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Marxism literary theory and the new criticism theory are among many wide schools of theory with historical importance. These theories differ in their methods and conclusions as well as their text. Different theories complement and supplement each other in their goals, methods, conclusions and text. The present day literary theory dates back in the 1960s. Literary theory was at its highest peak in popularity in some of the leading universities in America such as John Hopkins and Yale. It is from these universities that the influence of literary theory started spreading and by 1980s it was being taught almost everywhere. During this time, literary theory was supposed to be an academically cutting-edge, and as a result the majority of university literature departments wanted to teach and learn theory and integrate it into their curricula.

The goal of Marxist literary theories is to represent class conflict as well as to reinforce class distinctions through literature. Marxist theorists frequently champion writers who are sympathetic to the working classes and those whose works challenge the economic equalities in capitalist societies. In maintaining the spirit of Marxism, literary theories developing from the Marxist paradigm have sought Modern ways of understanding the relationship between literature and economic production as well as cultural production. Literary theory has drawn a lot of influence from the Marxism analyzes society.

New Critics in their works usually include inherent moral dimension, and occasionally a religious dimension. For instance, New Critic may read a poem by Thomas Eliot for its level of honesty in expression of torment and contradiction of a serious exploration of belief in the present world. On the other hand Marxist critic might see New critics’ point of view as ideological instead of critical. They would argue that critical distance should be kept from the poet’s religious standpoint for the poem to be understood. New criticism theories look at literary works in the view of what is written and not upon the authors’ goals or biographical issues. In contrast, the Marxists emphasize themes of class conflict.

Marxist literary criticism

Marxist literary criticism is used to describe literary criticism influenced by the philosophy of Marxism. Twentieth century leading proponents of Marxist theory are also literary critics. They include, George Lukacs, Terry Eagleton, and Raymond Williams. Marxist theory has different goals. One of its simplest goals is literary assessment of the political “inclination” of a literary work, hence determining whether its literary form is progressive.

According to Marxists legal systems, religious beliefs, and cultural frameworks are determined by social and economic conditions. Therefore Art should represent these conditions truthfully and also seek to better them. The popularity of Marxist aesthetics has reduced in nowadays consumerist society; however it continues to pose responsible questions.

Marxist basis of evaluation is hard to establish although it is one of the vigorous and varied 20th century school of aesthetics. Marxist theory has not been able to explain how the political, artistic, and legal superstructure of a nation reflects in its economic constitution. Assumptions from its generalizations have been stunningly inaccurate. For instance the hypotheses with which Marxism explained the rise in living standards of capitalist working class; the Russian-Chinese conflict revolution in Russia; and the uprisings in Berlin. The fact that Marxism fails intellectually is a prove that it has weaknesses in literary criticism.

Despite Marxist critism theories having weaknesses it is a good thing that it allows intellectual freedom. Sometimes the authors writing may have been influenced in some way by the state. For instance, the communist world was totally different from what writers were allowed to show. This means that the literary work of time could not be analyzed by simply looking at the author’s goal as it is proposed by new criticism. Reading the literary work very closely and particularly the language used by the author would help to analyze the work more critically. In this case Marxism is very crucial because what people read that is what they practice.

Some contemporary Marxists such Terry Eagleton have tried to rehabilitate or revise marx. She recognizes the fact that literary work like that of Shakespeare create value because by reading them we are made to think and get something out of them thus getting some values from them. This supplements new criticism theory that looks at the moral and sometimes the religious dimensions such as honesty.

Georg Lukacs contribution

In his contribution towards Marxism and literature, Georg Lukacs, maintained that the text contained in classic realist writings in describing events of ordinary occurrence and social conditions give a vivid picture of the entireness of a society and its evolution. He argues that the literature of naturalism shows the contradictions that exist in societies and within the individual in the context of a dialectical unit. He acknowledged the fact that realist novels present a partial image of a society. However, he also supported the idea that the value of a novel lies in its description of the nature of a society in a historic period. He also argued that any literary work does not reflect individual phenomena in isolation as modernist text depicts, but should be the whole process of life found in realism. However, Lukas was opposed by Bertolt Brecht, who argued that society is dynamic and hence reality also changes. This is why Bertolt maintained that modes of representation should change accordingly. The methods and goals of representation are always changing in the quest to describe present-day realities.

Raymond Williams contribution

According to Williams, any literature potraying an ever changing culture has the counter-hegemonic and dominant ideology. Therefore Marxist criticism leaning towards William’s theories considers literature as an important vehicle for ideology.

Williams’ believed that where there was no common culture, a cultural and literary tradition is founded on selections made in the present and shaped by value decisions and power interests. This way he deconstructed the idea that truth is integral in a literary tradition. This contribution complements the new criticism theory that seeks to understand moral dimension of every literary text.

He also suggested the term “structure of feeling” for analysis of literature. Even though she acknowledges that the term cannot be equated to an ideology since it lacks specificity of class and it is not universal; the term gives the dimension of experience more emphasis. Structure of feeling supplements new criticism theory since it emphasizes the experience dimension. This means that the text is not subjected to critical interpretations but instead the primacy of the text is upheld.

New criticism

New Criticism as a school of thought of literary interpretation stresses the significance of studying texts as comprehensive works of art in themselves. They argued for upholding primacy of text other than analysis based on context. According to proponents of this theory literary texts are usually comprehensive in and of themselves. They elevate the purpose of criticism in academics such as in the maintenance of language and poetry at the same time helping their development. Criticism is very important as it forms an inherent part of social development. Majority of new criticism studies see the theory as one that focuses on close reading of structure, theme, technicalities and the message contained in the literary works.

New criticism supplements the Marxism criticism theory in its objective. Marxism theory interprets every literary work on the basis of how it responds to social inequalities. Social development is therefore an inherent part of the Marxism theory. New criticism also gives some focus to social development though indirectly. New criticism theory expects that by focussing on criticism at the academic level, the same will trickle down to the society at large and hence leading to social development.

Unreasonable assumptions of Marxism and new criticism

One of the assumptions of the New Critics is that biographical and historical information is not important in the study of a literary text. This assumption restricts the reader so much and is often seen as excessively authoritarian. Historical and biographical information is necessary as it can create an experience dimension that can pass some values to the reader. In so doing social development occurs. Marxism emphasizes the use of historical and biographical information in analyzing literary works. Marxism assumes that a literary work is a reflection of the society that produces it. This assumption is not always true. Some literary works may have had some external influenced thus depicting a society in a way that people wants to see it and thus may not be a true reflection of the society. Since new criticism does not emphasis the historical and biographical information of text, but instead on close reading of structure, theme, technicalities and the message contained in the literary works, it complements the Marxism assumption. Therefore the blend of both Marxism and new criticism can complement each other as mentioned above.

Humanism

Marxism does not put emphasis on the use of Marx ideology of class conflict for academics but instead for social development. Therefore proponents of Marxism criticism theory believe it is most useful in the humanist world outside the academy. As discussed earlier, the new criticism is so much focussed on academics and not the society. It is so restrictive to the reader and does not use biographical and historical information in analysis of a literary work. On the other hand, Marxism can be referred as being humanistic. It is humanistic because it empathizes with the victims of social inequalities. Marxism therefore seeks to analyse literary works using the Marx ideology of class conflict. The Marxists hope that by analyzing literary works using class conflict ideology, the reader will be able to recognize the inequalities existing in the society and thus can find ways of overcoming them and bring about an equal society.

According to Patricia Waugh humanism is not only found in Marxism but rather in all theories. She sees theories as a means by which one can exercise crucial capacities of being human. One can reflect or be rational about life through a theory and in the process one can stand back to make second order judgements about the world and our behaviour in it.

In conclusion, Marxism criticism theory and New Criticism are different in many ways. These differences are what complements and supplements each other. For instance, since New Criticism does not emphasize on the use of historical and biographical information in analyzing literary works, Marxism complements it. On the other hand, New Criticism supplements Marxism’s structure of feeling by emphasizing moral dimension in the analysis of literary works. Raymond Williams a proponent of Marxism acknowledge values such as truth as integral to the literary tradition.

For this sociology essay I shall be researching and comparing three social perspective theories on crime, Marxism, Functionalism, and Feminism. I will be attempting to write how the three theories compare and conflict with each other.

Marxist perspective on crime

Karl Heinrich Marx was born the 5th of May 1818 Trier Germany to a comfortable middle class family. A historian, social scientist, revolutionary and philosopher, Karl Marx, was and still is considered the most important socialist thinker that emerged from the 19th century. Karl Marx during his lifetime was for the most part ignored by scholars. But since his death in 1883, Marx’s political, social and economic ideas quickly gained acceptance in the socialist movement.

Although Karl Marx never wrote at length about crime, he did argue the laws made by the ruling class were mostly put in place to keep the working class under control. Karl Marx had the idea that most people were not even aware they were being exploited. Marxism recognises for a society to function properly, social order is necessary. They state that in all societies apart from communist societies the ruling class always gains far more than any other class.

Haralambos & Holborn (2004) in discussing Marxist perspectives on deviance states that: the ruling class passes laws that benefits ruling-class interests. Therefore making sure the power stays in ruling class hands so they have a constant control over lower classes. (P353).

Marxists have the idea that Capitalist societies emphasise individual gain and the need to win at all costs. They feel greed explains crimes for financial gain. Marxists think the frustrations felt by dehumanising the lower classes can explain the crimes against the individual persons. They think crime in part is the creation of unequal power and inequality, and that it is a natural response to living in poverty. They feel crime is often the result of the ruling class offering the lower classes of society, demeaning work that gives little or no sense of creativity.

Although Marxists agree that crime is widespread within all social classes they argue deprived criminals are given harsher sentences than wealthy criminals. Marxists are more likely to emphasise corporate and white collar crime, they note that crimes by the upper classes cost more, and have a greater economic toll on society than lower class crimes. Marxists believe laws are approved to benefit the desires of the ruling class, they say people have unequal access to the law. Powerful people with money can hire a good lawyer this can change the odds of being found guilty or not guilty. Therefore for a Marxist, punishment for a crime could depend and vary with the social status of the criminal.

A man named William Chambliss was concerned in the fact of why certain things are made illegal and others are not, he also wondered who decided what issues are made law, and why the unequal distribution of wealth wasn’t illegal, William Chambliss also thought the ruling class controlled this power, and it was the ruling class who prevented certain issues from ever being discussed.

Dutchman Willem Adriaan Bonger 1876-1940: The 1st Marxist Criminologist wrote that all individuals in capitalist societies are infected by egoism because they are alienated from authentic social relationships with their fellow human beings, and all are thus prone to crime. He thought the root cause of crime was the capitalist mode of production and poverty was the major cause of crime, but the effects of poverty can be traced to the family structure and on parental inability to properly supervise their children. Willem Bonger supported the view that the roots of crime lay in the exploitative and alienating conditions of capitalism. The social sentiments that concerned him were altruism (an active concern for the well being of others) and egoism (a concern only for one’s own selfish interests). Willem Adriaan Bonger took his own life in 1940 rather than summiting to the Nazis. Willem Bonger (1969) Criminality and Economic Conditions.

In general Marxists believe the law is created by the ruling class, and only acts that grow out of working class life are defined as criminal. They state everyone breaks the law, but biased law enforcement means it is mainly the working class who get caught. “Marxism is the only theory that examines the crimes of the powerful”.

Haralambos & Holborn (2004): Marxists have been criticized in the past for thinking that a Communist system maybe the answer to eradicating crime, when in fact Switzerland, a capitalist society has a very low rate of crime. Feminists argue Marxists ignore the role of patriarchy whilst putting far too much emphasis on class inequality. (p355).

Functionalism perspective on crime

Haralambos & Holborn (2004): Functionalists believe that deviance and crime starts with society as a whole. Functionalism looks into society for the source of crime and deviance rather than looking to the individual itself. Functionalism is frequently thought of as the exact opposite to Marxism. Functionalists give emphasis to the positive way crime can affect a social system. Functionalism stems from Emile Durkheim. He believed that crime was to be expected in all societies. (p253).

Emile Durkheim was born on April the 15th, 1858 at Epinal, Vosges, in Lorraine, France. Durkheim is considered by most the father of sociology. He is credited for making sociology a science. During Durkheim’s lifetime he published a number of sociological studies on subjects like suicide, religion and other aspects of society as well as giving a number of lectures. Emile Durkheim (2002).

Haralambos & Holborn (2004): All Functionalists have the opinion that control mechanisms like courts and police are a necessity to keep crime and deviance in control and protect social order. However many functionalists argue a certain amount of deviance can have positive functions in society, they feel crime can even provide maintenance and the well being of a society. In Emile Durkheim’s book “The Rules of Sociological Method” (1938) crime is argued to be inevitable, and a normal part of social life. Emile Durkheim had the notion that crime was present throughout all types of society. He also felt the crime rate would be higher in more highly developed industrialized countries. Durkheim believed that if there was a perfect society of saints, occupied by perfect individuals, a society where no murder or robbery occurred, deviance would still be present because behaviour standards would be set that high the smallest slip would be considered a serious offence. Durkheim felt society would stagnate without deviance. (253).

