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Obesity and Deviant behavior

Society has labeled obesity as a deviant behavior and is one of the United States biggest health issues. According to the CDC more than one-third of U.S adults (35.7%) are obese, (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,2013). It is difficult to determine what is considered to be deviant because it depends on the place and time. It’s based on how society’s reaction on what is considered to be deviant or not. Society’s view on body image depends on what society deems as acceptable at that time. Deviance takes many forms, but agreement remains elusive about which specific behaviors and conditions constitute deviance, (Clinard&Meier, 2011). During the Elizabethan era in the 16^th century to the 19^th century a woman with a voluptuous lower half, small waist and chest was considered the ideal body. Society viewed a rounded figure in relation to being wealthy enough to buy food. Once we approach the early 1900’s to mid-1940’s woman were expected to look thinner with larger breast. During this time, supermodels were everywhere with their thin and stick figure frames. Society has become more concerned with body image than ever before due to social media and television. People will judge, stare and whisper at the sight of someone is deemed overweight. Being overweight has become a stigma and considered deviant behavior based on society’s reaction towards and overweight person. Society has a negative view on obesity and instead of figuring out ways to prevent the epidemic of obesity, they are placed in the deviant category.

The formula to calculate obesity or a person’s body shape is called (BMI) body mass index or Quetelet index. The BMI was created by a Belgian statistician named Adolphe Quetele who dividing a person’s weight (in kilograms) by the square of his or her height (in inches) in 1830, (Wilson,2014). The BMI has been altered since then, but maybe it should be reevaluated factoring in the average weight of male and female in different states.

Obesity and Deviant behavior- Classification as Deviant3

Apparently people located in the south are considered obese according to the BMI. Doctors use the BMI calculator to determine if a person’s weight is normal, over or obese. A predetermined table that list weight and height in centimeters is set up based on what a person’s weight should be based on their height. A person whose BMI is calculated from 18.5-24.9 is considered normal weight, 25-29.9 is deemed overweight and 30 or greater is obese.

Although environmental or biological factors may contribute to obesity, society has also contributed to the amount of obese Americans. Think about the amount of food, calorie intake, and super-size options available to the average person. The convenience of going through the drive thru and spending one dollar on a cheeseburger, instead of buying healthy foods at the grocery store and preparing a meal is what a lot of American do on a day to day. Society has also helped create other deviant groups like bulimia or anorexia because of the stigmatism that being skinner is better. The killing us softly video, points out various ways on how women are depicted based on their appearance, (Kilroy, 2010,). Jean Kilroy started her research by collecting different ads over the past couple of years and made some good arguments based on the advertisements she found. She began to connect advertising with violence against woman and eating disorders. Based on her findings, she gathered information and made videos and spoke at colleges to make everyone aware of how advertisement can influence society. People are forever trying to fit into the norms that society sets, going to the extreme just be liked or accepted. Some may take a different approach and are considered a positive deviant because they lose weight by living a healthier life, which in turn removes the obese or anorexia label, (Calderon 2013).

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Environmental experiences are important for weight and obesity, although they account for much less variation than do the effects of genes, (Grilo & Pogue-Geile, 1991). Ever here the phrase, “it runs in the family”? The FTO is known as a gene that runs in both side of the family that could contribute to obesity. Having this gene can increase the risk of being obese if you sit around and do nothing. But a person with or without the gene could engage in some form of physical activity every day, and is more likely to not become obese. People can be tested for this gene, but regardless of the outcome, a person should engage in regular physical activity, make healthier food choices and refrain from eating a second plate of food, especially if it being offered by an overweight relative.

What does our environment have to say about obesity? As I mentioned earlier, huge super-size portions or options, high calorie intake and lack of exercise can contribute to obesity. Most Americans are busy on the go and do not have time to prepare a meal or lunch to take to work. So the next best things are finger foods that we could grab really quickly just to put something in our stomachs. Chips, cookies, fried foods sold at gas stations are packed with fat and calories. The convenience of technology has made many people lazy. Instead of going to the mall or grocery store to walk and search for items, we purchase them sitting down behind a computer. Members of society have gotten comfortable with having the option of super sizing their fries or soda, in addition to restaurant serving enough food for two people. Some fast food restaurants suggest ordering a size up for a quarter more. By determining what environmental influences are contributing to weight gain can help figure out ways to make better choices.

