where people move between staying with different friends. This group is often unrecognised by the state, therefore not creating the attention needed to spark help. Like the street homeless the make up and social associations of the rural homeless are the same. The majority of the rural homeless are also between the ages of 19-25 and there are large associations still with drugs, alcohol, crime, mental health and suicide. Where ever the homeless populations are they face much the same issues and stereotypical associations.

The issue of homelessness can be extensively examined by looking at the social relations and spatial structures within the topic. Through homelessness it can be seen that social relationships affect how people are treated and viewed in society. This concept can be applied to many social geography issues such as gender and ethnicity. For homelessness however these relationships are vital in understanding how some people have become homeless (through the breakdown in family relationships), how the public view the homeless (as drug addicts and thieves) and even in how the state approaches dealing with the issue. The study of the spatial structures of homelessness shows us how the homeless use space. This could be creating there own new homes, creating conflicts through NIMBYISM and it also lets us explore aspects like the rural homeless. Homelessness often does not fit into the social structure of cities; there is no room or will to accommodate the homeless. The issue of homelessness is a complicated one, but can be summarised as a complex structure of social relationships and issues of the use of space.

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The United States Supreme Court In 1967 ruled that Virginias anti-miscegenation laws were not in accord with the principles set forth in the constitution of the state and put a stop to all of the legal restrictions that were in place against marriages amongst mixed race (Erin, 2005). Since that time there has been a remarkable increase in the number of marriages amongst mix race in the United States (Lewis and Yancey, 1997), and the figures of interracial couples has also become twice as much every decade since 1960 (Killian, 2002). Statistics show that currently there are about 3 million interracial marriages, which make up 5% of all marriages in the United States, and another 2.5 million mix race couples that are dating (Hibbler and Shinew, 2002).

Interracial marriages can include the combination of White, Blacks, Asians, Hispanics, and any other group. However, when people talk about interracial relationships, the first things that mostly come to their mind is relationships amongst black and white (Vernellia, 1998). The rate of growth of interracial marriages is increasing by the day. In particular, the kind of interracial intermingling involving Blacks and Whites has been constantly changing. Immediately after Emancipation, the figures of black and white interracial relationships increased, got to its peak in 1900, and subsequently decrease till 1940. However, this form of union is still the least common type of mix race union (Davidson, 1992), even though the Black and White intermarriages has been on the increase since the 90’s (Tucker and Mitchell-Kernan, 1990).

There are a lot of reasons for the sharp increase in the figures of the different form of interracial marriages. One of the reasons is the Supreme Court decision in 1967 that made anti- miscegenation laws unconstitutional (Kalmijn, 1993). The close in the gap narrowed down between Blacks and Whites education, occupation and income (Kalmijn, 1993). Also, data from National Center for Health Statistics indicates the decrease in White’s prejudice against Blacks (Kalmijn, 1993). Further more, the increase in interracial marriage can be linked to the progress made by the Civil Rights movement, the increase in opportunities afforded Black people, and the increase in social contact between the races (Davidson, 1992).

This research aim at reviewing the historical background of interracial relationship both interracial dating and marriage, and also factors attributed to relationships amongst mix race. This research also focuses on the opinions of the youth to interracial relationship in the 21th century. In general, the main aim of this piece is to examine interracial relationships, whether marriage or casual dating and the attitude of the youths towards it, taking foreign pre- masters students at ICRGU from different regions as samples. The reason for the study of different forms of relationships is because some individual rather prefer to go into a causal date, than going into a serious relationships that might lead to marriage. But this research will not only look at attitude towards interracial relationships from perspective of preference. It will look at possible points of meeting a person from another region or origin, and what might probably propel someone into such relationship base on personalities and compatibility. The research questions are as follows:

What are the attitudes of the youths towards relationship amongst mix race in the 21th century?

How popular is relationships amongst mix race.

Factors affecting relationships amongst mix race.

LITERATURE REVIEW

This section of review on the interracial relationships will basically focus on three major tittles, which are

The characters of those going into interracial relationships

Theories why people marry outside of their race taking blacks and whites form of union as study sample.

Social reactions to interracial relationship.

To start with, characteristics of those in interracial relationships, in terms of marriage, research shows that people who interracially marry tend to be younger, likelihood of being married before, live in developed environment like cities or town, or are older in age from their spouse compared to people who married within their own race (Erin, 2005). Research founds that male and female within a particular racial group to an extent have different tendency to get married to someone outside their racial group (Erin, 2005). For instance, Black male have high records of interracial compared to black females. Also, Japanese and Native American woman have much higher numbers of interracial marriages compared to their male counterparts (Erin, 2005). In the U.S interracial marriages currently are highest in the west and lowest in the southern region. However, Hawaii breaks the normal trends of interracial marriages. Hawaii has a unique racial makeup in that no single racial group makes up more than 25% of the population and nearly 40% of all marriages interracial (Solberry, 1994). Therefore, it is significant to note that interracial couples tend to often move to more hospitable areas of the country (Tucker and Mitchellkernan, 1990).

Further more, many theories have been established to explain the reasons behind people getting married to race other than their race, and success of such marriage to stand test of time. Structural theory states that marriages among mix race is more frequent in areas where community structure have been kept in place to support and authorize interracial marriages, and also community were there is increase in awareness of peoples personal decision to go into such a union. Recent attention given to interracial marriage in the media and in popular literature along with more people living and working in more integrated environments has lead to an increased acceptance of heterogeneous relationships (Hibbler and Shinew, 2002).

Another predominant theory on reason people chose to marry outside of their race is the social exchange theory. Using Black-White interracial marriage for instance, social exchange theory states that when White women marry Black men, who usually are of higher economic status, they exchange the prestige of their skin color for the Black husband’s higher economic status (Davidson, 1992; Kalmijn, 1993; Lewis and Yancey, 1997). However, Black women have been found to marry down in both interracial and same race unions, which seem to prove that Black-White interracial marriage is more complex than just an exchange of status (Foeman and Nance, 1999). An additional theory, which attempts to account for the union of interracial relationships, is the racial motivation theory (Kouri and Lasswell, 1993). The racial motivation theory states that many interracial marriages take place because of racial differences, not in spite of them (Kouri and Lasswell, 1993). From this view, it can be said that curiosity about differences in race, increases sexual interest or attraction to someone not of same race. This theory also says that those who intermarry may be acting in rebellion against social norms of racial endogamy and using the marriage as a way to state their independence (Kouri and Lasswell, 1993).

Finally, there has been a change in the societal view of interracial marriages. Many studies have shown that there is less pressure in society today to have racially homogeneous relationships than in the past (Lewis & Yancey, 1997). Never the less there are still some discriminations in some form of interracial union. Using the union of Black and White for instance, recent studies still suggest that the Black-White interracial union, especially the Black male-White female union, is still the most negatively viewed relationship type (Norment, 1994). There have been many researches on the history of discrimination against Black-White Interracial union. Today, the relationship between Blacks and Whites is seen as different from that of other minorities. When one speaks of “race relations” in America, the majority of people immediately think of the struggles between Black and White people (Killian, 2002; Wright et. al, 2003). Despite the dramatic increase in Black-White marriages, they are still the least favorable form of interracial marriage in America (Wade, 1991), and they are still considered to be a taboo subject by some (Harris and Kalbfleisch, 2000). According to survey carried out among Blacks and White marriage, in the study of 270 interracial couples, it was found that nearly half reported that marrying someone not from their race makes marriage difficult, while about two thirds reported that at least one of the parent objected to their marriage (Fears and Deane, 2001). Although there is increase in the tolerance of interracial couples, there are still powerful forces in society that make Black-White interracial marriage hard and unappealing (Dainton, 1999). Many Black-White interracial couples report that they face discrimination from members of their own particular race; European Americans view them as being “too Black” and African Americans view them as being “not Black enough” (Orbe, 1999).

