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Given a number of laws governing workplace discrimination such as Civil rights Act of 1964 and Equal pay Act of 1963, Racial & Gender discrimination still exist in working places. Racial & Gender discrimination is the act of treating people differently of different races, colour, national origin, gender, religion or sexual orientation. Gender discrimination is a severe and persistent problem, especially in developing Countries.

The main objective of outlining racial or gender discrimination at work place is for people at work, to have a conducive working environment where there is no harassment of the other sex or race simply because one is of different colour or sex. A conducive working environment leads to a positive output of the work and hence the growth of the nation as well in all aspects of economy.

2.0 GENDER DISCRIMINATION AT WORK

Source: Civil right Act of 1964, & Equal Pay Act of 1963, (Pub. L. 88-38) (EPA)

Gender discrimination as stated earlier can be defined as an act of treating differently the opposite sex (oppress) simply because he or she belong to that sex. It is a tradition that when gender discrimination is addressed it means the complete exclusion of females from the employment or as the exclusion of females from white-collar jobs.

There have been several cases of unequal payment in the working areas (Salary or Wages) between men and women. It has been found that women are paid less comp aired to men given the same task offered to be performed by both men and women in the work place.

The discrimination of women with pregnancy at work, pregnant women normally have maternity leave now it has been a routine that that when women are on maternity leave they would not be paid at all. This case occurs in the private sectors mostly but International Labour Organisation ILO has set rules which govern the employers not to discriminate their employees.

2.1 TYPES OF GENDER DISCRIMINATION

Disparate treatment is clear-cut discrimination. Intentional act of discrimination.

Disparate Impact is where some type of company policy excluded a certain individuals from the job or from promotions.Unintentional discrimination

LAWS RELATED TO GENDER DISCRIMINATION AT WORK

Title VII of the Civil Right of Act 1964

Protect individual from discrimination based upon sex. It is Illegal for an employment to discriminate against individual because of their sex in hiring, firing, and other terms of condition.

The law covers all private employers, state and local government, and education institution that employ 15 or more individuals.

Title VII Equal Pay Act.

Illegal to discriminate on the basis of sex in the payment of wages or benefits.

Example salary, overtime, bonus, stock option, life insurance, vacation and holiday pay.

Affirmative Action

Equal opportunity for women and minorities. This policy was implemented by Civil Rights Act 1964.

Made to overcome the past societal discrimination of allocating resource to the specific group like minorities and women.

Fair Pay Act 2001

Strengthen the equal pay act

To amend the Fair Labour Standards Act of 1938 to prohibit discrimination in the payment of wages on account of sex, race, or national origin, and for other purposes.

3.0 RACIAL DISCRIMINATION AT WORK

Racial discrimination can also be defined as an act of treating differently the opposite race simply because he or she belong to a different national origin, religion or colour.

Racial discrimination at work occurs when there are mixed races in a working place. The ruling race will oppress the other race simply because it belongs to that race.

Source: Civil right Act of 1964, Equal Pay Act of 1963, (Pub. L. 88-38) (EPA) & United Nations High commissioner for Human Rights, Geneva Switzerland. 1996-2000.

4.0 CAUSES OF RACIAL & GENDER DISCRIMINATION AT WORK

Source: United Nations High commissioner for Human Rights, Geneva Switzerland. 1996-2000

It is still not clear why racial or gender discrimination arises at work because the state of discrimination is more of a feeling created which cannot be seen but rather felt after one group expressing different feeling towards another group. The following are the reasons which can lead to racial or gender discrimination at work:

Fear of sharing power with other groups of people. One group doesnt want to share the powers with other group this can lead to racial or gender discrimination.

Superiority complex and Ignorance of other cultures, religions, and values, one simply feel is superior to the other group.

Historic patterns of prejudice, discrimination, and racism. Colonialism, historic hostilities, and the slave trade contribute to modern racism a good example is when Britain colonised Africa, to this day there is still an ideology of the white men and black men which is already a racial discrimination and here it mostly affects the black people. The historic pattern of that woman are to stay at home and take care of children also leads to a resistance in acceptance of women working in todays life hence leads to gender discrimination.

Xenophobia, the fear of people who are different this can be in terms of colour, for example the white coloured people fear the black coloured people . Deep fear can express itself in racially motivated violence

Religious tensions between certain religions, employees with same goals may not want to get along with each other due to historic differences. For instance, its a common stand in history that Hindus and Muslims have had a long running conflict since ages.

5.0 EFFECTS OF RACIAL OR GENDER DISCRIMINATION.
ECONOMICAL EFFECTS OF RACIAL & GENDER DISCRIMINATION

Source: Becker, Gary S., 1971, The Economics of Discrimination & Blackden, C. Mark, and Chitra Bhanu, 1999, Gender, Growth, and Poverty Reduction: Special Program of Assistance for Africa,? World Bank Technical Paper No. 428, World Bank

Unemployment rate in a country will increase or rather arise, because a lot of the employees who experience racial or gender discrimination will leave work this applies to those who had been enrolled in the job already but for those seeking the jobs and face racial and gender discrimination are unable to acquire jobs due discrimination that they are facing hence leading to an increase of unemployed in a nation.

Productivity at work will decline due to uncondusive working environments that are created in the working areas due to racial and gender discrimination. Or rather due to the decline in employment that is people leaving their jobs can lead to low productivity at work.

Gross Domestic Product will decline, due to decrease in productivity at work, the general level of products at the nation level will decline as well since production has seized due to racial or gender discrimination.

Per capita income of the people in the nation will decline as well, this is the average income level of the citizen who are with jobs. This is used to measure the wealth of the population and also compare countries wealth. Due to racial and gender discrimination the countries per capita income will decline as well since quite a number of people are jobless.

Living standards of the people will also decline since the per capita income of the people has declined as well.

5.2 SOCIAL EFFECTS OF RACIAL & GENDER DISCRIMINATION

Source: Blackden, C. Mark, and Chitra Bhanu, 1999, Gender, Growth, and Poverty Reduction: Special Program of Assistance for Africa,? World Bank Technical Paper No. 428, World Bank

Psychological effects, people exposed to gender or racial discrimination at work will experience psychological problems such as stress which could lower the productivity of the work.

Occurrence of violence, the group being oppressed if could fight back the group oppressing them and hence instability of the country or at work place.

6.0 REMEDIES OR SOLUTIONS OF RACIAL OR GENDER DISCRIMINATION

source: United Nations High commissioner for Human Rights, Geneva Switzerland. 1996-2000

Racial and gender discrimination is a complex ideology as it exist in expressional feelings which are sometimes hard to prove but again this ideology differences should be removed at the work areas and any place where they exist as its adverse effects could cost a lot in the future long run. The following are ways on how to reduce or eliminate racial or gender discrimination at working places:

Implementation of laws internationally and at the government level. Such as the Civil Right Act 1964, Equal pay Act of 1963 and other laws implemented by ILO and other NGOs which are now implemented worldwide.

To educate the children as they grow on the effects of discrimination this will also help remove the ideology of superiority complex in peoples head and hence people would respects other groups colour, sex, nationality and religion.

People persistent in practising racial and gender discrimination should be taken to court and be dealt with in an appropriate manner following the rules and regulations of the laws created

Development of comprehensive job training programs which will enable employees to work with any type of group regardless of their colour, nationality, sex, language or religion.

There should be a respect of peoples religions no matter how much one is into his or her religion they should accept the other peoples religion and respect it and stop being extremists.

Transparency at work areas, job vacancies should be made open and even the interviews should be open as in not oppress other groups this means cameras should be used in interviews this could help stop racial and gender discrimination at work.

To eradicate any gender stereotyping issues and promotes gender equality.

7.0 COMPARISON OF RACIAL AND GENDER DISCRIMINATION BETWEEN COUNTRIES

The rate of gender discrimination is still high in the developing countries especially Africans countries. There are traditions and norms which favour men than the women but again this still do exist in Muslim countries.

Racial discrimination is a historical influence since the age of slavery; this exists in developed countries where the difference of colour exists. A good example is the black Americans and the White Americans.

gender discrimination

Source: http://filipspagnoli.wordpress.com/2008/05/09/human-rights-facts-10/.

equal salary gender gap

Source: http://filipspagnoli.wordpress.com/2008/05/09/human-rights-facts-10/

8.0 CONCLUSION

This seminar paper shows an evidence of the narrowing of economy of a nation due to racial and gender discrimination at work place. The actions of this type of discrimination impede economic growth in a greater depth as stated earlier on.

It is to the nations interests to eradicate racial and gender discrimination at any cost as for it future distraction could bring a downfall of a nation since its the economy of the country in particular which faces this kind of discrimination.

Leadership is the action of leading a group of people or an organization, or the ability to do this Oxford Dictionary. A person exerts influence over other people, which inspires, motivates and directs their activities to help achieve common performance goals (Yukl, 1989 as cited in George & Jones, 2006). The person who exerts such influence is a leader. With the influence they exert, effective leaders help groups and organisations to achieve a goal.

Effective leadership also increases an organisation’s ability to meet all the contemporary challenges such as obtain a competitive advantage, the need to promote acceptable ethical behaviour and is essential to manage a diverse workforce fairly and impartially. As a result, this will raise the organisations’ chances of success (George & Jones, 2006).

Nowadays due to the exceptionally challenging era, leadership can be very demanding because of the pace of change, the illusion of control and the high expectations of followers (Arnold & Rendall, 2010).A leader can adopt his own personal qualities, behaviours styles and decisions to develop his own leadership style (Arnold & Rendall, 2010).

Early leader-focused approaches to leadership have 2 main features: “a description of the leader in terms of their characteristics and/or behaviour” and “the investigation and analysis and of the characteristics and or behaviours of what makes a ‘good leaders’ regardless of what they lead” (Arnold & Rendall, 2010).

Early leadership was more focused on finding the best characteristics that makes a person a leader or effective leader. Early work such as the work of House and Baetz (1979) came up with what characteristics that leaders tend to have at a higher degree than non-leaders. These characteristics include intelligence, dominance/need for power, self-confidence and knowledge of the task. (House & Baetz , 1979). Bass (1990) also included other personality traits such as good adjustment, emotional balance and high integrity which were found to be common traits amongst leaders. (Bass, 1990) This early research did yield some interesting results but researchers did not find a constant profile of characteristics which are common to all leaders however personality and intelligence seem to be fundamental for persons to emerge as leaders and ultimately be effective leaders (Arnold & Rendall, 2010).

The Big Five Personality Traits

People have certain characteristics which are constant to them throughout their life which can influence “how they think, feel and behave both on and off the job” (George & Jones, 2006). These characteristic are called personality traits. These traits make you act, feel and think in certain ways which makes every individual unique. It is very important that these traits are understood since every person’s personality influences their behaviour and their approach to managing people and resources (George & Jones, 2006).

An individual’s personality is composed of five general traits or characteristics, these being extraversion, negative affectivity, agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience (Digman, 1990). Each personality trait is viewed as a continuum along which every individual falls. A person can fall on the high end part or on the low end part or else somewhere in between. A person’s approach to management can be described in how people are like at the high and low ends of each continuum which is an easy way to understand how these trait affect a person’s approach (George & Jones, 2006).

