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The modern lifestyle has a number of advantages which includes easing peoples life, saving hundreds of peoples lives by the new development of medicine and vaccines. On the other hand different modern life style patterns have negative effects on health physically, psychologically, and socially. One of these modern ways of living is the high intake of fast foods. This is due to specific reasons such as the short time specified for eating and choosing healthy food. Lack of physical activity combination with fast foods leads to bad effects on the heart’s health. Use of high technology machines is another way of modernity. Although use of these machines has helped in saving the time to do a lot of tasks, the wrong use of them will indirectly affect health. Another point is the advanced transportation which reduces the time needed to travel and made travelling an enjoyable time. Last, is the use of computers and internet in the communication, transfer of information, and entertainment as well. Altogether will constitute the elements of a sedentary life style. That means, high fatty foods intake and lack of physical activity. Which both are caused by fast foods, depending on high technology machines and transportation, and sitting long hours in front of the computer.

Modern life style increases the risk of obesity. Consequently, leading to diabetes, heart diseases, and cancers. Pollution caused by the machines and advanced transportation causes different respiratory diseases. Furthermore, it leads to atopic diseases which are group of hereditary diseases contributing to allergies and asthma. Psychologically, persons are prone to increased stress level and depression. Social isolation will occurs due to spending long time on computer and internet.

Effects of modern life style

Nobody can ignore the usefulness of modernization on our daily life, especially on how much it makes life of humans easier. This is particularly correct about the new evolution of the new development of medicines, vaccines that save people from the fatal endemic diseases. On the other hand, Modern life style becomes more and more an important factor influencing health state of most developed countries. Unhealthy behaviors responsible for increasing the mortality of the cardiovascular, cancers, diabetes, and respiratory diseases. There is increasing evidence that following a healthy lifestyle including appropriate diet, satisfactory physical activity level, and healthy weight can provide significant cardiovascular and metabolic benefits. From that we come to a conclusion that different modern life style patterns affect our health physically, psychologically, and socially. The main life style patterns that are going to be discussed in this research are the use of high technology machines, fast foods, advanced transportation, and the use of the computer including internet and video games that is being used by almost every member of the family.

The way people eat today is far different the way people ate before. Hundred years ago people used to include a lot of fruits and vegetables in their diet. This gives a lot of nutritional value to their meals, and decreases the risk of getting cardiovascular diseases which is related to the less fat content of these foods. These days people have very bad nutritional habits, especially with the fast widespread of fast food culture particularly between young people which they continue to carry on the same eating habits in their adulthood. According to Shepherd et al. (2001), the promotion of healthy eating is high on the health policy agenda in the UK.They mentioned that young people are particularly important group, as poor eating habits established during teenage years may be maintained into adulthood, creating a number of cardiovascular and other health related problems later in life. Ed Edelson (2009) mentioned in his article” that data from 2003-2006 shows that 11.3 percent of children and teenagers were at or above the 97th percentile in body mass index for their age”. This shows that overweight teens have a 70 percent chance of becoming overweight adults (Para.6).The reason for people’s poor eating habits is the less time provided by them to prepare a healthy food which probably would take time. Furthermore, people don’t spent enough time to eat and choose correct and healthy meals. Everyone is just busy in building their future ignoring the fact that this might be interrupted by diseases caused by their poor eating habits. Other reasons include the need for both the man and women to join the work field. This means that the women will be away from home for long hours and depend on the fast foods to feed her family. Therefore, children will acquire this habit and they won’t be able to differentiate between healthy and unhealthy food. In addition to poor eating habits, lack of physical activity is a major problem in this today’s life. That is, if it is together present with the high consumption of fatty foods, they will lead to disastrous effects on the person’s health status. So, maintaining regular exercise is good for the well being of an individual health and helps prevent so many heart and metabolic diseases.

The use of modern technology makes living better and brings certain advantages to people. Such advantages include fast communication and improvement of travelling. Before, people use animals to help them travel from one place to another which might take days to travel. Now, we spend only few hours using the air planes which make the journey easier. The use of new technology machines is also now in our home. We do most of the house cleaning with machines, which actually makes the life very easy. Every day a new machine is invented for human use to ease their lives. According to Emmanuel Mesthene (n.d.), “Technology is neither good nor bad, it is neutral”(page 12).This means that technology can bring us luxuries, but it also can cause problems. It is a matter on how the technology is used according to him.

Computer and internet are being introduced into most houses. Although they have a lot of advantages, they have adverse effects on people health. Jayashree, 2007 said “Internet has been perhaps the most outstanding innovation in the field of communication in the history of mankind. As with every single innovation, internet has its own advantages and disadvantages”(Para.1). According to her the advantages include better communication, and faster way of getting information, and for entertainment. The internet has made the world smaller; it also provides services for people use. Children also now use the computers very widely. It is even being introduced in the teaching curriculum of majority of schools. They also use it in playing video games for their entertainment and joy. Even a lot of adults enjoy the video games as well.

All of the past modern life style patterns lead to adopting sedentary life style which combines eating high calorie diet and lack of physical activity. Which are major risk factors for getting a lot of different diseases. In my opinion, sedentary life style includes the wrong use of available high technology machines and transportation as well.

Physical effects of modern life style patterns especially the fast foods and the lack of physical activity increase the risk of getting cardiovascular diseases. Acharia (2007), wrote in his article Modern Life Style Could Damage Your Heart, “The modern lifestyle, which puts people under constant stress, could severely damage major organs and lead to heart attacks, kidney disease and dementia”(Para.1). Other diseases caused by sedentary life style include type two diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia. Doctors said that sedentary life style is a modifiable risk factor. This means that this risk factor can be prevented and changed by following a healthy life style. A healthy life style means healthy eating and regular exercising. Obesity, which is a major health problem of industrialized countries, is a result of following sedentary life style as well. A study done by Rodriguez,Nvalbos, Martinez, and Eschobar (2009),” results shows that the highest levels of obesity associated with daily alcohol consumption, greater consumption of television, and sedentary pursuit. A lower prevelance of obesity is observed among those with active physical activity”. (Para. 1) Pollution caused by the use of high technology machines and transportation contributes to many respiratory and skin diseases as well. Furthermore, Herbert et al. (2009) study showed “that so-called western lifestyle may contribute to the development of atopic diseases”. (Para. 1). Atopic disease means the hereditary tendency to experience immediate allergic reactions such as asthma or vasomotor rhinitis because of the presence of antibody in the skin or bloodstream.

The effects of modern life style on the psychological status of people are still on research. But, most researchers agree that to some extent modern life style indirectly impact psychosocial life of individuals. Experts from university of Washington have warned that the way modern technology has been breaking people’s connections with the natural world may give rise to a major psychological problem. One of these effects includes increasing the stress level due to the so many obligations today’s person might take. Even though some degree of stress might be useful in order to handle different problems we face every day. Chronic stress will have effects on the person’s physical state as it will lead to many diseases. Raylopez, (2009) said in his article about causes of stress in modern life style “In modern lifestyle, however, stressful stimuli are continues and stress is daily, so the pressure builds up and eventually causes damage to the body”.(Para. 4). A healthy life style will have its positive effects on the psychological status of the individual which will directly affects his physical status as well. The use of high technology machines will reduce person’s self independence and make him depend in doing his job on the machines. This will subsequently reduce the self satisfaction. As doing a job on your own will make you more confident about your abilities. Brendan, (2009) cited from lardie’s research findings in his article Depression Caused By Modern life style. Those findings are conclusive that “depression primarily stems from modern living: social isolation, fast food laden diets, physical inactivity, sleep deprivation, and less exposure to the outdoors”. (Para.6) .Depression finally will damage person’s life physically and socially and will deprive him from his normal life.

Socially, modern life style affects the social relationships very strongly. Especially with the use of internet to chat with others. People use internet messenger widely in their communication with others. This will lead to social isolation as a result of spending long time on the internet. As consequence, the person will isolate himself at home and deprive himself from family and friends social gatherings. Using the internet may lead to declines in visiting with friends and family. Irina, Robert, and Lee, (2004). They mentioned also that frequent internet use has negative social outcomes. They cited in their research the results of other research findings which includes; “internet is associated with increases in depression and social isolation” Kraut et al. (1998).(Para.3). Irina,Robert, and Lee, identified that “frequency of internet use associated with declines in spending time with family and friends and in attending social events”. (As cited in Nie et al. 2002). (Para.3).

Conclusion

To sum up, different modern life style patterns affects our health in different aspects physically, psychologically, and socially. I think that if the people’s awareness about these effects doesn’t increase, this may lead to dangerous consequences in the near future. Adopting this life style patterns and especially sedentary life style for long time might threaten people’s life. If this happens then the community health will be affected and we will be having high percentage of diseased and disabled persons. Which finally reduce individual’s productivity and development of their own communities. The best way for reducing the effects of these modern patterns of living is by educating people about its effects on their lives. Particularly concentrating in educating children as changing the way these children live will affect future generations coming after them as well. Another part of resolving the problem is the proper use of high technology machines and advanced transportations. Such proper way means correct use in benefiting the humanity not affecting it and increasing the self dependency in doing different tasks of the day. Promoting healthy life style which includes proper eating, physical activity, and better way of communicating and socializing in the community will have its positive impacts. Furthermore, it will reduce the risk of getting so many diseases which cardiovascular diseases and cancers are at the top of them. Finally, maintaining people’s health is a primary goal of any country that probably would make her spend millions of dollars to achieve it as people are the’ real wealth of a country’.

The Enlightenment was an intellectual and cultural movement of the 18th century which desired to replace the obsolete, irrational ways of thinking by the rational, the sensible and the progressive. The immediate stimulus of the enlightenment movement was arguably the scientific revolution of the 16th and 19th century. Through the application of science and reason to the study of the natural world, men like Galileo and Isaac Newton made leaping advances and discoveries which exposed many scientific truths. These new found ‘truths’ usually contradicted the conventional, religious beliefs and explanations for the natural world, held and propagated by the church. It was thus a tremendously exciting and controversial time. A time, where the ‘truth’ about the world and the heavens could be discovered by the application of reason based on study.

The modern thinker of the 18th century Europe thus believed that anything and everything could be subjected to the study of reason. Art, customs, morals, traditions etc. hence could all be submitted to the study and rational understanding. It was felt that the ‘truth’ of these reveled discoveries could be applied in political and social spheres to ‘fix’ the problems of society and improve upon the general conditions of mankind. However the era of Enlightenment and its resulting outcomes did hold an arguably central failure. The Enlightenment in great part, failed to hold the capacity to deal with general human differences and diversity in terms of culture, tradition and ethnicities. The grave consequence of this failure can clearly be seen in Europe’s relationship with non-European peoples and cultures in the period that came during and after the Enlightenment era. This period was the epoch of cultural in-sensitivity, colonization and racism etc. And these can attributed in great part, to the universalist frameworks of inquiry of that time. The intellectual thought of 18th century Europe was arguably steeped in abstract conceptions of a standardized and inflexible human nature and majestic narratives of a progressive history of human civilization. The legacy of Enlightenment thus is plagued by an epistemological inadequacy of presumptions which fostered a manner of thinking that would for two centuries, serve to legitimize European global domination, racism and destruction.

Modernity

The birth of modernity, took place in roughly the same time frame of that of the Enlightenment movement. In general terms, modernity refers to an historical era which is characterized by a move from feudalism towards modern day capitalism, secularization, rationalization and industrialization. Modernity means the cultural schemata and mechanisms of social action stemming from the Enlightenment and the modernization process. It is a set of new and “man-made” rationalized mechanisms and rules for human societies. The interrelated dimensions of modernity may be roughly grouped into “intellectual” and “institutional” categories including subjectivity and individual self-consciousness, a spirit of rationalized public culture, rationalization of economic operations, bureaucracy in administrative management, self-discipline of public sphere and democratization etc. Modernity remains the major support and dynamic in keeping human society running today. Characteristics of modernity are based on highly industrialized societies, which have regular patterns of everyday life. Some of the main characteristics of these modern societies include have already been mentioned; however are some central ones, described in more detail:

Bureaucracy: Impersonal, social hierarchies that are based on the general division of labor coupled with regularity of systems, methods and procedures.

Rationalization: A way of looking at the world and managing it through the use of logic, objectivity and impartial theories and data.

Disenchantment: A move away from understanding the natural world, the heavens and general life through metaphysical ideas.

Secularization: A move away from religious influence at a societal level

Commodification: The decline of all facets and aspects of life to the items of monetary exchange, utilization and consumption.

Alienation: Isolation of individuals from institutions of meaning and emotions i.e. religion, family, tradition, meaningful work etc.

Modernity and the Holocaust

A number of postmodern theorists have attacked modernity for causing racism. Far from seeing the Enlightenment belief in rationality as likely to undermine racist beliefs, they have argued that modernity has actually encouraged racism. Postmodern theorists have also argued that racism arises out of a modern tendency to see the world in terms of binary oppositions, or pair of opposites. Western modernity has contrasted itself with ‘others’ who are taken to be very different. Out of this process racism develops.

In Modernity and the Holocaust (1989) ‘Zygmunt Bauman’ argues that the Holocaust was a product of modernity. The mass extermination of Jews (and others in Nazi Germany) was not simply a result of anti-Semitism, an illogical racism directed against Jews. Rather, the Holocaust was a product of the central features of modernity. Bauman says:

The truth is that every ‘ingredient’ of the Holocaust-all those many things that rendered it possible -was normalaˆ¦in the sense of being fully in keeping with everything we know about our civilizations, its guiding spirit, its prioritiesaˆ¦of the proper ways to pursue human happiness together with a perfect society. (Bauman 1989)

The links between the Holocaust and modernity take a number of forms:

The Holocaust was a product of modern, bureaucratic rationality. The German bureaucracy (particularly the notorious SS) were charged with the task of removing Jews from Germany. In keeping with the principles of modern bureaucracy, the people involved did not question the aims given to them by their political masters. They simply sought the technically efficient means to achieve the objective. Moving the Jews to Poland caused administrative problems for those Germans who had to govern the annexed territories. Another proposal at that time was to send the Jews to Madagascar, a colony of defeated France. However this proved impractical as well. The distances involved and the British naval capabilities meant that millions of Jews could not be sent there. Mass extermination was chosen because it was simply the most technically efficient means with which to rid Germany of Jewish presence. The ‘Final Solution’ did not clash at any stage with the rational pursuits of efficient, optimal goal implementation. On the contrary it arose out of a genuinely rational concern, and it was generated by bureaucracy true to its form and purpose. Thus bureaucratic organization can be used to serve any end, and the modern ethos that bureaucrats should not question the purpose of their organization, precludes them from taking steps to prevent events such as those of the Holocaust.