Another source of discrimination for those in interracial marriages is often the family. The majority of people in interracial marriages have said that they have had to face one or both parents express serious concern to outright disapproval of their choice to marry interracially. Most of the time , this disapproval are always expressed verbally, and in the case where couple goes on with the marriage, some certain members of the family not in support of the union might refuse to attend any important event organized by the couples, such as wedding, holiday celebrations, family reunion or even family visitation. In some extreme cases, members of interracial marriages have reported having lost all contact for years at a time with once close members of their families (Luke and Carrington, 2000). But, one part of the two’s couples tend to be more acceptant than the other. Studies have also found that acceptance of interracial marriages is increasing at a rapid rate and an increasing number of interracial couples are reporting that their families have openly accepted their interracial relationship, and they feel comfortable speaking about their relationship in public (Fears & Deane, 2001, Rosenblatt et. al., 1995). However, attitudes towards interracial relationships have been found to vary based on race, age, and gender. In a study of Black and White people between the ages of 21 and 40, it was reported that men have more positive attitudes towards interracial relationships compared to women, and also those that are younger have more favorable views on interracial relationships (Datzman and Gardner 2000). It was also found that the families of the Black partner in interracial relationships tend to be more accepting and supportive than the families of the White partner (Hibbler and Shinew, 2002). In another study eighty-six percent of Black respondents said that their families would welcome a White person into their family compared to only 55% of White respondents who said their families would welcome a Black person into their family (Fears & Deane, 2001).

This research however is not just about interracial relationships among blacks and white, the review is to build up facts associated with interracial relationship considering researches already done on different topics on interracial relationships which can help answer some of the research questions. This research aims at cutting across all forms of interracial relationships, and types of relationships, whether causal dating or marriages and associated factors that influences the opinion of people towards going into it. Also, it aims at finding the opinion of the youth towards interracial relationships in the 21th century.

METHOLOGY

The research targeted at getting the opinions and attitudes of the youths towards interracial relationships, whether just casual dating or marriages. Considering the limitation both time and resources, the research were conducted among international students of ICRGU who are from different parts of the world, namely, China, Nigeria and Kazakhstan. The final sample of students consist of 4 Chinese (1 males, 3 females), 3 Nigerians (2 males, 1 female), and 3 Kazakhstanis (1 male, 2 females), all between the age of 20-35. None of the participant is married.

Interviews were conducted on each of the participants to explore their attitudes toward interracial relationships. Qualitative data were collected by the means of follow-up interviews with the respondents who participated in the survey. The interviews with the respondents were semi- structured interview, including general questions as well as sets of questions for individuals who either have family members or friends, or know someone who was is into interracially relationship. Generally, all the questions aimed at getting disposition towards interracial relationships, and also general opinion towards interracial relationships.

DISCUSSION

Over the decades now, many studies have been made on interracial relationships and so far shown many controversies. The study on interracial relationships is a wide study, but very interesting study. This research however focused on the opinion of the youths towards interracial relationships, and has been proven that there is increase in the awareness of youth towards interracial relationships, unlike in the past.

The table 1 shows the numbers of participants both male and female who took part in the survey, and their opinion on whether they can go into a relationship with someone not of their race. About 60% agreed they can go into interracial relationships, while about 20% disagree not to going into interracial relationships. 20% percent others would want to, but are restricted because of some factors like family acceptance or their culture.

Table 2, shows the participants general opinion towards interracial marriages, and from the table, there is a trend of acceptance in some region compared to other regions. Fig 2.1 and 2.2 shows the percentages of both male and female’s opinions towards interracial marriages. Figure2.1 shows individual dispositions towards interracial marriage and about 60% sounded positive of getting married to someone outside their race, and about 40% wouldn’t want to get married to someone not from their race. Figure 2.2 shows the general opinion on interracial marriages, and about 90% feels nothing is wrong in going into interracial marriages, while about 10% feels interracial marriages isn’t ideal.

Even with challenges faced in interracial relationship, it’s still something one can rule out from happening. According to Mr. John, he feels with high speed travel and communication technology in this age of globalization interracial marriages will always happen irrespective of the family, cultural believes, or societal opinion. But he feels to preserve culture, interracial marriage is not ideal. Miss Ama also feels marriage has nothing to do with culture or believes. She feels as long as there is love and the both parties understand themselves, marrying each other shouldn’t be a problem. She also didn’t rule out difficulties that might come with the marriage such as language barriers but she said if the 2 parties are strong enough to overcome the challenges that will make them strong.

Generally, from the research, it was observed most believe interracial relationships have to do with the personal decisions and feeling. According to Miss Beauty, she feels going into interracial relationship is a personal thing. She also said as long as there is respect and happiness, there is nothing wrong about interracial relationships. To add to this, Miss Ama said feeling is a thing of the mind irrespective of color, culture or religion , you don’t expect it, it just happens. When happens and you feel the person is the right choice for you, you just go for it.

One of the limitations in this research is the time frame. The time frame to complete this research isn’t long enough to get more samples for analyzing the topic in context. The research was restricted to little numbers of participants and limited questions to elaborate more on the factors affecting opinions so as to have enough time to execute the aim of the research. However, with previous review on related research, the aim of the research was accomplished. Another limitation was the numbers of different regions availably. In the pre masters class of ICRGU where the survey was carried out, presently have students mainly from 3 countries namely, Nigeria, China, and Kazakhstan. The effect of this is that, there were limitations to cultural behaviors and believes considering the topic was generally on opinion of the youths in the 21th century, and just 3 countries were available for the survey.

CONCLUSION

An interracial relationship is where there is marriage, sexual or romantic relations between individuals of different races. In the past, interracial marriages were in fact taboo in some parts of the world, but with globalization there has been a change in ideology about interracial relationship. From the result of the survey, it suggests that there is increase in the awareness of interracial relationships. It also suggests there is an increase in the acceptance of going into a relationship with someone of different race. However, there are still some believes that interracial relationships, especially marriage if encourage, could lead to cultures being eradicated, in this light very few persons wont support such union so as to preserve culture. The finding in the studies also shows that about 90% of the participants feel there is nothing wrong in going into interracial relationships, as long as both parties love each other and have reasons to want to go into such relations, and also can solve their differences.

There are some attitudes common to the participants of this survey which are,

All participants are in their 20’s and are all international students of ICRGU who are from different countries, and might want to try something new.

They have been opportune to meet with other students from other countries. Considering might be the first time most of them have the opportunity to meet different people with different culture, color, background and country.

They believe as long as the 2 parties are willing to pass the huddles, there is nothing wrong in interracial relationships

Lastly, they feel relationship is the thing of the heart. It has nothing to do with color, culture or country. As long as the two parties can cope with their differences.