A man named Robert Merton produced a detailed functionalist theory to explain criminal behaviour. Merton stated that all societies set goals to attain, Merton believed that if there was a sensible chance you could reach these goals then society would function, but he felt that if these goals were unobtainable then a situation of anomie occurs (anything goes). Robert Merton stated that there are five anomic responses where individuals cannot achieve Societies goals.

1, Conformity: where individuals struggle for success through accepted channels.

2, Innovation: people will accept society has goals but will reject the socially accepted means, for example organized crime.

3, Ritualism: where people accept the socially approved way, but no longer believe they can achieve success, for example people who stick to the rules no matter what.

4, Retreatism: people who have lost sight of societies goals for example drug users.

5, Rebellion: people who have adopted new goals, and different ways to achieve them, for example revolutionaries, cults. Sociology in Focus: Paul Taylor (1997)

In general Functionalist’s believe crime can play a positive role in society, they feel societies need to produce crime to set the limits of behaviour to show society what will, and won’t be tolerated. Functionalist’s state the working class are more criminal because they have fewer bonds with social institutions and therefore have less to lose. They think of society as a living organism with each function like institutions, organizations, and other mechanisms working together. J.Tattersall: (2010).

Functionalist theory has been criticized for ignoring the crimes of the higher social classes, for seeing crime and deviance as a product of society and social background (deterministic), and for ignoring the fact that many young people often choose to be deviant and they often grow out of this behaviour.

“Functionalism is the only theory that sees crime as having a positive function”.

Feminist perspective on crime

Feminist criminology thinks that crime must be viewed from all perspectives in order to understand and obtain the most complete picture of crime. Feminists see society as male-dominated (patriarchal). Feminists see men benefiting at the women’s expense. Feminists also argue that most social institutions, including the state and its policies, help to maintain women’s subordinate position and the unequal gender division of labour in the family.

According to the Feminist school of criminology, major theories in crime have been developed by male subjects, and they focus on male victimization. They feel that facts about crime tend to be focused on the gender of the criminal and not the crime itself. “Feminism is the only theory that examines gender differences when explaining crime”.

Professor Frances Heidenson (1989) criticises the male dominance of sociology she feels that most academics are male, and therefore criminology reflects male views and interests, she also stated that that most traditional theorists are gender blind, and therefore fail to explain how their theories can be applied to females. J. Tattersall (2010)

Haralambos and Holborn (2004): Otto Pollack (1950) claimed to have recognized certain crimes are usually committed by woman, he thought nearly all shoplifting and criminal abortions were carried out by woman, he also argued that many unreported crimes were committed by female servants. He noted many police, magistrates, and other law officials tended to be men. This could therefore make them chivalrous and lenient towards female offender’s, he thought because of this woman appear in statistics less. Pollack also stated that females are particularly good at hiding their crimes because of their genetic makeup. He stated that woman learn to mislead men during sex and can use this to fake interest and sexual pleasure. (pp. 382-383).

Haralambos and Holborn (2004): Pollack has been brutally criticized for some of these statements, Steven Jones (2001) points out that Pollack gives no real support that servants commit many crimes against employers, or that woman are better at hiding crimes then men. Heidensohn points out that Pollack has an unsubstantiated stereo typical image of woman and he is unwilling to point male crime to a biological predisposition to aggression and violence. (p384).

Heidensohn believed that there was double standards in the justice system and that the justice system was loaded against women and not for them, she thought that the justice system is more likely to punish women when they deviate from the norms of female sexuality. It has been suggested that women are being sentenced in terms of being mothers, wives, and daughters rather than examining the seriousness of their crime. It seems that lighter sentences are given to females who meet the traditional roles, whilst women who don’t fit these roles are given stronger punishments. J Tattersall (2010): (p5).

Feminists can be criticised for being ideological and prejudiced, by focussing on patriarchy they ignore the fact that men are also used for domestic labour. They fail to notice women are becoming increasingly independent, and focus on gender ignoring other important social factors such as class and race.

Conclusion- All three theories are structural theories they look at groups in societies rather than the individual. Marxism and Feminism are both conflict theories they see some groups as being less equal than others, functionalist theory is the only theory that see’s crime in a positive nature.

Compare and contrast two theories of the change in the age of marriage in industrial societies.

There are several theories which attempt to explain the causes behind the changing ages of marriage in industrial societies. While no theory should be seen as all-encompassing or as universally applicable, many have made valuable contributions to the overall debate. The theories presented by Valeria Oppenheimer (1988, 1994, 1997) and David S. Loughran (2002) are two such examples of incisive works that have influenced the direction and scholarly thought on this topic.

Before delving into the particulars of these two scholars, it is important to point out some of the problems inherent in attempting to account for such a diverse and important phenomenon. Indeed, the concept of marriage is one that is often culturally contingent and one that can vary among demographic and religious groups. Also, it is important to examine the question of how modern values have contributed to contemporary patterns of marriage. As such, not all industrial societies can be understood as uniformly similar and that the change in age of marriage should also be thought of in terms of time, socioeconomic status, race, and ethnic group.

Oppenheimer’s ‘A Theory of Marriage Timing’ is deeply concerned with challenging the then popular and prevailing notion that women’s economic independence was the major factor in the “decline in gains to marriage… (and the) rise in delayed marriage” (1988). This notion, to Oppenheimer, is particularly problematic because it tends to “push people into one of two polar positions:” the growing independence of women could be seen as too high of a price to pay because of its negative impact on society or as an “unavoidable price for women’s liberation” (1988). Instead Oppenheimer, through a modified search-theoretic framework, argues that even if the gains to marriage are reduced through economic independence, the result can have minimal effect on marriage gains in general. The greater independence that women experience creates an environment where they neither are forced to settle or remain in an undesirable situation (1988, p.587).

Oppenheimer further discredits the “independence hypothesis” in ‘Women’s Employment and the Gain to Marriage: the Specialization and Trading Model” through a detailed analysis of the literature supporting this notion (1997). Assumptions made by theorists, particularly those held by Gary Becker, are critically examined by Oppenheimer. An important criticism the author makes deals with questioning the starting point of the “high correlation of the various time series trends” employed by supporters of the independence hypothesis (1997). If one pushes these time-series backwards (and does not have them dated in the 1950’s and 1960’s) it becomes clear that divorce rates were on the rise well before women’s employment started to grow (1997). Further, Oppenheimer attempts to clarify the difference (which she believes is often misunderstood) between the delay of marriage and nonmarriage. She cites important factors why individuals may want to delay marriage, such as economic factors or educational attainment (among others) without actually delaying the relative worth or desirability of marriage (1997).

In ‘Women’s Rising Employment and the Future of the Family in Industrial Societies’ Oppenheimer explains the change in marriage through the declining position of men in the labor market. Supported by strong evidence linking the connection between early marriage and strong labor markets, Oppenheimer illustrates how men who lack a stable career or career path become less desirable, thus prolonging the search for potential mates.

Becker’s theory of marriage, which Oppenheimer connects with ideas presented by two of sociologists most notable figures (Parsons and Durkheim), maintains that “the major gain to marriage lies in the mutual dependence of spouses, arising out of their specialized functions—the woman in domestic production (and reproduction), the man in market work” (Oppeheimer 1997). As the economy grows and wages rise, women’s market work in turn also rises. For Becker, this means that the work women engage in becomes less specialized and more economically independent “leading, in turn, to a decline in the desirability of marrying or of staying married” (Oppenheimer 1997). Of particular concern to Oppenheimer is Becker’s argument that a ‘major gain’ to marriage is lost through women’s economic independence. Oppenheimer, however, calls into question several facets of Becker’s theory by arguing that families are adaptable and have placed both women and children in the workforce when it was demanded by particular economic conditions.

Oppenheimer stresses, through the employment of micro and marco level analyses, how the decline in male economic opportunity in the 1970s and 1980s served as an integral factor in reducing the supply of marriageable men. This parallels both Loughran’s and Easterlin’s (Birth and Fortune, 1987) arguments that individuals (both men and women) are more likely to be married in the areas in which higher proportions of men are ‘marriageable’ (for Loughran this notion hinges on wage inequality and for Easterlin it rests on the particulars of the birth cohort). Oppenheimer further deviates from many of her predecessors by stressing the relative importance uncertainty in career entry and path plays in the delay of marriage. Couples would thus spend a greater amount of time (the concept of delaying marriage as opposed to nonmarriage is again stressed) when searching for suitable (as defined by men and women with an established career path) partners.

Loughran, in “The Effect of Male Wage Inequality on Female Age at First Marriage” argues that “rising male wage inequality is responsible for a proportion of the decline in the age-specific propensity to marry between 1970 and 1990” (2002). The author, who also uses a search-theoretic framework, discusses how his hypothesis fits naturally into a model of female marital search (2002) and how it “reveals a negative correlation between male wage inequality and female propensity to marry.” That is, “if women search among a pool of men characterized by their wages, theory predicts growing male wage inequality will increase the duration of female marital search and, hence, age at first marriage” (2002). As similarly noted by Oppenheimer, Loughran agrees that modeling marriage behavior in this way shows that it is less of a ‘decline’ in marriage as it is of a ‘delay’. Loughran, in a similar vein as Oppenheimer, dispels alternative hypotheses such as rising female wages and employment and concludes that the rising male wage inequality increases the return to marital search, which in turn lengthens “search duration and decreas(es) age-specific propensities to marry” (2002).

When comparing the theories of Oppenheimer and Loughran, one can see that the latters economic analysis supports the formers on several key points. One of Loughrans hypotheses deals with describing how wage inequality (beginning in the early 1970s) meant greater variability in the economic suitability and stability of potential husbands thereby leading to greater rewards for women who extended and prolonged their marriage search. This notion supports Oppenheimers emphasis on taking the stress away from womens independence as the critical factor in changing age of marriage and instead placing it on the declining role of males in the marketplace.

Criticisms of these theories are bound to occur, as they fail to account for all of the intricacies associated with marriage trends. It is interesting to note the relative absence in the discussions presented by these authors of the importance of religion and its particular influence on marriage trends. When one considers the very nature of marriage, and the values and ideals it is naturally associated with, the idea of its close relationship with religious belief becomes easily noticeable. As such, it may be interesting in the future to examine these theories with respect to groups that have different levels of religiosity.

When considering both of these theories, it becomes clear that the economic opportunity of both men and women should be studied together if one is interested in discovering the reasons behind change in marriage age. While neither the growing wage inequality among young men nor the independence among young women is wholly responsible for the delay in marriage, they are both seen to be important contributors to the phenomena and overall debate. Oppenheimer, in particular, has proven to be influential in influencing the direction of the discourse by calling into question some of the key prevailing notions which have persisted throughout the past century.

References:

1.) Easterlin, R. A. (1987) Birth and Fortune: The impact of Numbers on Personal Welfare. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, second edition

2.) Oppenheimer, V.K. (1997) Women’s employment and the gain to marriage: the specialization and trading model. Annual Review of Sociology, 23, 431-453

3.) Oppenheimer, V.K. (1988) A theory of marriage timing. American Journal of Sociology, 94(3), 563-591

4.) Oppenheimer, V.K. (1994) Women’s rising employment and the future of the family in industrial societies. Population and Development Review, 20(2), 293-342

5.) Loughran, D.S. (2002). The effect of male wage inequality on female age at first marriage. Review of Economics and Statistics, 84(2), 237-250.

In India theres no bigger event in a very family than a marriage, significantly evoking each potential social obligation, kinship bond, ancient worth, burning sentiment, and economic resource. Within the composition and conducting of weddings, the advanced permutations of Indian social systems best show themselves.

Marriage is a closely related concept with that of the family. However, not every culture recognizes marriage in the same sense. Marriage in general terms is a legal and a social contract between two people. The process of becoming socially married begins with a public ceremony and ends with a death or divorce of either of the spouses.

Marriage is deemed essential for just about everybody in Indian society. For the individual, wedding is that the nice watershed in life, marking the transition to adulthood. Generally, this transition, like everything else in India, depends very little upon individual volition however instead happens as a results of the efforts of their folks. When one is born into a family while not the exercise of any personal alternative, thus is one given a relative with none personal preference concerned. Arranging a wedding may be an important responsibility for parents and different relatives of each bride and groom. Wedding alliances need some distribution of wealth similarly as building and restructuring social realignments, and, of course, end in the biological copy of families.

Especially in north India, a family seeks wedding alliances with individuals to whom it’s not related to blood relations. Wedding arrangements in north typically involve a way from family bonds. And in the Dravidian-speaking south, a family seeks to strengthen existing kin ties through wedding, ideally with blood relatives. Kinship nomenclature reflects this basic pattern. In the north, each kinship term clearly indicates whether or not the person cited may be a relative or associate relative; all blood relatives’ square measure verboten as wedding mates to someone or an individual’s kids. Within the south, there’s no clear-cut distinction between the family of birth and therefore the family of wedding. As a result of wedding within the south ordinarily involves a seamless exchange of daughters among a number of families, for the marriage all relatives square measure ultimately blood kin.