Evidence from the Holocaust survivors suggests that most of the members of the SS responsible for carrying out the Holocaust did not appear to be psychologically disturbed sadists. They in fact, appeared to be relatively normal individuals. However, they were able to participate in such inhuman acts because they were authorized to do so by their superiors and because the killing was routinized. They subjected themselves to the discipline of the organization to which they belonged. Accepting organizational discipline is another feature of rational organization in modernity. The honor of civil servants depends upon their ability to follow the orders of their political masters, even if they personally disagree with those orders. Furthermore, modern, rational organization tends to make the consequence of individual actions less obvious. The part played by each member of a bureaucratic system may seem distant from the final consequence. Thus an official who designated people as ‘non-Aryan’ in Nazi Germany would be unlikely to think of himself or herself as being responsible for mass murder. Even the actual killing in the Holocaust was sanitized by the use of gas chambers. Earlier methods had included machine gunning victims. However, this was both inefficient and made the inhumanity if what was going on, markedly more obvious. Gas chambers minimized such difficulties.

Modernity is based upon the existence of nation-states with clear cut boundaries. Jews were regarded as ‘foreigners within’ in European states. According to Bauman, in pre-modern Europe the presence of Jewish ‘otherness’ did not on the whole prevent their accommodation into the general social order. Pre-modern societies were divided by castes and Jews were a different group. Modern nation states emphasize the homogeneity of a nation in order to foster nationalist sentiment. Their desire to maintain boundaries involves excluding the alien ‘other’. This produces a condition within which racism can thrive.

From the Enlightenment onwards, modern thinking has maintained that human societies can progress through the application of rational, scientific knowledge in planning society. The anti-Semitism that was expressed in extreme form in the Holocaust was backed by German scientists who could supposedly prove the inferiority of the Jewish race. The mass extermination of the Jewish population was based on the grounds that doing so, would improve the fabric of German society as a whole. Such projects to transform society are typically modern and would not be considered in pre-modern societies, which lacked such a sense of progress.

The claims made by Bauman, are controversial to the say the least and thus have been met with much criticism. Critics like sociologist, ‘Karen Malik’ denies that modernity can be seen as responsible for racism and is highly critical of the postmodern approach to ‘race’. He does not deny that racism has been a powerful and corrosive force in modern societies but he does not view racism as a product of modernity itself. He does not believe that the celebration of difference, which he sees as a key feature of postmodern thinking, is the way to undermine racism. Instead, he argues that racism can best be tackled by reviving some of the principles upon which modernity is based. In particular he believes that the application of universal principles is preferable to acknowledging and celebrating variety in human groups.

Karen Malik is also critical of the claim that the Holocaust can be blamed on modernity simply because modernity provides the technological means to accomplish mass extermination. Modern technology has also been used to alleviate problems such as famine and material poverty. The existence of advanced technology in itself cannot be held responsible for the political decision to use technology to exterminate people by gassing.

‘I find it odious that scholars can in all seriousness equate mass extermination with the production of McDonald’s hamburgersaˆ¦or make a comparison between technology aimed at improving the material abundance of society and political decisions which annihilate whole peoples and destroy entire societies.’ (Malik 1996)

Other criticisms have attacked Bauman’s claim that the Holocaust was a product of modernity. They argue instead, that the Holocaust arose in specific historical circumstances rather than being a product of modernity in general. If blame for the holocaust can be attributed to anything, it should be to capitalism rather than reason. Modernity involves a belief in reason and the application of science, while capitalism involves economic relationships based on the pursuit of profit. The two are not the same, indeed capitalism may make it difficult to achieve the equality that was the objective of many modern thinkers. The inequalities produced by capitalism may encourage people to think of other ‘races’ as inferior, but this is not the same as saying that racism is produced by science and reason.

Michael Hviid Jacobsen is another critic, who criticizes the claim that racism can be understood in terms of the concept of the ‘other’. He does not believe that modernity causes people to automatically compare themselves to other people, and that as a result racism develops. He suggests that such claims are so sweeping as to be seriously misleading. In his view, it cannot be assumed that, over many centuries Westerners have seen all non-Westerners as the ‘Other’ in the same way. Western views of other people have been related to specific contexts and circumstances. For example, different meanings have been given to the possession of black skin at different times and at different places in modern history. At one time, most westerners thought it was acceptable to enslave people with black skins however; this is no longer the case. The meaning of ‘otherness’ is often disputed and contentious, and not all modern, post-Enlightenment thinkers have been persuaded of the truth of racist beliefs.

Conclusion

Bauman claims that the possibility of the Holocaust was created by modernity. He does not deny that modernity has had its benefits, but he does believe that it created the conditions in which racism can thrive. This is particularly because modernity detaches morality from rationality and technical efficiency. In later works, Bauman goes onto discuses post-modernity and argues, that in post-modernity authority becomes dispersed amongst different groups of experts and is not centralized in the hands of the state. This returns more moral responsibility to the hands of the individual, who can now choose at least which authority to take notice of. Bauman therefore believes that post-modernity reduces the chances of events such as those of the Holocaust occurring. It opens up more opportunity for challenges to racism and more likelihood of the tolerance of diversity. Bauman associates post-modernism with the acceptance of pluralism and the rejection of harmful attempts to direct the development of society.

SGM 1001. INTRODUCTION

There are many reasons to examine the current situation of the world, where a lot of countries are underdeveloped or are developing, and a small portion of the world, which are the Western countries, are relatively rich and developed. In this essay I discuss the Modernisation theory and Dependency Theory and how they came into existence. Also, the contributions made by all the countries and trying to develop in their own way by the argument based on the Neo-Marxist theorists explains the reasons why this division is still present, especially, the third World countries being dependent on Western countries. Later, I have taken CUBA as an example to show how it ended its dependency on the western countries, and it may give hope to other underdeveloped countries. Then the comparison between the two theories is done and concluding which one is better.

2. DEPENDENCY THEORY:

After World War II, due to economic expansion and polarisation Cold War emerged, and it was then that American social scientists started studying the Third World nations with the purpose of promoting social and political stability and bringing development in the economic structure. (So, 1990, pp.17). However, scholars from made their own theories. It was partly based on the modernisation theory which resulted in the sub-optimal results, as well as ending by saying that imperialism “has actively underdeveloped the peripheral societies they are living in“ (Martinussen, 1997, pp.86). Peripheral countries are assumed to be dependent on mass media. Modernisation School was first criticised in Latin America, when the United Nations-Economic Commission for Latin America went Bankrupt (ECLA).

(So, 1990, pp. 91).

Overall, because of the failure of the ECLA and the Modernisation School theories declined, it gave rise to Neo-Marxist Dependency Theories.

First, attempt to redefine dependency theory from the Third Nations point of view was done by Paul Baran and Andre Frank.
Baran argued that the backward or the third world countries were defined by double economies: a large sector was under agriculture and a very small sector was under industries (Martinussen, 1997, pp.86). The capability to generate economic surplus and profit margins from agriculture is still minimal (Keet, 2002). Baran articulated the difference between the classes and their relations. Also, their impact upon how the economic surplus is been utilised and the power being distributed which resulted to create barriers, preventing development. Thus the crucial and most important point is the conditions of the Third World country within their country. He explained solution to eradicate dependency on the western countries by using a lot of state interference to promote industrialisation as an arrangement for evolution of other industrial sectors (Martinussen, 1997, pp.87).
Frank criticised Baran’s thesis by identifying the causes of underdevelopment. Merchant capitals target metropoles. The satellites’ exists only to feed the metropoles based on their requirements. The crucial method to gain more economic surplus was trade and batter system, including both international and national exchanges. Frank proposed a solution to eradicate the problem of dependency by de-linking completely from the world market to grow. (Martinussen, 1997, pp.88-89). It directly blamed the external factors, like colonialism, whereas the Modernisation School assumed the reason behind these countries to be under-developed is overpopulation, culture, and lack of motivation to do anything constructive or little investment. Moreover, Frank argues that the same process of development in the Western countries immortalises the third world countries to develop (So, 1990).
Most of the scholars tried to explain the reason for them to remain backward by focussing on the external factors. They think there was unequal exchange of economies from the western countries, and their theoretical structure is core versus periphery. All the solutions that were proposed included a socialist revolution with a completely or partly staying away from the international system.
Based on the ‘classical’ dependency theories, more observational information was collected from the circumferences point of perspective, not only from Latin America, but also within African and Asian countries. It was very clear that dependency theory alone cannot explain all the observations. Martinussen (1997, pp. 93) states “the actual changes in the less developed countries implied greater and greater differentiation between the underdeveloped countries”. Therefore, Neo-Marxist theory required an elaborate and expanded version of explanation.

3. MODERNISATION THEORY

For more than 10 years, till the late 1960s, modernisation theory was very popular among the social science. The concept was used in order to explain the changes which will last for a long time due to this theory. It also criticised the Marxist theory on dependency and discussed the difference in cold war and explained how the new independent countries should progress.

After this, in the next 20 years, the concept of modernisation theory and its understanding was completely changed and had become the target of criticism. Most of the people did not accept any theory, but there were some of them who preferred Neo-Marxist theory; puts the blame on the United States for most of the countries to remain underdeveloped. Many people started ignoring the modernisation theory without mentioning any efforts that could be made to apply this theory systematically.

As the Cold War ended, modernisation theory was again brought into picture. It was only to reduce the rising disagreement over globalisation. Some argued that the fall of communism was one of the reasons that deviate the requirements which were specified in the theory, while others replied that other abrupt changes in Russia and other countries proved the theory to be wrong. What was the reason that proved modernisation theorists wrong? Was it the failure of the socialist model or the failure of the economic advice? Later, debates about globalisation pointed out many of the same issues as modernisation theory. After almost 50 years, the theory was again brought into the limelight, social scientists are again working on the positives and negatives of the theory and opening it to the outside world, also on political reform in order to improve capacity of the state and its responsiveness, a breakdown of social barriers, and to improve the knowledge of the state that maximises absorption of information.

Definition

It is used to inspire by its historical and sociological background. It had been developed by doing a lot of historical research and investigating the effects of modernisation that will have on the human communication. According to Giddens (1991), Modernisation means the appearance of ‘modes of social life or organization which emerged in Europe from about the seventeenth century onwards and which subsequently became more or less worldwide in their influence’. Modernisation theories explain how the communication and media uses have changed in the traditional and modern societies.

After the World War II, there were more or less twenty societies which were regarded as highly efficient and more. Definitions ofmodernised varied from places to places. For some of them, structural features, such as levels ofeducation, urbanisation, use of sources of energy, and fertility were the ways to decide whether the particular society is modern or no. For others, attitudes described the modernisation of the society, such as secularization, achievement orientation, functional specificity in formal organizations, and acceptance of equality in relationships.

Core assumptions and statements

Modernisation theory has evolved in three parts.

The first part came into existence in the 1950s and 1960s. One tried to contrast the Western styles of living from the other parts of the world, their technological inventions and their highly selective, targeting to only one person at a time, types of communication, their individualist cultures and of individual motivation and achievement (Lerner, 1958 and Schramm, 1964).

According to McQuail, (2000, pp. 84), this produced three variants:

1. Economic development: mass media promote the global diffusion of many technical and social innovations that are essential to modernisation (Rogers, 1962).

2. Literacy and Cultural Development: Mass media teaches literacy and other techniques to develop. It encourages a favourable state of mind. E.g. finding a way to live a life beyond the traditional way.

3. National identity development: Mass media helps support the national identities and democratic elections in the newly created colonies.

Most of these theories have been criticised as they were pro-western bias.

The second step of modernisation theory is a part of the critical theory that was popular in the 1970s and 1980s. This part does not join hands but it criticises the influence of the western countries on the other countries. This is held to be an instance of Western cultural and fiscal imperialism or authority. (Schiller, 1976).

The third step of modernisation theory which rose in the 1990s is the theory of late, or post modernity. It tries to not be in favour or against the modernisation of the westerns. In fact, it attempts to eradicate the differences in the process of modernisation and explains the results of modernity for individuals in contemporary society (Giddens, 1991a, b). Giddens showed that modern society is characterised by time-space distantiation and dis-embedding mechanisms. Traditional society is basically a direct conversation between the people who live close by, whereas, modern societies goes way beyond that and reaches out to a number of people and communicate with them through the means of mass media and interactive media.
Benjamin Barber tried to explain the differences between the Western and non-Western cultures of the world in hisJihad versus McWorld: How the Planet is both Falling Apart and Coming Together(1996). This matter of grouping on integration and division in civilisation and in media use is also present in the effort of Meyrowitz (1993) and Van Dijk (1993, 1991/1999). Van Dijk tries to explain the rise of the new media such as computer networks and mobile telephony as important tools for modern life. It tries to explain the relationship between all the countries from a historical, sociological, economic and cultural point of view. It gives attention to the role played by the mass media and the new media to help a society develop.

4. CASE STUDY ON CUBA & THE ALTERNATIVE MODEL

Cuba has always been a socialist revolution, which was a necessity by the classical dependency school in order to end the dependency. Unexpectedly, the relations with the international countries changed.Partly, because U.S put restrictions on Cuba. This was the reason for Cuba to move strongly towards the Soviet Bloc. This resulted in the export of sugar cane and import of petroleum, equipments required in industries, daily bread and butter and agrochemicals (Rosset and Benjamin, 1994, and Enriquez, 2000). Moreover, 5.4 times more for Cuban sugar cane was paid by the soviets than the market price (Rosset, 2002), providing almost 80% of Cuba’s foreign exchange (Enriquez, 2000), thereby promoting dependency of Cuban society. Its positive point was their internal investment to get an excellent education system and a good health care system.

But, Cuba’s links with the Soviet Bloc. ended after the end of the Cold War.
“According to Dr. Funes quoted in Parker, 2002, $8billion/ per disappeared from the Cuban trade and imports were reduced by 75 percent”(2002). “Other sources claim it to have been cuts of 82% (Rosset, 2002) of its pesticides or over 90% of Cuba’s fertilizer use (Rosset and Benjamin, 1994, pp. 3).” Even more seriously, “Approximate weight of the population’s caloric intake that was derived from imported goods ranged from 44 to 57 percent.”(Enriquez, 2000). This indicated food shortage for the citizens.