There are a lot of controversies on interracial relationships because believes of every individuals varies. But according to this research, it can be said to some extent that interracial relationships is somehow accepted and there is increase in awareness. In light of the increasing rates of interracial relationship and the opinion of people towards it, there is still a great deal of research that needs to be done on this topic. One of the researches needs to discuss more on the success of interracial marriages.

Many people believe prejudice and discrimination mean the same thing .In fact there is a very important difference between them. Prejudice is an attitude, whereas discrimination refers to the behaviour or action. If someone dislikes a given minority, but does not allow this dislike to effect their behaviour then the person shows prejudice but not discrimination. According to Baron and Byrne (1991) prejudice is an attitude towards the member of some group based solely on their membership in that group. In contrast discrimination involves negative action directed at the member of the group. Allport (1954) argued that there are five different stages of discrimination.

Anti-location: Verbal attacks are directed against some other group.

Avoidance: the other group is systematically avoided.

Discrimination: the other group is deliberately treated less well than other groups in term of civil rights.

Physical attack: Membership of the other group are attacked and their property is destroyed.

Extermination: there are deliberate attempts to kill all members of the other group.

The word prejudice can be broken down in to pre (meaning before) and judice (meaning judgement). Therefore to be prejudice towards an individual or group shows a pre-judge of that individual or group. There are three elements to prejudice.

Cognitive element: This involves the beliefs held about the group. These beliefs will be in the form of stereotyping, common but over simple views of what particular groups of people are like.

The affective element: This involves the feelings experienced in response to the group. If we are prejudiced against a group we may experience anger, fear, hate or disgust when we encounter a member of that group.

The behavioural element: This consists of our actions toward the object of our prejudice. Behaving differently towards people based on their membership of a group is called discrimination. Our actions against members of a group against which we hold a prejudice can rang from avoidance and verbal criticism to mass extermination.

Psychological approach to explain prejudice falls in to two broad areas. Social approach centres on the social factors that contribute to prejudice in general. Whereas individual differences approaches centres on what factors make some people more prone to prejudice.

Tajel and Turner (1979) proposed the social identity theory. This theory is one of a group of theoryaˆ™s that share the assumption that prejudice can be explained by our tendency to identify ourselves as part of a group and to classify other people as either within or outside that group. Tajfel and Turner carried out a number of laboratory experiment called the minimal group

Tajfel (1970) carried out an experiment to look at intergroup discrimination. To test his theory sixty four schoolboys aged between 14 and 15 year old were selected. The participants were initially informed that the experiment was research investigating vision. The boys were shown clusters of dots on a screen and asked to estimate the number of dots on the picture. The participants were then divided in to two groups group A and group B. Group A was classified as boys that had underestimated the amount of dots and group B was those boys who had overestimated the amount of dots. The boys were then given a number of tasks in which they would allocate points to each other. Each boy did not know who they were allocating points to but they did know which group the boy belonged to three conditions were used as part of this experiment condition one the choice was between two boys from group A the second condition was two boys from group B and the last condition used one boy from each group. What Tajfel identified as part of this research was that the boys overwhelmingly chose to allocate points to the boys who had been indentified as in the same group as themselves. Despite the fact that there was no direct competition between the two groups the participants consistently displayed favouritism towards the boys from the same group.

Ellis and Fox (2001) also carried out research in to prejudice and discrimination looking effect of self-identification sexual orientation on helping behaviour. This research involves 235 British men and women were telephone at home. The caller explained that they had dialled the wrong number and that they had no more change to make a further call and asked if the participant would relay a message to the calleraˆ™s partner. In the experimental condition the callers partner was identified as the same sex as the caller, and in the controlled condition they were identified as the opposite sex. The finding shoed that overall both gay man and lesbians were less likely to receive help than heterosexuals. Women were also more to receive help than men. The final conclusion to the research showed that people were less likely to offer help to a gay men who found themselves in difficulty. This showed prejudice and discrimination towards gay men.

When discussing prejudice or discrimination, stereotyping also needs to be examined Stewart et al. (1979) described stereotyping as a process not only used to simplify environmental and social stimuli, but one that also aids the construction of meaning to those stimuli based on attribution expectations. Whereas Taguirs (1969) defined stereotyping as the tendency to place a person in a category according to some easily and quickly identifiable characteristic such as age, sex, ethic membership, nationality or occupation, and then to attribute to them qualities believed to be typical of a member of that category. Stereotypes seem to provide a simple and economical; way of perceiving the world.

In the late 1800s male Chinese immigrants were brought to the U.S. to work on the railroads and as agricultural labours on the West Coast many specialized in laundry services. Some came willingly others were basically kidnapped and brought forcibly. After the transcontinental railroad was completed and it occurred to white Americans that the Chinese workers were still around and might compete with them for jobs, a wave of anti-Chinese sentiment swept the U.S. Chinese men were stereotyped as degenerate heroin addicts whose presence encouraged prostitution, gambling, and other immoral activities. Since most Chinese immigrants were brought here specifically as workers, the vast majority were male few at that time were able to bring their wives. A number of cities on the West Coast experienced riots in which whites attacked Asians and destroyed Chinese sections of town. The Seattle riot resulted in practically the entire Chinese population being rounded up and forcibly sent to San Francisco. Similar situations in other towns encouraged Chinese workers scattered throughout the West to relocate, leading to the growth of Chinatowns in a few larger cities on the West Coast.

Ac cording to Buchanan (2007) many researchers have argued that prejudice is part of human nature and that the only by confronting our authentic nature can we gain real insight into the forces that drive group conflict and learn how we might better manage and defuse such urges.

Probable the first formal proposal of a set of social psychological principles for reducing prejudice was from Allportaˆ™s (1954) Contact hypothesis. Prejudice may be reduced by equal status contact between majority and the minority groups in the pursuit of common goals. When people are segregated they are more likely to experience autistic hostility, that is ignorance of other which in turn results in a failure to understand the reason for their actions Lack of contact means there is no reality testing against which to checking our own interpretation of others behaviour, and in turn can enforce negative stereotyping.

What is social protection and safety net?

Social protection is a broad set of public arrangements and instruments that help individuals, households and communities in managing risks and shocks well, assure a basic level of consumption to the extreme poor. Social protection includes: social insurance, social assistance, safety nets, social services, legal and regulatory protection. So that social protection should complement family, community, and market mechanisms for protect the vulnerable against livelihood risk, and enhance the social status and assisting the very poor.

Safety nets are basically income maintenance programs that protect a person or household against two adverse outcomes: a chronic incapacity to work and earn, and a decline in this capacity caused by imperfectly predictable lifecycle events (such as the sudden death of a bread winner), sharp shortfalls in aggregate demand or expenditure shocks (through economic recession or transition), or very bad harvests. Safety net programs serve two important redistribution (such as transfers to disadvantaged groups) and insurance (such as drought relief). (World Bank, 2003)

Social safety net is non-contributory, ex post intervention, it is paid for by the Government from general revenues includes taxation and development assistance, in order to deal with existing poverty or shocks that have already occurred and targeted to the poor and vulnerable. Well-designed safety net can protect the poor in the short term and it also can promote growth, for instance, it can enable the poor to engage in the economy by expanding their opportunities to take risks, diversify livelihoods, innovate, invest the human capital of their children etc.