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Since society has labeled obesity as deviant behavior, they also refer to overweight or obese people as lazy, disgusting, unattractive and bad. Weight is perceived as a symbol of conspicuous consumption — as an extension of material well-being, (Cooney, 1998). Failing to regulate weight is not related to obesity but the difficulty in losing it is the problem. Some people may be biologically programmed to be overweight which is not accepting to society norms. Should obese individuals be blamed for being overweight? Society tends to ridicule and discriminates against overweight people but are they truly to blame for their physical appearance?

According (Dejong, 1980), an article called The Stigma of Obesity: The Consequences of Naive Assumptions Concerning the Causes of Physical Deviance”. He conducted a study on 10 to 11 year-olds that were shown pictures of children and asked what they thought about the picture being presented. One girl saw a picture of an overweight school aged girl and asked why she was overweight. She stated that if the girl has a reasonable explanation as to why she was fat then she would give her a positive evaluation. Many other girls were shown the same picture and gave the girl a less positive evaluation then the pictures of the girls at normal weight. This is a perfect example of how our younger generation views other overweight children. Obesity can lead to depression because of harsh comments from peers that can cause isolation and overeating. Overeating can lead to other health issues, the higher the weight the increased risk of developing a heart condition. Coronary heart disease, high blood pressure, stroke, a heart attack and sleep apnea are all health risk associated with obesity. Lifestyle habits usually start during childhood therefore parents can start by encouraging their children to be more physically active and selecting healthier foods for them to eat. Adults that are already overweight according to the

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BMI should also set a plan to eat healthier foods, include some form of physical activity and reduce portion size.

Weight and body image are subjective culturally, Asian culture prefers a leaner body shape, and African’s associate a fuller body with wealth and living a good life. In America, an overweight woman is less likely to get married and might dissociate herself from society to avoid ridicule. In Africa, a woman who is overweight is considered beautiful and more likely to get married. In Nigeria, women are purposely force fed to gain weight so that they attract a possible husband. Overweight women in Africa and Arab countries are more desirable and girls fed more than boys as adolescences to get them prepared. According to (Haworth, 2011), stretch marks are sexy and are a turn on for men in Mauritania, South Africa. There was once a time in America where society associated an overweight person with wealth, now statistic show that most overweight people live in low income areas.

Is there a possibility that the obesity epidemic is overrated? What if the BMI was reevaluated to fit the Americans of today? Would society still label obesity or overweight as deviant behavior? Fat does not necessarily mean disgusting or unhealthy, because society has attached it as a reflection of our psyche, this is what most believes. There are numerous advertisements on social media, billboards and newspapers about diet pills and weight loss surgery. The next commercial on T.V or billboard on the freeway is about a juicy cheeseburger, being eaten by a skinny celebrity, which confuses people. Advertisements are meant to be persuasive to benefit the company or corporations. Fast food restaurant advertising extremely low prices to feed a family, and the medical industry offering other alternatives to weight loss to

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make more money. There is a huge amount of focus on being the opposite of an overweight person because of what others think of you. No one wants to be stared at in a negative way or not receive a promotion or get a job because of their appearance. Society’s assumptions have labeled obesity as deviant behavior instead of factual science. Even though obesity can lead to health issues, this does not mean that every overweight person is unhealthy and every skinny person is free from health issues.

A person who constantly smokes cigarettes or drinks alcohol is considered addicted. A person who is overweight can also suffer from addiction because they may not have control over their addiction to sweets or carbs. You can ask anyone on what should be done to lose weight, and they would reply by saying, diet and exercise, of course. But it’s easier said than done, especially for a person who is already obese. Does a person have control over what they eat or is biological or environmental factors? It’s a combination of all three and there is no one in particular that could determine a person weight outcome. People have metabolic and hormonal issues that can contribute to over eating. Leptin for instance, is a hormone located in the brain that is associated with our appetite. Leptin tells the hypothalamus that we have enough fat, so we can eat less or stop eating, (Kollias, 2009). It would make sense for the Leptin to slow down or stop a person from over eating because the more fat you have, the more leptins are created. Apparently, that is not the case, if an overweight person has too many leptins, then the signals to the brain are blocked. If the signal never reaches the brain then a person does not know if they are full, the brain thinks you’re starving yourself. Therefore, a person will continue to eat more, get fatter, and develop more leptins that cannot send a signal to the brain to stop eating. It is an ongoing cycle that contributes to a person getting fatter.

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Society does not help the situation with the discrimination and ridicule that an obese person has to endure because of the stigma.