Thus Cuba, which was still under the restriction of the U.S, lost all their trading partners overnight. They faced the challenge to find other ways to be highly mechanized and industrialised. They wanted to be self sufficient and rely on themselves in its food production to prevent scarcity.
Here Cuba’s social structure proved to be of great advantage. As they were highly educated and along with state regulation, they started planning which resulted in positive result of the socialist revolution, which is known as The Alternative Model.

“Although Cuban citizens are still on food ransoms, and food availability had dropped at least to only 60% (Kovaleski, 1999) during the 1991-1995 period, Cuban agriculture has recovered in most areas to the levels of the 1980s (Parker, 2002) and is now world leader when it comes to knowledge of organic agriculture” (Rosset, 2002).

Elimination of dependency

“We are told that small countries cannot feed themselves, that they need imports to cover the deficiency of their local agriculture and synthetic farm chemicals, yet Cuba is virtually doing so. We are told that we need the efficiency of large-scale corporate or state farms in order to produce enough food, yet we find small farmers and gardeners in the vanguard of Cuba. We hear time and again that international food aid is the answer to food shortages-yet Cuba has found an alternative in local production.”(Rosset, 2000)
“Acknowledged, Cuba has faced real hardship in the 1990s, but it is also an example that the so-called ‘de-linking’ as outlined by the Dependency School is possible. Proof of the viability of organic agriculture is the other great windfall” (Parker, 2002).

Also can this Alternative Model be an example for other dependent countries? According to the World System dependency theorists Cuba was already in the semi periphery, because they have educated population who were crucial in its policies for survival. Enriquez (2000) points out the parallel, but slower process in China and Vietnam, and says that countries of other Soviet Bloc are not experiencing a this difference because they don’t have the socialist planning structure. She also explains by going little ahead, claiming that due to the restrictions put by the U.S change have been positive.
On the other hand, Latin America lost a lot of liberty of their power to administer their spending (Anon, 2002), Cuba has proved that even after going through a lot of difficulties, it was capable enough to gain back all the things that it had lost. However, the majority of the dependent nations do not have a socialist structure in place, also U.S continuous to put restrictions to prevent neo-liberal influences. So Cuba cannot be an appropriate example for these nations but it can encourage them to find their way out of this dependency trap.
5. GLOBALISATION: MODERNISATION vs. DEPENDENCY

Over the last ten decades many events and situations have occurred throughout the word. This has affected not only the places where these events or situations took place but also the media relations, politics and economic factors were affected the world as a whole, due to industrialisation. Some of these situations that have occurred have been positive and some were negative. Events that take place In developed and those countries which has the power to influence the other countries, such as the United States or United Kingdom have a tendency to make a larger impact on other developing or underdeveloped countries because more relationships are tied through them. This makes countries like the United States and the United Kingdom able to purposely make decisions and direct it in a direction which is beneficial for them, which is why the way the United States and the United Kingdom conducts its business is criticised so thoroughly. There are some people who believe that this has led to globalisation and this effect is a very good thing and there will be a difference in the social and cultural background in all societies because of industrial capitalism. These kinds of people believe in the modernisation theory which was developed because of globalisation. There are also some people that believe that this is not a good thing and it can lead to inequality all over the world as the result of historical exploitation of the poor, underdeveloped societies by rich, and the developed countries. This led to the development of dependency theory. The people who follow this are considered as dependency theorist

According to my opinion, by in large, I believe that the dependency theory is the way we think and react in terms of globalisation. The modernisation theory states that one thing needed to modernise is infusion or the merger of capitals. I believe that this is all too true, and the more advanced the society becomes, the more they must stay away from others in order to make themselves greater and develop more. At this point the people in the United States use the third world countries or the underdeveloped and developing countries as the way to gain resources that we are exhausting. They get their raw materials, their industry, and even their people from these countries. The other countries and their cultures that decide not to modernise and wants their traditional ways of thinking to be alive are not given any choice by the other countries and cultures. They remain backward as they do not get any choice because the other cultures are going ahead as they are modernising their cultures. The Kung tribes in the Kalahari Desert in Namibia, Botswana and Angola, talks about the way they had lost their traditional values in less than one generation because they had lost their land which they needed to exist in this world as hunter gatherers. This is something that will continue happening and I do not believe that there is anything we can do about it except compensate heavily.

On the contrary, Dependency theory has an almost exact opposite outlook on globalisation than modernisation has. It basically attacks the structure modernisation theory, and with some very good reason. The modernisation theory says that globalisation has a positive impact through infusion of capital from the sources received from the other countries. Dependency theory accepts this but censures the words under which it is done. First world countries like America indirectly set standards of developing and underdeveloped countries by making unfair, but unavoidable, deals. These deals are shaped in a particular fashion that seems to be something helpful and which cannot be avoided.

One of the very good examples is that can explain dependency theory is about the states of Global South. They are in desperate need to develop. “Development seeks to improve the welfare of people living in conditions of economic and social poverty” (Weaver n.d, pp. 112). Why is the Global South prone to remain in this condition? This is a question which has been asked a million times and the answers are given in many different ways. Two interesting theories are used to understand the conditions of Global South and their development, which are: the Classical Economic Theory, which is also known as the Modernisation Theory and the Dependency Theory. One of these theories explains the need to development and living conditions in the southern countries.

According to modernisation theory, there are a few steps which can lead to success for each and every country. In Walt Rostow (1962) work on The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-totalitarianism proclamation, a particular pattern for developing has to be undertaken for a country to become successful, profitable, sophisticated, and have a modern economy, which in turn, will enrich the lives of the citizens in that particular country. This is a very systematic theory. It says that if you do this then only you will become successful and modern. It is demonstrated by Mahler 45 that there needs to be preconditions for development, and thus leading to mass-consumption. The part that is not included in this theory assumes that all countries will follow the exactly same predetermined way to development. Too many variables intercede between that will affect the ability of a state to develop.

For example, Mexico faces a lot of difficulty to develop as it is geographically destined due to the deserts, forests, and mountains. Approximately thirteen percent of Mexico’s land is arable, as well as, there are no big rivers in
Mexico, it becomes all the more difficult to have a good economy. These factors increase the difficulty level for Mexico to develop because it constrains transportation, which directly affects the ability to export and import goods efficiently and profitably.

If the states in the Global South follow the steps of modernisation, there is no guarantee that they will develop. It can be argued that having a rigid set of rules and regulations to follow will not make you reach to the decided destination. One important and sometimes neglected barrier to development could be the geographical condition. However, there are other variables that can restrict a country from developing. As stated in A Global Agenda: Issues Before the 54th General Assembly, “Underlying all these initiatives [for development] is the assumption that poverty eradication and good governance are inseparable, because good governance brings about a proper balance among state action, the private sector, civil society, and the communities themselves” (Tessitore n.d, pp. 105). The reason is that if a countries leadership is very poor, it will directly affect its ability to develop. Take for instance; Saddam Hussein’s country could not develop because all the wealth that was collected by the people was kept by him. Maybe if Hussein would have used the wealth in a good way in his country, by encouraging invention and improving education, then probably his country could have developed long back. Also in India, the political parties and the government are very corrupt. They can be easily bribed. Most of the taxes that people pay go in the pockets of the politicians and the government. If this was not the case in India, and if they had strict rules on bribing, then India would have been one of the developed countries.

In relation to modernisation theory, the states in the Global South should create situations which can improve production and free trade, as well as enhance the internal characteristics, for example, removing illiteracy, improving the communication and infrastructure problem, as well as what the Asians did, popularly known as ‘Asian Tigers’, by improving their transportation which improved their ability to import and export goods efficiently, proved that export-oriented growth was possible.

“Dependency theory became popular in the 1970’s”(Kegley n.d, pp. 226). According to the dependency theory, the states in the North exploit the states in the South. One main reason for this can be that the southern states are highly dependent on the wealth earned by the northern states; therefore this unable them to advance, because of the vicious circle that then ensues. An example of this bad circle can start with a country being economically unstable. They allow a multinational corporation to set up a branch in one of their cities. This increases job opportunities for the people of that city. But the people are hired for very low salary. Then the products that are produced are bought by the northern states, which in turn stop the southern states ‘mass-consumption’ abilities. This is one of the generalized ways that the south gets exploited and remains underdeveloped by the north and the multinational corporation that had set up their branches in the cities of the southern states and come out making huge amount of profit at the expense of desperate people who are just trying to survive and are willing to work for pennies.

For example, all the multinational companies have their customer service centres in India, as it is a developing country. There are huge amount of people who are unemployed and are willing to work even during the nights for pennies for the multinational companies. All the services provided to people in the north with any difficulty is provided by these people working in the particular customer service centres.

According to dependency theory, underdevelopment is the reason of the development of capitalism. A significant example could be Latin America and the United States. The following quote from the preface to the English edition (1979) the persistence of Dependency and Development in Latin America by Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Prentice Hall and Enzo Faletto(2003), somewhat details this dependency issue, “In order to go ahead with economic expansion, a dependent country has to play the ‘interdependency’ game, but in a position similar to the client who approaches a banker … even if the dependent country becomes less poor after the first loan, a second one follows. In most cases, when such an economy expands, its roots have been planted by those who hold the lending notes”. Thus, leading to the conclusion, that in order for global south to develop, the capitalist system will have to break down completely in relation to the dependency theory. Of course, dependency theory did not take backward societies who are not dependent into consideration.

Therefore, after considering all factors of dependency theory, it can be concluded that theory by itself cannot explain or improve the economical conditions and life of the citizens in the global south. It is very clear that some states in the south are completely dependent on the states in the north and they end up being exploited by the north and are caught in the cycle of debt which is never-ending and continues to grow with no way to escape, making them more and more dependent on the northern countries. It is also very clear that modernisation theory neglected the fact that not every state will develop in the same way or in the same period of time. It doesn’t give justice to explain the lack of assumed decreasing profit of the people that is described in the theory.

6. CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the concept of educating citizens and improve the other internal characteristics, it would seem to lead to an improved life for the citizens. Also by becoming less dependent on wealthier and developed nations would help to improve the lives of the citizens in the Global South. “Indeed, there are differences in the theoretical approach to the problem of development. General consensus on the practical problem are, those on the Left and Right agree that the growth rate achieved by under-developed countries after forty years of international assistance is less than satisfactory, if not disappointing” (Mahler n.d, pp. 59). Modernisation theory, however, hypothesises and predicts better than dependency theory. It is a model for some sort of success, based on the definition of success by the western capitalistic countries.

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Introduction:

There are many reasons to examine the current situation of the world, where a lot of countries are underdeveloped or are developing, and a small portion of the world, which are the Western countries, are relatively rich and developed and rule over the under-developed and developing countries. In this essay, I discuss the Modernisation theory and the Cultural Dependency Theory, how they came into existence and what are their problems. Also, the contributions made by all the countries and trying to develop have not really helped them to a great extent. In this essay, I have also explained why this division is still present and the dependency of the Third World countries on the Western countries. At the end of the essay, I have given the pros and cons of both the theories.

International Communication Theory:

The Third world countries were highly inferred for development because of the cold war which divided the countries into Eastern countries and western countries. This lasted for more than 50 years. Most of the Third World Nations wanted to avoid the group of countries which had common interest in politics and they wanted to concentrate on getting their population out of the control of the other legal or political restrictions. Third world nations got their name during the cold war which is said to be given by Alfred Sauvy in 1952, who was the French Economic historian. The world was divided between the capitalist first world which was led by the United States, and the communist second world, which was headed by Moscow (Thussu, 2006). The Term Third world was given to the nations who were not included in above mentioned groups (Brandt Commission, 1981; South Commission, 1990) and Asia, Latin America and Africa started a movement of National Liberation. This changed the entire political maps of the world (Thussu, 2006). By 1960, a lot of countries were free from the colonial powers and these new independent states got an opportunity to develop because of International Communication (Thussu, 2006).

The New International Economic Order (NIEO) was approved by the UN General Assembly and the UNCTAD, because, the Non-Aligned Movement started demanding fairness in the economy. NIEO had an independent and an egalitarian economic order which was grounded on the principles of equality and was government free which included that, ‘all the members of the country had equal rights to participate in the development process’ (Thussu, 2006 cit. Hamelink, 1979: 145). The NIEO provided a structure which helped to understand the international relations between the countries based on North-South division. At the same time, New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) also had to be taken into consideration in order to link it with the economic order. The Non-Aligned countries demanded changes in the global economic and informational systems.

Juan Somavia, 1976, observed that, ‘The transnational Power structure supported the transnational communication system to develop. This is basically a tool for transmitting values and lifestyles to Third World Countries which provokes the consumption and society which is necessary to the transnational system as a whole.’ (Somavia, 1976: 16-17)

There were a lot of times when the Third World or the developing countries took technical and financial help from the Western or the developed countries as they wanted to use the communication technologies for development. One of the main areas where the developing countries took support from the developed ones was the satellite television. Television was considered to be one of the most powerful and influential medium. It could be used for a lot of purposes like bringing change in the attitudes of the traditional people, educational purposes and modernise societies.

Cultural Dependency Theory:

Cultural Dependency Theory was emerged in the late 1960’s and 1970’s in Latin America. It was a criticism of the modernisation theory. This theory was developed in Latin America under the supervision of Raul Prebisch who was the director of United Nations Economic Commission.

The main interest in research of Instituto Lationoamericano de Estudios (ILET) which was established in 1976 in Mexico City was to study the Transnational media business, which gave a force to criticise the modernisation theory.(Thussu, 2006)

It became necessary to analyse international communication. So dependency theorists directed towards getting a substitute theoretical account (Baran, 1957; Gunder Frank, 1969; Amin 1976). Transnational Communication (TNC’s) which was dominated by the North, have control over the governments and over developing countries by setting their personal rules and regulations on global trade which includes dominating labour, market, production and resources. These countries were developing in such a way that the developed countries keep dominating over the developing countries and maintained the need for the developing countries to be dependent on the developed countries (Thussu, 2006).

Due to the neo-colonial relationship in which the TNC’s controlled the exchange and structure of global markets, the inequality in the south had become wider and deeper whereas the TNC’s had strengthened their control over the world’s natural and human resources (Baran, 1957; Mattlelart, 1979, Thussu, 2006). Dependency theorists tried to show the link between modernisation and policies of transnational media (Thussu, 2006).