Safety net instruments include: unconditional cash and near-cash transfers, for instance, non-contributory old age pensions and disability payments; conditional transfers includes conditional cash transfers such as scholarships and conditional in-kind transfers such as food rations and nutrition and feeding programs; unconditional food and other in-kind transfers; fee waivers for health, education and other basic services; general commodity price subsidies includes for food or energy; public workfare.

Social risk management concepts

Arrangements to manage risks can be made in advance, before a shock has occurred risk reduction and risk mitigation can be taken into account. Risk reduction is arrangements that make it less likely that shock will occur, and risk mitigation is arrangements that ensure that if a shock does occur, the effects are small rather than large. Moreover arrangements to manage risks also can be made after a shock has occurred, coping strategies to deal with the impact of the shock

Links between poverty, vulnerability and growth

The poor are the most vulnerable group, they are exposed to diverse risks, so are more likely to suffer a shock; they have fewer resources to deal with these risks, so when a shock does occur, the effects of a shock are more serious for the poor; the rich can afford insurance, or use savings to cope, but the poor generally can’t. High vulnerability makes the poor avoid risk, so they are unable or unwilling to engage in higher risk or higher return activities. Therefore reducing vulnerability is thus both a means and an end: as a means, reducing vulnerability expands opportunities and supports growth; as an end, reducing vulnerability reduces poverty, which is a goal in its own right.

Shocks can affect people as individuals or groups

Individuals
Groups(geographical communities, occupational groups)

Shocks

Accident, illness, old age, house burns down, robbery, family business fails etc

Macroeconomic and labor market shocks, war, riots, nature disasters, disease epidemic etc

Safety net plays multiple roles in national development policy

Safety net plays multiple roles in national development policy, such as reduce poverty and inequality directly by raising the living standards of those at the bottom of society; help households manage risk and vulnerability that experience a shock to keep their children in school, to continue eating enough, to avoid selling productive assets; enable households to make long-term investments; encourage households to innovate, take some risks, invest in their children’s education and health (human capital of the next generation); help Governments make policy reforms and ensure political support for reform by compensating those who suffer short-term losses due to reforms needed for long-term economic growth. Safety net is only one part of an overall poverty reduction strategy.

i??Sourcei?sKalanidhi Subbarao.” Social Safety Nets: Concepts and Definitions.” World Bank.i?‰

The figure above illustrate what safety nets contains and belongs, safety nets contains and also belongs a part of social protection, equity, social risk management and poverty reduction. Equity includes land redistribution, enforcement of contracts and property rights, universal education and safety nets. Poverty Reduction contains providing services and facilities to the poor, and safety nets provide security. Social risk management supplies insurance and safety nets.

Social insurance (social security)

These are ex ante, contributory schemes to mitigate risk that people pay small sums (contributions) in advance, generally on a regular basis. This entitles them to benefits when shocks or events occur, for instance health insurance, contributory old-age pensions and unemployment insurance.

Social insurance is most easily provided for non-poor groups in formal employment who can pay contributions; have a little spare cash left after buying food and other immediate needs; and have regular, stable wage incomes. Social insurance is very important in developed countries and middle-income developing countries, and typically plays a smaller role in low income countries. However, some low income countries are piloting insurance schemes for poor people, In Ethiopia and India, the rainfall index-based crop insurance programs have been done very successfully. The disaster insurance programs have been done very well in Bangladesh.

Steps in an overall strategy in developing a national safety nets system

Identify major risks and vulnerable groups by collecting and analyzing household data;

Review existing programs and identify gaps in coverage

Review options for instruments to address each of these gaps

Identify available financial envelope, such as raise taxes, reallocate existing public spending from inefficient and ineffective programs.

Review institutional capacity and weaknesses

Choose a combination of instruments to cover major risks and groups. “Weave” different programs and instruments together into a coherent system. In a poor country with limited capacity, likely to start with safety nets, but build up social insurance over time

Social safety net in Egypt

One out of every five people is poor in Egypt, and the poverty increased mildly between 2001 and 2005 from 18.36 percent to 19.63 percent. The government of Egypt has worked on reforms of economic, social and political transformation. This reform driven by the need to raise sustainable economic growth, and ensure that the poor benefit from it. The role of state also redefined, the state can no longer be seen as the job provider, goods and subsidies supplier. But the state is faced with the challenge of poverty reduction, and oversees the public interest and protects the poor and vulnerable. Furthermore, the Government must redefine the social safety net to improve people serves by expand programs in fighting poverty.

Poverty continues to be a major policy challenge

Poverty continues to be a major challenge in Egypt, with one out of every five people (about 13.6 million people) living below the poverty line. In order to attack poverty, a better understanding of who the poor are should be included initially. In Egypt, almost three quarters of the poor live in rural areas, in Upper Egypt, most of them working in agriculture and construction and with little education.

Strengthening the social safety net

In Egypt, while the social safety net provide assistance to the poor critically, benefit still many more non-poor individuals and group than poor, and do little to reduce overall poverty.

Egypt spends about 2 percent of its GDP on the core social safety net, a roughly stable level since 2000. It does not have every type of program above, but resources are devoted to:

General social protection (5 percent of GDP);

Consumer subsidies on food (1.7 percent of GDP);

SFD (Social Fund for Development) programs (0.18 percent of GDP); and

Social assistance cash transfers from MOISA (Ministry of Insurance and Social Affairs) (0.12 percent of GDP).

The largest share of resources, 8.1 percent of GDP, is spent on energy subsidies to producers and consumers which serve as an important safety net but also absorb resources that could be better directed to the poor. (World Bank, 2005) Those numbers is significantly below most European countries.

So that reform of the safety net is important for three reasons: firstly, the program often does not reach the poor and the fewer subsidies can not provide meaningful assistance. Secondly, programs are too expensive when subsidies taken into account. And thirdly, inefficient programs that with overlapping beneficiaries and objectives.

Administration of Social Assistance Programs in Egypt

Eligibility for MOISA (Ministry of Insurance and Social Affairs) social assistance cash-transfer programs require applicant supported with document including family birth certificates and salary records at a local MOISA office. This assistance program supply more subsidies to females than males. Application is followed up with a home visit by social workers and a decision is made within 60 days. Total expenditures for the programs were 1.1 billion of Egyptian Pound in 2004, this figure includes pension and social assistance functions.

Geographic targeting

The geographic target should aim in overall poverty reduction, but not reduces poverty in the poorest areas. If all the existing resource devoted to poorest area, no matter the resident is poor or not, the uniform distribution would decrease poverty in the Upper Rural areas. However, poverty will increase slightly in the other areas. Nowadays Egypt use basic poverty map to guide projects, which contains regularly household income, consumption and expenditure.

Smart Safety Net in Egypt

The project intends to create E-Government, which brings all information and services of government for citizens online, and make service more efficient. This project started in 2005, and it will be finished in 2010. The card itself contains a variety of information as the number of family members, birth, death and other eligibility criteria, which will automatically verify the rations and accurate amounts transferred. Government of Egypt expected the smart-card system will decrease the cost of providing subsidies by 10 percent, and amount of saving is 400 million Egyptian pounds annually. This is a pilot project, which will gradually be expanded nationally. (Ministry of State for Administrative Development, www.mcit.gov.eg )

Conditional Cash Transfer Programs (CCTs)

Conditional cash transfer programs (CCTs) are a relatively new instrument that seeks to foster human capital development. The cash helps reduce poverty in its own right, compensates families for the opportunity cost of changing behavior, and is expected to contribute to long-term human capital development for the young. (Rawlings and Rubio, 2004) The target more focuses on vulnerable families with children. So that cash transfer can be an important mechanism to alleviate poverty, such as education and basic health care must be available for the poor. CCTs had a great impact in some countries, for instance, Mexico provided additional equipment and medicines in order to meet increased health services demanded; Nicaragua provided teachers and pay for school materials; Honduras provided direct CCTs to schools and health centers.