The effectiveness of each trait is determined by a complex interaction between the nature of the job or organisation in which they are working and the characteristics of the person. Furthermore, some personality traits might be effective in one situation but can decrease the effectiveness in another situation. (George & Jones, 2006)

There are other personality traits in addition to the big five that describe people’s personalities. These are specifically important for understanding managerial effectiveness. Some examples are self-esteem, locus of control and need for achievement.

Research by Fred E. Fiedler acknowledged that effective leadership depends on the characteristics of the leader and of the situation. Fiedler came up with the Contingency theory of leadership. He explains why a manager or leader may be capable in one situation and incapable in another. It also suggests which kinds of managers or leaders are more effective in different situations (George & Jones, 2006). He argued that leaders have rather stable personal characteristic, leading to a characteristic behavioural style. In his theory, Fiedler assumed that how much a leader is person-oriented depends on the leader’s perception of their least preferred co-worker. He concluded that “task-oriented leaders are best in very favourable and unfavourable situations and those person-oriented leaders are best in moderately favourable or moderately unfavourable situations” (Arnold & Rendall, 2010).

Desired and acceptable leadership characteristics may vary across organisational context. Sociability, need for power and need for achievement are considerably relevant characteristics which are consistent across different organisations and organisational cultures. (House & Baetz , 1979). House and Baetz (1979) came up with two insights which are generally accepted by persons studying leadership: if certain characteristics are to have an impact on others and their performance, these personal characteristics need to be observable in the leader and that leader characteristics and behaviours depend on the different type of task (House & Baetz , 1979).

Recent studies have pointed out the effects of personal and situational factors on the development of an individual as a leader. Amongst these personal factors are personality traits and gender (Jacobowitz & Pratch, 1996).One of the most distinct and difficult to change characteristics is gender. Leadership roles are typically described in stereotypically masculine terms. This could mean that women have a slight disadvantage over men in being selected for leadership roles and when selected it is difficult for them to be seen as good leaders.

Leadership roles are typically predominated by men but in recent years women in leadership positions have increased considerably (Corrigall, Konrad, Lieb, & Ritchie JR, 2000). This has prompted a lot of researchers to explore the relationship between gender and leadership. While the number of women in management positions has increased, there are still very few women who hold high level executive positions (Corrigall, Konrad, Lieb, & Ritchie JR, 2000). It is believed that women tend to prefer jobs who offer a reward rather than high pay and advancement, which might be the explanation of their failure to attain more jobs at the top level positions (George & Jones, 2006).

The styles of male and female leaders may influenced by the gender-based expectations. Individuals establish certain expectations for their own and others’ behaviour which is based on their own beliefs about what the appropriate behaviour of male and females should be like. (Eagly, 1987) Women are stereotypically described as nurturing, supportive and concerned with interpersonal relations whilst men are viewed as being directive and focused on task accomplishment (George & Jones, 2006) These stereotypes suggest that women can be more relationship oriented as managers and are more considerable in their behaviour. Men are seen as more directed towards task-orientation and engage in more initiating-structure behaviours (George & Jones, 2006).

People have become accustomed to the styles that men have since men have long held these roles. As a result, there is more focus on women in the discussion of the impact of gender on leadership (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001). There is little agreement about how women actually lead even though there is this greater focus on women in research. Feminists’ writings have given great importance to differences and similarities between leadership styles in males and females. (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001).

A number of researchers state that there is a difference between women and men having a leadership position, whilst others say that there is no difference. Eagly and Johnson (1990) state that male and female managers having a leadership position, tend to behave in similar ways. Men do not engage in more initiating structure than women and women do not engage in more consideration than men (Eagly & Johnson, 1990). Writers of trade books, have argued that thre is a difference in leadership behaviour between males and females. They tend to see women as being less hierarchical, more cooperative and ollaborative and more oriented to enhancing others’ self worth (Book, 2000). On the contrary, social scientists say that there is no or minimal difference iin female and male organizational leaders. (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001).

Job Attribute Preference

Research has show that job attribute preference may direct a male or female manager to a different set of jobs, career paths and emplyers due to the existence of sex difference (Beutell & Brenner, 1986). Job attributes have been divided into two categories: intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Job aspects that fulfil material or social needs are termed intrinsic factors and job aspects that fullfil higher needs such as growth, esteem and self expression are termed intrinsic factors. (Pinder, 1998)

Research on sex differences and similarities in job attribute preferences has been enriched by two distinct theoretical persecpetives: the gender ideology perspective and the structuralist persepective. Different personality characteristics and different sets of ativities for women and man are dictated by gendered societal norms in existence is the view of the gender ideology perspective. The structuralist perspectives argues that women have poorer quality jobs than men on average because of the segregation and discrimination in the labor market. (Corrigall, Konrad, Lieb, & Ritchie JR, 2000). Both of the perspectives conclude that job attribute preferences for men and women are different by they assign casualty to different underlying mecchanisms. They both predict that there will be a change in the pattern of sex differnces in job attribute preferences over time, however they conclude that the patterns of change will be somewhat different.

Gender Ideology

Gender ideology may be described as “socially-constructed script that prescribes different characteristics, values, attitudes, behaviors and activities for women and men” (West & Zimmerman , 1991)Gender ideology is composed of gender roles and gender stereotypes. Gender roles are “sets of norms presribing the behaiors and activities appropriate for each sex” (Best & Williams, 1990). Gender roles differ by cultures but in Western industrialised societies attribute the role of income provider for the family to the men and the role of homemaker to the women.

Gender stereotypes are different personality characateristics which are expected from men and women. Characterisitcs such as nurturing, affiliation and passivity were associated with the females whilst characteristics such as autonomy, aggression, dominance and achievement were ascribed more to males (Best & Williams, 1990).People tend to conform to gender expectations to avoid the disapproval from others.

If people’s choice ofwork would reflect gender ideology, then men should consider responsibility, autonomy earnings, advancement, prestige, recognition and challenge to be more important than women do. Whilst women should value more job security, good coworkers, a good supervisor, physical work environment, helping others, growth/development opportunities, opportunities to use one’s abillities, variety, task significance a feeling of accomplishment and good hours to be more important than men do. In this study conducted by Corrigall, Konrad, Lieb and Ritchie, it was found that men attached more importance to earnings and responsibility than women did. This reflects the idea that men take on the role of provider and that they need to demonstrate success and status reflecting the ideas of gender roles and stereotypes towards men. On the other hand women attached greater importance to all mentioned attributes which show that women take the role of homemaker and to demonstarte nuturing and expressiveness. The findings relate to the gender roles typically attributed to women. (Corrigall, Konrad, Lieb, & Ritchie JR, 2000)

Leadership styles of males and females

The styles of males and females can be described in terms of the stereotypes of masculinity and femminity. Studies of people’s stereotypes about men and women show that the popular beliefs about male and female behaviour can be compiled, following Bakan (1966), in terms of two dimensions, the agentic and the communal attributes. (Jacobowitz & Pratch, 1996)

Agentic characteristics define primarily an assertive, controlling and confident tendency. These characteristics are typically ascribed to more strongly to men than to women. Agentic behaviours, in employment settings might include “speaking assertively, competing for attention, influencing others, initiating activity directed to assigned taks and making problem-focused suggestions” (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001).

Women are more ascribed to communal characteristics. This is because communal characteristics describe primarily a concern with the welfare of other people. Examples of communal characteristics in employment settings are “speaking tentatively, not drawing attention to oneself, accepting others’ direction, supporting others and contributing to the solution of relational and interpersonal problems” (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001).

Leader roles and gender roles

Female leaders can adopt leadership styles that differe from those of men because they need to accommodate their behaviour to the occasioanlly conflicting demands of the female gender role and their role as a leader. There are different implications for the behaviour of male and female leaders due to gender roles. This is not only because male and female roles have different content but there is a discrepancy perceivers associate with women as having communal qualties and successful leaders are perceived as having agentic qualities. Since agentic properties are more associated to men, people tend to believe that men are better at being leaders than females. (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001)

Eagly and Karau(2001) argued that apparent difference between the typical leader roles and the female gender tends to ccreate prejudice towards female leaders. It takes two forms: ” (a)less favorable evaluation of women’s (than men’s) potential leadership because leadership ability is more stereotypic of men than women and (b)less favorable evaluation of the actual leadership behavior of women than men because agentic behaviour is perceived as less desirable in women than men.”

In the first prejudice, women’s characteristics and the resulting female-stereotypic qualities are different from what is expected and desired in leaders. This is a result from the descriptive norms of gender roles. The second prejudice arises from prescriptive norms of gender roles namely the beliefs of how women ough to behave. Women leaders can be negatively assessed for fullfilling the agentic requirements of leader roles and thus failing to comply with the communal characteristics, even though they may be praised for their fulfillment of the leader role. (Eagly & Karau, 2001)

On the other hand, Sherpe (2000) states that after years of analyzing what makes leaders more effective, management gurus now know how to maximise the chances of getting a great executive. Their answer is to hire a women. The idea was first introduce by the writers feminist trade books on management and is now making tis way into the popular culture. (Carli & Eagly, 2003)

However in Malta, women have the highest rate of female inactivity 65.2% compared to other E.U. countries 35.7%. (Spiteri, 2012). Nevertheless, there was an increase in the rate of employement for woman which now stands at 62%,which has gone up from 55% in 1997 (Almunia, Andor, Barnier , Reding, Rehn, & Tajani, 2012). Many women continue to face a glass ceiling, holding them backe in achieving a higher level in their work place. Men dominate company boards: 86.3% of board members and 96.8% of the boardroom chairs, whilst women make up 13.7% and 3.2% respectively. (Almunia, Andor, Barnier , Reding, Rehn, & Tajani, 2012). Women in Malta represent only 3% of board members which is well below the EU average of 13.7% (Spiteri, 2012).

On the other hand, there is a higher pecentage (22.7%) of Maltese women who are achieving higher levels of tertiary education than men(14.6%), even though when compared to other E.U. countries it is still very low (37.2% women and 30% men) (Spiteri, 2012). The National Statistics Office in collaboration with the National Council of women in Malta carried out a survey on the “Perceived Obstacles to the participation of women in Decision-making Positions” (2007). The rsult of this survey states that many women in malta are not advancing in their work to obtain top post because of 3 main difficulties: difficulties in reconciling long hours of work and family responsabilities, very little use of childcare facilities and lack of spouse/partner suport (National Statistics Office, 2007).

Maltese Governments have always put measures in place to promote gender equality through various legislations and regulations. The constitution of Malta guarantees equaltiy between women and men. It gives protection against discrimination on various grounds including sex. Additionally, there is Article 45(11) swhich provides for “special measures aimed at accelerating de facto equality between males and females” (Spiteri, 2012). In 1991 Malta also approved the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).

Even though these measures have been in place for a few years now, there is still a general idea that men are seen as being more siutable at having a decision-making job. There are also a number of structural and cultural barriers which are preventing Maltese women from achieving further in their job. Such barriers include jobs without opportunities of promotion or training, practices that favour men for promotions, lack of employment laws and lack of sharing of household/childcare responsibilities by fathers. There is also a considerably big barrier being the attitudes and perceptions towards gendered roles in Malta. (Spiteri, 2012).

In this study, I am going to focus on the perceptions that University students have towards leaders. Whether they tend to prefer male or female leaders and on what is their decision based on. Also, I am going to study what University Students think about the effectiveness of males and females in different work settings and what is the reasoning behind the idea.

What is ontology? Why is it important for the social scientist to know about it?