In the northern India, marriages are arranged outside the village, generally even outside of villages, with members of a similar caste. In a lot of the area, daughters must not be married into villages wherever daughters of the family or perhaps of the biological village have antecedently been given. In most of the region, brother-sister exchange marriages (marriages linking a brother and sister of 1 unit with the sister and brother of another) prohibited. The whole idea is on casting the wedding ties-wider, making new alliances by marriage making process of looking for suitable bride and groom.

In India, successful marriages are based upon love and liability, parental authority matters from the time raising children, teaching them value, providing them standards of living and helping to develop a strong character in their children, what they desire. As in India, usually females are brought up with respect to their parents, which becomes an important factor in choosing a husband for them and hence they are raised to trust and praise their parent’s decision under any circumstances, so under such society the liability of mate seeking becomes a responsibility of parents where they try to seek the ‘Best’ mate for their children.

But due to globalization and migration of people from their native town to other cities, it has made it slightly difficult in arranging the marriages, finding the perfect partner for one’s child which can be a challenging task at times. In such cases nowadays people use their social networks to locate potential brides and grooms of appropriate social and economic status. Increasingly, urban dwellers use classified matrimonial advertisements in newspapers, online etc. The advertisements usually announce religion, caste, class and educational qualifications, stress female beauty and male (and in the contemporary era, sometimes female) earning capacity.

Literature Review
‘The Relevance Of Matrimonial Advertisements For The Study Of Mate Selection In India’ by Cora Vreede-De Stuers

In this article, the author has studied the fact that how matrimonial advertisement in India have promoted the inaccuracy and exaggerated variables provided by those who use advertising a medium for match making. And as this facts and variables are exaggerated these ads are misleading those who seek for partners through these matrimonial columns. Author has also focused on how has the growing use of usual channels of matchmaking through the mediation of the traditional are in rise due to the those set of people who have to adjust to the anonymity of city life and the constant transfers of government servants. For that very reason this set of people is increasingly making use of matrimonial is as a modern adaptation of the traditional means. The author has drawn conclusion from the content analysis of his findings is that the majority of the advertisers conform completely to the prevailing value system of their status group like caste, class, profession implying that the adjustments of this group to changing situations are also reflected in the matrimonial.(CORA VREEDE-DE STUERSS,2013)

This analysis has been tested by investigations on attitudes of youth from similar social strata towards caste, marriage, family life, and the opposite sex, and in a way directly questioning the generation which matrimonial advertising is intended to benefit. This also raises a question on the fact that who inserts the matrimonial advertisements, parents or children, which determines the setting up of trends for matchmaking?

Gender stereotypes and normative heterosexuality in matrimonial ads from globalizing India by Sri Vidya Ramasubramaniana and Parul Jain, Department of Communication, Texas A&M University, College Station, USA; Department of Communication, Ohio State University, Columbus, USA

Contemporary Indian familial relations as reflected in matrimonial advertising, a deep gender divide exist where the socially expected roles are very different for husbands as compared to wives. Apparently, a social understanding and unstated consensus exists for what the ideal woman/man should be. In other words, there is a strong support for gender polarization in the characteristics of a desirable, ideal, life partner. The implications of these ideals for women and men of marriageable age are crucial for understanding the lack of diversity in the matrimonial ads indicates the potential for exclusion or marginalization of several groups of ‘non ideal’ people in the ‘marriage market.’ In order to be considered eligible in the marriage market, in line with impressions from management literature, those placing matrimonial ads seem to adhere to social norms relating to traditional gender-role expectations for both men and women. Significant difference between what males and females expect in terms of spousal personality traits. Females are expected to be ‘feminine’ by being caring, loving, nurturing, compassionate, and warm. Women, in turn, cater to these expectations by using these descriptors while announcing themselves in the marriage market. While the effortful, purposive framing of matrimonial ads is reflective of the gendered values of the communities that they serve, it is equally possible that matrimonial ads function as a space through which the complicated negotiations that lead to finding the ‘suitable’ partner begin. Further research using ethnographic methods is needed to find out the role that matrimonial ads play in facilitating (or hindering) familial communication in particular and in maintaining (or countering) gender stereotypes in society in general (Ramasubramaniam & Jain, 2008)

In the journal article ‘Love, Arranged Marriage, and the Indian Social Structure’ by Giri Raj Gupta

The author in his study has mentioned that there is growth in of “Conjugal Marriage” as against “romantic love” and love marriages occur in only less than one percent of the population. Arranged marriages are closely associated with “closed systems” wherein the hierarchies are very elaborate and more than one factor such as historical origins, ritual positions, occupational affiliations, and social distance determinants play significant roles in defining the in-group and the out-group, particularly in marital alliances. In such systems, group identity is defined by strong senses of values which are preserved and re-enforced by attributes which distinguish a group in rank and its interaction with others. Continuity and unity of the extended family is well-preserved since all the significant members of the family share the mate-selection decision make-up which involves several persons who are supposedly known to have experience and qualifications to find a better choice as against the free choice of the subject. This leads to lower age at marriage and, in turn, strengthens the pre- dominance of the family over the individual choice. As long as the social system is unable to develop a value system to promote individualism, economic security outside the family system, and a value system which advances the ideals of nuclear family, the individuals in such system continue to demand support from the family which, in turn, would lead to re-emphasizing the importance of arranged marriage. (Gupta, 1976)

PROBLEM STATEMENT

With the increasing technology and convergence of media, the marriage making process has reached to the stage where marriage is a commercial ceremony and tradition and is marketed in media with the help of matrimonial advertisements. Though there are new modern ways like matrimonial websites to seek mates online, but still there persists the traditional ideals like caste, profession, class, international exposure and the stereotyped physical features.

This study will help to understand the perception of people over marriages and in their decision making factors for choosing suitable bride/groom.

RATIONALE

According to the New York times, 1,200 to 1,500 matrimonial ads that appear across 3 or 4 pages of the biggest Indian newspapers, like The Times of India, the Hindustan Times and Dainik Jagran, are categorized by caste, religion and profession (well, in the case of doctors), and lately by the quality of being “cosmopolitan.” The newspapers charge by the space used (say, 3,200 rupees for 25 words). So this trend of matchmaking online is another way of courtship pattern which has evolved from the custom when father use to decide the bride without introducing each other before marriage. But the ideals like caste, class etc was having not even changed even after ages.

So this problem is extremely important as such trends especially affect our society by creating a wider gap between caste, class, profession and physical appearance. Perpetuation of patriarchal stereotypes and gender biases in the society through the matrimonial ads and the parameter used to seek mates online.

Objective/Hypothesis/Research Question

With the increasing technology and convergence of media, the marriage making process has reached the stage where marriage is marketed in media, with the help of matrimonial advertisements. Though there is new modern way been used to seek mates online, but till there persists the traditional ideals like caste, profession, class, international exposure and the stereotyped physical features.

How have online matrimonial websites have altered the bride/groom seeking while still retaining traditional ideals of marriage?

The purpose of this study is to understand the mindset of people who seeks for bride/groom online.

Methodology

The principal aim of this dissertation is to examine and analyze the way which the ideals like class, caste, physical appearances , status, qualifications is used as a parameter in match making process. Also the study is centered on analyzing the role played by the parents in decision making process of finding the perfect mate for their kids through online matrimonial sites. The methodology used will track two matrimonial websites, namely, Bharatmatrimony.com, how relevant and important these parameter are important in seeking bride and groom

To realize the priority that parents of the prospective bride place on these parameters.

Focus group interviews

Interviews of the marriage brokers

Theories to analyze and study the rationale of such match making and to study the wider impact of such practices.

Social Identity Theory:

This theory addresses the ways in which people perceive and categorize themselves. According to social identity theory, individuals form self-conceptions that are based on two parts: 1) personal or self identity, and 2) collective identity. Personal or self identity refers to our unique, personal qualities such as our beliefs, our abilities and skills, etc. The collective self includes all the qualities that arise from being part of a society, culture, family, groups, clubs, etc. For example, you may identify yourself as a protestant, male, football player, who is very popular with people at school.

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY

Festinger’s (1957) cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and beliefs in harmony and avoid disharmony (or dissonance). Cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. This produces a feeling of discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance etc. For example, when people smoke (behavior) and they know that smoking causes cancer (cognition). Attitudes may change because of factors within the person. An important factor here is the principle of cognitive consistency, the focus of Festinger’s (1957) theory of cognitive dissonance. This theory starts from the idea that we seek consistency in our beliefs and attitudes in any situation where two cognitions are inconsistent.

Research Design
Triangulation

Interview: Personal interviews of Marriage broker and marriage owner sites

Focus group: 6-8 people in group

(The focus group will comprise of Parents who are seeking for bride/groom, prospective bride and groom and marriage brokers. Through these focus group interviews we will help us to known the rationale behind their perception, of people choosing the suitable match based on the parameter like caste, class, profession and appearance. With the help of the comments from the bride/groom we can get the perception and rationale of the prospective brides/groom about their selection. Along with these, the input from the marriage broker, we can get an idea about marriage market and

The purpose of this study is to examine whether a relationship exists between marital status and African American mothers’ self-esteem and if it is mediated by family income. Over the past several decades there has been a substantial increase in the rates of single motherhood, especially for African American women. Ever since the 1940s the number of single mothers has doubled in number (Tucker & Mitchell-Kernan 1995). This high rate of single parent households could be attributed to the ethnic, racial and social class differences. A change in the norms and values about family formation may also be occurring. Women with previous experience with men who are unwilling to take responsibility for the care of their child may find it more desirable to raise their children alone without the fathers’ help. However, not having the financial and emotional support a husband can provide may lead to a negative emotional state which has lasting effects on a woman’s self-esteem. Research on this topic portrayed that the support of a nuclear family is important but that financial stability overrides social norms to impact self-esteem.

But does self-esteem really matter? The answer, studies show, is yes. Self-esteem was studied because it is an important component to an individual’s mental health. Having a healthy mindset is a valuable aid to mothers. Mothers with high self-esteem tend to cope with stressful situations better and are more optimistic as compared to low self-esteem mothers. A limitation of the study is that the effects of marital status and family income on the self-esteem of African American mothers have not been adequately researched as compared to that of their European American counterparts (Hope, Power, & Rodgers 1999). More research is necessary to come up with defined answers to this question of whether it is family income or marital status that affects the self-esteem of African American single mothers.

It is a fact that married mothers have higher psychological health than unmarried mothers (Diener, Gohm, Suh, & Oishi 2000). Married mothers deal better with stressful situations compared to single mothers, and this is not due to different levels of psychological health before marriage. We can see clear differences in psychological health of mothers based on marital status. This is true for a study of African American mothers which found that if they have their first child when they were still unmarried it led to high depression, regardless of socioeconomic status and age of the mother (Kalil & Kunz 2002). Being married provides a support system as well as additional financial support, which single mothers lack.

The suggestion that husbands offer mothers more than simply financial support can be clearly depicted with married couples (Popenoe, 2004). This outlook, that husbands provide more than just financial support, predicts that even with relatively equal income, married mothers will have higher self-esteem than unmarried mothers. However, this assumption has been criticized for ignoring the adaptive qualities of nontraditional family structures that have formed over the past decades especially those of African American families (Dickerson, 1995). So, even if family income accounts for some of these effects, this model predicts that marital status will affect the self-esteem of African American mothers regardless of their financial incomes.

The cultural equivalent perspective suggests that like any other unmarried mothers, African American mothers are at risk of psychological problems, but the effects are mainly related to the clear differences in family income between married and unmarried mothers. For example, in 2004, 28% of single-mother families in America lived below the poverty line compared to only 5% of married families (DeNavas, 2005). Therefore, one can conclude that marriage is vital because it keeps families financially stable. This mindset argues that family income leads to the effects others attribute to marital status. In one study of 156 African American women who lacked adequate family income, it showed that their financial burdens gradually led to higher depression and lower self-esteem. Some had to seek medication to suppress these effects. Ultimately these studies suggested that it is mainly financial resources that impact mental health, and marital status has a far smaller effect.

The cultural variant perspective suggests that African American households do not follow the structures and cultural norms of nuclear family units as ethnic majorities often do. They may be influenced by a different set of social issues attributed to their different cultural background than that of European American mothers. Marriage, regardless of financial resources may have a different meaning and significance to African American women. For example, Rank and Davis (1996) found that married African American mothers would rather be outside of marriage as compared to married European American women who preferred to raise their children in a nuclear family setting. Married European American women would rather live according to the social norm of society, which is the life style of a nuclear family. This allows for adequate income to live a comfortable life. Furthermore, the large extended family of African American mothers showed an option for seeking social support from avenues other than marriage. This different mentality about marriage may reduce the supposed negative psychological effects of being unmarried.