CCTs become more popular in Latin America, Jamaica used CCT to replaced former food stamps and social assistance programs; Mexico used CCT to replaced the tortilla subsidy; Brazil created the largest CCT in the developing world by consolidating four cash transfer programs into the Bolsa Familla program.

Using Nicaragua as an example, CCTs have a great impact in education, health and consumption:

Nicaragua CCTs

Program Impact

Education

(primary school)

Health

(children under 2 years-old)

Consumption

(Per capita annual)

+ 21.7%

+18.3%

+N$ 753

CCTs have also been a means to consolidate disparate cash transfer programs into more efficient, effective targeted interventions to support human capital formation. (Ayala, 2003)

Conclusions

Social safety nets are the most important priority, which deal with existing poverty or shocks have already occurred and targeted to the poor and vulnerable. Before policy making and action implementing, several questions should be figure out initially: Who are the poor and vulnerable group? What kind of risk face now? What programs against what risks? What programs cover what kind of groups? Where is the gap? What is the new challenge?

For each program and instrument, the steps in developing national social safety nets can be: firstly set objects; secondly develop an implementation structure to clear define the institutional roles and responsibilities; thirdly, develop mechanisms for targeting, enrolment and payment, use technology to help policy making and action implementing, such as use poverty maps and smart cards in Egypt; finally, monitory and evaluate during the programs, which can be good experiences to learn. While getting better understanding of poverty causes and dynamics, however social protection and social safety nets still face many challenges, there is a need for a long-term strategy to fulfill a number of specific gaps in the future.

Arguably, since the spin of the 20th century there has been impossible demographic change in aging. Ageism is the abuse, discrimination, avoidance and stereotyping of the old people in the society (William & Julian, 2008). We are presently living in a society in which its population is growing tremendously, especially individuals over the age of 65. The modern world is probably characterized by a rapid rate of aging. Ageism comes up with different types of social problems. For example each year in America, a minimum of one million and a maximum of three million elderly people are exploited, injured and mistreated by those individuals whom they depend on for care and support. Furthermore they are set of attitudes, norms, beliefs and values which are used to justify time based discrimination, inequality and subordination. These situations are either consistent or occasional.

There exist lots of challenges facing the western societies. In the modern aging society, the circumstances affecting people and groups as they grow up are totally linked to the overall well-being of the society. In the community there is mounting facts that various effects of aging are neither inevitable nor irreversible. Age is one among many causes of social problems. This is because the pure older and the extremely young are more vulnerable than any other age groups in society. Problems related to the elderly include financial instability, poverty, victimization, isolation, dependency, lack of access to appropriate health care and inadequate housing (William & Julian, 2008).

Debatably, parts of the society do not work amicably as expected. Conflict is all what the society undergoes. The young and elderly are in constant competition for the limited resources. Despite the fact that the resources are abundant in the ground, competition that each an individual faces is so difficult hence conflict is always kept in check. Whether they perceive it or not, the elderly are suppose to compete with the young for health care and resources. As competition heats up, it leads to open conflict between the young and the senior thus throwing the society into turmoil. Actually the guiding opinion of any social life is conflict and disequilibrium.

On conflict perspective, social problems are inevitable and come naturally as result of social struggle. Actually at the base of any social problem there lies strong contest over supply of privilege and power (William & Julian, 2008) .For examples in America the elderly who have retired have fought for the resources through the formation of political lobbies. According to conflict theorists the social problems associated with the elderly come in two different forms. First concerns the elderly been oppressed by the powerful in the society. The other problem comes when the elderly resist oppression and appeal to moral values.

Conflict theorists believe that the primary source of social troubles come as a result of oppression and exploitation. They consider inequality in society as a wrong and unprincipled aspect of a society. Structural-functionalist view it in a different perspective in that they view the conflicts between the aged and other members of the society as an essential for the integration and smooth running of the society. Both theories though arguing on a different perspective, believe that discrimination and stereotyping strengthens the dominant groups and oppresses the elderly. Conflict theorists see social change as continuous, immediate and inevitable as the young groups seek to replace the old in social chain of command.

Aging in the modern society is a social problem on its own. The elderly individuals in the modern society have less power and lower social status, but they cannot accept ageing as a way in which cannot be avoided at all. It is a natural way in which the human body undergoes some deterioration. In United States an elderly generation is persistently increasing (William & Julian, 2008). This fact has significant impacts on lives of individuals and the social institutions that exist in society. The problems related to the aged are motivated by three significant factors: the notion of work as an individual value, economic hardship and labeling.

In the society each institution has a duty to fulfill. Aging has become a social problem because institutions in the modern society do not meet the needs of the elderly people who are weak. The elderly face stigmatization because they are not in a position to adapt to the society full of youth-oriented norms. Conflict theorist’s review the social problems of the elderly as stemming from lack of evidence to influence societal institutions to meet their needs.

The issue of modernization has changed almost all activities in the society. Many of the problems facing the aging generation in America recently emerge from the nature of modernization of the western society. The elderly face lots of challenges in the production sector. More of the work is carried out using machines which the elderly have no idea on how it operates. Ageism is not well defined in all sectors hence the elderly have no choice but to agree to negative branding that the society gives them. For example people believe that as individuals grow older their intellectual ability and capacity declines.

The society is dominated by youth and glamour therefore the actual role of the elderly has no value. Growing old implies that there is continuous deterioration of mental and physical mechanisms that are essential for effectual performance in the community. A capitalist nation such all in the world today, old age is significantly viewed as been a handicap. The youth does not appreciate the fabulous contribution and the high positions held by the so called the “handicapped”. The elderly should be held in particularly high esteem and idolized for their knowledge, contributions, wisdom and experiences.

Perhaps age stratification has affected the elderly tremendously. In the modern society people are mostly segregated on the basis of age. This segregation limits the type of roles in which members of each cluster can hold and work on. This scenario leaves the elderly in a worse off group, leading to conflict in the society. The elderly are in the recent past been discriminated (William & Julian, 2008).Stereotypes believe that the old people are intellectually rigid, asexual, unproductive, reclusive and ineffective. Furthermore discrimination causes emotional and psychological abuse to the elderly resulting to depression and low self-esteem. Continuity of discrimination makes the elderly grow apathetically and finally withdraw from the society. Additionally age discrimination erodes senior’s confidence and dignity, finally affecting their romance and love lifestyle.

Aging comes up with drastic health issues. In most cases they are prone to highly chronic diseases. These diseases associated to old age include the metabolism of glucose in the brain and cardiac disturbance. As individuals grow old they stop or reduce their workload, therefore affecting the general lifestyle and functioning of the body. The change in lifestyles activities and other social contacts affect morbidity and mortality. Health issues of the aging increase spending on health care programs which include medical expenses and nursing homes. This problem increases daily; this is so because the elderly face exceptionally high medical bills with decreasing or low incomes. In America the old spent twice as much on health care as their youthful counterparts, more than half of this goes to insurance (William & Julian, 2008).The elderly who are poor, women and the minority spend higher ratio of their total resources on health care.