Herbert Schiller’s idea of cultural imperialism is the most clearly identified one (1969-92). Schiller analysed the links between the transnational business and the dominant states. (Thussu, 2006)

The main argument of Schiller was about how the US based transnational corporations weaken the cultural liberty of the developing countries and force them to be dependent on both hardware and software of communication and media.

The definition of cultural imperialism by Schiller was, “the sum of the process by which a society is brought into the modern world system and how its dominating stratum is attracted, pressured, forced and sometimes bribed into shaping social institutions to correspond to or even to promote, the values and structures of the dominant centre of the system” (Schiller, 1976: 9)

Schiller argued that new emergent American empire was taking over the European colonial empires like, British, French and Dutch. This was based on the economic, military and informational power. According to him, the US based TNC’s are continuously growing and are starting to dominate the global economy. US business and military organisations have got a leading role in the development and control of a new, electronic based global communication system due to the support that economic growth has received from the communication knowledge (Thussu, 2006). USA had the most effective surveillance system as it controlled global satellite communications which was the crucial element in the cold war years (Thussu, 2006). Due to this the dependence on the US increased for communication Technology and investment (Schiller, 1969). All the western goods and services along with the American way of life were promoted when the media programs were imported from the USA which required sponsorship to run. This was a threat to the Southern traditional cultures (Schiller, 1969). He argued in his book, which was republished in 1992 that the domination over the world’s communication of the US increased after the UNESCO failed and the cold war got over. The domination of US over the economy had started decreasing as the TNC’s started acquiring important role in international relations changing the cultural imperialism of US into ‘Transnational corporate cultural domination’ (Schiller, 1992: 39)

The other works which show the dominance of the US using ‘cultural imperialism’ is clearly seen in the Hollywood’s relationship with the European movie market (Guback, 1996); US exports television shows to Latin America and influences it greatly (Wells, 1972); Disney comic also have contributed in promoting capitalist values (Dorfan and Mattelart, 1975) and advertising industry has played a role of an ideological instrument (Ewen, 1976; Mattelart, 1991) (cited in Thussu, 2006: 48-49).

Oliver Boyd-Barrett noticed one of the most prominent aspects of dependency in international communication in the 1970’s as ‘media imperialism’. This examines the information and media inequalities between the nations. It analyses the domination of the US over the international media (Boyd-Barrett, 1977).

Modernisation Theory:

The concept of modernity has become a very general statement. It represents the experience of the western culture on the others. All the global cultures are disapproved to modernity and the concept of cultural imperialism critically evaluates the conclusions in the critique of modernity (Tomlinson, 1991). A philosophical notion in the years after the war was that international communication is an important part in order to modernise and develop the Third world nations. The notion was that international communication can be used to spread modernity among the newly independent countries and that it will help to transform the traditional societies of the developing countries. It was also used to transfer the hypothetical description of economic and political entity of the developed countries.A

Modernisation theory is an attempt to provide a support for the development policies which was created by the western countries. These development policies were supported towards the Third world countries which were still getting out of the rule of the stronger countries and were getting independent. This theory is just an attempt to explain the economic under-development of the Third world nations by focusing on the development which can be done with a process which is determined by the society’s internal features.

Vincent Mosco points out:

‘The Modernisation Theory was meant to reconstruct the international division of labour amalgamating the non-Western world into the emerging international structural hierarchy’ (1996: 121).

Marx, Weber, Durkheim, Simmel and Tonnies and others came up with their own theories keeping in mind the dramatic changes in the European societies due to the modern world. There was an agreement between the theorists which was based on the political spectrum and all of them thought that the world had more than one possible meaning in the capacity to deliver fulfilment and happiness. Modernity was associated with enlightenment and was suppose to free the people from the control of another person or any legal or political restrictions. But modernity failed to deliver complete freedom.

Modernisation includes economic scientific and technical development that is very closely related to the capitalist market. But Berman’s, in his book ‘All that is solid melts into air’ talks about the notion of self development. The main aim of his book is to explain that cultural condition of modernity stood still and lapsed during the twentieth century. He also aims to fix the serious problem which was closely linked to the possibilities of dangers along with the enthusiasts and enemies of the modern life which was found during the nineteenth century. (Berman, 1983)

According to the Frankfurt School theorists the main issue of modernity was the injustices by the capitalist system or social intolerance by a bigot or of the ideology of possessive individualism (Tomlinson, 1991). Horkheimer and Adorno critiqued the modernisation theory by comparing it with the so called rational institutions. The main task of modernisation theory is to set people free, but the history and past politics show that this theory failed to do their task effectively (Tomlinson, 1991).

According the Berman, people living in the twentieth century do not know how to live a modern life and missed of broken the connection between the culture and lives. He describes modernisation as a set of historical processes due to which the experience of modernity evolves. He claims that modernity is one of the most difficult, anxious and uncertain place to live, but ultimately it is the world where people live and people can master the cultures of the place where they live. At one point of time, he mentions about the Third World nations and discusses that the governments of those countries are trying to protect their people from modernisation which is being imposed by the West. He says that if the culture which is being imposed by the west is really not used by the Third World nations then will they consume so much energy? The governments of the Third world nations call the West as aliens. But they do not understand the fact that they are their own people’s energies, desires and critical spirit. When these governments say that they do not want the Western Countries to impose any kind of cultures in their nations, they are trying to say that, they have managed to keep the political and spiritual influence on the people. Also they do not realise that once the people become more aware of things going around them, modernist spirit will be one of the first things to be adapted by the people.

The governments of the Third World Nations are fighting against each other in order to keep their tradition alive among the people, which had no result at the end. He also says that Third world governments think that they are being enforced upon by the western countries by accumulating a lot of capital or are being forced to break into parts.

He suggests that people have to adapt to a place in which nothing can be taken for granted. Media is just one form of medium which helps to spread the experience of modernity.

But according to another theorist, Peter Berger, 1974, modernisation is not a one way journey which rectifies human self understanding. He explains this concept with the help of a story of a visitor who visited the villages of Tanzania. People living in these villages belonged to different Tribes but are now living very co-operatively. This was one of the communities which were transferring from tradition to modernity. The visitor asked someone; whether they still practice their personal tribal dances. The answer was, yes, and it is done once or twice a year on any special occasion. He also added that this is done so that it becomes easy for the people to understand one another better. (Berger, 1974).It is clearly seen that there is a process of political-economic which is enforced upon the Third world nations as they are very closely connected with their traditions and colonialism which has become a history for the Western nations and still are in a position to dominate over the Third world nations (Tomlinson, 1991). Castoriadis, 1985, mentions that the West will continue to conquer the world even if it was going to be destroyed materially (Castoriadis, 1985).

‘So when Berman says that the Third World cultures need to be modernised, he means not just in terms of ‘objective structures’ of the capitalist markets, urbanism, but also in terms of a narrative with a clear beginning keeping in mind the cultures of the west. His view of modernity means that it is full of forces like the ‘dynamic and development forces’ which means that the Western cultures are being imposed on the Third world nations in order to modernise and develop their countries. But Castoriadis has a different opinion. He accepts individuals have their own priorities and have their personal institutional forces towards modernity. The kind of institutions we develop in order to become powerful does not come from external forces of humanity but it comes from within through the social imaginary’ (Tomlinson, 1991).

Habermas’s view on modernity is completely different from that of Berman’s. Habermas thinks that modernity is a way of making someone poor culturally, whereas Berman thinks that there are forces which drive people towards modernity (Tomlinson, 1991).

Cultural Dependency Theory v/s Modernisation Theory:

The gap between the ruling and the working class increased which combined with regular recession to create dissatisfaction among the working class (McPhail, 2009). In order to fight for their rights, working class started forming groups such as unions (McPhail, 2009).

Stevenson criticised this theory by using the dependency literature which was ‘notable for an absence of clear definitions of fundamental terms like imperialism and an almost total lack of empirical evidence to support the arguments’ (Stevenson, 1988: 38). A lot of other theorists argued that it did not consider the media form and the role played by the audience (Thussu, 2006). ‘Those involved in a cultural studies approach to the analysis of international communication argued that, like other cultural artefacts, media ‘texts’ could be polysemic and were amenable to different interpretations by audiences who were not merely passive consumers, but ‘active’ participants in the process of negotiating meaning’ (Fiske, 1987, cited in Thussu, 2006: 49). It was also noticed by the theorists that cultural imperialism thesis did not consider issues as ‘how global media texts worked in national contexts, ignoring local patterns of media consumption’ (Thussu, 2006: 49).

Cultural Dependency theory also failed to explain the effects of the cultural products distributed by the US around the world. Also, cultural imperialism failed to give attention to the complexities of the Third World cultures and assumed a ‘hypodermic-needle model’ (Sreberny-Mohammadi, 1991, 1997). It was also argued that western scholars did not have deep knowledge about the Third world cultures. They had extremely limited knowledge and not being aware of diversities such as race, gender, class, religion and ethnicity. Very few systematic studies have been conducted by the southern scholars on cultural and ideological effects on western media on the audiences of the south (Thussu, 2006).One of the major issues of this theory was that it did not consider the role of the national elites, especially elites living in the developing countries (Thussu, 2006).

Modernisation Theory had promised to deliver the social and economic change which failed miserably (McPhail, 2009). Therefore, three other theories were developed which looked at the development communication which were totally different and directed in a different way, which were, Cultural imperialism, Participatory communication and Entertainment-Education Theory (McPhail, 2009).

Social and cultural theory does not agree with the core of modernity. Also this theory was criticised to a great degree because of its ideological basis, lack of clarity and it is a subject which is ignorant to many and it fails to exercise good judgement. This theory ignores the external determinants of underdevelopment like the exploitation of the Third world countries when they were being ruled by the Western countries. This theory ignores these factors and assumes that the Third World nations are progressing independently and are becoming modern on their own. In order for the Third world nations to progress they needed help from the Western countries as there was a lot of poverty, inadequate resources, lack of social provisions and political instability in the Third world nations.

Modernisation Theory ignores all the disapprovals and expression whose meaning cannot be determined from its context which was addressed by the classical theorists (Tomlinson, 1991). In this theory, the traditional cultures, media habits, language, religion of the developing countries were not included, and were totally ridiculed and ignored (McPhail, 2009).

One of the clear criticisms on this theory is that the American policy was to commit to free flow the information to the world and all the nations fell into the trap and gave immense support to this statement which was assumed to be true (McPhail, 2009). Scholars from the developing countries argued that the developing countries were not the beneficiaries of this theory, which was meant for them, but the western countries who created it were only getting benefitted out of this theory as it helped the companies to grow and establish in the Third world and could find their new consumers of their products (Thussu, 2009). A lot of people in the Third World remained poor and under developed, even after adapting themselves to modernisation theory and by the mid 70’s, they started talking about the ‘passing of the dominant paradigm’ (Rogers, 1976: 3).Slowly, when the US realised that the Southern nations are looking at them with suspicion, they stopped their free flow of information and became the one at the receiving end which at the end became a one way flow of information (McPhail, 2009). This matter was going to be brought up in the debate of the UNESCO in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s, but the US president, Ronald Reagan and British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher withdrew from UNESCO in order to protest against NWICO. Different opinions resulted in creating two streams, one of which was the outline of cultural imperialism by Herbert Schiller and the NWICO debate and fallout. This resulted in making a particular culture homogenous, that is the American popular culture, which is been mass produced (McPhail, 2009).

Due to these reasons, the theorists of modernisation theory realised that this theory needs to be redeveloped (Thussu, 2006). The revised modernisation theory gives greater notice to the local elites (Thussu, 2006). But even in the revised version, western technology remains important. According to Thussu, 2006, Modernisation requires ‘advanced telecommunication and computer infrastructure, preferably through the efficient private corporations, thus integrating the South into a globalized information economy’ (Thussu, 2006: 46)

Despite of all the criticism done on dependency theory, cultural imperialism thesis have been extremely influential in international communication (Tomlinson, 1991; Thompson, 1995). This particular thesis was extremely important and needed during the heated argument during the NWICO debates in UNESCO and other international fora in the 1970’s (Thussu, 2006). While criticising this thesis, John Thompson, 1995, concluded that this research is ‘probably the only systematic and moderately plausible attempt, to think about the globalisation of communication and its impact on the modern world’ (Thompson, 1995: 173). Theorists, who defend this theory, argued that the critics of this theory often take the notion which is totally not in reference to the theory and it is completely abstract (Mattelart and Mattelart, 1998).

There were a lot of changes in the debate of international communication which reflected the language of privatisation and liberalisation in the 1990’s, media and cultural dependency theories became less eminent but their relevance was very visible all around (Golding and Harris, 1997; Thussu, 1998; Hackett and Zhao, 2005 and Hamm and Smandych, 2005 cited in Thussu, 2006: 50)

Boyd-Barrett rightly argues that media imperialism has not included variables, such as gender, media relations and ethnic issues, so it is still a very useful theory to understand of what he terms the ‘colonisation of communication space’ (Boyd-Barrett. 1998: 157).

References:

1. Amin, S. (1976) Accumulation on a world scale: a critique of the theory of underdevelopment. New York: Monthly Review Press.

2. Baran, P. (1957) The political economy of growth. New York: Monthly Review Press.

3. Berman. M (1983) All that is solid melts into air: the experience of modernity. London, verso, pp. 15

4. Boyd-Barrett, O. (1977) Media Imperialism: towards an international framework for the analysis of media systems. In J.Curran, M. Gurevitch and J. Woolacott (eds), Mass Communication and society. London: Edward Arnold.

5. Boyd-Barrett, O. (1998) Media imperialism which was developed again. In. D. Thussu (ed.), Electronic empires. London: Arnold.

6. Brandt Commission (1981) North-South: a programme for survival. The report of the Independent Commission on International Development Issues under the chairmanship of Willi Brandt, London: Pan Books.

7. Castoriadis, C. (1985) Reflections on rationality and development, thesis eleven, no. 10/11, pp. 21.

8. Golding, P. And Harris, P. (eds) (1997) The political economy of the media 2 vols, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

9. Gunder Frank, A. (1969) Capitalism and underdevelopment in Latin America. New York. Monthly Review Press.

10. Hackett, R. A and Zhao, Y. (eds) (2005) Democratizing global media: one world, many struggles. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

11. Mattelart, A. (1979) Multinational corporations and the control of culture. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.