What if obesity was a disease? Is it really their fault that they are obese? There are only few studies from a behavioral perspective on obesity; we associate obesity with eating too much and not exercising but there should be other actors considered. People are built differently; some eat, exercise, rest and maintain a healthy weight while others try and still never lose. Why is it so difficult to lose weight? Brewis explores this question in her book, pointing to factors such as evolved biology, institutional structures in society and emerging cultural attitudes toward fat, (Nicodemo, 2011). Hormones in food, socioeconomics and genetics are all issues that need to be addressed to combat obesity in America. Metabolic disorders, unbalanced amount of leptin and thyroid issues, are things that a person cannot help, regardless if they diet or exercise. Obesity leads to many different forms of illness that increase a person’s appetite.

Obesity impairs body function so it fits in the category for diseases. Deviance would no longer be associated with obesity if labeled as a disease. The medical community has labeled obesity as a health issue but if it was categorized as a disease, this would limit the stigmatism. Most doctors do not address a patient’s weight because they are afraid of offending them. Labeling it a disease, can place more seriousness and obligation for a doctor to talk about their weight with the patient. Some overweight people might be in denial, but after they are offered treatment with better alternatives to losing weight, they might be receptive. It could also help change people’s perception about overweight individuals, and help them to understand that being overweight is not based on a person being lazy and overeating.

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Insurance companies would have to allow proper treatment for obesity. Drugs, surgeries and counseling would be beneficial to improve their health and social life. Society would embrace and change their negative views on obesity and would treat it like any other disease. Although, others may not be so receptive to this idea and suggest that people have control over their weight. If research is conducted and people are made aware that obesity is a disease. Society may possibly change their views on associating obesity as a deviant behavior.

The Obesity and Deviant behavior10 References

Calderon, A. (2013). Killing us softly. Unpublished

Manuscript, Southern New Hampshire University.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2013, August 6). Obesity and Overweight: Topics – DNPAO – CDC. RetrievedFebruary2, 2013, from http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/

Clinard, M. B., & Meier, R. F. (2011).

The Nature and Meaning of Deviance.Sociology of deviant behavior(14th ed., p. 7). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Cooney,P.L. (1998). Deviancy Obesity. RetrievedFebruary2, 2014, from http://www.vernonjohns.org/nonracists/dvobesty.html

Dejong,W. (2008). The Stigma of Obesity: The Consequences of Naive Assumptions

Concerning the Causes of Physical Deviance. American Sociological Association, 2

1(1), 75-87. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2136696

Grilo, C. M., & Pogue-Geile, M. F. (1991).

The nature of environmental influences on weight and obesity: A behavior genetic analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 110(3), 520-537. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.110.3.520

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1758921

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Haworth,A. (2011, July 21). Forcefeeding in Mauritania – West Africa Fat Camp –

Marie Claire. RetrievedFebruary22, 2014, from http://www.marieclaire.com/world-reports/news/forcefeeding-in-mauritania

Kilroy,J. (2010, March 12). Killing Us Softly 4: Advertising’s Image of Women

[Trailer] – Available on DVD [Video file]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PTlmho_RovY&list=FLhsDMHa5TMiAJnpe5kvf-jA&index=3

Kollias,H. (2009). Precision Nutrition » Research Review: Leptin, ghrelin, weight loss – it’s complicated. RetrievedFebruary22, 2014, from http://www.precisionnutrition.com/leptin-ghrelin-weight-loss

Nicodemo,A. (2011, March 31). New perspectives on obesity | Research Matters: stories of scholarship and creative activity. RetrievedFebruary22, 2014, from http://researchmatters.asu.edu/stories/new-perspectives-obesity-1860

Wilson,S. (2014).Discovery Health “The History of BMI”.
RetrievedFebruary10, 2014, from http://health.howstuffworks.com/wellness/diet-fitness/weight-loss/bmi4.htm

There are many books, articles, academic and non academic papers have been written concerning Multiculturalism and its impact on Western and non-Western societies, religious or cultural groups. The aim of this critical review is to examine, give description, comparing and contrasting, conducting analysis and evaluation of two different articles that discuses the same theme of Multiculturalism. Both articles are written by feminist’s writers who argue the issues relating to gender and especially women.

Description of two articles

Article 1:

This article is written by Susan Moller Okin a feminist writer who argues that policy makers, defenders and advocates of multiculturalism in liberal and democratic countries, have not shown justice and fairness when it comes to the issue of gender especially women. She also argues about the issues of immigrants and raises the question that is why the immigrants, minority groups and indigenous people failed to be part of the majority cultures in Western Countries. Women were the most groups who felt that they were controlled by men in many aspects of life; therefore, the assimilation of women in Western cultures caused huge controversy in the field of multiculturalism.