Speaking out of modest personal experience as a political science graduate, the issue of ontology as well as epistemology (and the consequent choices social sciences scientists make) has been always in an arena of confusion for most social sciences graduates. Students, all over the world, feel alienated and often misguided regarding the nature of these terms and thus are often relatively late in determining their stands in this crucially important and inescapable subject. Furthermore, a simple investigation of typical course offerings of social sciences degrees around the globe exposes a general lack of methodology courses at the undergraduate level. This issue adds to the general confusion of students on the issue. Often, not until students move to postgraduate level when they are adequately trained in methodology of research and consecutively become able to develop understanding of ontology and epistemology. Furlong and Marsh (2002) explain the issue brilliantly when they say: “At First these issues (ontological and epistemological positions) seem difficult but our major point is that they are not issues that can be avoided. They are like a skin not a sweater: they cannot be put on and taken off whenever the researcher sees fit.” (Furlong and Mars, 2002, p.17). In this essay, we try to provide a general overview of ontology and shed light on its importance.

What is ontology?

If one is to define Ontology in Social sciences, it is important to step back to the philosophical origin. In philosophy, ontology is widely defined as a major branch of metaphysics, the study of the nature of reality. Encyclopaedia Britannica (2009) defines Ontology as the “philosophical study of being” and what generally prescribes to reality. Aristotle first called ontology “first philosophy”, and later the Latin term “ontologia” appeared after being invented by the German philosopher Lorhardus.

Furlong, and Marsh (2002) explain ontology a “theory for being”, in other terms the main question of whether exists a reality that is autonomous from our understanding. To elaborate this idea in social sciences context, they give the example of gender identity and John Gray’s book “ Men are from Mars and Women are from Venus”. The book argues that men and woman are fundemantaly different from each other and asserts that if it would be better if both would recognize this difference. That argument subscribes to a foundationalist (essentialist) ontological stand. On the other hand Furlond and Marsh (2002) assert that feminists would fiercly attack such a view as they link differences between men and women are “socially constructed”. This stand asserts an anti-foundationalist (constructivist) ontological position.

Foundationalism and anti-foundationalism represent the two main ontological positions taken by scientists, and to understand ontology one should explain those main ontological positions.

Importance
Epistemological consequences

The debate of who comes first, and the importance of Ontology in social research:

Needless to say, a social researcher’s ontology can be understood as their view of social world. This have a consequence on choosing the ways the researcher will do his research, the methods, used, and theories put forth. Nevertheless by saying this we avoid hinting that ontology precedes or follows epistemology, an issue of debate among social scientists.

According to Bares and Jekins (2007) learning of ontology (and epistemology) helps “differentiate and choose between competing theories and analytical traditions” Additionally they assert that many introductory texts to Ontology and Epistemology seems to sponsor a directional relationship that asserts that ontology precedes epistemology in social research. In their opinion this hinders the learning process as discretely favours certain theoretical choices. They further assert that ontology (and epistemology) are important in ontology. (2009). In Encyclop?dia Britannica. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from Encyclop?dia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/429409/ontology

A Skin not a Sweater: Ontology and Epistemology in Political Science

Furlong, Paul and Marsh, David (2002) A Skin not a Sweater: Ontology and Epistemology in Political Science. In: Theory and Methods in Political Science. Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 17-41. ISBN 0-333-94856-4

The St Matthews day centre is located in Ballyfermot, Dublin 10. The centre opens from Monday to Friday, from 9 to 5 pm and the catchment is located within the Ballyfemot, Inchicore and Palmerstown. The centre runs different programs including activities for older people. Two members of staff work at the centre including volunteers who come to do activities with older people. As far as the St Mathew’s Resource Centre catchment is concerned, as earlier mentioned it is located within the Ballyfermot and Chapelizoid partnership area which are located approximately 4 miles (6.4km) to the west of Dublin’s city centre. According to TSA Consultancy (2009, p.3), the two areas’ population is approximately 23 870 with Chapelizoid hiving an older age profile of 18% .of the over 60s (TSA Consultancy (2009, p.4). It is stated that, ‘out of the 2875 people that avail different services, 644 are older people Ballyfermot and Chapelizoid (TSA Consultancy 2009, p.3). This clearly shows that there is significant number of older people who need social engagement so as to increase their quality of life.

‘People are living longer lives and this rapidly changing demographic demands a restoration of social infrastructure, services provided for older people & more importantly, a shift in our attitude towards age'(Lankin 2012). Connolly (2012) pointed out that older people are important sources of volunteering which means they play very important roles such as grandparents, carers and advisors just to name a few and some people do not intend to see it that way.

Aims and objectives:

The aim of this study is to investigate impacts of older people engagement in Community day care centre activities focusing on the case of the St Matthews Community Day Care Centre, in Ballyfermot, Dublin 10.

In line with above stated aim, the objectives of this study are to find out what activities are being carried out in the St Matthews Centre.

Another objective is to examine what National and International policies have been put forward to encourage old people social interactions.

Also the study sets out to examine how older people participate in these activities and what are the benefits of this participation to their quality of life?

Research Question

What are the Impacts of Older People’s Engagements in the activities of the St Matthews Day Care centre?

Rationale reasons

This research study has been undertaken because of my interests in older people’s welfare as a result of my working experience with senior citizens when I volunteered to work with them at the Blackthorn Day Care Centre in the summer of 2011. During these sessions I was able to witness firs hand the problems which senior citizens face when not socialising through activities and the differences that engaging in activities made in the lives of the older people who were attending this centre. I thus realised that this particular area of study is worth researching because when the older people are forced to give up particular roles for example work this should be replaced with creative activities that can increase their social connectedness and this knowledge will build on and add to the existing knowledge and policies on creative activities with older people.

Chapter 2
Literature Review
Introduction

Review will focus on literature around older people. The research will examine policy around social inclusion and participation of older people in different day centre organised activities. The research will also explore recently published literature on older people’s participation and the benefits of participation. The aim of this research is to explore the nature of activities for older people provided by a Community Day Centre. The review will focus on literature around older people, activities and community day centres. It will examine policy around participation of older people in different activities and social inclusion. Recently published literature, perception of and research around older people will also be examined.

Older people were selected because in Ireland as in other countries many elderly person live in their own homes rather than institutions and policy developers has adapted the principal of enabling them to live in their own homes for as long as possible (Gallagher 2010, p.307). Older people were identified as the target group because Age and Opportunity (2012) concluded within its findings that quality of life increases for older people with greater social integration and by providing opportunities to get involved. According to the Age and Opportunity (2012) ‘Loneliness has become a problem for a significant minority of older people, with 11% of over 65s having been found to have minimal social contacts and a limited social network’. Older people from 65 years and over were chosen because they are determined by leaving the labour market (Walker 1999 cited in MaCann James 2009, p.35). Review will focus on literature around older people, activities and community day centres. It will examine policy around participation of older people in different activities and social inclusion. Recently published literature, perception of and research around older people will also be examined.

(Ronald Aday’s 2003 report cited in Miltiades et al n.d) on identifying important linkages between successful aging and day centre participation states that an important goal of senior centres is to provide a social environment conducive to the development of a social support system. He went on to say that ‘such social support system will reduce loneliness and depression, and enhance life satisfaction’ (Ronald Aday’s 2003 report cited in Miltiades et al n.d.). ‘People do not often ask themselves questions like: ‘What kind of old do they want to be?’, ‘what facilities would they like to have access to as they get older?’ and “how do they expect to be treated by the rest of society?” and so on (Larkin 2012). He stated that often people including him often ignore or avoid such kind of questions and assume they will see when they get there.

According to Miltides et al, (n.d.) it is projected that by year 2035 over fifty percent of Western Europe’s population will be over the age of 65 years.

2.1. Definition of Concepts
Ageing: What is old?

According to Phillips et al (2006, p. 9) mostly the definition of age seems to differs across cultures.

For example; ‘old age in Bosinia is not linked to chronological age or how someone looks or physical appearance: it is ‘loss of power’ for the people from Bosinia (Vincent, 2003, p. 15 cited in Phillips at al 2006, p. 9) and they will be referring to both physical and social strength’.

‘Old age is determined by leaving the labour market at 65 thereby a person is entering old age’ (Walker 1999 cited in MaCann James 2009, p.35). It is increasingly acknowledged that the older persons are a mixture of age group from the age of 65 and upwards which results in young elderly being fit, active and live independently (Gallagher 2010, p.307).

‘For the psychologist Erick Erickson (1986), old age or ‘later life’ involves the stage of ‘integrity versus despair’ (MaCann James et al 2009, p. 36). This is where a person tries to experience a sense of wholeness and acceptance of their life and the choices they have made. She pointed out that people’s definition of ‘old age’ tends to be closely related to their own age and is almost never below it (MaCann James e al 2009, p. 36). According to (Rowe and Khan 1987 cited in MaCann James et al 2009, p. 37) successful ageing is characterised by active involvement in life and living, high cognitive and physical functioning and being free of disability and disease.

2.2. Community Day Centre.

The main objectives of community day centres as set out in ‘The Years Ahead’ report (Department of health 1988 cited in Share and Lalor 2010, p. 312) were to provide services such as midday meals, a bath, physiotherapy, promote social contact among older people and prevent loneliness. Another aim was to relief family carers particularly those who have to go to work. The other important objective was to provide social stimulation in a safe environment.

‘Because all communities are unique, older people in each community will have unique needs and their community centres should provide unique services to meet their needs’ (Miltides et al, n.d. p. 17). In a research carried out by Miltides et al, (n.d. p.17) has shown that the definition for community centres has remained consistent since 1979, with the same concept still being vital on the development of programs and services. They offer a variety of programs to serve many needs of older people adults. These may include health programs, meals, recreation, socializing and financial assistance. Today community centres follow the beliefs of activity theory model of participation and this means that social and physical activities are expected to be rewarding among older adults (Miltiades et al n.d.). (O’Shea and Connolly 2003 cited in MaCann James et al 2009, p. 37) noted that ‘The healthy Programme’, can play a major role in this regard by acting as a important resource to support voluntary groups in achieving best practice in the operation of health ageing projects.

In Ireland there are different types of community day care services for the elderly. They are classified as: day care centre, day centre, social club and dementia -specific day care, according to a report by the National Council on Ageing and Older People on the development of day services (Haslet 2003 cited in Share and Lalor 2009, p. 31).

Day Care Centre

Day care centres provide a mixed model of care which means they provide a range of medical, therapeutic and social services, such as nursing, physiotherapy, bathing and chiropody (Gallagher 2009, p. 312). This is important particularly for older people who need continual care and minimum mobility (Gallagher 2009, p. 313). The people who work in these centres are mainly health care professionals who provide support on independent living and to give respite care. Most referrals are done by the public health nurse. For this reason this research will focus principally on community day centres whose activities are basically social services instead of involving the medical model of care.