Studies indicated that most African American mothers are unmarried, and this has been the case for the past few decades. This has led to adjustment to single motherhood. These high rates of single parent families have led to less stigmatization in African American communities. This has in turn led to the perspective that suggests that marital status does not affect African American mothers’ self-esteem, regardless of family income. Unmarried African American mothers who successfully control their family income may partially mediate the effect of lower self-esteem, but it will not reduce the effects of marital status for low income African American mothers. This is because feelings of security and financial support that a marriage partner offers are still unavailable to single mothers. Moreover for lower income single mothers living in relatively dangerous urban environments, the probability that they or their children will be victims of violent crimes is a constant fear and source of high anxiety and stress. This stress and fear can build up over time to affect their self-esteem and overall mental health. Financial resources will undoubtedly allow the low income mothers to live in relatively safer neighborhoods, which may reduce the anxiety and safety concerns that many lower income African American mothers face.

The studies continue to reveal that higher income unmarried mothers have been found to have much higher self-esteem than lower income unmarried mothers. The stress and feelings of incompetence associated with low income can have vast effects on the psychological health of both women and men irrespective of their marital status (Cairney et al., 2003). The results of this study suggested that lower income unmarried African American mothers, who have the added responsibility of taking care of children without a husband, have to endure the effects of lack of adequate resources in the household. This can increase the burdens associated with raising children which can undoubtedly be significantly reduced with enough financial resources.

Being a higher income unmarried mother has its benefits. Those who have achieved social status based on their own accomplishments are more highly regarded and associated with higher self-esteem than obtaining high social status based on the accomplishments of others. The fact that these mothers are high income earners, in spite of having to raise children primarily by themselves, could boost their self-esteem and also their sense of accomplishment. This may be especially true for single African American women, because of the negative social barriers which they all too often have to face in their daily lives (Dickerson, 1995). This shows that marital status does not necessarily need to affect the self-esteem of an unmarried mother to the same extent that income does.

I found the findings of African American mother’s self-esteem unique compared to those of their European American counterparts. The relation between having a marriage partner and higher income did not result in higher self-esteem due to differences between an achieved and ascribed social status. High income married mothers had the same self-esteem as lower income married mothers and high income unmarried mothers. These findings may also be related to social variables if the income is based on the mother’s accomplishment, which may boost her self-esteem especially for unmarried mothers. Although there is no clear interaction between mothers’ self-esteem, marital status, and family income it is clear that for many of the married mothers with higher family incomes their financial situation may reflect mostly income from their spouse’s employment. This could explain why income does not have added self-esteem benefits for married mothers.

The effects of marriage vary from individual to individual. For most women including It is important to have a constant family income to reduce the negative effects of single parenthood for African American mothers.

Marital satisfaction also called marital quality is defined as the happiness and satisfaction one feels about their relationship with their spouse, as well as how well one feels their spouse fulfills their needs (Booth, Johnson, and Granger, 2005; Peleg, 2008). Marital satisfaction is the subject of much sociological research. Most of this research has focused on how certain influences affect marital satisfaction. Current research examines how factors such as division of labor, income, and parenthood affect marital quality (Kluwer, Heesink, and Van De Vliert, 1997; Tichenor, 1999; Cox, Paley, Burchinal and Payne, 1999). Studies shows that many factors play a role in the happiness spouses feel about their relationships.

Much of the early research in this area focused on the traditional roles of husbands and wives. Because of recent trends such as the increase in dual-earner households and the fact that many women are making more money than their husbands, more recent studies focus on how gender role ideologies affect the marital relationship. Gender role ideology is how a person relates to family or marital roles that are usually linked to gender (Minnotte, Minnotte, Pederson, Mannon, and Kiger, 2010). Gender role ideologies are defined by Mickelson, Claffey, and Williams (2006) as spouses’ expectations of each other as well as of themselves within the context of the marital relationship. Mickelson et al. (2006) investigate the impact of egalitarian and traditional gender roles on marital satisfaction. Gender role ideology is shown to be a major influence on the levels of marital satisfaction reported by husbands and wives. Marital discord also influences marital satisfaction. Rogers (1999) defines marital discord as problems and conflict in the marital relationship. Communication and interaction between spouses can have a major impact on marital quality.

Does gender play a role in marital satisfaction? This article will examine previous research on the major factors that influence marital satisfaction, including gender role ideology, division of labor, income, children and parenthood, and communication and marital interaction beginning with the factors that correlate most with gender.

GENDER ROLE IDEOLOGY

Gender role ideology is defined by Minnotte et al. (2010) as the identity one assigns him- or herself with regard to gender-linked marriage or family roles. The difference in expectations between egalitarian and traditional gender roles can have a major impact on marital satisfaction. Lower marriage satisfaction in women seems to be the result of traditional gender role expectations (Ng, Loy, Gudmunson, and Cheong, 2009). However, lower marriage satisfaction in men tends to be influenced by egalitarian gender role expectations (Ng et al. 2009). Traditional relationships can appear to be less conflicted than egalitarian ones, but this is likely the result of conflict avoidance in the traditional relationship (Kluwer et al. 1997). Egalitarian relationships may seem to observers to have more conflict, however, they also have more communication and conflict resolution, whereas traditional relationships foster lower marital satisfaction by evading conflict management (Kluwer et al. 1997).

Studies show that the gender role ideologies of husbands and wives play a significant role in their levels of marital quality. Men’s marital quality is higher when the husband and wife share the same role ideology and is lower when the ideologies differ (Minnotte et al. 2010). When work responsibilities interfere with family responsibilities, the quality of marriage and other familial relationships can deteriorate. Minnotte et al. (2010) explain that egalitarian wives’ marital satisfaction suffers with relation to work-to-family conflict (lower marital satisfaction is related to high work-to-family conflict). Work-to-family conflict is defined as conflict that occurs when family needs are negatively impacted by the demands of one’s work (Minnotte et al. 2010).

DIVISION OF LABOR

Division of labor continues to be a contentious issue between spouses. Saginak and Saginak (2005) define labor in the context of marriage and family as responsibilities of the home, including domestic, emotion and organizational work necessary to maintaining a family home. Dew and Wilcox (2011), Faulkner et al. (2005), and Ng et al. (2009) all report that a perception of inequitable distribution of household labor is directly related to marital dissatisfaction. In addition, Kluwer et al. (1997) report that just because a couple does not report household labor conflict doesn’t mean that it is not present in their relationship. In traditional marriages, wives frequently avoid division of labor conflict, however discontent they may be, according to Kluwer et al. (1997).

Evidence shows that instrumental support is crucial to marital satisfaction for egalitarian wives (Mickelson et al. 2006). However, the level of egalitarianism in men is negatively related to their marital satisfaction, probably because there is a higher expectation of household labor duties for egalitarian men compared to traditional men (Mickelson et al. 2006). This shows that in spite of egalitarian beliefs, many men still do not consider household labor their responsibility.

INCOME

The amount of money a woman makes doesn’t influence marital quality in the ways we may think. Tichenor (1999) finds that gender has more of an impact on marital satisfaction than status or income. In families where the wife earns more money than the husband, most women reject the power they may get from earning more money and create an image of their husband’s control of the family (Tichenor, 1999). These status-reversal relationships appear to seek the image of a conventional marriage (Tichenor, 1999). Tichenor’s (1999) research shows that most husbands prefer the label of provider and do not object to this manufactured image. Wives who earn more money than their husbands are still doing a majority of the housework while contributing a majority of the family income (Tichenor, 1999). This shows that housework is gendered and not influenced by wives’ income. Women cannot exchange money for housework by earning more money than their husbands (Tichenor, 1999).

Rogers (1999) reports that wives’ marital dissatisfaction significantly influences wives’ income. Marital discord can contribute to a woman’s decision to get a job, but husbands’ marital dissatisfaction has no influence over their wives’ income (Rogers, 1999). Interestingly, Faulkner, Davey, and Davey (2005) report that wives’ job loss creates less marital conflict and a higher level of marital satisfaction for them. However, the time their husbands spend working outside the home is negatively related to their marital happiness (Faulkner et al. 2005). When a wife is unhappy, she is more likely to get a job outside the home, but when an employed wife loses her job, it contributes to less conflict and more satisfaction in the marriage. This illustrates the tendency of many men to have traditional gender role expectations.

CHILDREN/PARENTHOOD

The effects of parenthood on marriage are also more complicated than expected. Cox et al. (1999) argue that having children creates a decrease in marital satisfaction, but that the severity of the decrease is significantly influenced by whether the pregnancy was planned or unplanned, the gender of the child, and the conflict managements skills of the couple prior to pregnancy. Levels of marital satisfaction have been shown to bottom out around the child’s first birthday, and then increase in small increments during the child’s second year of life (Cox et al. 1999). Planned pregnancies purported higher levels of marital satisfaction than unplanned pregnancies. Studies show that parents of male children report higher levels of marital satisfaction than parents of female children, although the difference was slight (Cox et al. 1999). Dew and Wilcox (2011) report that wives’ decrease in marital satisfaction shortly after childbirth was attributed to a decrease in time spent with their spouse as compared to prior to the birth of the child.

COMMUNICATION/MARITAL INTERACTION

Communication plays a vital role in marital quality. Disclosure is the sharing of information about the self including past information and future plans (Finkenauer, Engels, Branje, and Meeus, 2004). Disclosure is a key aspect of marital communication. Finkenauer et al. (2004) state that disclosure in horizontal familial relationships is positively related to relationship quality. Sharing between spouses can lead to more intimacy and feelings of closeness (Finkenauer et al. 2004). Loss of time spent together as a couple can contribute to low marital satisfaction (Dew and Wilcox, 2011). Spending time together can lead to more sharing and disclosure, and has been shown to lead to higher levels of marital satisfaction for husbands and wives (Finkenauer et al. 2004).

Interpersonal differentiation is also very important to personal relationships. Peleg (2008) defines interpersonal differentiation as the capacity for both intimacy and autonomy in relationships with others. Peleg (2008) argues that the differentiation of self is crucial to marital satisfaction. There is delicate balance of togetherness and separation that contributes to a healthy marriage (Peleg, 2008). More marital conflict is experienced by couples with low differentiation (Peleg, 2008). Peleg (2008) also states that low differentiation can result in negative feelings, which can negatively impact marriage satisfaction. These factors were equally significant for both men and women (Peleg, 2008).

High marital locus of control (MLC) is associated with increased marital happiness (Myers and Booth, 1999). Locus of control is defined by Myers et al. (1999) as the level of control one feels over the conditions of their life. High MLC among spouses is directly correlated to lower reported marital instability and conflict (Myers and Booth, 1999). In other words, a perception of more control over marital activity equals increased perceived marital quality (Myers and Booth, 1999). Gender has not been shown to play a role in the MLC factor.

Another aspect of the level of marital satisfaction has to do with the increasing number of aging wives caring for their ill and/or aging husbands. Between impaired husbands and their care giving wives, reciprocity of emotional support is directly related to lower perceptions of burden and increased marital satisfaction in the wives (Wright and Aquilino, 1998). Although reciprocity levels depend on the impairment of the husbands, increased interaction leads to higher marital quality perception in care giving wives (Wright and Aquilino, 1998.)

CONCLUSION

There is no simple answer to whether gender influences marital satisfaction. Simply stating that one gender is happier in marriage than the other is oversimplifying the facts. Most literature on marital satisfaction focuses on the different factors that influence marital satisfaction such as gender role ideology, income, children and parenting, communication and marital interaction, and division of labor. Some research goes a step further to distinguish how each factor is affected by gender, and some does not.

There are so many angles from which to look at the quality of marriage that it would be next to impossible to isolate gender as the single most compelling issue in marital satisfaction. For example, a husband who has traditional gender role expectations is more likely to report higher marital satisfaction if his wife stays home with the children and does all the housework. However, if the wife does not share the traditional gender role expectations, she will be unhappy in the marriage, which will no doubt affect the husband’s satisfaction with the relationship. These multi-layered findings make it obvious that gender is not the most significant factor in determining marital satisfaction.

Differing gender role ideologies clearly influence marital satisfaction, as does each spouse’s expectations about their partner’s income. But husbands and wives are shown to have the same preferences when it comes to marital communication and disclosure. They also report almost identical patterns of marital satisfaction when it comes to the transition into parenthood. This illustrates how although influential, gender is not one of the most significant factors in marital satisfaction.

Future research on this topic could focus specifically on how gender alone directly affects marital satisfaction. Excluding other influential factors could mean isolating the specific ways gender affects marital satisfaction in a way that hasn’t been done before. This would be challenging, but finding a way to focus on gender would provide information that isn’t currently available.

This information can be useful to professionals who study the breakdown of marriage or to marriage counselors who are trying to help troubled couples salvage damaged relationships. It could also provide researchers with data that may predict the likelihood of success in future relationships.

Marital Counseling MarriageEffects of Pre Marital Counseling on the length of a Marriage

In today’s society so much emphasis is but on divorce and the rising rate of divorce, there seems to be little attention on what can be done before the marriage takes place to help prevent divorce. While some couples today participate in some form of premarital counseling most do not. Not realizing the benefits of premarital counseling and the effect it could possibly have on how long you marriage will last and the benefits it will have on helping you deal with married life why couples do not participate in it is still unknown.