Abuse and victimization has become part and parcel of the elderly in the 21st century. These abuses include financial exploitation, physical abuse, psychological abuse and the medical abuse. In America the elderly who are abused in one way or another is estimated to be 2.1 million or more. Those abused at home or institutions are mostly female, whites, individuals with low income and widows.

The elderly who retire have a problem adjusting to the new environment. Retiring puts much pressure on the elderly to adjust to their new status. In the society there are no role models in which the elderly can learn from. Retirement comes with reduction of income hence spending should be adjusted in order to guarantee survival .Now days policies have been put in place which makes retirement a mandatory at a certain age. They also face extra hardships such as discrimination when seeking new jobs. Most countries have no articulate policies that deal with housing; in addition the programs that deal with health care of the elderly are inadequate and costly. Hence it is difficult for the old to enjoy their short life .The social security systems have also faced lots of criticism; it discriminates against those elderly who are still working and women. The payments from the systems are extremely minimal to offer support to the elderly who have no other supply of income (William & Julian, 2008).

The baby boomers age group consists of individuals who were born between the years 1946-1964. Due to the shifting needs and steep statistics baby boomers will still influence the society in different ways. The world has improved on the health care to its people therefore life expectancy has increased and individual don’t want to bear children hence there is a total demographic shift. Baby boomers are currently at their 40s and 50s. They have fully affected the overall age structure of society. In addition, they are the barriers to the employment of the young, this is because they have increased the average age of those who are working and the general size of labor force. Arguably, the World will still feel the impact of baby boomers in the labor sector for more years to come. Recently baby boomers have the highest percentage of labor force. With a continuous increase of baby boomers in the work force will imply that the percentage of the unemployed youth increases each and every day. The number of old people in the work place will also be increasing. The youth too will be growing old and when they are employed they will be of an older age. The trend will persist for many years.

Baby boomers when compared financially to their parents they are at better off. The households’ real median income of baby boomers is 35-53 percent higher than what their parents had. In every society, not all people in the same class achieve the same things; some baby boomers did not perform well economically hence most of them remained poor. As the baby boomers generations ages, lots of policies should be put in place so as to help the elderly in the future. The baby boomers too faced different conditions of the economy because of variances in their cohorts (William & Julian, 2008).Some enjoyed economic boom while others were born during economic recession. This scenario caused differences in age distribution of the economically disadvantaged and the poor in society.

The society should go beyond aging and learn more about the concept of aging. In fact we should do away with the erroneous thinking and beliefs that are associated to aging. The old have their rights and freedoms that should be respected. They are human beings hence they have sexual feelings and emotions. The elderly should not be blamed for the persistent increase in social and health care costs. The increase of health and social costs are caused by global economic crisis. The youth need to stop the stereotype thinking and listen to seniors who have wisdom and experience. The media too need to change the ways in which they portrayed the elderly in society. Media reaches many people therefore the perception of ageing can be changed easily by them.

In conclusion we expect that the society changes its negative view of the elderly. Otherwise in the meantime we should comprehend and accept that there is something inherently erroneous with the way the old in society are viewed. Very little research has been carried out to determine the causes of ageism. Therefore more concern should be put on the causes of ageism. We should not be stereotypes and only believe that it is nature taking its course. Mostly the problems of the elderly in society are compounded by a deficiency of interaction, inactivity and loneliness. The old are segregated and left alone either in retirement institutions or nursing homes away from friends and family members. Furthermore they are isolated from schools and flow of work. This should not be the case, the elderly should be made active and interacted with family members and friends.

“We define social problems as the activities of individuals or groups making assertions of grievances and claims with respect to some putative conditions.” Malcolm Spector and John I. Kitsuse.

Writers above show that the social problem is an activity that bring harmful more than the benefit to the personal, family, country, especially the today’s modern world. The social problem became more and more serious in the entire world which shows that the social problem is increasing in anywhere and anytime. As the third world country, Malaysia, the country’s growth influenced by the social problem seriously. We need to find out how do these problems affect our country’s growth and discuss the step to prevent the issues.

Illegal immigration can be defined as person immigration to a country or state in offence of the immigration laws and empire of that country or state. The illegal immigrants occupy substantial portion of the Malaysia population, numbering as many as two million. Most of the illegal immigrants came from Indonesia, Philippines, Cambodia, Vietnam and so on. They came to Malaysia to take odd job unpopularity to the local populace, which are agricultural sectors, human trafficking or prostitution. The illegal immigrants came to Malaysia working harder for the little amount of family income monthly, but some of these create some social problem after unemployed.

Illegal immigration increase many political, economic and social issues and affects the growth of developed countries and the more successful developing countries. First, they make our country poverty. Illegal immigrants normally entered the country in search of higher wages that cannot achievable in their home countries. The local people is lost the work opportunity when these illegal immigrants have fulfilled the working sector. The poverty will increase, when rate of unemployment increases.

Secondly, those illegal immigrants make our country overpopulation which is population growth that exceeds the carrying capacity of an area or environment results. Overpopulation can cause problems such as pollution, water crisis, and poverty because the government cannot control the illegal immigrant. They misuse the water and cause the water crisis.

Third are they prostitution in our country. It is someone especially a women, who earned money by having sex with other people. Someone forced into sexual slavery because they need to pay the charges of illegal immigrants or need to face the stress of the live. The rate of death will increase because of the HIV virus This is also will lead to HIV virus in other hand it will increase the amount of death in our country.

The illegal immigration brings many affect to our country’s growth and it needs the solution to prevent these issues. In year 2011, the government put the Legalization Program into practice to allow the 1.8 million illegal to be either legalized or allow to be deported back to their home country without any form of punishment. Employers who have been employing illegal workers will also be granted amnesty and allow to legalize their worker, subjected to the rules and regulation of Ministry of Manpower. All illegal workers are allowed to register under the 6P program. All illegal will be allow to get a valid work permit, insurance and other benefits after registrant to be approved to work in Malaysia. Those illegal immigrate who’s registration has been rejected would be granted amnesty from any prosecution or any fine and be allow to return to their home country freely.

Another, the government needs to strengthen laws in the sea area, land area and sky area to prevent illegal immigration. Those illegal immigrate will through any way to reached our country for the higher monthly income. The authorities need to increase the quantity of the army, navy and airforce to prevent the illegal immigration in our country. The government need to border fence and heightened border security in Malaysia.

Furthermore, the ageing population also can be classifying as the issue problem today. The ageing population is a phenomenon when the increase rate of the old age people with any region or gender and the decreasing of the rate of birth in a country. The old age people occupy the major quantity in the country more than the young people. It can be prove with the investigate, the quantity people of Malaysians aged 60 years and above is estimated to be 1.4 million and is Expected to increase to 3.3 million in the year 2020. The percentage of the population that is 60 years and over has also increased over the years – 5.2% in 1970, 5.7% in 1990 and 6.3% in the year 2000. In the year 2020, this percentage is projected to be 9.8% of the population.