Day Centres

(Gallagher cited in Share and Lalor, 2009, p.173) points out that these centres are mainly grant aided by HSE. They are managed locally by voluntary or parish groups. The main focus is on the provision of social and recreational activities as well as provision of meals. However, as Haslet ( Haslett 2003 cited in Share and Lalor 2009, p.173) points out while these centres’ activities were initially for social services, due to inadequacy of the provision of day care centres with the mixed model of care within communities, the HSE has encouraged the incorporation of some of the day care centre activities into the day centres with the inclusion of services for ( For example the inclusion of services for physiotherapy, medical services and chiropody. Thus the Social/Day Centres are now providing increasing levels of services in the areas of personal care, paramedical treatment and even nursing’. Consequently Day Centres and Social Clubs have expanded due to the shortage of Day Care Centres. Haslett (2003cited in Share and Lalor 2009 p.175) observed that that day centres are hugely beneficial to many different categories of older people. She went on to say ‘the social capital gain achieved through mutual support, co-operation, empathy and trust is huge and very real (Haslett 2003 cited in Share and Lalor 2009, p. 167). This means that the network of caring that the older person gets from other members of the parish committee, volunteers, drivers, managers, care staff etc is hugely beneficial to them in many ways in the long term.

Some old people’s activities can be recreational and some are physical activities that the older people can undertake to increase their physical strength, flexibility and endurance for example walking, stretching cycling, and activities that may involve camping as a group (Chobharkar 2011). There are also social activities that involve just being in company of other people and they are normally done for pleasure (Dogra 2011).

Older people’s minds can be kept sharp and alert by game activities because it involves social interaction, a very inexpensive form of entertainment and at the same time delaying or reducing the risk of age related dementia (Hurley 2013). She also pointed out that, that ‘at any age playing games is healthy for the mind and body and because games can keep the brain active’ (Hurley 2013). Studies have shown that playing games could help prevent Alzheimer’s disease and dementia, so playing games could actually allow older person to live longer (Woolman 2013).

Other activities that are fostered in the centre are Arts and Crafts. Art and craft extends far beyond the creation of an object for many older people. Research has shown that many older people who live alone find making crafts an enjoyable activity and at the same time it helps them to be active as it involves using their hands, for example moulding clay. It also them helps to exercise their hands and fingers.

Benefits of activities

The relations between overall activity level and psychological well-being have been found to be significantly positive for example Markides and Martin 1979 cited in Warr et al 2004, p.173) and (Jahoda 1958 cited in Warr et al p.173) point out that, “an activity is often accompanied by the successful achievement of personal goals; goal setting and goal-achievement which are essential aspects of good mental health, self-validation and a sense of competence”. Another example observed by, (Holahan 1988 cited in Warr et al p.173) “states that goals have an indirect effect on older people’s psychological well-being through their behavioural expression in activity”. This study shows that activities are almost all positive and they tend to yield the rewarding outcomes to which they are directed, with potentially positive contributions to psychological well-being of older people.

This research study is anchored on the activity theory of ageing, which was developed by the symbolic interactionists (Coon and Mitterer 2010, p. 141). The theory states that ‘a decrease in social interaction that occurs with age is the result of a withdrawal of society from ageing people and most older people do not want this withdrawal'(Coon and Mitterer 2010, p. 141). Therefore, according to this theory, older people who are aging optimally stay active and resist shrinkage in their social world. They maintain activities of middle-age as long as possible and then find substitutes for work.

Activity theory is the idea that a high level of activity enhances personal satisfaction in old age and various activities help build social identity (Coon and Mitterer 2010, p. 141).

As (MaCann James 2009, p.37) explains, older people have identified two main features of aging in literature. These are, rest and relief formal working life, and the fact that governments can provide Research has shown that financial and other forms of state assistance to the old. She thus defined active ageing as ‘a process of optimising opportunities for physical, mental and social wellbeing throughout life in order to extend health life expectancy, quality of life and productivity in older age’.

Loneliness.

‘Loneliness is defined as ‘the negatively perceived difference between the relationships one has and the relationships one would like to have’ (Fokkema and Knipscheer 2007, p. 497). That is personal standards regarding relationships, ‘it is not so much a matter of the number of relationships, or a lack thereof, but rather a lack of quality in the relationships people have’ (Ibid.). However in this case the loneliness is based on social loneliness which is also related ‘to deficient social integration, a lack of contact with people with whom one shares certain common traits, such as friends’ (ibid) As far as loneliness is concerned Fokkema and Knipscheer (2007, p.503) observe that the use of internet by older people can “help in reducing loneliness by improving aˆ¦[the lives of older people who participate in this activity]aˆ¦ by improving their social life and distracting them from their loneliness experience.

Lonelines otherwise known as disengagement reduces satisfaction and meaning in older people’s lives. The participation and involvement of the older people in the different activities give them the opportunity to interact with other people. The activities are provided by the different sectors to include the formal support networks such as the church, the local government unit, and the civil society organizations; and the informal support networks such as their family, relatives, friends and neighbours.

‘Once retired from your full-time day job at the age of 55 or 60, you might think it would be great to lie around for the whole day watching TV or listening to your favourite songs. But one week from your retirement you will realize that it’s not as much fun as you thought. Being a human you are a social animal, and you will crave to be doing something out there with friends or family instead of sitting around alone at home’ Chobharkar (2011)

Balle, (2012) states that in most cases, getting an elderly person to be involved in some type of activity can help improve both quality of life and mental functioning. The increasing share of older people in the population is a fact and a challenge to social and health care services and creative activities (Coon and Mitterer 2010, p. 141). Longer life expectancy will produce a unprecedented increase in the percentage of the population older than 65 and the ‘boom’ is expected to start about now and peak by 2030 to 2050 (Taeuber 1993 cited in Coon and Mitterer 2010, p. 141).

Quality of Life increases with more social engagement

According to Age Opportunity (2012) loneliness has become an important problem for a significant minority of older people with 11% of over 65s having been found to have minimal social contacts and a limited social network. Studies have shown that quality of life increases with greater social integration and by providing opportunities to get involved the issue of loneliness among older people could be resolved.

Ageing population in Ireland.

In Ireland as in other countries many older persons live in their own homes rather than living in institutions. In 2012 the population of the 65 and over age group was 535,393, an increase of 14 percent from 467,926 in 2006(Central Statistical Office 2012). (Larkin 2012) points out that people do not often ask themselves questions like: ‘What kind of old do they want to be?’, ‘what facilities would they like to have access to as they get older?’ and “how do they expect to be treated by the rest of society?” and so on.

Often people ignore or avoid these questions and assume they will see when they get there. Dominic Campbell, Artistic Director of Bealtaine asserts that, by 2035 over 50% of the population of Western Europe will be over the age of 65? (Lankin, 2012). ‘People are living longer lives and this rapidly changing demographic demands a remodelling of social infrastructure, the services we provide for older people and more importantly, a shift in our attitude towards age'(Lankin 2012). Connolly (2012) points to the fact that older people are an important source of volunteering which means they play vital roles such as grandparents, carers, mentors just to name a few and society tends not to see the significant value of these senior citizens. There is the need to to engage them to fulfil good quality of life and be valued.

Irish Policy/Legislation/Regulation Framework

As Connolly (2012) observes, policy makers view ageing as problematic because of the associated financial burden that the state has to undertake in order to keep these pensioners going Connolly (2012) further points out that, while these challenges exits new approaches are needed to address the realities because there are also significant benefits to be gained from older people (Connolly 2012).

The National Action Plan for Social Inclusion 2007 – 2016 published in February 2007 and states that “community care services are essential to enable older people to maintain their health and wellbeing, in order to live active, full independent lives, at home for as long as possible” (Barry 2010). This is relevant to the state because when older people are supported to participate in activities it gives them a feeling of control over their lives as well as that feeling of control contribute to mental and physical well-being. However, this policy framework provides criteria for eligibility and this hinders some retirees to engage in these activities.

A more recent national policy document entitled ‘Towards 2016’, the 10-year framework, sets out a vision for older people and is agreed by the social partners that set out a national plan for 2006-2015. One of the high-level goals it sets out is as follows: ‘Every older person would be encouraged and supported to participate to the greatest extent possible in social and civic life’ (Department of the Taoiseach, 2006, p. 60 cited in Age Opportunity 2012).

‘The National Action Plan for Social Inclusion 2007 – 2016’ published in February 2007 and states that “community care services are essential to enable older people to maintain their health and wellbeing, in order to live active, full independent lives, at home for as long as possible” (Barry 2010). Older people are supported to participate in activities as it gives them a feeling of control over their lives as well as that feeling of control contribute to mental and physical well-being. It clearly shows the principle of enabling older persons to live in their homes for as long as possible is central in Irish welfare policy. There are a number of services that provide meals on wheels, home help and other form of adult day care to facilitate this.

Positive intervention to engage older people’s social activities

(Novak 2006, p. 20) pointed out that intergenerational programmes in schools are good because they reduce discrimination, negative attitude towards aging and social contact between the older and the young people (Novak 2006, p. 20).

Conclusion

This literature has explored the various activities that already exist in different day care centres that have contributed to the quality of life for the older people in general. After all the research and studies, policies and strategies by all experts the uniqueness of this study will have significant for planning for structured centre activities that is diverse.

Chapter 3
The Research Methodology
Research methods

Qualitative research methods allow opportunities for subjective meaning to be clarified rather than getting exact answers to specific questions (Creswell 2003, p. 21). Engel and Schutt (2005, p. 41) point out that qualitative methods can refer to several research designs, for instance participant observation that involves gathering data by developing a relationship with the people while they do their normal activities. Intense interviews are those that involve open-ended unstructured questions in which the interviewer seeks in-depth information on the interviewee’s feelings, experiences and perception (Engel and Schutt 2005, p. 41).

Research design deals with how the researcher conceptualizes the entire research process. It is ‘the logical sequence that connects the empirical data to a study’s initial questions [leading] to its conclusions’ (Yin 1994, p.28).

This involves the particular research approach to be used as well as the research processes (Gibson and Brown 2009, p.48). This study is a single descriptive qualitative case study. According to Yin 2009 cited in Kiriakidis (2011, p. 69) ‘a case study is used to contribute to understand a group or an organisation’. In this sense the researcher will seek to answer some how and why questions in relation to one particular organisation. As (Baxter and Jack 2008 cited in Kiriakidis 2011, p 69) explain that ‘this type of case study is used to describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. Using qualitative research methods allows one to explore attitudes, behaviour and experience through interviews or focus groups in an attempt to get in-depth information from participants (Dawson 2009, p. 14).

This model of this inquiry as indicated above is a single descriptive qualitative case study. A ‘case’ is ‘a phenomenon of some sort occurring within a bounded context in this case it can be an individual, a professional role, group, an organization, a nation, a policy, a process, an incident or event of some sort’ (Yin 2009 cited in Kriakidis 2011, p. 69). It is a unit of analysis which gives the researcher the opportunity to ‘investigate and understand the case in depth, in its natural setting, recognizing its complexity and context’ and allows for a holistic and detailed analysis of the case which other research methods ignore (Punch 1998, p.153). As Creswell (1998 p.153) explains, a qualitative case study is a ‘bounded system’, It is bounded by space and time (Creswell 1998, p.37).

The Context

In the context of this study which focuses on older people’s engagements in community day care centre activities, the case study is St Matthews Community Day Care Centre which is situated in Ballyfermot in Dublin 10. The context is the engagement of old people in activities organised by the centre. The centre is a Family Resource Centre for the community of Ballyfermot. The researcher chose this centre because there is relatively little data available that can tell us how important these organised centre activities are to the health and well-being of the older adult or senior citizens growing population.

In relation to this research, a semi – structure interview method will be used allowing; (1)why they decide to attend the centre and (2) expectation of activities to act as guiding topic but with the discussion directed by the participants. Much research in relation to older people tends to focus more on the expert opinion of what is considered to be quality of life rather than gaining the views of an ordinary person (Bond and Corner, 2004, p. 42). Therefore interviews within qualitative method will allow for the contribution of older persons’ opinion. The researcher will use a participatory research method.