Getting married without premarital counseling is like starting a business without knowing anything about the type of business you want to start. Premarital counseling or classes can reduce the risk of divorce by up to thirty percent (Khulman, 2007). Couples should realize that good, skilled based premarital counseling really can reduce the odds of divorce.

Premarital counseling is based on the reality that it is important to make sure that your relations is as strong as it can possibly be, after all only about half of the marriages that do last are marriages where the couple is truly happy. Research shows that here is a window of opportunity during the year before the wedding and about six months after when couples get the optimum benefit from premarital counseling (Stanley, 273). Premarital counseling improved the strength of a marriage even with couples who think that they will

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not encounter any problems can greatly benefit from premarital counseling. According to Dr. Jason Carroll and Dr. William J. Doherty, couples who participate in premarital programs experience a 30% increase in marital success over those who do not participate (Carroll and Doherty, 105). An important purpose of premarital counseling is the help the couple determine their individual readiness for marriage.

It can also help couples become aware of the assets and liabilities of their relationship, which are important factors in deciding who and when to marry. As they evaluate these factors, couples have a chance to slow things down and think seriously about their relationship. In other words, premarital education allows couples to plan their marriage rather than just a wedding.

Data for this research will be collected on the following; Communication with each other, balancing job and family, handling finances, sexual relationship, lack of time spent together and handling other issues outside of the marriage.

Couples getting married today face many challenges and many do not have a strong support line. The typical marriages today consist of two working adults who are trying to raise a family. This requires that couples have the ability to communicate, resolve issues and stay married. The hypothesis

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that will be tested by this research paper is: couples who participate in premarital counseling are better able to resolve issues that arise in their marriage and stay married longer than those who do not receive premarital counseling. Premarital counseling can boost a couples capacity o handle different issues that arise in a marriage. Couples today need every advantage that they can get to stay married. Many couples’ expectations of marriage revolve around the belief that love will conquer all and will get them through rough times.

While love is important, it won’t be enough if couples don’t have the basic attitudes and skills they need for a successful marriage. Marriages that last require partners who respect one another, who have gained knowledge about what makes marriage work, and who have developed skills that will enhance the relationship.

The purpose of this study is to show that premarital counseling provides couples with the basic foundations that will enable them to solve marital issues that arise and stay married. Premarital counseling can send a message to couples that their marriage does matter, and it can help couples learn about their options if they need help later in their marriage.

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There is also proof that some couples with some types of premarital training can lower their risks for marital distress. Situations will always arise in a marriage that is not foreseen at the time the wedding takes place. Problems with in-laws, money and sex are blamed as carrying the greatest thereat to marriage (Top Three Threats to Your Marriage, 2004). There appears to be a lack of research into the effect that premarital counseling has on marriages.

While there are studies indicating the value of counseling for couples who are already married and seeking help for current issues in the marriage there are many more studies assessing the couple’s levels of satisfaction with their marriage. The author of What works in premarital counseling, reports that review of current “articles on program modes and theories conclude that although more has been written and more programs offered in the last decade there still has been fewer longitudinal outcome studies done” (Groom, 47).

This is evident on the web site for the Council for Relationships http://www.councilforrelationships.org/research. On this website the Council gives a list of articles that they published none of which address the issues and benefits of premarital counseling. Thus the need for this study is evident. Not only is there a huge lack of empirical evidence to prove of couples actually do benefit from premarital counseling, there is also a greater need to develop and

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test a premarital counseling theory that can be used in future research. Williams, Riley and Vandyke (1999) conducted a general empirical research study on the values of premarital counseling. In their research they surveyed more than 3,000 who have been married anywhere from one to eight years. The research concluded that support for the overall value of premarital counseling is great, but they did not closed define that value.

One of the draw backs of not have enough research on this topic is that there are no specific data instruments designed specifically to access the value of premarital counseling, it is necessary for an data instrument to be designed in order to obtain reliable and valid data. This lack of prior research leaves open the accessibility of several choices on how the data for this research can be collected.

For a study that would be more extensive in investigation and take on longitudinal characteristic the pre-test/post-test design would be more suitable. This is not a longitudinal study and a better research approach would be a review of the end result. This would be a comparing of the strength of marriages of couples who had premarital counseling to those who did not by using the survey method.

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Sampling was done using the random approach. Data for this research was collect from 45 couples via survey. There were 15 couples married more than ten years who did not receive premarital counseling, 15 couples who are divorced which were a mix of couples who did and did not receive premarital counseling and 15 couples married more than ten years who did receive premarital counseling. The couples were contacted in mid October about the research paper and all were eager and willing to participate.

All of the original couples contacted were able to participate. The couples were give a questionnaire that consisted of two sections used to access relative background information and marital satisfaction. The first section contained demographic questions regarding their age, number of children, number of years married/divorced, number of children, and if they had received any premarital counseling.

The second section consisted of questions how satisfied or dissatisfied the couple was with their marriage, communication issues, conflict resolution, and decision making. For the second section of the questionnaire the questions were based on yes or no, number in order of importance and give a brief explanation.

Research has shown the relationships between some of these factors in the areas communication and conflict solving, communication and self esteem, role absorption and self esteem, and role absorption and communication. The hypothesis was proved because the couples who received premarital counseling prior o marriage were able to use tools that they learned in counseling to work through their issues, the couples who were still married with no premarital counseling answers showed that they really did not understand their partner and were probably stilled married because that was the way they were raised.

The couples who are now divorced, but received premarital counseling seemed to have benefited from premarital counseling but for one reason or another still decided to get a divorce. Based on the number of couples used among those who received counseling the divorce rate was low. The divorce rate for those who was on their first marriage with not premarital counseling the rate was about 25 percent.

Among the couples who received premarital counseling the rate was much lower. While there are many variables that could be assessed that would change the results the overall study supports the hypothesis that couples who receive premarital counseling are able to better deal with marital issues and do stay married longer. The only ethical issues that I could see arising from this study would be where and how the couple would decide to receive their counseling. Some could prefer counseling in a religious setting based on their background which could be more detailed or in a group setting with other couples and the depth of the counseling.

Works Cited

Carroll, J. S. & Doherty, W. J. (2003). Evaluating the effectiveness of premarital prevention programs: A meta-analytic review of outcome research. Family Relations, 52, 105-118

Groom, Joan (2001). What works in premarital counseling? Journal of Pastoral counseling, 36, p. 47.

Khulman, Greg.2007. Is pre marital counseling for you? Retrieved December 3, 2007 from http://www.wedalert.com/content/articles/premarital_counseling.asp

Top Three Threats to Your Marriage. (2007). DrPhil.com. Retrieved December 3, 2007 from http://www.drphil.com/.

Williams, Lee, Riley, Lisa, Van Dyke, David. (1999 July-September). An empirical approach to designing marriage preparation programs. American Journal of Family Therapy, 27(3), p 271

Stanley, S. M. (2001). Making a case for premarital education. Family Relations, 50, 272-280.

Marine animals have been held captive for hundreds of years and for a variety of reasons. As humans began to investigate the fascinating world below the ocean’s surface, animal captivity became an everyday occurrence. Some animals have been captured as a means of research so scientists, as well as the public, can observe and learn more about them (“Marine Mammals in Captivity”). However, marine animals have also been exhibited simply for amusement and profit (“Do Marine Mammals Belong in Captivity in the 21st Century?”). Throughout history, humans have abused their relative power over marine creatures by capturing and detaining them. This cruel and unjust captivity commences with the act of capture and continues by diminishing marine animals’ quality of life.

The crime of captivity begins as early as marine mammal capture. In the past, animal capture was a violent and traumatic process. Over the years, it has become progressively less malicious. However, the animals still suffer. Hunters herd the animals into shallow waters and proceed to entrap them in nets and slings (“Do Marine Mammals Belong in Captivity in the 21st Century?”). Captures can include high-speed chases intended to exhaust the animals, which makes them easier to catch. Some fisherman will actually ride the animals until they are completely worn out (“The Case Against Marine Mammals in Captivity”). In Japan, fisherman are hired by captivity agencies to herd entire pods of dolphins so that the best and most promising mammals can be selected, while the remaining dolphins are slaughtered (“Global Ocean – Marine Mammal Anti-Captivity Officer”). In another instance, over 200 dolphins were driven into a fishing port, where they crashed into boats and each other. After becoming tangled in the chaos of nets, boats, and animals, many dolphins died of drowning (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). Although the government works to regulate the individuals and organizations that capture marine animals, even the gentlest capture causes unforeseeable consequences.

Marine animals such as dolphins travel in groups and while it may seem like taking only one or two of the animals would cause no harm, it is extremely detrimental to the group as a whole. Whales, specifically orcas, are the largest animals held in captivity (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). While orcas remain with their mothers for life in the wild, hunters often separate mother and child. Dolphins swim together in “pods,” a family unit that consists of an adult dolphin and her offspring. These families are torn apart by captivity. Even if not all of the animals are captured, the free animals are left without a crucial member of their community. Some dolphins die simply from the stress of losing a family member or watching their companions being captured (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). One study found that the mortality rate for bottlenose dolphins increased six-fold immediately after a capture (“The Case Against Marine Mammals in Captivity). The negative affects of animal capture are undeniable proof that holding marine animals captive is an unnatural and immoral act.

Even after the vicious and traumatic capture, marine animals continue to suffer in captivity. Although many trainers work to ensure that animal habitats are suitable for the animals they house, no man made structure can replace the natural habitat and ecosystem of the ocean. In addition, these artificial environments pose many risks to the animals they accommodate. First, the water of the tank can cause serious health risks. Many aquariums and marine parks pump water in directly from the ocean. However, this water is filtered and chlorine is added while micro and macro marine life is removed (“Killer Whales in Captivity”). This treatment creates harsh water full of chemicals, which can irritate the skin of marine mammals. Although the chemicals are used to purify the water, bacteria are still present and the animals’ skin cannot tolerate the alien bacteria. Some dolphins go blind (French), while others animals suffer from skin diseases (“Marine Mammals in Captivity”). In other cases, orcas experience dorsal fin collapse. This occurs because the whales do not have the support of a large body of water, such as the ocean, and gravity pulls the tall appendage downward (“Marine Mammals in Captivity”).

The issues are not limited to physical conditions. Being held in captivity actually affects the mental functions and capacity of marine creatures. Animals such as whales and dolphins utilize echolocation while living in the ocean. In this wide and varied body of water, these animals are constantly alert and exercising their brains. However, in a dull environment such as a small aquarium, these animals have no use for their highly evolved talent (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons). Instead, they are forced to swim in circles without exercising the functions of their brain. For orcas, which are extremely sensitive to sound, the outside noises of water pumps and cheering crowds harm their hearing (“Killer Whales in Captivity”). Some studies show that dolphin brains shrink a frightening 42% while in captivity (“The Life of a Dolphin in Captivity”), and some dolphins have been driven insane by the constant reverberations of their own sonar waves that hit nothing but blank walls (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”).

Not only are marine animals’ brain functions halted, they also become socially and emotionally upset while in captivity. As mentioned earlier, dolphins and orcas are negatively affected by the separation of pods. Despite being social creatures that tend to have long term companionships, these mammals are separated from their families and isolated on their own when they are held captive. (“The Case Against Marine Mammals in Captivity”). The issues are furthered by trainers’ treatment of the animals. For example, trainers will separate the acutely social dolphins when they misbehave, forcing them into isolation (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). The torture continues in the feeding. In a technique called the “Pavlovian regime,” trainers starve dolphins so that they will perform. Food is only administered as a reward to the dolphin for successful completion of tricks. Trainers effectively teach the dolphins that food is not a natural right of existence, but is instead only attained through submission and performance (“The Life of a Dolphin in Captivity”). It’s also important to consider the food given to the animals – instead of live, freshly caught, natural marine organisms, captured marine animals are fed frozen fish and vitamin supplements (“Killer Whales in Captivity”). This unnatural diet hurts the metabolism of these creatures and hinders their instinctual predatory behavior.

Dolphins that live in captivity are forced to swim in circles in six-foot deep tanks that stretch twenty-four inches by twenty-for inches (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). This lack of space literally suffocates the dolphins, who swim up to 100 miles each day in the wild. Finally, it’s important to consider the behavior of freed marine animals. Dolphins and whales alike spend their days diving hundreds of meters, swimming hundreds of miles, and roaming freely about the ocean (“Marine Mammals in Captivity”). Unlike seals and sea lions, dolphins and whales rarely come up to the shore to perch and can stay underwater up to thirty minutes. The confinement of a tank forces a creature that previously spent 80-90% of its time underwater into a creature that is constantly above the water (“Marine Mammals in Captivity”).