The issue of ageing population affected our country’s growth seriously. This process is taking place in any country in the world. Although a rising old age can have significant social and economic implications because of their experiment, but as the worker become progressive older, the efficiency will decrease. This will affect economic of the country of development, Malaysia. The elder age of the worker, will face the many problem when working such as health problem, IT problem and so on. Older people will take more sick leave than younger people because the physical situation. Another, elder people majority cannot keep places with the time and cause cannot use the IT product. These problems will affect the efficiency of the work in this modern world and slow down the economic growth.

Furthermore, the step to overcome the ageing problems is to increase the rate of birth in our country. The aged of married need shift to an earlier date. Every family need to plan a family planner to increase the family member in the right time. Then, we can decrease ageing problems and avoid happened another social problem such as abortion, child abuse, and so on.

Cruelty to animals, also called animal abuse or animal neglect, is the infliction of suffering or harm upon non-human animals, for purposes other than self-defense. If the master of animal not giving the animal of life essential like food or water, it can be said that animal abuse. The animal can be harm for specific gain such as medical traditional because human being believes that the animal specific part can treat diseases but no any scientific basis. Human being killing the animal only for the specific part such as fur to make bag or traditional medical for own benefit, it so cruelty to the animal.

Following that, human cannot continuous cruelty to animal. It will cause the endangered of that animal species. If the Apes endangered in our country, it will decrease the tourist come to Malaysia to see the special animal which is only in the Malaysia. It will directly affect the economics of our country. Animal abuse also can be said as the immoral activities which will affect the honorary of Malaysian. Another country will think that Malaysian is immoral and will not choose Malaysia as tourist place.

The way to prevent animal abuse problem is teach children cannot cruelty to animal since they were young. Parents play an important role in this issue to guide their children in a better path way because parents is the closest person to the children. If people know the seriousness of the animal abuse, they will not cruelty to animal. It can decrease the case of animal abuse in the future efficiency.

A drug is a chemical substance which may have medicinal, intoxicating, performance enhancing or other effects when taken or put into a human body or the body of another animal and is not considered a food or exclusively a food. The drug can be classify as benefit or harmful to the humans and animals. A drug is used as a medicine such as make human or animal sleepy or unconscious or used in a medicine in treatment, prevention disease or other condition. On the contrary, drug is a substance that affects the processes of mind or body and the central nervous system to do abnormal behavior. On drug can cause someone addition and appear druggies brings about more and more social problem in today’s modern world.

Following that, the case of drug abuse destroy the development country, Malaysia, to exploit social and human capital. This will degrade quality of life and cause the experienced worker leaves their position, as well as fear crime cause by the drug addiction. That may block the development to continue in the future. Crime can impede the possible employer and education opportunity, and it discourages the accumulation of asset in our country.

Furthermore, business is a sector which is sensitive to the crime and drug abuse problem. Both foreign and domestic investors think that drug abuse and crime as a social which is instability to make investment. This proves that the crime and drug abuse can drive away the business in our country. Drug abuse and crime can cause our country’s recession because of the investor get rid of our country to investment.

Prevention is better than cure. We need to prevent drug abuse before it occurs in our country. The school authorities are the important role in this issue. The school authorities need to start campaign which is related to prevent drug abuse and educate student about the harmful of drug. It can prevent teenager involved in the drug abuse and can ensure the best development of the country in the future. If not, how can the druggies develop the country in the future?

Nevertheless, the road accident as a social problem is increasing in today’s modern world. Accident can be definite as an unfortunate incident that happens unexpectedly and unintentionally, typically resulting in damage or injury or a crash involving road or other vehicles, typically one that causes serious damage or injury. We can find out the road accident in the newspaper every day. It shows that the how seriously road accident was happened in our daily life.

Malaysia is paying a high price to the road accident due to the careless of cars and motorcycles drives. This issue effects the population of Malaysia because of the rate of death increase. Following that, the rate of the death in the road accident increase from the year to year. If the rate of death of road accident increases, both family and country will effect by this factor seriously. Everyone life in the world has their own value. Anyone should protect their life to contribution in develop the country. We should exert 1Malaysia spirit to let our country in the shortest time not waste our life on the careless behavior.

Constantly, the road accidents cause the tangible and intangible costs of the economics of country damaged gravely. In the road accident, the tangible costs included the damaged of the vehicles such as replacement and repair fee, medical treatment fee, insurance fee. The intangible costs included pain, physiological trauma, and grief. With the more able the people to buy a car, the road accident increases and directly create more and more effect in this issue.

The government implement a operation called “OPS SIKAP” to decreases the road accident in the festival seasons such as Deepavali, Chinese New Year, Christmas day, and Hari Raya Aidilfitri. The “OPS SIKAP” operation can be defined as operation attitude in the English which is carried out by the Royal Malaysia Police to create a safety traffic. This operation began in year 2001 to monitor the area which had higher rate of road accident. Until today, the 26th “OPS SIKAP” operations were successful decrease the road accident and directly decrease the rate of death in our country.

Apart from that, personally played the important role in the road accident. According the investigate, personally neglect in service regularly, drive in the situation lack of sleep, or hypervelocity. The drivers should have the correct behavior to protect life in the road. Example, driver should service car regularly to ensure the function of car operated normally. The driver should engraft the correct concept in their mind to decrease the road accident.

Following that, gambling is the gambled of money or something of material value on an event with an uncertain outcome with the primary intent of winning additional money and/or material goods, it can be seen as an entertainment. The desired to gamble continually no matter the harmful negative consequent can be classify as the problem gambling, or ludomania. The opening of the casino in the Marina Bay Sands and Resort Word Sentosa in Singapore or the casino in Genting Highland increase the problem gambling in our country.

Furthermore, the gambling derivative more and more problems in the social. Constant indulgence in gambling brought about person ruin. If we indulgence in gambling, we will neglect other things except gambling. If one approaches gambling with the intent of winning and they initially end up losing, the only way for them to break even or win in the long run is to keep playing. The game will stop until the person bankrupt. There will affect the economics of the country because of the fund decrease and put in the wrong place.

The NGO or GO should created the hotline for pathological gambling to prevent the problem gambling increase. The pathological gambling can say out the problem they faced or teach the way to avoid gambling. The gamblers rehab centre should de build up to avoid gambling. The pathological gambling should use the correct way to overcome gambling because the pathological gambling is the one who indulge in the gambling seriously.

Last but not least, the social problems that I list down above are illegal immigration, ageing population, cruelty to animal, drug abuse, road accident which is increasing in today’s modern world. These problems affect our country’s growth in the aspect of social, politic, economic, education, and so on. All authorities should carry out the method to decreasing the social problem together.

1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_issues

2 http://main.socprobs.net/Week_1.htm

3 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegal_Immigration

4 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegal_immigrants_in_Malaysia

5 http://nazehan.blogspot.com/2008/10/did-you-noticed-about-case-of-illegal.html

6 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_ageing

7 Mafauzy Mohamed, (2000) The Problems and Challenges of the Aging Population of Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences, 7 (1). pp. 1-3. ISSN 1394195X

Full text not available from this repository.