Data Collection Tools

The data collection tools that will be used in this study will include: documents, use of technology, interviews and observations and the internet. Data collection from documents includes the use of both primary and secondary sources of information. The primary sources that have been used in this research include government reports on aging and community facilities for the old. The secondary sources include: books, especially on senior citizens academic research articles as well as internet sources. These sources of information are within the public domain and can be easily explored. But care has been taken to select appropriate content that deals with the study thesis because internet data often contains some content that is not of direct relevance to the specific research question or questions.

Technology: In addition to documentation, the researcher has used audio technology for voice recordings during interviews to gather the necessary information.

Other sources from which data has been collected for this study include interviews and observations. As Stake (2005, p.453) holds, ‘the qualitative case researcher seeks to know what is happening in ordinary organisational settings. Although in the course of the inquiry process the researcher will attempt to reduce the gap between the researcher and the participants. It is obvious that researcher will remain the seeker of knowledge in the inquiry process and the participants the holders of the knowledge that the researcher is seeking to acquire.

Thus the interview and observation methods are also necessary for this study because the reality or knowledge which the researcher cannot see will be obtained by interviewing and observing the older people (participants) from the natural settings in which these social activities are occurring. The use of interviews in the course of this study will enable me to gain greater insight from the key actors or players in St Matthews Day Care Centre. That is the Old People and the Centre staff who are involved in developing the activities which these old people are engaged in. These interviews will enable me to have a closer picture of what is going on within the centre. The interviews it is hoped will be able to produce a picture of how the old people are participating? What are the types of activities they are engaged in? How do they feel about their engagements in these activities? In this light I have used semi – structure interview questions to method will be used allowing; what is their experience in attending the Day care centre? Why they decide to attend the centre? These interviews will thus allow for the contribution of older persons’ opinions in relation to their engagements in the centre activities.

Information for the study will also be collected through observations. Observation is a method of collecting research information whereby the researcher immerses his or herself into ‘the research ‘setting’ so that [he or she] can experience and observe first hand, a range of dimensions in and of that setting’ (Mason, 2002, p.84). As Mason (2002 p.84) holds, observation has many features. ‘It can be ‘social interactions, behaviour, relationships or events; it can be spatial locational, or temporal and its frame can be experiential, emotional and bodily dimensions’. The use of observation will be necessary in this study because it will allow the researcher to witness first hand, how the old people in St Matthews interact in the various activities within the centre.

Other Data Collection and analysis tools

This research will also use other research methods like quantitative method to collect data where necessary. Such methods will be used to complement evidence collected from other qualitative methods. However, this research is principally a qualitative case study.

The analysis in this research will involve transcribing and discussing interview texts as well as connecting the contexts with explanations and interpretations that give a clear picture of what is happening in the St Matthews day Care centre in relation to the activities organised and the importance of these activities to the participants. This will involve naturalistic descriptions, interpretations, explanations, narratives and analysis of the information collected. It will involve a detailed description and explanation of the case which involves what (Stake 2005, p.450 cited Gibson and Brown 2009, p.8) call ‘a thick description’ which means providing details that outline the details of the context of people’s actions and practices so that they become intelligible in their own terms'(Gertz, 1976 cited in Gibson and Brown, 2009, p.8).

Access

Access to participants was pursued by contacting and meeting the Manager of the Ballyfermot/Chapelizoid Partneship. She further referred me to the manager of St Mathew Family Resource Centre where they run activities for the elderly. The researcher chose to observe the participants by becoming part of the group organisation to

Occupational Culture Police

Title question: What do you know about the occupational culture(s) of the police? Why is it important?

Introduction

As Reiner states, “the idea of ‘police occupational culture’ or ‘cop culture’ has been a source of academic interest and debate since research into policing began in earnest in the 1960s”. The following consideration of the title question concerning the meaning and importance of the police occupational culture is advanced through identification and the development of a number of themes which are inter-related:

a definition of the phrase occupational culture (both as a free standing term of art as well as its relationship to the concept of organizational culture)
how a distinct occupational culture and various sub-cultures are fostered generally in police services;
the further fundamental relationship between police occupational cultures and the public interest in effective law enforcement

At this point I would like to state that the issues discussed below are not tied exclusively to the occupational culture of UK policing, although the majority of the references utilised throughout and noted in Bibliography are derived from these sources. The observations advanced here are stated as broadly applicable to all jurisdictions in the Anglo-American legal tradition, where police services are a societal institution regulated through and accountable to civilian authority. Similarly, the discussion of the issues raised here presumes a familiarity with current issues concerning culture associated with policing.

Definitions

‘Culture’ is a term that is itself amenable to a number of definitions. In its widest formulation, culture may be defined as ‘…the total of the inherited ideas, beliefs, values and knowledge which constitute the shared basis of action’. Moreover, it encompasses ‘taken-for-granted’ emotionally charged beliefs guiding behaviour, and cultural forms, which are the overt expressions of those beliefs. As a concept, culture connotes both precepts and boundaries that are broadly held by its entire membership. Therefore, adherence to a police culture is an ‘all or nothing’ proposition.

Police occupational culture is comprised of several constituent parts and each is essential to an understanding of the whole. The first such component is that of the ‘cop culture’ mentality. This point highlights the fact that the occupational culture of police is directly connected to the actions and ethics of street or other front line serving officers.

Yet, it is contended that the occupational culture of policing is not disconnected or detached from the organizational culture; this is the framework within which policing is mandated and conducted in all societies. Worth mentioning is the fact that commentators such as McIvor regard the two cultures as distinct; the conclusions advanced in the course of the present analysis are in part the product of a view that organizational and occupational cultures are considerably inter-related.

The occupational cultures of police as exclusively reflective of the ‘front line’ mentality of police officers is too limited an approach. If organisational police culture may be defined as the actual front line behaviour that will be condoned by management, the relationship between police hierarchy and the police themselves is that of formal / informal, where conduct acceptable to the organisation is not permitted so much as it is condoned.

Reiner noted that to gain a deeper understanding of how police operations are conducted, one must understand the policing culture (the values, norms, perspectives, and craft rules that inform their conduct). In addition, Reiner observed that police services possess one unique property, namely that within the services the level of officer discretion increases as one moves down the hierarchy, with the greatest discretion existing on the front line.

This understanding leads inevitably to the related characterization of police culture as the product of various codes, some mandated (i.e. by legislation or organisational practice) and others driven informally by the culture. Of critical importance to understanding the resilience of occupational cultures in policing is an appreciation that police cultures do not necessarily bear a significant relationship to public expectations concerning effective law enforcement. Police cultures exist organically, with the culture sustained as much by its structure as by any external influences.

How police occupational cultures thrive

It is contended that at the heart of police occupational cultures is the conflict of ‘us versus them’ that is played out on a multitude of levels within modern society. Not withstanding the popularity of government initiatives broadly labeled as ‘community policing’, the police have long adopted a world view that identifies a number of potential opponents to cultural practices and conduct that encourage the ‘us versus them’ mentality, such as the general public (both as ‘on the street’ adversaries and in the manifestation of negative opinions about policing), organized criminal elements, the police hierarchy (union versus management) and other police officers within a service with contrary notions of policing.

Inevitably, these various points of conflict produce a number of cultural outcomes for the police that may be distilled to a single product – police solidarity. In each of the four general areas noted here, loyalty to one’s fellow officers is the adhesive that maintains the strength of the occupational culture. Police solidarity is what Skolnick feels contributes to the idea of a culture created by officers, which demands they cover each other on the streets and perhaps even during an internal investigation. As a police officer stated: “We’re a tight-knit community. We’ve got to stand by each other because we are getting it from all angles. We get it from outside, the general public, we get it from solicitors, from QC’s, we get it from our own bosses”.

It is a simple conclusion to be drawn from the police officers world view of ‘us versus them’ that police officers will unavoidably experience a sense of isolation from the public they have sworn to serve. When the additional element of cynicism concerning the police role within the justice system as a marginalized one (in the sense of accused persons being acquitted as a result of the function of the law to defeat legitimate police action), feelings of solidarity within the service are accentuated.

Police solidarity as a reciprocal outcome of the organisational and social environments where the police function was effectively summarized by Goldsmith as an equation:

“In an environment perceived as hostile and unpredictable the police culture offers its members reassurance that the other officers will pull their weight in police work, that they will defend, back up and assist their colleagues when confronted with external threats and that they will maintain secrecy in the face of external investigations. In return for loyalty and solidarity members of the police culture enjoy considerable individual autonomy to get on with the job.”

The cultural foundation of solidarity leads to the following progression when considering the outcomes, both positive and negative in terms of the public interest in effective policing: solidarity; esprit de corps; the ‘thin blue line’, a mentality that the police are the only effective means to preserve public order; the ‘code of silence’, where loyalty to a fellow officer has a greater value than the public interest in the investigation of police practices or suspected misconduct; active steps taken to defeat any investigation of suspected police misconduct.

The ‘us versus them’ characterization of police attitudes at the root of occupational culture can also be considered from the vantage point of the insider / outsider framework. This method of cultural assessment also permits the police ‘outsider’ to be defined in a variety of ways, each of which reinforces the primacy given to the principle of solidarity among officers within policing cultures. Depending upon the circumstances of the relationship being examined, an ‘outsider’ to a police culture may be defined by race, gender, masculinity (distinct from gender; the machismo traditionally associated with effective policing) and preferred social activities (e.g. police related events).

It is submitted that any one or more of these circumstances may operate as an obstacle to the ‘outsider’ achieving solidarity within the subject culture. One prominent concern noted by both academic and public commentators is the bullying and intimidation of non conformers within police ranks as a product of occupational solidarity.

A prominent example is the 2003 UK government report ‘Diversity Matters’. The Report advocated changes to the organisational and occupational cultures of modern UK policing through an encouragement of police services to accept and appreciate officers from different backgrounds, skills, attitudes and experiences.

The views expressed in the report were tempered by a recognition of the need for a “…working environment free from any unfair practice, bullying, prejudice and discrimination, in order to underpin [officer]… retention and to enable them to develop to their full potential.” Barracking, teasing and ridicule are accepted as cultural norms that flow naturally from occupational solidarity.

Solidarity is therefore the ultimate two edged police cultural sword. It is a stimulus to police action, officer safety and a general sense of confidence within the occupational culture; it is a barrier to the transparent governance of police, as the element of secrecy in how the police govern themselves encourages a sense of autonomy from the very public to which the police swear their allegiance.

Police subcultures are also an outcome of difference between serving officers, where the difference is not driven out of the service by exclusion, but where the difference creates a cultural microcosm within the police itself. Examples abound where the officers are required to work in close quarters, such as undercover operatives, where the officers are in continual contact with a lifestyle that is counter to that of accepted society.

The archetypal ‘rogue cop’, who either violates the law to achieve either ultimately positive law enforcement objective, or alternatively who engages in criminal activity while in police service, is such a figure. As was noted in the course of the Lawrence inquiry report,“…the culture of the police and some procedures in the criminal justice system actually make it totally improbable that all police officers will behave as the system lays down that they should.”