Some would argue that marine animal captivity has positive benefits for animals. For example, if a marine animal is held captive, humans are able to study and observe the animal, which in turn allows for a greater understanding of the species. This understanding allows humans to actually go out and assist the marine animals in the future. However, a marine animal held in captivity actually holds little educational value. These animals are forced to act differently than they do in the wild. Because they are confined to cages and tanks, they cannot roam and live as they would in the vast ocean. This means that when scientists observe an animal in a tank, he or she is not seeing the way the animal really acts, lives or behaves, but instead it’s contrived adaptations to life in a tank (“The Case Against Marine Mammals in Captivity”). Others argue that holding marine animals in captivity saves them from the harsher environments in the wild and protects them from predators and pollution. However, this argument is incorrect. It is impossible for humans to judge what environment is too harsh for any particular animal. Marine animals have survived and evolved for thousands of years without human salvation or interaction and humans must allow this natural cycle to continue. In the wild, unhindered by human meddling, the evolutionary cycle will continue as it should and as is natural. Some species may become extinct or evolve into even more complex animals – this is not a negative progression but is instead the circle of life (“The Case Against Marine Mammals in Captivity”). While dolphins in their natural habitat can live to their forties and fifties, dolphins in aquariums and tanks often die before they reach twenty (“Marine Mammals in Captivity”). Over the years, nearly 4,000 sea lions, seals, and dolphins have died in captivity, and more than half of these deaths are human related. This includes things such as swallowing coins, dying of heat stroke, and swimming in contaminated water (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). Although they claim to increase the longevity of marine animals’ lives, those who capture marine animals end up hurting them and, in the long run, harming the natural flow of life.

It’s certain that important information can be gained from marine animal captivity. However, holding wild animals hostage is immoral and unnecessary. Although humans are capable of capturing marine animals, this prevents them from existing in their natural habitat and only serves to hurt the species. To help stop captivity, it’s important not to visit captive marine mammals in zoos or parks (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). Also, instead of holding the animals hostage under the guise of saving them from even harsher natural environments, society should work to be environmentally conscious and preserve the animals’ natural habitats, allowing them to live without the pollution of human waste. Holding marine animals in captivity is unequivocally wrong. No matter the claims of salvation and education, animal captivity is exploitation of animals.

This is a system of random sampling. This sampling method is less time-consuming and easier to perform. In order to do this, researchers should choose random population, then in the sampling frame or starting point for research on a regular basis. This strategy can be used to do research with Maori population. For example, if you want to taste 8 Maori children from a group of 120 people, then you must be 120 divided by 8 (120/8). The answer is 15, so every 15 children select a random starting point between 1-15. This strategy is relatively easy, However, researchers should always consider the type of population, they are dealing with. For the above example, I used the Maori population, as my theme. Therefore, I have to remember that they are guided by Kaupapa gross profit. Means that they receive an internal, ideas and knowledge to develop the use of the Maori language. So it is important to be working with them, be very careful and understand.

2.Tikanga

This is a program or Maori to interact with other people, the daily guidelines to follow. Basically, on the basis of Tikanga, life experiences and learning handed over from generation to generation. It is based on logic and common sense view of the world associated with Maori. Now, the strategy in this example, it is important for researchers to understand Maori Kaupapa have a great impact on how the behavior or performance of the Maori. Maori Kaupapa conceptualization of “knowledge” has been rooted in the oral tradition and based on special REO Maori or Maori language. This is the only language can access the conceptualization and inner spirit, this body of knowledge. Tikanga is the right way to do things or guidelines around what is ‘right’. It can also be described as rules, methods, approaches, customs, habits, rights, powers and control (Pell, 1988).

The Tikanga concept is the most special between tribes (tribal), and HAPU (sub-tribe) is unchanged, as they approach may be different. For example, the manner in which a greetings of HAPU and welcome visitors from other. However, we will ensure that they perform their duties manakitanga (hospitality) custody and care of their visitors. Researchers and Maori communities must respect the people and their culture.

3.Quota

In this sampling, the sample selected by the interviewer, he has given quotas to fill from the specified sub-group of the population.

For example, the interviewer may tell sample 100 Maori women, aged between 45 to 60 people belonging to four different community groups. 25%, as a quota sample, the total population will be equally represented. Here, the selection of the sample of the non-random. Any had this experience, in the street tried to interview people know It is very tempting to ask those who seem most helpful, so it is not the most representative samples, but very useful. This is the strategy. However, this is a must to take into account Maori as their framework is based on communication Kaupapa Maori researchers. They are always based on what they know is best for them to interact with people and their culture. They may provide information about them can help users study, but it is always based on Kaupapa Maori.

Results 2

Implementation of the strategy in accordance with kaupapa Maori 2.1Sampling

1.Incidental

The first sampling strategy, I will realize, with sampling or the opportunities sampling observation accidentally discovered the potential clinical significance has been defined as independent of participants in the study and the purpose of this study or variable. Means that, in the course of the study, from the participants, can be very necessary research found that a disease or abnormal. For example, when the investigation team Maori children most dominant health problems in the community, is a rare case, such as heart fever. I should know the results can not be representative of the Maori child population in that place, because of fever, heart just a random sample. Now, I must adhere to their so-called ATA or grow to respect me as a researcher, including the principle of the relationship between their parents and children to study. Such work, will establish a relationship of mutual trust and respect.

2.Quota

Another sampling strategy, I can use the representative data will be taken from a set quota sampling. For example, in one study, I would like to meet with 200 women in the community ages 40 to 60-year-old family culture. I want to remember, I need to stick to the age limit. 200 women on behalf of the data and the 40-60 years age group brackets. It is always a good way to come into contact with this group of women, women in their culture, their identity must be recognized, because they have different roles to carry out. The research work should be in accordance with the Kaupapa Maori. We must take into account the Tikanga Maori or customary practice, moral, cultural behavior, pay attention to the issues and Maori obligations, especially in this age group. Order to make our gross profit within the context of browser and operating properly, and the judgments and decisions in this space.

3.Area

The third sampling strategy will be the area sampling is based on geographic area or place, which is a special form of cluster sampling, in which the sample. For example, if I had to make a certain amount of gross profit community health research, then I should choose a specific area, based on the secondary cluster, then this will be a field of study. Doing research, I have to consider the mana, or spiritual essence, is in the land, natural and man-made objects and human. All of which are contained in an area, because of the Maori due respect, their magic, they believe that the Whakapapa or relationship. Sense, everything in an area The Whakapapa return a specific God, including trees, animals and humans. Whenua / Maori land and the center of the place identity, by all means, must be respected.

2.2 The implementation of the sampling strategy in accordance with local iwi and HAPU, the requirements, three examples:

With sampling strategy, also has a similar function in the sampling process, the ability or experience of those who must consider things. This allows researchers more reliable, goal-oriented as follows Tikanga or to carry out the necessary research protocols and practices. In addition, Tika or research a well-designed structure, so as to promote the smooth flow of research. During sampling with local Tangata Whenua or land should consult Iwi or if they HAPU to. This is to give them due respect, because they are considered to be a higher authority. This sampling target young people, because I use the students in a school as an example. Maori culture from the colonial period has changed a lot, including Maori or TE Roe, it has become essential for Maori schools teach it, to save the language labyrinth.

Sampling in the second quota sampling strategy, therefore, the use of examples, I is the women’s group (40-60 years old) can be considered as Tangata Whenua. These groups of individuals in Maori society, especially Whanau with specific functions. They are looked up to as an example to their children. Most of the cultural values aˆ‹aˆ‹and principles from them and their work as well as with the HAPU or Iwi. In addition, they are part of it.

Work together with the regional sampling strategy, still Tangata Whenua with HAPU or Ivica. Do research and Maori communities should at least bring transformation or change their ways, it does not bypass or refute their cultural practices or beliefs, the most important is that it should always be in accordance with the Kaupapa Maori. This method must include the study of the causes, the methods used, its direction and the impact may occur later.

Results 3

3.1 countries and regions in hauora colonization

For the national level, a colonial influence to the Maori hauora will reduce the mortality due to the introduction of next medical methods to improve national health programs and social welfare system. The other is the result of economic changes in New Zealand finished goods, rather than purely agricultural commodity production. Cause people to eat processed foods is preferred because it may contain preservatives or unhealthy ingredients that may harm people’s health. In addition to the regional level, colonization, increase the fertility rate increase in the population of Maori women, resulting in the potential of the probability of the disease is also increasing. Discrimination exists, but also because some doctors have proven to be unlikely advocate for Maori patients with preventive measures, they like the non-Maori Maori, when it comes to surgical referral regional level. This leads not only physical problems, but the psychological feeling of discrimination. In general, colonization has made them lose their land, their strength, language, status, and most special is their culture. In short, they have lost their identity.

Between the regional level, Australian Aborigines, the colonization of the threat to their lives, because they have lost their land and their resources. With the arrival of the colonists coming from different diseases. It is difficult for them because they do not have their own land and food sources, and sick at the same time. These make it easier for them. For the national level, which is they lost the language, although it is not a complete loss, because they still speak their mother tongue at home. The introduction of Western language or in English, some dangerous, until their mother tongue. However, in later years, Australian Aborigines like health, other aspects are not completely influenced by Western culture. Until now, even with the efforts of the Government to change their way of life or culture and westernization. They still retain their culture, especially those who work with their health care system. Monotherapy, they still use the traditional method of treatment, they firmly believe that witchcraft or magic and supernatural intervention.

3.2

Gross profit

1.Customs

Colonial the Tikanga involved brought a change in their customs and traditional Maori. The the Maori collective ownership of land and the means of production or the state of the theory and practice preferences have changed, their social structure is disrupted. Some people think that the Native Land Act, established in 1865, aimed at undermining this principle of collectivism, the land of the Maori settlement purposes. This leads to the loss of land ownership, forcing Maori to migrate to urban areas In addition to the In addition, marriage and Maori Maori as the necessity of a civilized people, the concept of legal adoption disrupted the context of the family group.

The introduction of Christianity, the very heart of tikanga Maori attacks by denying the validity of Maori origin of the universe. Papatuanuku and Ranginui continue to recognize the significance of gross profit (in Maori mythology of the original couple Rangi and Papa (or Ranginui Papatuanuku) appear in a creation myth to explain the origin of the world in some South Island dialects, Rangi is called Raki wine or rakinui), it has been argued Maori creation story has been deeply influenced by Christian.

Gross profit was informed that the be changed internal colonialism value of some of the usual customs and beliefs. Tohunga inhibition assay deterioration in 1907 banned traditional healers. The Act also opposed to gross profit and Maori knowledge legitimacy healing, the link between the environment, the arts, spiritual and temporal. Some Maori did not contact with the marae, they are only limited knowledge the the Whakapapa traditional mA?tauranga gross profit / gross profit knowledge (core). In addition, the loss of language, culture and traditions gave way to the rise of alcoholism and crime.

2.Lifestyle

Their way of life has changed. Prior to this, the Maori depends on the agricultural fishing and hunting as food. However, with the production of food in the exposure of the urban area, their preferences change, the cause of many lifestyle diseases such as diabetes and obesity. Movement, which is an important part of a healthy lifestyle, has also been given priority by the majority of the Maori population. Them to adopt Western lifestyles, including sugar, salt and other processed foods, they are not used to the food we eat.

3. Language

The English civilization Maori population, especially the children, they forcibly sent to the school to accept the introduction of education. With special REO Maori (Maori language) is prohibited, penalties for people who speak. In education as a tool to kill Maori which in the end is truly effective. Most Maori forget their mother tongue and turned to English.

Influence of the spirit

Loss of Maori traditions and beliefs, which greatly affect their spiritual level. Maori, who are willing to stay in their homes, only a few figures are only reserved Maori culture and tradition. Suppression Tohunga Act passed in 1907 to ban traditional treatment methods, Maori do result in the loss or lack of knowledge of traditional treatment. In addition, some of the Caucasian missionaries spread of disease attributed to a lack of confidence in Maori believe. In addition, changes in lifestyle, modern life, socio-economic status, population affect the spirit of the traditional approach.

Psychological effects

Colonial Maori mental problems have attracted a lot. The loss of ancestral lands, racism or discrimination they experienced hatred on their part, away from the home or family groups and suppress special REO gross profit increased from Caucasians. They indulge yourself alcoholism, drug abuse and gambling, and create more social problems and psychiatric hospitalization rates. Diagnosis of schizophrenia rate is 2-3 times higher than non-Maori. In addition, the prison containing Maori suffer high rates of mental disorders.

Physical effects

100 years, residents and visitors have brought measles, influenza and tuberculosis, extract the population. The land war accelerated this trend, and low morale. The 1918 influenza pandemic take a further great charges, and report the Maori newspaper lying dead in the streets. Maori generally live in poor housing conditions, conducive to infection, rarely have the opportunity or the trust in the European medical. Their native healers (tohungas) had been suppressed by law. Matters has improved, but is still relatively healthy gross profit in poor condition. Maori women, cervical cancer hospitalization rate is 3-4 times higher than non-Maori. Maori men and 71.6 Maori life expectancy for women is 67.2 years, than non-Maori males and females 75.3 and 80.6. The factors contribute relative poverty, poor diet and high smoking rates, the higher Maori women than men.