12. Mattelart, A. and Mattelart, M. (1998) Theories of communication: a short introduction. London: Sage.

13. McPhail, T. (2009) Development Communication – Reframing the role of the media. London. Blackwell Publishing.

14. Mosco, V. (1996) The political economy of communication: rethinking and renewal. London: Sage.

15. Berger, P. (1974) Pyramids of sacrifice, Harmondsworth, Allen lane, pp. 197-8

16. Rogers, E. (1976) Communication and DevelopmentL the passing of a dominant paradigm. Communication Research, 3.

17. Schiller, H. (1969) Mass Communication and American Empire. New York: Augustus M. Kelley.A A Second revised and updated edition published by Westview Press in 1992.

18. Schiller, H. (1976) Communication and cultural domination. New York: International Arts and sciences press, 9.

19. Somavia, J. (1976) The Transnational Power Structure and International Information. Development Dialogue, 2:A 16-17.

20. South Commission (1990) The challenge of South: the report of the South Commission. Geneva: the South Centre.

21. Sreberny-Mohammadi, A. (1991) The global and the local in international communication. In J. Curran and M. Gurevitch (eds), Mass Media and Society. London: Edward Arnold.

22. Sreberny-Mohammadi, A. (1997) The many cultural phases of imperialism. In P. Golding and P. Harris (eds), Beyond cultural imperialism. London: Sage.

23. Stevenson, R. (1988) Communication, development and the Third World: the global politics of information. London: Longman. 38.

24. Thussu, D. K (ed.) (1998) Electronic empires: global media and local resistance. London: Arnold.

25. Thussu, D. K (2006) International Communication- Continuity and Change (2nd Ed) Great Britain: Hodder Education.

26. Thussu, D. K (2006) Approaches to theorizing international communication. In: International Communication- Continuity and Change (2nd Ed) Great Britain: Hodder Education. Pp. 46.

27. Thussu, D. K (2006) Approaches to theorizing international communication. In: International Communication- Continuity and Change (2nd Ed) Great Britain: Hodder Education. Pp. 48-49.

28. Thussu, D. K (2006) Approaches to theorizing international communication. In: International Communication- Continuity and Change (2nd Ed) Great Britain: Hodder Education. Pp. 49.

29. Thussu, D. K (2006) Approaches to theorizing international communication. In: International Communication- Continuity and Change (2nd Ed) Great Britain: Hodder Education. Pp. 50.

30. Thompson, J. (1995) The media and modernity: a social theory of the media. Cambridge: Polity.

31. Tomlinson, J. (1991) Cultural Imperialism- a critical introduction. Great Britain. Pinter Publishers Ltd.

Families are changing all over the world. What we see as a family some years back is different. There has been a lot of transition from traditional towards modern families. It is sometimes because of technology but most importantly it evolves around the culture and how different people have adapted to different cultures. (The Future of Families to 2030)

Families; now and then:

A few years back, concept of a family was different. In different cultures family was considered parents raising their children and all of them living together raising children and grandchildren together. The aunts and uncles were part of families and were significant other. Three generations were considered to be a single family who are living together; but now the concepts of families have totally changed. Your significant others now days are only the parents or your siblings. At a time one or two generations make a family. This change does not vary on a cultural basis but it is seen to be adapted universally. (The Future of Families to 2030)

Modern families Vs. Traditional Families:

The book marks different examples and compares both stereotypes of families. The traditional families vary from modern families in a lot of ways. Example of primitive Chinese’s societies is given where is mentioned how the family works on the farm together play their role and act as one unit. Each of the family members has separate shares of land and they get divided when children grow up. To avoid this, primitive families gave the land to the eldest son. Further, traditional families have an advantage that the families stay close together with a strong bond. (Kong)

On the other side, living together can cause number of disputes and disagreements as well; larger the family, more the ways of thinking and more conflict of ideas. To keep this thing in place, a head of mainly is made who is mostly the eldest male member of the family. All the family decisions are in his hand. He is to decide whether to talk about and take a certain decision or not. This creates loos of freedom as no one is to take decisions independently and one loses the right of how to conduct certain things in the family.

In traditional families, more is talked about bonds and staying together like family as a single unit; but now days more is being focused in individuality; people like to think about themselves first and then about significant others. Individuality has given rise to equality and in case of families all family members must be equal together. This is a concept which has been adopted by the modern families where each of the family members has say in the family decisions and everything is based on equality.

This style of family is healthy at one side but it is also has a demerit; this type of families ruin the traditional values which elders kept safe throughout the generations. The respect of elders is becoming less. Parents living together with grandchildren are considered a burden.

Whatever the type of family is and in whatever culture or society we reside; but universally a family is where the love and care takes start. After a bad day; when everything comes to an end; you are always looking towards family as a last place of comfort. Families are there to support you and help you without being judgmental. (Kong)

Change in fertility and family planning from past to future:

There has been a lot of change in the family planning and idea of number of children. The fertility levels and family size have a lot of difference in the past as compared to today and in future. The fertility and family size has been changed not only because of the change in traditions and culture but growing population has become a global concern as well. There are many other reasons as well which have led to a different family pattern and size. (2011)

Now days everything and even the way of living has changed, now people like to have less but the best of all the options available. Same is the case with families; now days what parents commonly think is that to provide their children and family with the best options like education, standards of living and much more, it becomes impossible in the case when you have large families; so smaller families are a way to get all of this in today’s world.

Secondly, the trend of late marriages has also stepped in where now the people like to focus on their career and education before they plan to settle; late marriages lower the level of fertility and leads to less number of children but who are grown in the healthiest manner.

Thirdly, are the advancements in contraception’s and change in society marriages. Gay marriages are legal in most of the countries leading to smaller family sizes and advancement is contraception which was absent in the past have led to smaller families.

The fertility level and the family size and trends have changed a lot from past to the future. (2011)

The change in partnership patterns:

Families in the past were happy to live together for all their lives; the early marriages concept was common. People were not allowed to take bold decisions or to think about themselves; but as education came in and people became more aware about their rights; they started to think about themselves; hence changing the partnership patterns. (2011)

In past; marriages used to last long, but in future trends will be different because of high divorce rates. People think about themselves individually now and equality also plays an important role. Gender biasness has decreased a lot which maintains both the husband and wife rights equally and when they are not being fulfilled people go to look for other options like divorce and separation. This in future will result in families with number of single parents. (2011)

Same is the case with gay marriages; in future number of families will be with same gendered parents living together and raising families at their best.

The change in children behavior:

There are number of changes seen in the behavior of children as compared to how they behaved a century back. Now day’s children like to be and stay independent after they start to earn or turn eighteen. Children move out of the parents’ home and stay with friends or partners and look for an independent life. (2011) (The Future of Families to 2030)

In the past, this idea was rarely seen. Parents home was the children’s home and they stayed until they got married or even sometimes parents’ home was the family home where all lived together; children moving out in their teenage has changed the family pattern and the concept of family a lot.

Furthermore; as the world move towards globalization; studying and settling abroad has become very common as soon as we become global citizens. Children move out for higher studies and get settled there later on in life which has changed the family concept and pattern as compared to the past.

Family of the Future:

Family of the future seems to be a different term; but if we look upon closely the concept of a family still remains the same; the family is a place which you look forward to after everything. Family is about companionship and staying together in hearts no matter wherever you are.

The transition which the families have gone through from past to present towards the future has immense changes but whether modern or traditional family is where an individual belongs to. (The Future of Families to 2030)

The secularisation thesis which predicts the decline of religion in Modern Societies such as Britain, has become an important theory for religious change in the 20th century. Notable advocates of the secularist theory were Peter Berger and Bryan Wilson, both of which have similar definitions. Berger used the term to describe a process ‘by which sectors of society and culture are removed from the domination of religious institutions and symbols.’ (Berger 1973) Wilson applied the term secularisation to ‘the process by which religious institutions, actions and consciousness lose their social significance.’ (Wilson 1982) Secularisation was not only used to illustrate the influence religion has on society, but also how it has been altered to deal with the changing values of society as it ceases to be the ‘cement’ of all social life and is slowly becoming privatised. (Hunt 2002) Secularisation is associated with Max Weber’s work as he explores one phase, ‘the disenchantment of the world’ that he regarded as a prominent aspect of Western Culture. (Weber 1930) Many contemporary scholars suggest that traditional religious practises and beliefs would not survive in the modern industrialised society. Not only this, there is also much dispute about whether contemporary society is less religious than past societies. Despite controversies surrounding the term, it can at least be recognised as an interpretive paradigm which allows us to describe and comprehend the interrelated themes of social and religious change in the West. (Hamilton 2001)

Many theorists such as Tylor, Marx and later Freud all expected religion to fade away as science dominates the way of thinking in contemporary society. (Hamilton 2001) David Voas argues that secularisation in the United Kingdom is inevitable as commitments are ‘fuzzy’ and have no relevance in our lives. He believes that ‘fuzzy faithfuls’ attach no importance to church and that is it a phase before complete secularisation. (Voas 2008) An obvious example is the separation of the church and the state, as the church does not have control of the education system nor does it have control over the now capitalist economy. It could be said that religion is no longer part of our cultural preoccupations, fewer people come into contact with the church hence there is a decline. (Wilson 1982) For example, Anglican and Roman Catholic Church membership in the UK is projected to drop by 52% by 2020 (if current trends continue).REF HERE Increasing interest in other forms of unorthodox or fringe supernaturalism such as astrology, yoga and Transcendental Meditation. Berger and Luckmann (1967) highlight that instead of one religious tradition with a single, unchallenged worldview of the supernatural; there are now many divergent views. In some respects this is close to Wilsons view that one religion can no longer express and reinforce the values of society or sanctify its social institution. Another factor stressed by Wilson is the decline of community in the modern, bureaucratic and technical setting and how control is impersonal and removed from its former moral and ethical basis. (Wilson 1982) Berger, like Wilson, then argues further that religion has ceased to perform its traditional role of promoting social solidarity. In Modern Britain beliefs are seen as personal preferences and are no longer part and parcel of their membership of society. Berger also suggests that one can choose between one religious interpreter and another, hence there is competition between organisations. (Berger 1973) For example, in the UK alone, membership for the Church of Scientology has increased from 20,000 members and 12 churches in 1975, to 350,000 members and 55 churches in 2010. REF HERE The pluralistic situation where one can choose ones religion is also a situation, according to Berger and Luckmann, (1967) where can choose to turn to new religious movements, such as Scientology or can choose to disbelieve. Influential work by Max Weber (1958) discussed the reoccurring theme that science and rationality have eclipsed religion and that urbanization, technological advances and the growth of the capitalist economy are the reason for this significant change.

Britain is not a secular society:

There is much evidence against Modern Britain becoming a secular society, holding that religion is as much a part of modern society as it has been of any society in the past though its specific forms may indeed change. (Hamilton 2001) It is argued by some that we have a false view of the influence of religion in past societies and that there is as much irreligion as there is today. Theorists such as Bellah (1971) argue that since religion performs essential social functions in society, that it will return into the centre of our cultural preoccupations. Davie (1994) states that there are still many people who have core beliefs (for example, 35 percent of the UK describe themselves as a believer in God or a higher supreme) and identification with Christianity implies a rejection of the ‘classic’ secularisation model. Davies stresses that religion is changing but is not in terminal decline. For example, in the UK alone, every year within the Church of England there are approximately 110,000 Baptisms done and more than 55,000 couples married in the church.REF HERE Therefore, although church attendance may be in decline it does not necessarily or in itself indicate a decline in religion per se. It also emphasises that huge numbers of people in Britain have contact with the church at some point in their life. Many theorists such as Luckmann (1967) most notably at the beginning of his career, have simply denied that secularisation is taking place at all. The traditional forms of religion practised in the past no longer suit modern Britain and in place of these forms new practises are growing continuously. Shiner (1966) who refutes the secularisation thesis argues that the problem is

‘…of determining when and where we are able find the supposedly ‘religious’ age from which decline has commenced.’

Anthropologist Mary Douglas (1973) expands on this theory stating that there is no simple parallel between the supposedly ‘religious’ pre-industrial society and the Western World characterised by secularity. In addition, Brierley (2000) presented evidence from Britain that suggests that the number of people who would consider themselves atheists or agnostics has remained fairly consistent over the past few years at just under 27 percent. This evidence suggests that a sizeable majority of the population retain religious beliefs; therefore it would be wrong to say that Britain is becoming a secular society. This approach has been encouraged by Davie (1994) who characterises the situation in modern Britain as one of ‘believing without belonging.’ Widespread belief still remains but it is not expressed by institutional allegiance. Bellah (1964) believes that religion has undergone a process of individuation whereby people follow their own path to ‘ultimate meaning’ which is a truer form of religious expression since it is not enforced by established religious institutions or social pressures. The key point is that importance of religion has not declined in Modern Britain. Stark (1985) argued that religion will not lose its transcendental character despite the rationalism and scientific and technological basis of modern Britain.

Conclusion:

The Secularisation thesis in relation to Modern Britain is complex model and one which has created much discussion amongst scholars. The main reason for this theory is primarily due to technological advancement and a shift in modern society from a reliance on faith and authority to a reliance on the logic of science enquiry and technology. It has been argued by many such as Wilson, Voas and Weber that religion has lost its social significance and is no longer the foci of our cultural preoccupations in modern Britain. Not only this, but religion is now a personal preference and not a ‘membership’ to be part of a society. Those opposing the secularisation thesis, notably, Grace Davie, Bellah, Mary Douglas and Stark (1985) argue that religion has altered to suit modern Britain and that there was just as much irreligion in past societies as there is today. Furthermore, a decline in church attendance does not suggest a decline in religion as many people in society still come into contact with the church at some point in their life and there are many people who still have core beliefs.

Mobile Phones Society

Discuss the Development of the Mobile Phones and their Impact on the Society

Introduction

In an era where human progress is soaring at a dizzying rate, society must adapt its technology to solve current world issues. This is a world where the Internet, cell phones and notebook computers are becoming a necessity for proper living regimes. It is time for the developed world to use their technology to help those who can not help themselves. [Clark, 2000]

Importance of Mobile Phones and their Impact on Society

Mobile phones have revolutionized the way man lives in this modern world today. It has changed his living patterns whereby routines have been amended so as to get the best possible communication through their usage as well as doing business online as become an easy proposition nonetheless. [Goh, 2006]

The role of mobile phones has affected the society in more ways than one – there is more communication going on between people than was ever before witnessed. But the downside is that people like to hear and listen to each other more than they would like to meet them, which unfortunately mobile phones have failed to ensure. Mobile phones do not guarantee that people would be able to meet and feel or even touch each other. [Kinshuk, 2005]

The role of mobile phones within the society is something that must be understood in a manner which is more open and direct, since this involves a lot of comprehension and open-mindedness. What this means is that mobile phones are just a solitary form of communicating with each other but the manner in which these devices are used raises questions. There are concerns regarding the ethical usage of mobile phones within hospitals, areas of high security, examination centers, public discussion forums and seminars to state a few.