As an aside, if the depictions of police culture in modern UK television drama were a barometre, one might conclude that the public broadly accepts police misconduct so long as the end achieved is in the public interest. From the robust detective Frost to the more intellectual investigative approaches depicted in productions such ‘Inspector Morse’ and ‘Prime Suspect’, where the occupational culture demands that an organisational rule be ignored or actively disobeyed to achieve justice (often justice as the protagonist defines it), such conduct is desirable.

It is in this context that a further occupational culture must be mentioned. Not only does policing encourage the development of distinct cultures from within, there are equally distinct cultures that are devoted to observing and characterising police behaviour. As was observed by Sklansky with regard to the American policing occupational cultures,

“…for over half a century, police reform in the United States has been guided by a broadly shared set of assumptions about the nature of the police subculture and its central importance in shaping the behavior of the police. Those assumptions—that police officers think alike; that they are paranoid, insular, and intolerant; that they intransigently oppose change; that they must be rigidly controlled from the outside, or at least from the top—themselves constitute a schema [mental constructs that sort and organize human experience]”.

Sklansky’s assertion adds another dimension to the consideration of occupational culture. Not only is there a need to define the nature and extent of the culture, there must also be a concerted effort to assess the perspective of the observer or commentator.

Occupational cultures and the public interest in effective law enforcement

The most obvious negative outcome with respect to police conduct when examined from an occupational cultural perspective is the public perception that the police either (a) cannot investigate themselves in an objective fashion where wrongdoing is suspected (b) the result of such internal investigations are inherently flawed and not credible.

The law enforcement landscape is littered with such issues. The numerous reports and White Papers commissioned by the UK government to address this issue have not eliminated public concerns. A prominent 2007 Canadian example of the clash between the evident irresistible force of public concern over an in-custody police shooting of a civilian, and the equally immovable object of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) internal investigation practices is a notable example.

The deceased had been arrested on a minor charge; while in custody and handcuffed he was shot in the head by the arresting officer. In the ensuing 15 month period between the event and the release of the internal RCMP investigative report, the subject officer was permitted a number of weeks to consult with his legal counsel prior to his making of any formal statement to investigators; the subject officer was supplied the questions to be posed in written form in advance.

There has been a significant public outcry in Canada to reform internal RCMP practices in this respect; the perception has been noted that even where a civilian person was killed in very troubling circumstances, the police will not turn in one of their own.

It is submitted that notwithstanding characterisations of modern policing as an agent for change, where community policing enhances public relations within the community and removes the implicit barriers between police and public, certain cultural elements can never be resolved. Police operations have an immediacy that demands action. For this reason policing must be a pragmatic enterprise, where the occupational culture facilitates the pursuit of pragmatic results over adherence to rules either legal or organisational.

Bibliography

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Fielding, N. G. (1988). Joining forces: police training, socialization, and occupational competence,London: Routledge.

Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabularies (2000) Policing London – Winning Consent

Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabularies (2003) Diversity Matters

Leishman, F., Loveday, B. and Savage, S. (1996) ‘Core Issues in Policing’, London: Longmans.

MacPherson, William (1999) Stephen Lawrence Inquiry At: www.archive.official-documents.co.uk/document/cm42/4262/4262.htm (Accessed December 22, 2007)

McIvor, K. (2004) ‘The culture of the police service’, in Bullying 999, At: www.bullying999.co.uk.jan5.htm (Accessed December 21, 2007)

Oxford English Dictionary, (3^rd), 2003

Padfield, N. (1995) Text and Materials on the Criminal Justice Process, London: Butterworths, p.34.

Reiner, R., (1992) The Politics of the Police, 2nd Edition, Sussex, St Martins Press

Reiner, R., and Leigh, L. (1994) ‘Police Power,’ in McCrudden and Chambers, pp. 69-108.

Reiner, R., (1994) ‘Policing the Police’ in Maguire, M., Morgan, R., & Reiner, R., (eds) (1994) The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 705-772.

Reiner, R., (2000) The Politics of the Police, 3rd Edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Rigakos, G. (2002). The new Para police: risk markets and commodified social control. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Royal Canadian Mounted Police / Public Complaints ‘Ian Bush B.C Shooting Death’ http://www.cpc-cpp.gc.ca/DefaultSite/Whatsnew/index_e.aspx?ArticleID=1230 (Accessed December 22, 2007)

Sklansky, David Alan (2007) ‘Seeing Blue: Police reform, occupational culture, and cognitive burn-in’ In: Police Occupational Culture: New Debates and Directions (Megan O’Neill and Monique Marks eds., Elsevier Science Jan. 2007)

Before addressing the debate, the historical significance of social theory must be addressed as there is a long history regarding issues of objectivity, and value free research. Prior to World War Two, social research was dominated by the paradigm of positivism. Philosophers such as Comte (1798-1857) strongly affirmed that methods applied to the natural sciences such as physics should be applied to the study of social behaviour (Benton & Craib, 2001). The positivist perspective placed great emphasis on the objectivity of social research, accepting Science as ‘the only general form of knowledge’ that produces ‘reliable social scientific knowledge’ that can be generated into theory applicable to social behaviour within society (Benton & Craib, 2001: 23). Moreover, like the natural sciences it requires both logical and empirical support. Causal relationships can be identified and truths can be falsified thus, positivist sociology ‘assumes that law-like generalisations’ can be derived from social research Pedraza (2002: 75). Postivism was widely accepted throughout the nineteenth centuary as science was assumed to be the highest form of knowledge, thus by applying the methodologies of the natural science to the newborn social sciences allowed for some level of acceptance. As far as ‘objectivity’ is concerned, positivist methodological approaches claim that ‘objectivity’ is an ideal that is attainable, as the social realtiy of society can be observed it without any antecedents. As a result, the aim of the social scientist is to be exogenously detached from the research subject.

Turning to Weber (WEBERREF) changed the direction of social research claiming that although social research should be value free, obtaining completely objective research was impossible. This is simply because researchers are subjective humans. Weber coined the term value free sociology and urged that sociologists need to be unconfined by personal values if it was to make a positive contribution towards society. Weber recognised that personal values would to some extent influence research topics but encouraged objectivity in exploring a topic once chosen. For Weber, value freedom is then a non-judgemental analysis of society ‘in its own terms’. Although Weber advocated this approach to social research, it must be acknowledged that values can enter research in a variety of ways ranging from the choice of research area, formulation of the research question; methodology including data collection, analysis of data; interpretation of data and overall conclusions (Bryman, 2008).

Following from Weber the epistemological position of positivism has been overtly critiqued by various theorists, particularly those who take an ontological, interpretivist stance. For example, Becker (1964: 245) argues that, ‘there is no position from which sociological research can be done that is not biased in one way or another’. Therefore, social research cannot be completely objective as researchers can unknowingly contaminate their exploration of an issue with values developed throughout their own biography. Furthermore, Becker (1964) claims that, sociologists must either ‘write from the position of a superordinate or from that of a subordinate’ (Lawson, 1991: 591). In addressing this claim, Becker (1964) discusses the ‘credibility of hierarchy’ which explores the notion that social groups whom are perceived to be superior within a given society are in a position of power that can define the rules of society. The exclusivity of the natural sciences within society is an example of this. Becker (1964: 242) goes on to surmise that sociologists challenge this rule by refusing to acknowledge the ‘established status order’ in which it is surmised that the ‘truth of knowledge’ is unequally distributed. Therein, Becker suggests that social research should focus on the ‘underdog’ in order to reform knowledge distribution.

This is similar to the view that has been taken up by feminists such has Hartstock (2004: 7) who place emphasis on relativist standpoint theories whereby knowledge is shaped by power relations, that it is ‘socially situated’. Therefore those oppressed can give the best account fo the internal workings of their group. Hartstock (2004) attains that prior to feminist sociology, research disciplines and public policy did not account for women as group with their ‘own knowledge’. For Hartsock (2004), any social research that does not address the unequal distribution of knowledge, is therefore, potentially skewed. Thus drawing upon the Marxist notion of historic materialism standpoint theorists such as Hartstock (2004) and Harding (DATE) chose to address this with the aim of exercising social research from the position or ‘standpoint’ of women. It can be surmised from this perspective that it is therefore it is impossible for a social researcher to extract themselves from power relations in their own situation. Therefore the feminist approach strongly advocates that objectivity should not be the primary aim of a social investigation. Rather, it is important for researchers to adopt a stance and consider how their values will influence their research. In addition, it should be recognised that feminist researchers shape the results of their analyses no less than do those of sexist and androcentric researchers. The “objectivist” stance should be avoided as it attempts to make the researcher’s cultural beliefs and practices invisible, while simultaneously skewering the research objects, beliefs and practices to the display board (Harding, 1987:9).

What are the arguments against this?

GOULDNER

Gouldner is in consensus with Becker that social research cannot be value free yet he openly criticises Becker’s claiming that Becker does not address the reasons why sociologists are more inclined to take the side of the underdog. Furthermore Gouldner asserts that is not always the case,

“the manner which some sociologists conceive the value-free doctrine disposes them to ignore current human problems and to huddle together like old men seeking mutual warmth. ‘This is not our job,’ they say, ‘and if it were we would now know enough to do it.” (Gouldner, 1973: 13)

It is clear that subjectivity poses a severe limitation for the positivist objective approach to social research. For Gouldner, however, the positivist approach posed another extensive problem, it was ‘useful to those young, or not so young, men who live off sociology rather than for it, and who think of sociology as a way of getting ahead in the world by providing them with neutral techniques that may be sold on the open market to any buyer’ (Gouldner, 1973: 12). In others word Gouldner saw self interest as a powerful motivator – the outcome of research being affected by the context in what it is undertaken. Thus the social researcher is not necessarily on the side of the underdog.

In laymen terms Lawson (1991) suggests that the crux of this debate is the question of whether sociologists are allied with the state, accepting the state as the overall authority or should they adapt a more ethical, moral role in addressing social problems of society. Ultimately social researchers are divided by this dilemma that as Gouldner suggests, depends on the social context of the researcher. What Gouldner recognises is that the attempt of sociologists to draw upon the natural sciences to obtain an objective approach does not entirely fit with social studies and that the institutions in which professional sociologists consult such as government, academia and business can have a profound effect on a researchers values.

Parsonian sociologists such as Haak (1994) and Hammersely (2000) are critical on views promoted by Becker and Gouldner arguing that that the politicisation of social research is not only misguided, but inherently dangerous, and that ‘an intelligent and sceptical commitment to the principles of objectivity and value neutrality must remain an essential feature of social research’ (back cover). Hamersley (2000) promotes the idea of value-free, objective social research placing emphasis on academia as the key institution to producing knowledge. Yet the University as a place for producing knowledge itself is under threat. This can be demonstrated by addressing the tragedy of the anticommons.

ANTICOMMONS 300

In response to Harding’s Tragedy of the Commons whereby a resource is exploited by overuse, (HellerRosenburg1998)) address the notion of the ‘anticommons’ where upstream and downstream technologies are compatible for the development of a new product yet the technology is patentable and ownership is fragmented thus the price of the new product becomes high and its consumption ends up being small or there is a ‘gridlock’ in the development of the products

EXAMPLE OF ANTICOMMONS – This is not objective research if the notion is to make profit 250

This situation can be directly perceived by examining changes within university systems. For example, in Japan, national universities that conduct public research have transitioned to ‘University Corporations’ by which there is an emphasis in profiteering from any innovations it may develop (Nishijima, 2004). According to Nishijima (2004) the Japanese ministry of education has advocated universities to acquire patents of innovations and to partake in research activities with private organisations such as corporations.

through establishing Technology License Office for the past few years. The transition of National University to University Corporation implies that results of basic research will suddenly change from public goods to private goods and that the anticommons problem will emerge in the product innovation where basic research and development of new products are complementary.