Native Americans

1.Customs

Colonial Native Americans brought many changes to their lives, especially in their practices on their overall. Their culture is compromised. Tasks are described in, and actively encourage locals converted to Christianity. Most groups have some form of ancestor worship, this forced change of religion to change their cultural identity. The law prohibits certain rituals, forcing the child to the European education system, tied for the whole group of land is useless, and can not maintain them. Its purpose is to deny their own cultural identity, which has the same effect wipe.

2.Lifestyle

For the United States, such as American Indians and Alaska Natives, colonization has brought them enormous changes. Colonial them in the early years, the Europeans have brought them many new diseases, such as measles, smallpox, trachoma, cholera, influenza, sexually transmitted diseases. This leads to epidemics and deteriorating health. Their old way to get food, water buffalo hunt and forage disappeared. Their nutritional and health compromise, they do farm work, but unfortunately, less food, making them more vulnerable to hunger and disease. Their way of life, these changes are not conducive to them, because they do not use it, their own bodies are not immune to the diseases brought by the colonizers. White Americans access to health care progress, problems encountered by these Native Americans, such as the lack of hospitals or facilities to treat their disease. This is just in the Indian Health Service, they are able to benefit from this facility.

3. Language

After the war in India in the late 19th century, the United States established the Native American boarding school, boarding school experience often proved traumatic to Native American children, they were forbidden to speak their own native language. To the mid-20th century European conquest and solve many languages aˆ‹aˆ‹of the United States in the Western Hemisphere, perhaps two-thirds have died or are dying out, but others are thriving. Native language researchers are now discovered and investigated. In today’s era, most Native Americans can not say that their mother tongue. Instead, they speak English, English to communicate with each other. Loss of the language lost identity and culture, and make them drunk the colonists introduced, contributing to health problems like alcohol and other lifestyle.

Influence of the spirit

In addition to these health problems, the colonial rule caused them to lose their land and culture. In spirit, they were forced to convert to Christianity, and leave their Ancestor Worship. . Eagle feather law (Section 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations Part 22) stipulates that only individuals certified Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe legally authorized to obtain eagle feathers for religious or spiritual law does not allow Native American Eagle feathers to non-Native Americans.

Psychological effects

In the 19th century, in the case of boarding schools have been documented sexual abuse, physical abuse and emotional abuse. Native American introduction of guns, alcohol and drugs caused their psychological problems. . Native American land, language, culture, abuse, killing and torture of loss, they end up with psychological problems, alcoholism, suicide, inter-generational genocide, stress disorder postraumatic, internal oppression. These, drug abuse, especially alcohol abuse, the most obvious crisis has been health disorders, and depression is emerging as a leading concern. The two diseases are often distant and reserved, widespread poverty, despair, and two generations of trauma, including the historic consequences by the federal government tried to force assimilation tribal isolation.

Physical effects

As mentioned earlier, the Native Americans never like any European diseases. This is only the arrival of the colonists, they were able to experience the disease, such as measles, chickenpox. Since these are the new system is very low, increase the body’s immune system and lead to death. In addition, alcohol and drug abuse, poor health.

3.3 of contemporary problems affecting gross profit

1, the establishment of a national indigenous protest movements and organizations

The protest was aimed at broadening the fight against racism and oppression of the Maori. Verbal attacks, physical attacks and unfair treatment by a health care professional, at work or purchase or rent a home, but some cases, lead to the development of this protest group. Maori is almost 10 times more likely to experience discrimination in three or more settings than their European counterparts. They are poor or fair self-rated health, mental health, and cardiovascular disease than Europeans more likely to report. As the strike and the class struggle, TE Hokioi and the Maori organizations human rights (MOORH,) came into being. The fundamental cleavage in society for TE Hokioi, between labor and capital, is seen as symptoms of class rule and the internal contradictions of the capitalist system and racism. Whether it is the TE Hokioi MOORH the accepted Maori autonomy, bicultural harmonious society as a means of treaties injustices of the past redemption. These two groups is the most effective strategy to address racism and inequality Maori that the pan-racial struggle along class lines. women’s liberation movement of http://archive.indymedia.org.nz/article/69608/text-maori-oppression, a form of protest aimed at Maori society, and women’s participation.

2.Tribal national or federal requirements

One of the most important issues Maori and the New Zealand government on land issues. Many years ago, the Native Land Act in 1862, the individual purchase of Maori land be allowed, even to the point value of the land is much smaller than it should be the local court was established in 1865, trying to get rid of community land ownership or individualism, the Maori land will be sold more easily some Maori trying to stop the sale of the land, but without success. lot of struggle for many years in 1975, the establishment of the Waitangi Tribunal of Waitangi Law Treaty have been waiting to see these Maori dissatisfaction, leading to government ?ˆˆa”?a?S?ˆˆa”?a?S days, the treaty has become the the protest focus of Maori land, the Waitangi Tribunal has become a focus on trying to resolve land claims by the government gross profit people.

Eventually led to many changes in lifestyle and culture, impact their general haoura in the loss of land by the Maori and urbanization.

3.Access participation rates and achievement across the development activities

The impact of colonization between some Maori is a restriction of their rights, as well as the destruction of the culture and discrimination. These things limit their privileges, any non-Maori in New Zealand. However, the government is trying through the introduction of English as a means of communication between the Maori life changes, they do so at school. Children are not allowed to speak the Maori dialect or Te REO gross profit. This is done to better improve the integration between Maori and non-Maori children. In a way, which makes them an active participant in the community, because the English language to promote a better understanding between them. Language plays an important role in the communication between people, which leads to better access to all society, including education, employment and life as a whole. This is a positive step for the government, although it was not in favor of Maori culture.

Contemporary issues affecting Native American

1.Cultural diversity

Native American cultural differences too. They speak different languages, they have their own way of life. Some tribes, some do not. Engaged in war, however, such as Apache’s particularly worried about the Hopi pacifist. Most societies dominated by men, but the Iroquois women to choose their leaders. Rely on fishing and hunting as a food source, but others prefer to root crops.

2.State and federal government regulations

It has been a fight for land between the Native Americans and the federal government. Native Americans dating back to 1800, their land was ceded to the federal government, in return they can continue to keep the commitment on the land, and adhere to their trust. Countries become loose, failed to fulfill this promise.

3.Health and education

Civil rights disproportionate to reduce capital than India’s key health services and education and the rest of the population to a study conducted by the U.S. Committee. This makes the Native Americans are angry, and that the government is not honest with them, on the contrary, they believe that integrity is a sacred value.

Results 4

4.1 colonization of indigenous peoples hauora including:

Education

Gross profit educational change over time. Before the coming of Europeans in New Zealand, Maori children’s education is shared by the family and community. They have learned from their grandparents and parents, language and behavior standards. Europe’s arrival has brought far-reaching changes in the social life of the Maori. In order to meet the needs of the new culture, revolutionized the education system becomes necessary. First to accept the challenge to set up schools object as soon as possible the native Christian missionaries. Many Maori children to participate in the Mission School.

This is a long way of fighting for Maori. Maori community development the Kura kaupapa wharekurawanangakohanga the REO movement, a significant contribution to education in New Zealand, it is a fact. Maori Kaupapa education has led to a greater degree of Maori participation in education at all levels. In addition, if the Te Kotahitanga program has been developed to reduce inequality decades, Maori students teaching and relieve teachers and Maori students’ performance and participation. However, this program is not yet widely and recent statistics show that too many schools are still unable to provide high-quality education Maori children. Has become an increasingly important determinant of the past 20 years education, employment and occupational status. Now, university education gives 62% of earnings lifelong privileges. Three wA?nangaTEWA?nangaORaukawa TEWA?nangaOAwanuiA?rangi and TeWA?nanga O Aotearoa, has played a key role in the Maori control and Maori culture medium tertiary education and

The ladder Maori tertiary education for students. However, the failure of the school system fair Gross profit Gross profit transferred to achieve their educational costs. Life cycle costs, access to education is too high, the average gross profit.

Urban migration

After World War II, the Maori people from the countryside to the cities in search of high-paying jobs, this happens tremendous changes. Changed in the 50 years between 1936 and 1986, the Maori population from 83% in rural areas more than 83% of the city, one of the fastest rate of urbanization in the world. As a result, many white people came to the first intimate contact with the Maori. The most urban migration in order to avoid land, poverty and lack of opportunities for young single gross profit. In the 1950s and 1960s, they fill the demand for low-skilled workers in the city. Maori identity has been destroyed by the process of urbanization. Many of the Maori people lost contact the original HAPU and iwi. The 2001 Census report, 20% of the Maori no longer know which tribe they come from. Many other Maori, who can tell your Ivica not say original HAPU. However, in many places, the institutions of family groups remain unchanged. Many of the city’s Maori retain their own homeland Ivica and HAPU, links, and some tribal marae in the city the center or taurahere Group (Urban). Some iwi and Maori organizations there are plans to re-city youth and tribes, whose ancestors.

Employment

The right to work based on the realization of other rights, including housing, education, and standard of living sufficient to maintain the health and welfare of the right has been well described in those insecure, insecurity, low control and poor health, low income employment opportunities. Redundancy and unemployment are associated with poor health results. Differences of the Maori job opportunities and working conditions by the impact of the economic and social policies of the 1980s and 1990s. Maori different positions in the labor market (ie, the two sides work or does not work or the type of occupation) accounted for a significant proportion of mortality in the 1980s and 1990s, the gap between Maori and non-Maori expanding. Maori unemployment rate has dropped to 7.6% in 2001, 13.0% in June 2007, but still three times higher than whites aged 15 and over (2.6%), the problem of youth unemployment is particularly high, with 21.4% gross profit of 15-19 June 2007 annual unemployment. This compares with 11.4% and 25.7% of Caucasians Pacific Youth.

Housing

Access to safe, reliable quality and good housing is an important determinant of health. Household crowding, poor living conditions, education, health and local services, access to unsecured term impact. Rent, an increase of approximately 45%, a significant difference, with high-quality housing, 2001 in Aotearoa / New Zealand.In Maori and non-Maori, Maori families (households Maori and one or more persons ) more than 50% in 1991 although the European family rental ratio increased from 28.9 in 1991 to 32.2 in 2001, this proportion is still lower than other ethnic groups, including Maori. In 2001, 31.7% of Maori owned or partly owned their own home. Types of compared with59.7% European, 38.8% Asian, 26.0% of the people of the Pacific, and 24.2% other ethnic discrimination in renting or buying a house is the most common of this Maori “unfair treatment “discrimination reported in 2002/03 New Zealand Health Survey. Housing discrimination was significantly associated with a higher risk of smoking and poor mental health (Harris, 2006).

Other Native American indigenous groups

Education

Improve the educational success may be a prerequisite for for many locals economic opportunities. Indigenous groups in the history of the highest dropout rate of any racial category, although these, too, different tribes. Boarding school dropout rate for children seem to be particularly high. In addition, from the University of local students to participate in a percentage of their limited drop-out rate usually has been very high. Native American youth to leave school has advanced reasons include: conflict with the norms and values aˆ‹aˆ‹of the education system, the lack of perception of the information and skills, the question of the effectiveness of the education given the high level of tribal members and even educated unemployment, lack of confidence in the intelligence, learning disabilities, without prejudice, stereotyping their own lack of ability or opportunity, the pursuit of education, maintenance of family and tribal connections, lack of conflict between the family or other social minority children seems to be generally accepted fewer positive feedback (for example, oral praise, smile) and negative feedback (such as interrupt; non-verbal signs of disdain) teachers than non-minority children. Poor education will lead to poor health, because they lack educational qualifications, work income is not enough, the purchase of medicines and food to maintain health. Lack of health knowledge associated with this, too.

Urban migration

Most Native Americans living in the western states, including California, Arizona, New Mexico, South Dakota, Alaska and Montana, in general, they are more likely than whites to live in rural areas. In the past few decades, the number of life on the reservation or trust land decreased significantly in 1970, less than half (45%) live in urban areas, compared with 61% today. Over the past century, this migration has occurred and is expected to continue, from a historical point of view, it reflects the federal government’s “demolition” of the effects of policies in the 1950s, although today it reflects the opportunities for employment, education and housing , which are often limited reservations search for homeless Native Americans, we interviewed several HCH’s proposal to retain the original starting some traumatic event may also be associated with mental illness or substance abuse as a precondition. However, regardless of motivation, migration back to the community and homes – an extremely important social support system – it is difficult to American Indians continued closure of the reservation system and into the city, and to provide health care have serious consequences.