Conclusion

It would not be wrong to state that mobile phones have literally become a part and parcel of everyone’s life in the current times. Now it is an essential thing and the people who do not own a mobile phone are considered dumb and weak. This is a harsh reality but there are certain individuals still who do not buy the theory of having a device which could catch their attention any and everywhere whenever they are out, sleeping or doing their normal, day to day chores. [Maddox, 2005]

Bibliography

CLARK, Neil. (2000). Plenty of Mobile Phones, but Where’s the Good Life. New Statesman, Vol. 129

GOH, Tiong. (2006). Getting Ready for Mobile Learning-Adaptation Perspective. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, Vol. 15

KINSHUK, Jueming. (2005). Mobile Technology in Educational Services. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, Vol. 14

MADDOX, Brenda. (2005). Mobile Phones: Not So Far from Heaven. New Statesman, Vol. 134

Misuse of Authority in Profession

Abstract

Abuse of authority is a common practice all over the world and is one of the most common ethical concern Pakistan is facing. A qualitative survey was conducted on the internet for literature regarding abuse of authority in different department. Our area of main focus was to elaborate the potential factor, consequences and ways to prevent abuse of authority in police department, political system and workplace misconduct. All of us need to identify the abuse of power and our system needs to inspect the ways to eradicate misuse of power from society. To maintain integrity we should join our hands to remove the root cause of this evil.

Introduction

Every profession has its own boundaries. Being cognizant of the authorities and power in any profession is necessary but in order to maintain ethical environment in the workplace, one must be aware of the ethical boundaries of his profession. Abuse of authority is one of the most common ethical dilemmas Pakistan is facing and this ethical issue is only aggravating like a contagious disease with every passing day. Using resources, connections, and coinage to get anything illegal done officially is a common practice in Pakistan. The misuse of authority is usually referred to as Corruption. Corruption as defined by McCarthy (1996) is the violation of rules for gaining personal benefits (Ross). Corruption in a broader sense includes misuse of authority, theft, on-duty misconduct, off-duty misconduct, and abuse of colleagues. Depending upon the extent of the threat, misuse of authority may be considered a crime. Patricia Cornwell very aptly put it in the following words, “I believe the root of all the evil is abuse of power.” (The Quotepedia, n.d.)

Corruption through the abuse of authority is a more common type of corruption and is prevalent in many fields including the likes of police department, welfare organizations, mental health institutions, and democratic systems i.e. whole governments. Corruption hinders the progress of a state by benefiting people at only the individual level and not contributing to the general good of the masses. Most of the people are oblivious to the meticulousness of this issue and are promoting it knowingly or unknowingly, regardless of the fact that it is destroying our foundations by weakening our principles that are unity, honesty, justice, and humanity. In a survey conducted in different countries across the globe, it was assessed that the abuse of authority by higher officers in government services and other public sector departments is based on three major factors: Favouritism, Cronyism, and Nepotism (Schulman). Favouritism is the act of favouring someone in lieu of some extraneous feature-membership in a favoured group, personal likes and dislikes, etc. and not because this particular someone is doing their job in the best possible way. Favouritism has always been a common complaint in government service. The second leading factor i.e. Cronyism is a more specific kind of favouritism, and is defined as favouring one’s personal friends and associates. As stated in an older saying, “It’s not what you know but who you know”. Favouritism is a broader form of Nepotism. It includes favouritism to members of one’s family. Both nepotism and the cronyism come in to action at work when candidates are recruited for a job. Eligible candidates are unable to make up to the job because of these factors. All this is the result of the higher officers misusing their authorities and causing a hindrance in the path of a country’s progress by recruiting ineligible candidates which leads towards the destruction of merit system and a downfall in the competence and efficiency of the department.

Methodology
Research strategy

A qualitative strategy was opted for the study that involved subjective judgment which cannot be quantized. Social scientists have used these practices because they have long accepted the shortcomings of narrowly-based quantitative methods for studying definite laws and regularities as a basis for valuable research. (Smircich, 1980)

Research design

An illustrative research design has been selected for this study. Illustrative researches build theories that predict natural and social events. (McNabb, 2010)

Data collection

Various articles (as cited) were comprehensively studied in order to find relevant literature concerning the abuse of authority in the Department of Police, bullying at workplace (which also includes workplace harassment), and the misuse of power in the political system.

Department of Police

Police misconduct is delineated as any inappropriate or illegal action taken by officers of the law which does not coincide with their official duties. Police misconduct has been a leading cause towards the elimination of justice and the obliteration of the writ of the state. The public relies on the state’s law-enforcement agencies for the use of power and authority to put law and order into effect in the society. The boundaries of lawful police authority are constrained; there is no argument over the fact that the police have a choice to decide on violence when needed but the ill use of this right is creating an incongruity in the society. The misuse of this authority by the police is prompting unjust behavior and is hurting the reputation of this well-regarded department. Extreme examples of abuse of authority by law enforcement officials involve rape, sexual abuse, false arrests, bribery, extortion, planting and presenting false evidence, police brutality, witness tampering, false imprisonment, off-duty misconduct, and opening fire on unarmed individuals. Police perjury refers to the deliberate untruthfulness of the officers under oath to cover up their corruption. According to a poll jointly conducted by Pew and USA Today in August 2014, it was evaluated that Americans of all races collectively “give comparatively low marks to police departments around the country for considering officers responsible for misconduct, using the appropriate amount of force, and treating racial groups equally”. [1] (John Wihbey, 2015) The reporting of this issue by witnesses with the help of modern technology has had an evident impact on the notability and the subsequent management of police misconduct by the higher authorities. Numerous cases are reported on this issue from all over the world every year. A recent example is the case which surfaced during the2010 G-20 Toronto summit protests, it was reported that the police enacted regulations which theOmbudsmanfound contributing to massive violations of civil rights. (“Toronto G20: Will Police be Held Accountable After Scathing Ombudsman’s Report, 22 january 2010). Past scandals in India includes murder (“Senior IPS officer gets life sentence in Shivani Bhatnagar murder”., 24 May 2008. Retrieved 5 June 2011.). Since its emergence on the globe, no significant steps have been taken in Pakistan to improve the performance of the police and other law-enforcing organizations. It is because of this situation that numerous cases of abuse of authority by the police are regularly observed in Pakistan. More often than not, politicians have been found to be personally involved in the official affairs of the Department of Police and using or sometimes even manipulating officers of the Police Department for their personal interests. This behaviour is giving rise to police misconduct and is causing the annihilation of the criminal justice system in the country. (Mukaram Ali Khan, 2014) A noticeable incident took place in 2014 when a serious case of police violence and professional misconduct by the police force was observed in Lahore in which 2 women were killed at the hand of the police and another 100 people were seriously injured. It is reported that this step was taken by the police to harass the workers of a political party protesting against the government. (Intikhab Hanif, 2014) (Aqil Shah, 2015) Another means of violence employed by the Department of Police in Pakistan is verbal abuse. Police officials are often reported to be harassing the public and are found guilty of inhumane treatment of the suspects in a case. Reports suggest that only a minority of American police officers believe that it is sometimes necessary to use more force than is legally permissible and despite having the knowledge of the ethical values of following boundaries, it is not possible for the Police Department to ignore the inappropriate demeanour of their officers.[2]. Sometimes, undignified behaviour on the part of citizens is also involved in police violence (Hall, 2001). To tackle this situation, educational programs, trainings and seminars are essential to prevent the misuse of authority by officers. It was revealed in a survey that 82.2 percent of the public hold the opinion that making ethical training compulsory in law enforcement training institutes can help in preventing the misuse of authority. (David, Rosann Greenspan, Edwin E. Hamilton, Kellie A. Bryant, & Hubert Williams, 2011) In order to decrease the prevalence of police misconduct, a person should not remain quiet and break the code of silence. 80 percent of the surveys conducted within the Police Departments reported that whistle blowing is important for the smooth running of the department and will help to reduce the corruption rate in police. (David Weisburd & Edwin E. Hamilton, 2000). The government should introduce a metropolitan system of police to take care of this issue. Independent complaint authority offices should be established in order to maintain integrity in the department. There should be a proper check and balance including an annual assessment of the financial assets of police officials and officers of the law should be accommodated appropriately in order to facilitate them so they can perform their jobs effectively. (Khosa, 2015)

Bullying at workplace

Bullying at the workplace is a common example of the abuse of authority. Officers at higher ranks in many professions intimidate their subservient employees through several means which may include overstraining the juniors by imposing the seniors’ official duties or personal responsibilities on them and later taking the credit on completion of the job.

Such practices at the workplace are not even taken into account in our country, whereas other developed countries have somehow managed to prevent these complaints by employing departments which are specifically dedicated to maintaining the integrity of the workplace. Prevalent accounts of sexual harassment portray male supervisors harassing female subordinates. Working women in Pakistan are the frequent targets of sexual harassment. Bullying is a broader term and it includes several ethical concerns of the society. We studied various survey reports regarding this matter and following is the brief description of these surveys.

The objective of this study was to categorize the types, behaviours, sources and prevalence of workplace bullying among junior doctors in Pakistan. This study also encompassed the analysis of the barriers perceived in making formal complaints against bullying. It was seen that the individuals on higher posts abuse the authority entrusted to them by bullying the junior staff in a number of ways. A cross sectional survey of junior doctors was conducted by convenience sampling in 3 tertiary care hospitals in two provinces of Pakistan. Bullying activities experienced by junior doctors in the 12 months preceding this study were collected using a previous analysis of 20 such reports. The resulting data was analysed using a statistical package for social sciences. A total of 654 doctors participated in this study, 417 of these individuals (63.8 percent) were reported experiencing one or more types of bullying in the past 12 months and 436 doctors (66.7 percent) had witnessed others get bullied whereas 306 respondents (73.4 percent) did not make a single complaint against bullying. The most common source of bullying were consultants (51.6 percent). (Imran N, Jawaid M, Haider I, Masood, 2010)

Bullying among trainee doctors in Southern India: A questionnaire study.

The aim of this study was to measure the magnitude of bullying among the medical community in India. A subsidiary objective was to assess the personality traits of the victims of bullying. An English language questionnaire with a standard written explanation of bullying was used for this study. The results were subjected to a descriptive statistical analysis and the Chi-square test was employed for the comparison of frequencies. A total of 174 doctors (115 PGs and 59 junior doctors) took part in the study out of whom nearly 54 of the men (53 percent) and 35 of women (48 percent) were the victims of bullying. More than 85 of the bullying incidents, which is an alarming 90 percent, went unreported. Workplace bullying is common among trainee doctors and usually goes unreported. Bullying at the national, organisational and individual levels should be tackled in order to avoid the adverse consequences of bullying on our state. (Bairy K L, Thirumalaikolundusubramanian P, Sivagnanam G, Saraswathi S, Sachidananda A, Shalini, 2007)

Misuse of power in the political system

Political Corruption is an abuse to authority by government officials who are involved in ill-using the powers authorized to them for their private gains. There are several methods of corruption in political systems. We can safely say that politics is the most corrupted system not only in our country but also in numerous other countries. Common practices of corruption in the political system include cronyism, nepotism, bribery, preferential treatment, larceny, money laundering, pilfering, bias, subornment, patronage, embezzlement etc. The misapplication of administrative authority to repress political opponents and police brutality also comes under the topic of political corruption. The abuse of power in political systems takes place at varying levels. The abuse of governmental power and authority is involved from the commencement of the election campaign till the formation of the new government. Electoral scams or vote rigging through the use of executive command is an illegal act which affects the result of the elections and the fate of the state by increasing the vote share of favoured candidate and dropping the vote share of rival candidates. Achieving fraudulent election results by the use of administrative power can lead to the derailment of the democratic system and the establishment of dictatorship. Electoral deceit is the interference with the voting process or the vote counting. Sometimes, voters are prevented from casting their votes by the use of force. Misuse of governmental influence implies to the abuse of democracy. Dictatorship is an epitome of power abuse since dictators fix up their entire families in important governmental positions which is severely detrimental to the functioning of the political system, and adding to the dictators’ inability to perform the job of the head of state correctly, leads to the collapse of a state. Abuse of administrative command has become a Canadian norm. (CONACHER, 2013).The instrumental dynamics of political authority abuse are: no check and balance on the officers of higher ranks, illiteracy of the public, hunger for money, nepotism, money laundering, and all of this contributes to the failing of the political system. The possible measures that could put right the use of authority in politics are: By ensuring that no single individual in the government has too much power, by keeping a check on the correct usage of one’s authority. This is the best way to stop the abuse of power in a political system or in any other system. This can be accomplished by forming councils for maintaining the integrity of the system which should work independently under no pressure from any governmental department.

Conclusion

All of us need to focus on authority and identify the abuse of privileges. Abuse of authority is not just limited to financial scams or organisational frauds but it needs to be acknowledged, curtailed, and eradicated at individual level by the elimination of hypocrisy and double standards. No society is immune to the abuse of authority. The abuse of public power and resources for personal gains is common in every society. Our system needs to be inspected in such a way that the authority should be unaware of conflict of interests. Their singular resolve should be the service to their state and the maintenance of integrity, harmony and egalitarianism in the state. We need to reassess the dimensions of our culture, so that we can imply altruism, uprightness, impartiality, accountability, righteousness, morality, leadership and rectitude. It is very much in our hands to eradicate this evil from our society.

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The history of male nursing dates back to centuries ago. In 300 A.D., a group of men, the Parabolani, started a hospital that provided nursing care during the Black Plague epidemic. During the American Civil War, both sides had military males serving as nurses. Males were mainly the front line nurses while female nurses usually had to stay at hospitals in the major cities. Men were forbidden to attend some state-supported nursing schools until 1982, But surprisingly Two thousand years ago, nursing school was for men only. Men were only thought to be “pure” enough to enter what is thought to be the world’s first nursing school, which was founded in India about 250 B.C., according to Bruce Wilson, registered nurse and associate professor at the University of Texas-Pan American in Edinburg, Texas. For the next two thousand years, nursing remained male-dominated. It took war in the 19th and 20th centuries to change nursing from being considered a man’s job to a women’s job. One of the biggest changes in the profession came in 1901 when the military nursing corps was reorganized. Men were then no longer allowed to serve as nurses, continuing the process of the feminization of nursing, said Wilson, who is also the manager of American Assembly For Men in Nursing’s Web site. Females were not always the ones dominant in the nursing profession.