In the case of National University, there seems no consensus (no argument so far) on how economists should formulate the objective function of national university.10 Even if we assume that national university behaves as if it maximized a particular objective function such as probability of research success subject to budget and other constraints, equilibrium variables of national university will not be far from those arbitrarily given, as long as the particular objective function is not convincing. Therefore we have no choice but to exogenously give particular values to variables

Thus as Oliver (1992) ascribes, social research are sometimes forced to take sides as funding bodies are not willing to take risks and support user-controlled research.

The point that Gouldner (1973) puts across is that sociology should focus on social change therefore it must take sides. Essentially, Marx emphasised the need for social research to contribute to social change,

“The Standpoint of the old materialism is civil society; the stand point of the new is human society, or social humanity. The philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point is to change it. (Eastman, 1935)

like Marx, Gouldner (1973) believed that sociology should count towards human emancipation – thus Gouldner became a strong believer in public sociology.

REFLEXIVITY 300

The notion of reflexivity. Researchers must give an indication of the purpose of their research and how they have come to partake in such research

This illustrates some of the factors that can affect social research. Namely, the need for profit.

PARSONIAN SOCIOLOGY – ARGUES FOR EPISTIMOLICAL RESEARCH – DISCUSS!!
BURAWOY – PUBLIC SOCIOLOGY – DISTINCTION BETWEEN THOSE THAT ACT AND THOSE WHO DONT

As Burawoy (2005: 324) asserts ‘the possibility for public sociology comes from sociology’s spontaneous connection to – its reflexive relation with – civil society’. Burawoy clearly recognises that sociology in itself is a reflexive paradigm and suggests that it clearly needs to move from ideological theory to commitment to action. In a sense Burawoy (2005: 325) advocates that social research must take sides claiming like Marx and Gouldner that society should ‘place human society or social humanity at its organising centre’.

200 words

Whilst this debate continues, a few conclusions can be drawn from this essay. Firstly, it is near impossible for social researchers to complete value free research. There are several factors that account for this. Namely as Gouldner asserts, the social context in which research is conducted. Secondly, It would seem that social research is clearly divided by professional and public sociology. Thus it is not a case of whether or not to take sides but more a case of which side our values empower us to choose. Those inclined towards professional sociology may attain that objectivity is not compromised whereas those inclined towards public sociology may recognise that it can be and even more so, that it is necessary to evoke humanitarian changes.

There are many social issues facing New Zealanders today, couple these with low economics and low employment and these factors start turning these issues into health problems such as obesity. This essay will outline a social issue of obesity. It will then give a brief explanation of sociological theories, upon doing so the essay will then relate the social issue back to the three sociology theories. Lastly this essay will explore how obesity is affecting MA?ori.

Obesity in New Zealand has become a major health and social issue facing people of all ages. Recent statistics on this issue have highlighted just how much of a problem obesity has become.in the years 2008/09 27.8% of all adults (aged 15+) are obese that’s 1 in 4 and childhood obesity is no better with 1 in 12 children (aged 2 – 15) being obese that’s 8.3% (Ministry of health, 2011). This breaks down to males being 27.7% and females being 28.7%, compare these to 1997 where the statistics were vastly different. Only 17% of males were obese and 20.6% females were obese (Ministry of health, 2011). Children’s statistics are similar but there is a definite trend for children as only some in the total population are affected. All factors have been addressed while these statistics have been complied such as food intake, food types and psychical activities. The health issues that have steamed from social issue include type 2 diabetes, and heart disease among others in adults, However in children the problems are far more serious . Obese children face a lifetime of health problems such as high blood pressure and asthma. For obese children there is a greater risk of bullying, body dissatisfaction as well as psychological problems (Ministry of health, 2011). There has been research to suggest that obesity in children may lead to strokes, common cancers, reproductive problems and musculoskeletal problems (Ministry of health, 2011). Obese children often lead to obese adults; this is now not just a health problem but a social issue as the repercussions that stem from this are far reaching. Our children will have to face this head on as it will be down to their generation who ultimately have to deal with this issue.

Conflict theory, structural functionalism and symbolic interactionism are all theories used in sociology. They provide perspectives on how we see the world, something to grab a hold of so to understand the information we receive. Each of these theories provides a unique way of looking at situations for example a conflict theorist would say that all relationships are centred on power and someone holding more power than the other (Brent, Thompson, & Vale, 2000) . A conflict theorist believes that social economics are determined by the wealthy and therefore they hold the power over the majority of the people (Brent, Thompson, & Vale, 2000). With this happening it clearly breaks society into two groups rich and poor, the boss and the workers or as Karl Marx put it the bourgeoisie and the proletariats ( M.E. Sharpe, 2005), this division between the masses proves to be beneficial for the richer of society (Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 2000). When dealing with social problems the conflict theory can be broken into two areas Non-Marxist conflict theory and Marxist conflict theory. Marxists focus on conflicts in our society that develop from differences in financial status (Ellison, 1987). Non-Marxists focus on conflicts in our society that arise from differing and oppositional ethics amongst different groups (Ellison, 1987).

A structural functionalist has a different view on the world as they believe that our society is a group of interrelated individuals that coexist in a manner that creates symmetry for all (Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 2000). With this belief comes the realisation that corporations and families are equal in society, families reproduce, nurture and educate children who in turn provide workers with the skills and knowledge base for the corporations to continue (Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 2000). Structural functionalism highlights how a society works together and how one part of society influences another part of society (Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 2000).

Symbolic interactionism is largely based on work by George H Mead and Max Webber. Symbolic interactionism looks at the whole picture while analysing the micro level, as theorist who follows this perspective believe that by analysing the macro level the social problem could be broken down to see what level has been affected (Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 2000). This perspective is occupied with the inner workings of a small group to see how human behaviour is influenced while interacting within the small group vs. a larger group (Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 2000). This perspective also advocates that a person’s self is shaped and influenced by interaction with others in a social situation (Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 2000).

Looking at obesity from a structural functionalist point of view you would have to say that not one person is to blame as it is a collective problem, that a collective has to come to terms with. With this understanding it then becomes hard to correct the problem as if one part of society is influencing to the wrong degree then that will impact on another part of society and then a domino effect is created (Nestle, 2006). Marketing advertisements in modern media that depict high fat and high in sugar foods utilising graphical images that portray healthy people, make the average consumer believe that eating this style of foods will have no effect on them (Witkowski, 2007). This is just one example of the major corporations influencing society to buy items which is propelling the obesity problem. This is one part of society influencing another part of society.

A conflict theorist would look at this social issue and would simply ask who is benefiting from this. Companies who promote unhealthy eating like fast food establishments who make unhealthy food readily available at a low cost point are the only ones who make a gain (Beck, 2007). By making appetizing food which tastes good with no nutritional value in bulk the fast food companies are able to keep costs down and in doing so they hold power over the consumer as they are able to purchase a cheap filling meal at no great cost to them (Young & Nestle, 2007). There is research that links the proliferation of fast food outlets to the growing challenge of obesity this factor linked with low exercise rates due to motorized transport and jobs that no longer require manual labour has led to a sequence of events in our society where obesity is one of the outcomes (Freund & Martin, 2008) . This has become the typical power struggle in our today’s society.

A symbolic interaction theorist would look at how people are being influenced by those they surround themselves with, how a person/people receives and interprets the information being beamed through all media outlets and peer’s a like (Kumanyika, 2008). By bringing the person down to the macro level a theorist would look to see how these influences are being processed, how media influences peoples buying patterns and challenges our ability to see right from wrong and good from bad. The use of modern media practice gives visuals of healthy people consuming high fat unhealthy food (Nestle, 2006). The image contradicts the act and therefore legitimises this in their mind, consequently making it ok to eat unhealthy. This is how obesity has become a social issue.

This is an essay in which I will attempt to evaluate the premise of whether a nuclear family is bad for its members using differences between the Functionalist perspectives of the family against the contrasting view of the Marxist and Feminist approach. I will outline the main approaches from all three and draw a conclusion.

Sexual – The family legitimises sex for the adult members. This closed unit allows the male to fulfil his natural function and alleviates the need to find a mate. He has one at the core of his family.

Reproductive – This allows the adults to propagate the species in a safe and stable environment. Once reproduction has been achieved the family legitimises the individual by giving it a family name and label with which it may enter society

Economic – The family provides the workers for society to function. It provides the environment in which its members spend their wages and so maintain a functioning economy.

Educational – In order for a society to maintain balance and function the family educates its members to accept the norms and values of society through primary and secondary socialisation. The adults begin primary socialisation in the family before sending the children to school and nursery where they enter the secondary stage.

Emile Durkheim was the founding father of the functionalist perspectives but he was joined by other sociologists who added to his founding idea. Talcott Parsons was one such individual who expanding on Durkheim’s theories by arguing that the family loses some of its functions to society by evolving into more complex units. It still however kept the fundamental distinction of being natural, whilst maintaining its position in a consensual society of values. Further more Parsons argued that this evolutionary process created a refuge from the rigours of a fast moving modern society. It allowed the members to return to the bosom of the family allowing them to relax and recharge the batteries. The term “warm bath” was used to describe the cloak of security and soothing nature of the close family unit.

The view that the family is not a natural creation, but an artificial creation to serve societies powerbase is an example of the Marxist perspective.

The backbone of the Marxist approach is the divide between the ruling class and the working class. Family was created by society in order to supply a constant supply of a labour force, so that the ruling class could maintain their advantageous position of gatherers of wealth and power. The roles of the family unit were defined solely for the purpose of maintaining a stable economy. The male (breadwinner) went out to work producing goods and was paid for his services. The female member, the carer, was “employed” by the proletariat through their husbands. Their main purpose was to maintain the breadwinner was looked after so that he was available for work.

The family was a breeding pot in which the next generation of workers was produced and socialised so they could take their place on the proletariat conveyor belt. They could replace the main breadwinner if he fell sick and unable to work without interruption. The phrase “two workers for the price of one” is apt because the ruling classes knew they had the obedience of the whole family due this need for money and so their subservience. This approach is in stark contrast to the functionalist approach of consensus.

Out of the Marxism grew the feminist movement. The Feminist Perspectives share commonalities to both Functionalist and Marxist approaches but are markedly different. The feminist perspective attacks and outlines 4 key themes which challenge the traditional notions of the family.

Firstly feminists challenge the idea of the family being “natural”. They argue the family demographic is not based on the biology of the individuals but echoes the Marxist view of exploitation and conflict. That women are the “takers of shit” (Fran Ansley). They are there to absorb the frustrations of men and give them emotional support. Secondly feminists challenge the view that family is based on social organisation. It is argued that because of cultural expectations and assumptions, woman do the domestic chores not because they are biologically suited to be the carer but because of the exploitation of men. The male can equally be the carer and by virtue the female can be the breadwinner. She is just denied this role by being socialised to accept her role and later on denied the opportunities due to inequality.

Feminists also believe that woman and men are fundamentally different and so their expectations of what they want from society are different. This in turn creates conflict not consensus, which is the prime directive of the functionalist approach. Lastly feminist challenge the notion that the family should be a “private sphere”. These common beliefs allows them to be exploited which denies them freedom and opportunity.