Official URL: http://www.medic.usm.my/publication/mjms/

http://myais.fsktm.um.edu.my/954/

8 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruelty_to_animals

9 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug

10 http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/drug

11 http://www.un.org/en/ga/president/66/Issues/drugs/drugs-crime.shtml

12 http://www.rtsa.org.zm/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=59:impact-of-road-accidents-&catid=1:announcements&Itemid=67

13 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ops_Sikap

14 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_gambling

15 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambling

SOCIAL PROBLEMS FACED BY DEVELOPING COUNTRY

Social problems are biggest problem in our country. Social problems, also called social issue, like every society, great and small. Even in relatively isolated, sparsely populated areas, a group will suffering social problem, part of this due to fact that any member of the society living close area then we would free from every social problem but this is can`t impossible. It`s virtually impossible to avoid them, and even people who live together in the same house.They don`t get along seamlessly on problems that effect people living together in a society.

Not all social conditions become elevated to the status of social problem. Social problem are related to the febric of the community including conflicts among the interests of community.social issue has the part social problem. Social issue include poverty,violence,pollution,injustice,suppression of human right,gay marriage,gun contral.social problem also big problem in developing countries.For examplehere are some objective conditions”which exist today and as you will see no all of them are considered to be social problem

* SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF INDIA*

India is one of the developing nations in the modern world. It has because an independent country a republic, more than half of country ago. During this period the country has been effect to attain development and growth in various area such as building infrastructure,production of food grains, science and techonology and spreed of eduction.the life expectancy has increased and many disease have been controlled.However,there are many areas in which India society is experiencing a variety of problem.A large section of the Indian society is suffering from so many social problem like ….

*ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLME IN INDIA *

Are increase rapidly.The increasing economic developing and rapidly growing population that has taken the country from 300 million people in 1947 to more then one billion people today is putting a stain on the environment, infrastructure and the country`s natural resources. Industrial pollution,soil erosion,deforestation,rapid industrialization,urbanization, of the country`s resources be it land or water and the industrialization process has resulted environmental pollution is one of the most serious problem facing humanity and other life forms on our planet today

*EDUCATION PROBLEM IN INDIA*

The Indian eduction system has failed-what our eduction system strives to produce are creative and intelligent young who will take our country forward in to the golden age

*UNEMPLOYMENT PROBLEM IN INDIA*

India is progressing with an growth rate.Growth rate in India is the second highest in the world after that china.The youth force of India are contributing lot to the some .It is believed that principal reason behind Indian progress is its youth force,highest in under the world. However there is a problem.Hugse number of India youth are not only unemployed but unemplable large number of white collar jobs are waiting for suitable candidates.India is a leader in softeware and industries in India are continuity offering white collar jobs be side some blue collars.

*POVERTY (STARVATION, HOMELESSNESS)*

A large of the Indian society is suffering from poverty is a phenomenon poor people lack the necessary resources and capacity to satisfy basic need like food,shllter,health and education.There were only about 150 million abjectly poor people in India around 1950.Today about 50 years later , India has about 300 million,abjectly poor people.India still has the world`s largest number of poor people in a single country of its nearly 1 billion inhabilants an estimated 350-400 million are below the poverty line, 75 per cent of them in the rural areas. Some poor people are living on the street and do not buy a meal.

*CHILD LABOUR (ILLITERACY, BONDED LABOUR)*

The generall laws against child labor children younger thon nine wear not allowed to work and the word day of youth under the age of 18 was limted to twelve laders.The small hands of slervery bonded child labour in India.For exemple my friend sister is ten years old.Every morning at seven she goes to the bonded labour man every night at nine she comes home. He treats her badly, he hits her if he thinks She working slowly or if she talks to the other children, he yells at her, if she is sick and cannot go to work. I don`t care about school or playing. All I want is to bring my friend sister home from the bonded labour man for 600 rupees .we will never have 600 rupees. As a developing country India is facing a number of problems which need careful analysis.

*SATI, DOWRY, FEMALE INFANTICIDE*

Sati system according to which woman were also killed along with their husband on his death. Basically the custom of sati was belived to be a voluntary Hindu act in which the woman voluntary decides to end her life with her husband after his death. A few rules of India tried to ban it.

Dowry system is a hug problem in India and has been a source of great disturbance and embarrassment in our society. Dowry is acultur system where the parents of bride (girl) pay hug amount of money, expensive gift and jewellery to bride groom (boy) and his parents during marriage. Dowry is usually an unspoken requirement. Legelly, dowry is a banned practice in India but it still bride burning, murders and dowry pressure in India

Female infanticide is the intentional killing of baby girl due to preference for male babies and from the low value associated with the birth of female. Legelly, female infanticide is a banned in India but it still.

* SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF ENGIAND*

England is a most developing country of the modern world. It has an independent country. England still has the world`s largest number of modern rich country but some families were very poor then England also suffering from so many social problem like…

*COMMUNITY PROBLEM, FAMILY SOCIAL POLICYAND DRUG ABUSE*

Teenagers` community problem can be related to any thing that happens in this society. Teenagers` can be affected about anything. Social problem can be as simple as listening to loud music in a park.

If a child became an adult its did not get better. It was a terrible life. The family and parent`s are a totally change. Social problem can be as simple as caring and dependency. The adult has a disable age to work so her suffering from so many domestic violence problem.

There are three big reasons why teenager`s take drug: curiosity, peer pressure and availability. Legally drug is a banned under 18 year but teenagers has also take tobacco, alcohol drug and suffering from so many diseases. A series of biennial surveys begun in 1982 to estimate the prevalence of cigarette smoking among school children in Great Britain.

*ELECTION*

The UK elections are very problematic location. Thousand of people are deprived of the right of vote. The electoral commission said it would be conducting a through. The election chiefs told the time that the widespread failures to deal with high voter turnout may lead to re- runs.

*UNWANTED PREGNANCY*

Another teenager social problem is unwanted pregnancy at the sixteen or seventeen year. Besides the fact the girl can end up pregnant if they don`t use protection, there is also the possibility of sexually transmitted disease. Teenager`s is not mainly ignorance a girl who is over sixteen can legally leave home so if school girl becomes pregnant she can claim benefits and the local authorities.

*POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION*

Most families were very poor. Even their children had to work and they often died because the jobs were very hard and dangerous. Men often did not become a job and so they were forced to steal. It was the only way they saw to get bread for them and their families.

Nearly 13 million people live in England -that`s 1 in 5 population.

70% of Bangladeshi children in the UK are poor.

Women are the also poorest group.

Landon has a higher proportion of people living in poverty than any other region in the UK. The UK has a higher proportion of its population living in relative poverty than most other EU countries.

*HEALTH AND UNEMPLAYMENT PROBLEM*

Depression anxiety and other forms of mental illness have taken over from unemployment as the greatest. Social problem in the UK, a health economist warns today. The government on mental health; advocates a network of 250 centres across the country to offer psychological therapies instead of the drug widely handed out by doctors in the absences of sufficient therapists.

CONCLUSION

Throughout history, philosophers have argued that the capacity to solve problems successfully, psychologists have since been looking to understand the nuances of problem solving specifically as it applies to the self-directed cognitive behavioural process by which an individual, couple or group attempt to identify discover effective solutions for problems encountered in everyday living and everybody given different idea about solving the social problem in world. Some people can learn to solve problems effectively and positively, but my view has it is very difficult this but can`t impossible then everybody and government can do it. Social problem solving as well as practical methods and training approaches. Because of the widespread. We as a society have made, and analyzes that works and doesn`t work regarding solution to today`s problem.