According to Gene Tranbarger, associate professor of nursing at East Carolina University in Greenville, North Carolina “discrimination towards men is quickly going away from schools of nursing but remains imbedded in the school fabric,” he observes. “The staff and faculty still rely on the females when discussing nurses.”

Even with more male nurses growing, the nurse position is still viewed as a “female job”

Nurses are traditionally and mostly female; of the 2.1 million registered nurses in the United States, for example, only 5.4 percent are men. Men also make up only 13 percent of all new nursing students. As many Western nations are having to deal with a shortage of nurses, many and nursing schools and governments are recruiting more males as nurses. For example, when the University of Pittsburgh increased its admission requirements for its nursing program, the number of male students jumped significantly.

There are a lot of myths when it comes to male nursing, one being that nursing is a women’s job. The idea of nursing being only a “female’s job” has given way to the believe that anybody can be a nurse. With benefits like a flexible schedule, good pay, and the challenges nurses have every day make the job very rewarding. According to Jim DeMaria “The scientific and methodical approach to nursing is what I would call “man-friendly.” There are still experienced female nurses who believe males are trying to enter and take over. Some feel afraid and do not want to give up their place, or their place of power, and view male nurses as a threat. This would seem ridiculous, but is sometimes very true. Nursing is a tough world for men. There are female nurses that just do not want them there. Another myth that comes with male nursing is that they are homosexual, the stereotype comes from people’s idea that nursing is a career for females and why on earth would a male want to do it. “He has to be gay”. The same thing goes for female truck drivers, or female mechanics. Sure some of them might be gay, but that does mean every female mechanic is. It’s an attitude left over from a time in medicine when there were only female nurses, and doctors were male, never female. Some people figure that because male nurses work in a dominant female job, they are probably gay. But most male nurses are not gay, and sexual orientation is not a sign of whether or not a man will or will not become a nurse. Many male nurses find this stereotype saddening and upsetting, mainly because it can affect the way they are looked at and treated by society.

Male nurses are frequently faced with demeaning responses to and questions about their career choice. They might be asked, “Are you going to become a doctor eventually?” or “Are you really a nurse?” Many hold the belief that no man would make nursing his first career choice. As such, male nurses are sometimes perceived as individuals who couldn’t quite make the cut as a doctor or medical administrator. Although male nurses are increasingly common, they may still encounter difficulties on the job as a result of their gender. When more men began pursuing nursing in the 1960s, most hospitals prohibited them from treating female patients or being present in the delivery room. While this form of institutional discrimination is a thing of the past, male nurses still have to deal with negative stereotypes and the stigma of being the minority in a female-dominated profession. As time goes by, more and more males will become nurses. Hopefully the barrier will be completely gone one day, and people will not look at male nurses so differently and male nurses will have the same respect as females.

Men choose nursing careers for a few reasons. Many nurses like having a direct connection to their patient’s health. Some male nurses enjoys that their line of work allows them to do many things that they could not do with another job. There are also benefits of having male nurses on staff. Historically and especially in medial-surgical areas men are used for heavy lifting because men most of the time are physically stronger than woman on the staff. Having a male on the staff can also bring balance intro nursing and create a more relaxed work environment. Bringing a balance to any situation can be useful. Bringing more balance to a group can make it stronger by bringing in perspectives that were left out or not there, and increasing the mix of skills in your team.

Males are actually ideally suited to both the pressures and excitement of nursing. Men also have a very different perspective than women on a lot of things, and it’s a good thing having them in the profession. A nurse makes a huge difference in people’s lives. A caring and compassionate nurse is considered as a guardian angel by patients. Nurses have the opportunity to make swift decisions, learn each day and never get bored, as each day is different. Being a nurse has many good things associated with it, just because a male is a nurse doesn’t mean they should be looked down upon. Although some patients might prefer female nurses, others might like a male nurse to mix things up. The male nurse discrimination issue will go away eventually on its own. As more and more males are becoming nurses, eventually the bias and prejudice views will go away. People will eventually realize that the job is no longer just a “female” career. 100 or so years from now maybe the percentage of males to female nurses will be 50 percent, but who knows. The prejudice views are diminishing with time, so it is very important for males interested in saving life’s and men who want an excited career to consider nursing an option, males need to keep enrolling in nursing schools and keep an open mind. The only way men can stop these bias and prejudice views is to keep entering nursing schools. Male nurses do not have it easy, and have to work harder than females, but in the end it is very worth it, and helping or saving someone’s life can be very rewarding.

Mills (1959) talks of a ‘sociological imagination’ when looking at the problems of the individual. How might this ‘sociological imagination’ assist social workers? How might sociological theories offer useful insights into the socially constructed nature of many of the contemporary social problems encountered by social workers? Do this by reference to a contemporary social problem that social workers may have to work with.

This paper will explore Mills theory of a sociological imagination when looking at the problems of the individual, and explain how this theory might assist social workers. The focus will then turn to poverty as a contemporary social problem encountered by social workers. Poverty will be explored and discussed by reference to how sociological theories (Marxism, Functionalism and Feminism) offer useful insights into the socially constructed nature of poverty.

C. Wright Mills (1916 – 62) was, according to Cunningham (2008, p7) “a flamboyant American sociologist.” Slattery (1991, p210) claims “his aim was to reform society as much as explain it, to popularise sociology and develop a sociological imagination amongst the American public.” Matthewman (2007, p91) explains that a sociological imagination “requires a special quality of mind. When we process it we are able to see links between biography and history, to see how the personal relates to the public, and the individual to the structural.” Matthewman is supported by Leon-Guerrero (2005, p14). “By continuing to develop a sociological imagination and recognising the larger social, cultural and structural forces, we can identify appropriate measures to address social problems.” Cunningham (2008) explores this using an example of a person suffering from depression after losing their job. Without recognising factors outside of the personal (such as the current economic or political conditions), the problem cannot not be sufficiently understood, addressed or resolved. Consequently failure to develop a sociological imagination could result in judgements or assumptions being made upon the failure of the individual, rather than societal structures. Stepping back to see the bigger picture can avoid granted assumptions, labels or ones personal values coming into play. Finally, Cunningham (2008, pg7) argues that “learning to think sociologically is one of the most important skills a social worker can bring to their practice.”

Poverty is a long standing social problem and one which is prevalent among service users. This is supported by Smale et al. (2000, p18) who claims “those who use, and are required to use, social work services continue overwhelmingly to be poor and disadvantaged.” Despite this, social workers have been criticised about their knowledge of the effects and origins of poverty and lack of awareness regarding societal structures in relation to poverty. Becker (1997) cited in Cunningham (2008, p47) claims “social workers have little understanding of the complex processes that generate and maintain poverty; they have limited insight into how their political and welfare ideologies and attitudes to poverty affect their daily practice with poor people; they have failed to place poverty on the agenda for social work theorising, education, policy and practice.” Krumer-Nevo et al. (2009, p225) writing for the Journal of Social Work Education agrees and argues that “despite the profound commitment of social work towards people living in poverty, the social work profession has failed to develop practice based on awareness of poverty.”

To measure poverty, it first it has to be defined. There is no universal agreement regarding how to define poverty, although Cunningham (2008) and Leon-Guerrero (2005) describe two main methods used, Absolute and Relative poverty. Absolute poverty constitutes a lack of basic necessities such as, food, shelter and clothing. It refers to a lack of physical needs and is more like to be found in third world countries. Relative poverty was developed by Peter Townsend. It focuses on the inequalities in society. Leon-Guerrero (2005, p224) states that it is based on the premise that “some people fail to achieve the average income and lifestyle enjoyed by the rest of society.” Relative poverty is a widely accepted definition in developed countries and is used by the government in the UK. The Poverty Site (2009) confirms that “the (UK) government’s target of halving child poverty by 2010 is defined in terms of relative poverty.” Moulder (2000, p2) confirms that “sociologists came to define social problems as problems that concern large numbers of people, have social-structural causes, and require social-structural solutions.” Leon-Guerrero (2005, p3) explains “first, a problem is a social condition that has negative consequences. If there were only positive consequences, there would be no problem.” Poverty has many negative consequences personally and structurally. Poverty is more than a lack of money. According to a report by the Department of Work and Pensions (2009, p2) “research about the impact that poverty can have on people’s lives shows that the experience of poverty is almost always overwhelmingly negative, and can have psychological, physical, relational and practical effects on people’s lives.” Moreover, “poverty is a highly stigmatised social position and the experience of poverty in an affluent society can be particularly isolating and socially damaging.” Beresford et al. (1999) concurs with the Department of Work and Pensions findings. Additionally, the media often report on links between poverty and health, educational attainment, teenage pregnancies, anti-social behaviour, mental health and social exclusion. All of which have a negative impact and consequence upon society.

Leon-Guerrero (2005, p3) informs that “a social problem has objective and subjective realities. A social condition does not have to be personally experienced by every individual in order to be considered a social problem. The objective reality of a social problem comes from acknowledging that a social condition does exist.” It must be recognised at an agency (individual) level as having negative consequences for those who experience it. Poverty is apparent at an agency level in society: local clothing banks, annual Children In Need appeal; deprived areas we may have seen or live near, Big Issue sellers, seeing the homeless or beggars on the street, and in the media (reality documentaries such as The Secret Millionaire). Leon-Guerrero (2005, p6) addresses the subjective reality. “The subjective reality of a social problem addresses how a problem becomes defined as a problem.” It is defined by powerful groups in society (politicians, religious leaders, pressure groups, the media or even grassroots). As noted earlier, the UK government has defined poverty as a social problem. Leon-Guerrero (2005, p6) states, “they become real only when they are subjectively defined or perceived as problematic. Recognising the subjective aspects of social problems allows us to understand how a social condition may be defined as a problem by one segment of society, but be completely ignored by another.” Cunningham (2008, p33) explains that “in the 1980s and 1990s Conservative ministers used absolute definitions to refute claims that Britain had a significant poverty problem and that their policies had led to increased levels of poverty. The problem was defined away.” This paper will now explore functionalism, Marxism, radical and liberal feminism.

Functionalism was developed by Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) and further developed by Talcott Parsons. Functionalism views society on a macro scale. Slattery (1991, p63) uses a biological metaphor to explain Functionalism. “It functions like any other natural organism as a system of independent parts – the economy, the family, the government and so on – held together by not a central nervous system but a central value system, a set of sociological guidelines called norms based on underlying moral consensus, or collective consciousness.” Matthewman (2007) asserts functionalists view society as a complex system, involving a vast array of political, economic and social roles, all of which play an essential part in ensuring society functions and continues to develop. Consensus is at the heart of this theory. It assumes individuals are socialised to fit in, taught the norms of society, primarily by the family unit, secondly by educational institutions, peers, the workplace, and wider society. Leon-Guerrero (2005) claims social problems are not considered in terms of how severe they are, but how the problem arises from society, and whether it serves a function. Leon-Guerrero (2005, p228) argues that poverty is seen as a “natural consequence of system stratification.” This refers to rapid changes that took place in society economically and technologically. It created a workforce that was unskilled for the new economy. Functionalists believe inequalities within the workforce are inevitable. Social status, wealth and power is earned, rewarded and deserved, through skill and hard work. Davis and Moore (1945) cited in Best (2005, p29) support this, stating “social inequality is thus an unconsciously evolved device by which by which societies ensure that the most important positions are conscientiously filled by the most qualified persons.”

A well-known writer from the political right perspective H. J. Gans (1971, p1-5) explores how poverty may exist to serve positive functions for society. Some of these include: the poor perform work others do not wish to do; they provide employment for the professionals that service them; activities such as drugs, pawn shops and prostitution continue to prosper; they serve as scapegoats (the honest and hard working can accuse them of being “dishonest, lazy and scroungers”); also poverty acts as a measuring tool in terms of status for the non-poor. However, Gans suggests that “many of the functions served by the poor could be replaced if poverty were eliminated, but almost always at a higher cost to others, particularly more affluent others.” He believes that “a functional analysis must conclude that poverty persists not only because it fulfils a number of positive functions but also because many of the functional alternatives to poverty would be quite dysfunctional for affluent members.” Gans believes poverty will “be eliminated only when it becomes dysfunctional for the affluent or powerful, or when the powerless can obtain enough power to change society.” Interestingly, Gans states his aim with this paper was, “to show functionalism is not an inherently conservative approach, but that it can be employed into liberal and even radical analyses.”

The social construction of poverty from a functionalist perspective is seen as natural and beneficial for the affluent and society, or at least parts of it. Leon-Guerrero (2005, p228) supports this assertion. “Functionalists observe that poverty is a product of our social structure.” Functionalists do not inherently agree with poverty, they acknowledge it has functions as well dysfunctions but recognise that it has a role to play in the structure of society. They strongly believe power and wealth is earned through skill and hard work, not everyone has the talent to succeed, therefore, inequality and poverty is inevitable. The poor are seen as flawed, marked out from the rest of society, deviant and non-conforming. The current recession in the UK which has forced many more into poverty would, from a functionalist perspective, be viewed as a natural temporary occurrence. The role of a functionalist social worker would be to support individuals to get back into their role ensuring the smooth running of society.

Karl Heinrich Marx (1818-93) was one of the key influences in sociology according to Slattery (1991). Marxism is a conflict theory, which like functionalism, views society on a macro scale. However, they argue that poverty is the consequence of a capitalist society; it is constructed due to an unequal distribution of power and wealth. The main thread of the Marxist argument is that conflict exists between the classes: the bourgeoisie (who own the capital) and the proletariat (who provide the labour). Giddens (2006, p16) explains capital is “any asset, including money, machines or even factories, which can be used or invested to make future assets.” Giddens (2006, p16) asserts the bourgeoisie “own their means of a livelihood”, whereas the proletariat are “wage-labour.” The proletariat must seek employment from the bourgeoisie, who form a ruling class over the mass proletariat population. Payne (2005, p228) claims “capitalism is an economic system in which a few people accumulate capital to invest in producing goods and others ‘sell’ labour to them for wages.” The profit earned by the bourgeoisie is seen as exploitation of the proletariat. Moreover, the bourgeoisie create a false consciousness controlling the media, policies, laws, religion and education, influencing and shaping the proletariats norms and values, idealising how society thinks. This false consciousness leads the proletariat to believe economic inequality is fair and just. This is supported by Best (2005) and Taylor et al. (2002). The most crucial point is the relationship between the two classes. Giddens (2006) explains that although each class is dependant on the other this dependency is not balanced. Giddens (2006, p16) explains “the relationship between classes is an exploitative one, since workers have little or no control over their labour and employers are able to generate profit by appropriating the product of workers’ labour.”