Employment

According to recent statistics, Native American groups tend to experience unemployment rate three times as many white Americans. In addition, as Tinker and George W. Bush said that the actual number of unemployed people in the Native Am

Manuel Castells is a sociologist frequently associated with information society and communications research. In this essay I will be assessing his theory on “the network society”, and outlining any relevant criticisms. By looking at Castells’ upbringing and influences it becomes clear how he came to be concerned with the theory of the network society. He was raised in Barcelona and was politically active in the student anti-Franco movement; this political activism forced him to flee Spain for France. He finished his studies in Paris and moved on to the University of Paris achieving a doctorate in sociology. Having worked at both the University of Paris and the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, he later moved to California as he was awarded two professorships at Berkeley. Castells’ move to California was highly relevant as he was located close to Silicon Valley, which was where the integrated circuit, microprocessor, microcomputer and many other key technologies, were developed mainly in the 80s. It has been the site of electronic innovation for over four decades, sustained by about a quarter of a million information technology workers. Influenced by the thought of Alain Touraine, Castells was a key developer in a variety of Marxist urban sociology that emphasises the role of social movements in the conflictive transformation of the city. Transcending Marxist structures in the early 80s, he concentrated upon the role of new technologies in the restructuring of an economy. His theory of the network society is highly relevant to us as we all belong to thousands of networks, be it a school, a university, a nationality or an occupation, and all networks require some form of coordination.

According to Castells, networks constitute the new social morphology of our societies. He believes there is a radical disconnectedness in contemporary society bringing about a greater sense of autonomy due to technology. Castells believes that “we are passing from the industrial age into the information age” (Castells, 2000, 5). He talks of how this historical change was brought about by the advent of new information technologies particularly those for communication and biological purposes. He noted how space and time are being transcended in social practises due to the ability to do everything from everywhere thanks to the capacity for ubiquitous perpetual contact in communication technologies. “A number of major social, technological, economic and cultural transformations came together to give rise to a new form of society” (Castells 2000, 17). Castells first mentioned the term “network society” in his book “The Rise of the Network Society: The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture” which was the first part of his Information Age trilogy. He claimed, “The definition in terms of a network society is a society where the key social structures and activities are organized around electronically processed information networks. So it’s not just about networks or social networks, because social networks have been very old forms of social organization, it’s about social networks which process and manage information and are using micro-electronic based technologies” (Castells, 1996, 34). Simply put a network society is a society whose social structure is made of networks powered by microelectronic based information and communication technologies. While he explains that networks are not a new form of social organization, they have become a key feature of social morphology, essentially they are new forms of old processes. He claims this is largely due to communication technologies, for example the internet or mobile telephones, which increase decentralization of operations and focusing of control which in turn increase the effectiveness of networks relative to hierarchical structures. “Communication networks are the patterns of contact that are created by flows of messages among communicators through time and space,” (Monge and Contractor, 2003, 39). “The Rise of the Network Society: The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture” gives an account of the economic and social dynamics of the new age of information. It demonstrates research done in USA, Asia, Latin America, and Europe. Castells talks of how the global economy is now characterized by the instantaneous flow and exchange of information, capital and cultural communication. These flows order and condition both consumption and production. The networks themselves reflect and create distinctive cultures. Both they and the information they carry are largely outside of national regulation. This means that society’s dependence on these new modes of informational flow can give enormous power to those in a position to control them to control us, “Networks have become the predominant organizat ional form of every domain of human activity” (Castells, 1996, 101).

To better understand Castells theory of a network society it is helpful to look back to his work of 1989, “The Informational City: Information Technology, Economic Restructuring, and the Urban Regional Process”. In this work he mentions the space of flows which plays a central role in his vision of the network society. Castells is an urban geographer, which is why his examination of space is central to his work. He describes the space of flows as a “high-level cultural abstraction of space and time with dynamic interactions to the digital age society” (Castells, 1989, 23). He wanted to “reconceptualise new forms of spatial arrangements under the new technological paradigm” (Castells, 1989, 146). He believed this was relevant in that it could be viewed as a new type of space that allowed distant, simultaneous, real-time interaction, unlike anything that has been around previously. So the space of flows plays a central role in Castells’ vision of the network society, it is a network of communications, defined by hubs where these networks intersect. Societies are not attached to a specific place but instead to the space of flows. He argues that “while organizations are located in places, the organizational logic is placeless, being fundamentally dependent on the space of flows that characterizes information networks” (Castells in NyA­ri, 2004, 23). This space of flows tests what Castells talks of as the space of places, which includes regional communities and nation states. It can be seen that “while the space of flows can be abstract in social, cultural, and historical terms, places are condensations of human history, culture and matter” (Castells, 1990, 14). In this way opposition to the space of flows of various networks manifests itself in the form of communities based around places. So while the space of flows consists of global circuits of information for example the internet, the space of places is dominated by decisions and has bounded territories or seemingly fixed localities. Barry Wellman draws on Castells ideas and believes technologies have shrunk everything; he talks of how communities have become global instead of local and are attached to technological not geographical links. Wellman says Castells observations have profound implications for what community means in contemporary society. Through these definitions Castells developed the notion of timeless time, which he saw as an index of social change. He believed time has become more complicated and sequences of life are becoming scrambled. Space and time are fundamental experiences of social life but are being transcended in social practise, for example users of “Skype” can speak to each other in any number of different countries at any one time and all communication is instant.

For Castells, networks have become the basic units of modern society and so the network society can be seen to be more than just the information society that was originally mentioned. Castells argues that it is not simply the technology that characterizes contemporary societies, but also cultural, economic and political aspects that when combined can create the network society, “Influences such as religion, cultural upbringing, political organizations, and social status all shape the network society” (Castells, 1990, 86). Societies can be shaped by these aspects in a variety of ways. According to Castells, power now lies in various networks, “the logic of the network is more powerful than the powers of the network” (Castells in Weber, 2002, 104). Many networks today, for example financial capital, have become global in scale. Networks can play a key role within businesses now, capital such as staff, consultants, and other businesses can be brought together to work on a specific project, and when it is finished they separate and are reallocated to a new task becoming connected to a new network. Although Castells is more concerned with the macro as opposed to the micro in society he admits it is important to assess the abilities of actors in the network whether it is a company, an individual, the government or any other organization. He determines participation in the network by the level to which the actor can contribute to the goals of that particular network. “This new environment requires skilled flexible workers: the organization man gives way to the flexible woman” (Castells, 2000, 12). This creates a binary process of inclusion and exclusion from these networks where by the individuals with little or nothing to offer their network, are excluded. An important aspect of the network society is the links between the networks of people. Isolated networks are weak and being connected is a type of power. Belonging to more than one network is always useful, however in the network society, because of the binary nature of exclusion, teamed with the fact that it is simpler to exclude, inclusion can be seen to give more power than it did previously. At the same time though electronic communication makes it much simpler to join a network, for example group emails or threads on social network sites, which can instead devalue inclusion.

Like most social theorists Castells has attracted various criticisms regarding aspects of his theory of the network society; for example his analysis of the role of information, production and the link between capitalism and informational labour. Many refute his claim that the present economic and social situation is a new age, but instead is simply an extension of industrial capitalism. Many feel there is a danger for Castells in focusing on the radical novelty of the post industrial society, and overlooking key continuities between it and past socio-economic formations. Dan Schiller argues that “the main economic drive in network societies is still the desire to gather private capital; the market imperatives of competition and co modification still dominate, and the social and economic inequalities characteristic of market economies tend to widen rather than close” (Schiller, 2000, 48). Both academics and critics such as Mitchell Kapor, founder of the Electronic Frontier Foundation have attempted to read Castells work but have given up due to its extensive data collection and lack of synthesis, “It may be profound, but it is certainly opaque” ( Kapor, Internet Galaxy, 2008 ). Professor Martin Kenney, a member of the faculty of Applied Behavioural Sciences at UC Davis who has studied the Information Age trilogy says, “When Castells does draw conclusions; they can be so aphoristic that their precise meaning can be elusive” (Kenney, Internet Galaxy, 2008).

Both Webster and Garnham have accused Castells of technological determinism. The theoretical problem Webster poses is the relative autonomy of the mode of development. The mode of development is spoken of as influencing social relations however isn’t determined by capitalism and Castells says it can survive it, “the new economy may well outlast the mode of production where it was born” (Castells, 2000, 11). Webster believes this implies that the mode of development continues on its own technological logic so “in key respects, is beyond the reach of politics” (Webster, 2004, 17), and therefore feels in spite of Castells’ assertions to the contrary, his theoretical basis is technologically determinist. Garnham’s criticism focuses on productivity. Castells states that the network society relies on increasing productivity which occurs due to information technology. Garnham says of this, “there is little evidence of such productivity increases” and goes on to state, “lack of a stable calculable relationship between the values of outputs lies behind the historical difficulties in co modifying information” (Garnham, 2004, 191). Garnham also states that productivity can be looked at in terms of consumption, investment and the relations of production. Both Garnham and Webster criticize the seemingly autonomous role of the mode of development, highlighting instead the importance in determining the role of the mode of production, “the informational mode of development is developed for and put at the service of a set of property relations and the goal of accumulation, not vice versa” (Garnham, 2004, 174). Webster and Garnham deliver convincing critiques of Castells’ theory of a network society. I believe the network society is more realistically a development of our industrial society as opposed to a completely new construct. Capitalism remains the economic basis for our society; the uprising of capitalism’s power in various networks is an event that was occurring during Marx’s original critique of our social system in the 19th century.

In an article written by Jack Fischer, Castells says he has been frustrated there has not been more criticism of his work on the network society. “What criticism there has been has referred to the relative difficulty of reading the work and of his adamant refusal to offer prescriptions” (Fischer, Manuel Castells Brave New World, 1999). Castells said on the matter, “As stunning as it sounds, I am not aware of any major criticism in published reviews, and I am aware of dozens of reviews in many countries. In fact, it is a little bit disappointing, since I am sure there are many weaknesses in the work, and I would like to debate it more” (Castells in Fischer, Manuel Castells Brave New World, 1999).

Manuel Castells theory of the network society is highly relevant in understanding contemporary forms of social interaction. “It permeates most societies in the world, in various cultural and institutional manifestations, as the industrial society characterized the social structure of both capitalism and statism for most of the twentieth century” (Castells, 2000, 22). His analysis of the technological, cultural, and institutional transformation of societies around the globe to network societies provides useful insights into a constantly changing world of communications. Castells hypothesises that there is little chance of social change within any given network. He says himself that the fundamental dilemma in the network society is “that political institutions are not the site of power any longer. The real power is the power of cultural codes, embedded in networks” (Castells 2000, 25). The idea of the network society makes us think about how much of our lives depend on these technologies, in an ubiquitous network society we can exchange information and communicate with other remote people and machines untroubled by and sometimes even unaware of the networks or devices allowing such communication. Castells theory of the network society is both engaging and innovative which is one of the reasons it has got so much attention. In a time when our society is going through such intense and powerful transformations, potentially moving beyond an industrial era altogether, it is crucial to have the work of Castells who documents and analyses this important transition though such work as his theory of the network society. His observations on the social and economic dynamics of this information age not only help us better understand contemporary society but will be looked to as a key reference source in the constantly changing years ahead.

Bibliography.
Castells, M. (1989) “The Informational City: Information Technology, Economic Restructuring, and the Urban Regional Process” Wiley Blackwell Publishing
Castells, M. (1996) “The Power of Identity: The Information Age, Economy, Society and Culture” Wiley Blackwell Publishing
Castells, M. (2000) “Materials for an Exploratory Theory of the Network Society” British Journal of Sociology, Volume 51, Tavistock Publications
Castells, M. (2000) “The Rise of the Network Society: Economy, Society and Culture v.1: The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture” Wiley Blackwell Publishing
Castells, M. (2002) “The Internet Galaxy: Reflections on the Internet, Business, and Society” OUP Oxford Press
Castells, M. (2003) “The Power of Identity: v. 2: The Information Age – Economy, Society and Culture” Wiley Blackwell Publishing
Castells, M. (2009) “Mobile Communication and Society (Information Revolution and Global Politics Series)” MIT Press
Garnham, N. (1990) “Capitalism and Communication” SAGE Publications
Mackay, H. (2002) “Investigating Information Society” Routledge
Monge, P and Contractor, N. (2003) “Theories of Communication Networks” OUP USA
NyA­ri, P. (2004) “Cultural Mobility: A Manifesto” Cambridge University Press
Schiller, D. (2000) “Digital Capitalism: Networking the Global Market System” University of Illinois Press
Stalder, F. (2006) “Manuel Castells: The Theory of the Network Society (Key Contemporary Thinkers)” Polity Press
Weber, B. (2002) “Advances in Research on Information Technologies in the Financial Service Industry: A Special Issue of the “Journal of Organizational Computing” Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc
Webster, F. (2003) “The Information Society Reader” Routledge
Wellman, B. (2002) “The Internet in Everyday Life” Wiley Blackwell Publishing
Kapor and Kenney, (2008) “Internet Galaxy” http://johnmill.wordpress.com/internet-galaxy-1-network-society/ Accessed on October 31, 2009
Fisher, (1999) “Manuel Castells Brave New World” http://www.acturban.org/biennial/DOC_planners/castells_article9904.pdf/ Accessed on November 2, 2009
http://www.manuelcastells.info/en/index.htm/ Accessed on November 2, 2009
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0GBB7U5mv0w/ Accessed on November 5, 2009