The main feminist perspectives are divided into four sub divisions of thought. They can be grouped as follows. Liberal, Marxist, Radical and Socialist.

Liberal – Liberal feminists are concerned with the discrimination of woman and fight in favour of legal reforms to overcome it

Marxist – Marxists feminists argue that the major reason for the oppression of woman is for the exclusion of woman from public production in society. The emancipation is an integral part in the overthrowing of capitalism.

Radical – Radical feminists see male control as the main problem in society. Women themselves must fight to free themselves from the bonds of male slavery.

Socialist – These feminists argue that the oppression of women is the product of capitalism and male control. The end of capitalism will not lead to the emancipation of woman but it requires a fight to free them form patriarchal control.

In conclusion, the functionalist approach to the family is based on a social contract that everything is consensual. The family unit have all been socialised to accept the same values and ideology. The feminist in contrast shares the values to some extent of the Marxist view of conflict. It highlights the oppression of the powerless in society, and focuses on women in particular. It advocates this conflict to allow woman to “break her bonds” and gain freedom. Feminists argue in the segregation, in some part, of woman. Functionalists advocate togetherness. From a feminist point of view the functionalist approach teaches passivity in woman and ensures children are socialised to accept their place in the hierarchy of the family, perpetuating the cycle. The functionalist approach assumes a woman’s role in family and society are extensions of her natural abilities and so her functional practicalities in an ordered society.

The nuclear family has evolved to the extent that in modern society it rarely exists. The feminist movement through the ages has empowered woman to challenge inequality and society has changed to suit. Many women do not need to seek the sanctity of marriage to empower them. They have become increasingly independent. Many families are now single parent families and laws have been changed to reflect the growing trends. A nuclear family serves its members differently, is good for some and detrimental for others depending through which perspective you look at it.

The definition of the nuclear family within our society is that we have a family comprising of a wife/mother, husband/father, and their children. The question that we are addressing in this piece of text is whether a nuclear family gives greater stability than other forms of family?

The debate over the universality and necessity of the nuclear family began in the early twentieth century. Pioneer anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski (1913) stated that the family had to be universal because it filled a biological need-caring and protecting infants and young children. No culture could survive, he asserted unless the birth of children was linked to both the mother and father in legally based parenthood.

Anthropologist George P. Murdock (1949) elaborated on the idea that the nuclear family is both universal and essential : “Whether as the role prevailing form on the family……..or as the basic unit from more complex families form, (the nuclear family) exists as a distinct and strongly functional group in every known society” (p.2.)

Looking at another form of a family unit within our society and evaluating whether a homosexual partnership can give a child/children more stability within a family unit, than a nuclear family. Firstly according to Dr. Laura A. Haynes Psychologist, Tustin California, October 5 2008 she states some say it does not matter who is loving the children as long as they are loved, the need for stability is there. She read a review written by a male homosexual couple seeking a birthmother to give her baby to them to adopt. The heading was “Your Child Will Have Two Loving Dads.” An unspoken consequence was “Your Child Will Be Motherless.” It is hard to imagine the experience of a child who never has a mother or never has a father. Some Psychotherapists who treat children of same sex couples are reporting that the children do long for the gendered parent they do not have.

The argument then adheres too, that a heterosexual couples hold the stronger and more acceptable view within our society to bringing up children in general, and a homosexual couple haven’t the biological gender reform to give a child a stable and coherent upbringing. Children therefore long for the nurturing at a young from their biological mother and would therefore be deprived of their natural growth progression.

A grave concern for the children is the instability of same sex relationships across cultures. In one large study in America and Canada (Jay and Young, 1997) 38 percent of male homosexuals said that the longest relationship they have ever had was less than one year. The average length of longest relationship and the most frequent response for the men was 2 years. The longest relationship for lesbians was on average thirty-eight months. (Jay and Young, 1979, pp. 340, 302).

It seems there folds a great argument within society and societies policies to whether stability can then be held within a homosexual relationship, boarding on the senses for discriminations against the sexes. A nuclear family is acceptable within our society, and holds the confidences towards building a functional acceptance within society as a homosexual couple hold to many discrepancies from the biological family in general.

Women in the past were of fewer rights than these days. Women were treated inferior to men in the workplace, and no one tried to seek change. Nowadays, women are represented by organizations and they have shown great roles in coordination with male roles. Women are not only workers that ignore their household roles but also great caregivers. Women can balance and manage to deserve what they get now.

Not Just Housewives

Women are basically the primary caregivers. They are beings that are made not only to spread love and care; they also have major characteristics that make them great mothers and wives. That’s mainly the only role women had decades ago where women were not allowed to go to schools, to work, and sometimes obliged to stay home. A lot has changed ever since women recognized that a world with working women is possible. Nowadays, women are incorporated heavily in funded work fields. Women are progressively colonizing the entire working power fifty years ago and almost around 60% of women aged of 16 and above work, not to mention that the number of working wives whether they have kids or not, has tripled since 1960 (Ogunrin, 2003 in Ogunrin et.al. 2008). There is a question worth being asked if it is answered, no room for mystery will be allowed and the question is: Are women truly worthy of being equal to men? And can women manage between taking care and sharing love with families and being successful and brilliant at workplaces?

An important yet not enough credited fact is that a major change has been noticed where women now are able to enter the workplace that was owned by men and attain greater ranks (Black et.al., 1998). After being incorporated to the workplace women have come to an understanding that their rights should no longer be oppressed, due to such fact, women have come to find ways to defend their rights and seek change. Organizations developed by women have come into existence to help and guide women to the right path and to keep them involved in the society in several ways, ways they have been banned from being part of. For instance, women founded health organizations like the Association for Women’s Rights in Development (AWID) which was founded to help women adapt easily to the new social norms and enhance gender equality worldwide. Other organizations founded by women seek not only gender equality but also help women know their rights and push them toward their goals.

Since the worldwide organizations stood for women’s rights, and after that women made massive treads toward receiving equal educations, they succeeded to tear out this right which was totally forbidden for women. Education contributed in the movement of the revolution that women had. It was considered a pathway to women’s equality with men. Not only that, it also ameliorated the role of women in every society by refuting the fact that says that men are smarter than women by having university degrees. Given that the higher the education the more the empowerment of women nowadays, women decided to attend universities in order to have authorities, high work positions, and high ranks in the society. In addition to that, education has entered the radical countries and raised awareness among the people, especially men, in order to give women the priority to choose, to improve, and to get accepted in the society. It worked in some countries and failed in some. To illustrate, in Saudi Arabia, women are determined and when they are, they always find a way to become better and advanced (you can have it all, 2008). Education played a major part in diminishing the gap among genders. In 1995, the Unicef states that challenging the sex differentiation, universities succeed to ameliorate many women. These differences are noticed in 20 to 30 women for every 100 men who take part in 3rd rand education (Unicef, 1995, in Orgunin et.al. 2008).

But no wonder some women still suffer from gender discrimination. This fact is proved in the workplace. Women were never treated fairly when it comes to having good jobs. Sung (2007) mentioned in his article that women in Asia who have graduated from college are finding it difficult to get jobs than man do. And it’s no lie that in countries where men and women have equal access to education, women remain jobless while men always find jobs. We now notice that women, almost all over the world, are everywhere in any work field. Business majors, engineering, and journalism are not only restricted to men, they also include women. Even when it comes to being paid, women and men earn equally and get raises based on their work, achievement and skills and not on their gender. As UN declares in the year 2005, almost equal numbers of men and women seek university studies, and another point worth mentioning is that since 1990, women have held employments that are not in the agricultural field (sung, 2007). But when statistics are gathered and facts are investigated, women do not step into all types of jobs out there. A study done by American Elites proves that even though women share positions in the workplace with men, there is no doubt that men dominated women in religious and business field ( Black et.al, 1998).

Another point worth mentioning is that women have problems with being paid. They not only are paid little money for their hard work in some countries, they are paid lesser than men. In Nigeria for instance, for two decades, women’s salaries have been augmented but still to a lesser wage than men earn. That is why, women, especially Nigerian women, feel undertreated and ignored. For several years, women have suffered from gender discrimination. While women worked hard to earn a living, they never were capable of getting exactly what they deserve. Nowadays, thanks to women’s determination and will to be treated equally, they earn exactly the same as men do regardless of their gender.

What prevented women of reaching high working posts or even to enter the world of politics is the lack of education and the belief that says women are governed by their hearts and cannot make good judgments based on intellect. From the time when women took the right of education and had organizations to defend their needs, conquering the political fields became possible. In Monrovia, Liberia for instance, Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf is the first African and Liberian woman elected to be president. She’s an example of a successful 21st century woman. She earned a masters in Harvard and is know as the iron-woman for her mental and intellectual strength and power. Nowadays we have ladies who are vice presidents, leaders and also queens. For centuries, a queen and princesses are not just a symbol of feminism, they also symbolize power and determination. Queen Elisabeth, Princess Diana and Queen Rania are just examples of faces known by everyone and acknowledged by all except no one. Ever since women have earned the right to learn, to earn a college degree, to work and to live freely, women had all the rights to become active in their society and not just bystanders. An article entitled “You Can Have it All” (2008) introduced a very important yet right idea which indicated that those who believe that women cannot have everything, should get acquainted with Middle eastern women of the 21st century who are strong willed and eager to work , achieve and excel.

Another issue worth discussing is that women have not only struggled to have every right to share men’s rights to work, rise, and be politically involved, they have also been facing impediments and judgments that state that women, the natural caregivers, cannot enter work place, since they cannot in any way balance their lives. How can a working woman be able to juggle two jobs a day? Can a modern working woman find time to take care of her house, children and husband and still manage to have an exterior job? The answer is yes, why will it be any different? If women can manage their time and energy and direct their efforts to making it possible, then there’s nothing to keep them from being successful at home and at work. As Tilly and Scott’s study mentioned by Forrest(1988), the results show that women who take part in the workplace do not lose or ignore their primary and leading role at home with the family. When it comes to women in this century, the 21st century, working wives or mothers is not something weird, unusual or unacceptable, it’s every woman’s right to have a life of her own outside the perimeter of the home. There’s a very big misunderstanding Forrest(1988) suggests. He says that work and family are believed to be two separate things, whereas in reality, the limits between the two are not that solid, mostly when it comes to women. An important point comes to mind which is that women who work not only seek self-satisfaction or freedom, they do work to have a better chance in being successful and in helping out the husband or partner in economical needs and in fulfilling and satisfying the family and personal needs such as food, clothing and daily activities.

This life is not a mere path we have to follow. Every single person has a role in this life. Nothing comes into being without an aim. When the word woman is said, the first thing that comes to mind is a wife, a mother and a caregiver. This is not but entirely true. Women are emotional, caring and have instincts that make them such great beings, but this doesn’t mean that the only thing they know how to do is care and love. Women have been the proof that everything is possible and that when there’s a will there’s a way. They have been struggling to prove to others that they exist and do belong in every aspect of life. They can be doctors just as good and even in times better than men. Don’t forget that a doctor has to be not only smart and witty but also affectionate, what better doctor would patients have than caring ones? A woman’s fights for freedom, rights and needs in my opinion have ended in their benefit. Yes women not only deserve but must be treated equally to men if not in every aspect at least in the ones they have a say in, since women can be good at what they do. And as long as women can find a way to be great workers and ideal mothers and wives, why not give them the credit when they do make it work?