Hilary Searing (2007) writes from a radical social work perspective. In an article ‘Poverty in the Big Issue’ written for the Barefoot Social Worker website, Searing claims poverty is structurally constructed and the consequence of a modern capitalist society. “Poverty and inequality seem to be an intrinsic part of modern capitalism.” She criticises the government suggesting that poverty has been ignored in order to achieve economic prosperity. “This Labour government, by continuing the neoliberal, modernising agenda of the previous government, regards poverty and inequality as the inevitable price to be paid to maintain competitiveness in the global economy.” Like Marxists, Searing believes social class is a major factor. “The social class a child is born into is a major determinant of their life chances.” Searing believes social workers patch the cracks regarding poverty, rather than tackling the real structural cause. “The government assumes that social workers can deal with poverty without tackling the underlying causes.” Searing believes Labour demean social-structural causes, consequently placing the onus of poverty upon the individual. She states the government “chooses to minimise the part played by social and economic factors, outside the control of the individual, in causing poverty and implies that in most cases personal inadequacy is at the root of people’s failure to remain independent and self-supporting.”

In summary, Marxists believe poverty is constructed by social structures; society fails the poor and the abolition of capitalism in favour of communism is the solution. According to Giddens (2006) Marxists believe revolution among the proletariat to overthrow the bourgeoisie is inevitable, and that it will bring about a new classless society. Giddens (2006, p17) explains Marxists do not consider inequality would be eliminated. Rather, that “society would no longer be split into a small class that monopolises economic and political power and the large mass of people who benefit little from the wealth their work creates.” Marxists would argue that the current recession was caused by greed and unethical risk taking amongst the bourgeoisie, and the proletariats will be left to bear the real costs. Cunningham (2008) argues that Marxists see social workers as agents of social control on behalf of the state, acting in the interests of the bourgeoisie. Their motive for helping people is to get them back into the work force. They believe that much of social work is around control, surveillance and assigning blame upon individuals. Payne (2005, p231) echoes Cunningham suggesting “social workers are seen agents of class control enhancing the oppression by capitalist societies of the working class. They simply enable the capitalist system to reproduce itself in the next generation by helping people to cope with the difficulties of the system.”

Poverty is of particular relevance to feminist theories since Taylor (2002, p179) claims “women are more likely to experience poverty than men.” In an article for the BBC News website (2008) entitled ‘Women’s Low Pay Behind Poverty’, women’s pay was seen to be a major cause. “The TUC said that mothers were being trapped in part-time, low-paid jobs. More than 75% of part-time workers were female. The gender pay gap for full-time workers was 17.2%.” In the same article, TUC general secretary Brendan Barber asserts “as 40% of households are now headed by single mothers, this has concerning implications for tackling child poverty.” Haralambos and Holborn (1995, p145) claim “household incomes are not distributed equally. Women tend to have smaller independent incomes than men and there is no guarantee that they will share fully the income of their husbands or partners.” Additionally, “women are less likely to have occupational pensions and income from investments; married women are less likely to work than married men; more women than men rely on benefits as their main source of income; lone parents are vulnerable to poverty, and a large majority are women. The majority of pensioners are also women.” Glendinning and Miller cited in Haralambos and Holborn (1995, p145) claim women are more likely to live in poverty than men because they are viewed as “secondary workers, their primary role is seen as domestic” and they are “less important than that of their husbands so they are not expected to earn a family wage.” Moreover, “women are disadvantaged in access to social security benefits. Only 60 per cent of women are entitled to maternity leave and many women care for sick and elderly relatives, yet they receive very small state allowances for doing so. This intermittent and often part-time employment of women leaves many illegible for unemployment benefit and redundancy pay.” Moreover, “within the household men command more of the family resources (of money, of food, of space and so on) and this is legitimised by their status as breadwinners.” Hill writing for The Observer (2009) suggests women suffer financially after divorce, while men become richer. She argues “his available income increases by around one third. Women, in contrast, suffer severe financial penalties. Regardless of whether she has children, the average woman’s income falls by more than a fifth and remains low for many years.”

There are varying perspectives of feminism, the main three being liberal, radical and Marxist. According to Trevithick (2005) while there are differing perspectives they generally agree on certain principles. The main aim is gender equality; however, they differ on the cause and solution to this problem. Haralambos and Holborn (1995, p592) state “most radical feminists broadly share the same aim as Marxists and liberal feminists – they seek equality between the sexes rather than dominance.”

Haralambos and Holborn (1995, p592) state “radical feminists see society as patriarchal – it is dominated and ruled by men.” According to Haralambos and Holborn (1995, p602) “Kate Millet was one of the first radical feminists to use the term.” Giddens (2006, p471) argues from this perspective “men are responsible for and benefit from the exploitation of women” and that “patriarchy is viewed as a universal phenomenon that has existed across time and cultures.” Leon-Guerrero (2005, p230) claims “feminist scholars argue the welfare state is an arena of political struggle. The drive to maintain male dominance and the patriarchal family is assumed to be the principal force of shaping the formation, implementation, and outcomes of the U.S. welfare policy.” In the UK, the preservation of marriage and the nuclear family is on the political agenda. Gentlemen (2009) writing for The Guardian claims “the Conservatives say marriage is key to addressing social breakdown.” They also propose rewarding married couples. Bingham (2009) in the Daily Telegraph alleges “the Tories are proposing tax breaks for married couples which would allow women who stay at home to pass on their allowance to their husband.” Abramovitz (1996) cited in Leon-Guerrero (2005, p230) claims “that welfare has historically served to distinguish between the deserving poor (widows with children) and the undeserving poor (single and divorced mothers).” For instance, Margaret Thatcher condemned single mothers in the 1980’s. According to the Workers Liberty website (2007) she “once infamously proposed cutting all benefits to single mothers, stating that they should live in Salvation Army hostels or give up their children for adoption if their own families wouldn’t support them.”

Haralambos and Holborn (1995, p592) allege “the family is often seen by radical feminists as the key institution producing women’s oppression in modern societies.” Giddens (2006, p471) supports this stating “radical feminists often concentrate on the family as one of the primary sources of women’s oppression in society. They argue that men exploit women by relying on the free domestic labour that women provide in the home. As a group, men also deny women access to positions of power and influence in society.”

Firestone (1970), a radical feminist cited in Cunningham (2008, p96) claims “women’s inferiority is linked to their biological sex.” Haralambos and Holborn (1995, p471) explore this further suggesting “men control women’s role in reproduction and child-rearing. Because women are biologically able to give birth to children, they become dependant materially on men for protection and livelihood.” Most importantly “this biological inequality is socially organised within the nuclear family.” Giddens (2006) argues that not all radical feminists agree with Firestone, but rather believe that it originates from culture and socialisation. Haralambos and Holborn (1995, 592) argue that radical feminists believe that “gender equality can only be attained by overthrowing the patriarchal order.” Giddens (2006, p592) asserts that many radical feminists reject the assistance of males in reaching their aim, because “men are seen as the enemies of women’s liberation.”

In contrast, Liberal feminists according to Cunningham (2008) agree that equality should be more equal between men and women. However, unlike radical feminists they do not believe that patriarchy is the cause of women’s oppression. Giddens (2006, p468) claims that liberal feminists “look for explanations of gender inequalities in social and cultural attitudes.” Cunningham (2008, p97) agrees with Giddens but probes deeper stating “the roots of women’s oppression lie with the irrational prejudice, stereotyping and outdated attitudes and practices that lead to sex discrimination occurring in all spheres of life.”

Like radical feminists they believe the family is oppressive to women. Women are expected to play the social role of wife and mother along with carrying sole responsibility for the household chores that go with it. Cunningham (2008, p97) believes it is “an ideology that is perpetuated by the media and popular culture.” A women’s role is laid out before her, she is not free to find their own fulfilment. Life opportunities are not equal to that of men’s. Dunne, Kurki and Smith (2009) assert that economic insecurity is believed to exist due to gender inequality. “Women are disproportionately located at the bottom of the socioeconomic scale in all societies. Women’s disproportionate poverty cannot be explained by market conditions alone; gendered role expectations about the economic worth of women’s work and the kinds of tasks that women are expected to do contribute to their economic insecurity.”

In terms of addressing equality Giddens (2006, p470) claims liberal feminists “tend to focus their energies on establishing and protecting equal opportunities for women through legislation and other democratic means.” Haralambos and Holborn (1995) explain how liberal feminists supported the Sex Discrimination and Equal Pay Act, hoping these would help to end discrimination. They believe gradual change can be brought about within the existing social structure. Cunningham (2008, p98) states they would also support further female representation and involvement in politics by “the introduction of women-only shortlists.” Liberal feminists are modest in how they aim to bring about change, through anti-discriminatory legislation rather than overthrowing the system like radical feminists. Finally, Cunningham (2008, p99) points out that liberal feminists believe nobody benefits from gender discrimination. “Women lose out on the ability to develop their talents, business loses out because it fails to harness the potential and ability of 50% of the population, and men lose out because they are denied the opportunity to develop close ties with their children.”

This paper has sought to explore how Mills theory of a sociological imagination may assist social workers when considering the problem of an individual, and how three grand sociological theories can offer useful insights into the socially constructed nature of poverty. To conclude, this paper shall consider the use of those theories upon social work practice.

Cree (2000, p7) asserts “sociology offers social work the opportunity to explore meanings beneath taken-for-granted assumptions about behaviour, action and social structure. It offers a knowledge and value base which is not rooted in individual pathology but instead seeks to understand individuals in the context of the broader structures that make up their lives (including social class, gender, age, race, and ethnicity) and the historical movement within which they are living.” Sociology provides competing theories that offer differing perspectives to explain the emergence, existence and persistence of poverty. Moreover, they can raise awareness of oppression and disadvantage that may be constructed in social structures. Cree (2000, p208) confirms that “inequality and oppression exist at both individual and structural levels.”

Dominelli (2002) argues that “practitioners who follow emancipatory approaches seek to achieve anti-oppressive practice by focusing on the specifics of a situation in a holistic manner and mediating between its personal and structural components. To obtain this impact, social workers and their clients develop clear goals to pursue and use networking and negotiation techniques to secure change. Change usually occurs at the micro-level where interpersonal relationships are the target of the intervention(s).” Such an approach could be, as suggested by Cunningham (2008, p48) “task-centred”. This approach “offers a very practical model which is potentially very empowering.” The service user decides which areas they should like to work on. “Practice is based on the premise that the service user will work in partnership with the social worker and learn new methods that will equip them in the future. In this sense, workers could adopt a very practical way to address some aspects of poverty.” However, Cunningham warns “perhaps this still doesn’t go far enough, as this method of practice is based upon an individual approach and doesn’t address the bigger picture. Possibly combining task-centred working with other more radical methods of working might address this.” Dominelli (2002, p86) agrees with Thompson, and suggests “if poverty is causing personal hardship, institutional (meso-level) and/or societal (macro-level) changes may be required alongside endeavours aimed at helping the individual to control its deleterious effect on his or her life.” Feminist and Radical methods of practice both focus on the bigger picture. According to Drakeford (2008, p310) “radical social work, essentially Marxist in persuasion, suggested that alliances could be formed between clients in social welfare which would allow for vested interests to be challenged and authority to be redistributed from the powerful to the powerless.” Trevithick (2005, p284) states that this approach “emphasises the importance of social, economic and political solutions to ‘social problems’, thereby shifting the onus of blame from the individual without denying responsibility.” This involves social workers challenging the social structures that oppress and discriminate. Trevithick (2005, p285) claims that “practitioners who work from a radical/progressive/activist perspective are passionately committed to the issue of social justice and to working alongside people from disadvantaged groups in order to initiate change.” Feminist social work, according to Dominelli and MacLeod (1989, p1) “is informed by a feminist analysis of social problems.” Dominelli and MacLeod (1989, p.23) assert the feminist approach “has focussed on identifying the specific ways in which women experience their existence; drawing people’s attention to the lack of resources, power and emotional fulfilment which hold women down; exposing the social relations and social forces responsible for creating their state of affairs; and placing the plight of women firmly on the agenda for social change.” Dominelli (2008, p113) suggests “feminist social work practice is also relevant to children and men.” This is echoed by Cree (2000). A limitation, according to Trevithick (2005, p282) is that “most women experience additional oppressions, such as discrimination in relation to class, race, age, disabilities, sexual orientation, culture and religious beliefs.” And that “these additional oppressions are not always given sufficient weight.”

Cree (2000, p209) informs that “sociology may not be able to provide social work practitioners with answers, but the questions themselves lead to the potential development of sensitive, anti-oppressive practice.” This is because “all theories, ideas and practices are based on a particular set of political and moral principles. We therefore have to make choices about what theories we believe are most useful, and what actions we think are most helpful (or perhaps least damaging) for those with whom we are working. Social work is fundamentally about values and about value-judgements. Sociological knowledge can provide us with a framework for anti-discriminatory, anti-oppressive practice, by giving us the analytical tools with which to begin to explore the relationship between individuals and society.” Mills (1959, p8) “personal troubles and public issues.” Cree (2000, p5) argues “sociology and social work construct the individual.” It is also for this reason that “social workers need a sociological imagination.” Additionally, “social work’s central purpose is to work on behalf of society to help those individuals and groups who are vulnerable and marginalised.” If a service users problem exists due to structural of inequalities in society, and a social worker fails to make such a connection, they risk blaming the individual/group, perpetuating the oppression and discrimination already felt by social structures. Consequently, social workers need to have an awareness of the discrimination and oppression some people or groups face in society and be guarded not to perpetuate assumptions, labels or blame. Thompson (2005, p137) claims oppressive practice can happen “through naA?vete or ignorance: failing to recognise significant issues of inequality and thus exacerbating them by not addressing them.” And “by reinforcing stereotypes: jumping to conclusions about a particular individual without actually assessing their circumstances.” Therefore, by developing and using our sociological imagination and by being aware and open to theoretical perspectives and approaches to practice, we can take necessary steps to guard against anti-oppressive and anti-discriminatory practice.