Article 2:

This article is written by Mandy McKerl, another feminist writer who argues that women who come from different background, cultures, minority groups and live in multiculturalism societies, lack self-esteem and self respect due to the pressure from the their own cultures and their own communities. She presents her arguments based on the status of these women in contemporary societies in which they encounter discrimination, prejudice, sexism, injustice and lack of opportunities. She also criticizes multiculturalism in Western liberal democracy societies in which freedom, social justice, social equality and political representation are terms made by certain establishment to serve only the male dominant and ignore women rights, freedom, and social justice. Again the emphases here are on women who belong to ethnic minorities and Muslim women in particular.

Comparison of the two articles

Similarities: The title of both articles indicates that there are similarities in the arguments particularly from feminist point of views. Both writers illustrate the depth of the problem that women are subjected to issue of inequality and social justice in multiculturalism societies and liberal democratic states. They criticize the policy makers and the government institution in failing to address the issue concerning gender especially women and to recognize that there is a gap in certain laws which left women to become vulnerable to sex abuse, clitoridectomy, rape, polygamy, domestic violence, and killings. In addition, they present similar cases and examples from within Western multicultural societies where women and girls from different cultural background have been subjected to force marriages, children marriages, threat, and in some cases kidnapping. According to both writers, this unjustified behavior led to create negative impact on women and girls, and it also has created fierce tensions between the feminist ideologies and defender of multiculturalism in Western states.

Points of differences and contrast:

The author of article 1 presents her arguments concerning multiculturalism in a broader picture, although her main argument deals with issue of women rights that has been violated and ignored. In contrast to article 2, the author expands her arguments and engages in more details to identify the core of the problem that is hidden behind the mask of multiculturalism. Article 1, rarely diffuses discussion on cultural groups and its role in multiculturalism societies. In contrast to article 2, where the discussion is more energetic to explore with the reader that cultural groups has the upper hand in controlling the lives and freedom of women. There are other views and comments regarding the issue of multiculturalism by anthropologist in article 2, which could not be found in article 1.

Analysis and evaluation:

As the title of both articles suggest “Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women”? Arguably this is the main issue in both of the readings. The authors are not seeking a Yes or No answer here, but to illustrate statement if the society acknowledge and believe in the rights of women or believe in multiculturalism and ignore the rights of women. The other issue that the articles wanted to concentrate on is that in Western countries, immigrants, Muslim women have been deprived from their essence legal protections and have been looked at as third-class citizens.

Both authors argue that because of the dogma of multiculturalism, women from ethnic background and different cultures are exposed to violence, sexism, polygamy, and violation of human rights. According to Wihtol de Wenden, “the French response to such practice as polygamy, excision, and headscarves has often taken the form of the imposition of unsuitable sanctions”. She suggests that “such sanctions, far from helping migrant women, tend to isolate them further into a traditional world that deprives them from equal rights and equal opportunity”. (Wihtol de Wenden, 1998, p. 140). One can argue that some Western countries believe that all these immigrants and women cherish one single homogenous culture; therefore, they all should follow it, missing the fact that this misunderstanding in homogenous culture, has resulted in permitting most men to use the name culture for their own advantages by beating, torturing, and disrespecting women and girls.

Arguably, both authors are discussing the same problem regarding the issues of multiculturalism, women, cultural groups, human rights, and policy makers in same directions, but apply different approaches. For example, article 1 states that some group rights can, in fact, endanger and humiliate women. She illustrates her claim by giving an example of French government’s allowing few thousands of male immigrants from African colonized countries special permission to bring multiple wives into the country.

Ironically, the French laws do not permit polygamy and the wives’ own severe rejection to the practice of polygamy, did not stop these men to marry multiple wives’. (Okin, 1999, p. 10). Okin strongly emphasizes that women should not be considered as disadvantaged because of their sex and should not be treated as sex object to pleasure men. Volpp states that “the assumption that women are by definition more oppressed in minority cultures can be traced to several theoretical base: the history of colonialism, depictions of the feminist subject, the limits of liberalism, and the use of binary logic”. (Volpp, 2001, p. 1195). If this is the case, than Western countries should reject group rights that allow the practice of polygamy on the foundation that they are essential to minority cultures whose existence may otherwise be threatened. (Okin, 1999, p. 11).

Similar arguments can be found in article 2, in which Makerl highlights the issue of minority groups and their cultural rights of practices. She reflects and analysis the argument which is presented in article 1 from historical and political background and this method is important in raising the issue of multiculturalism and gender. She also illustrates opinions of multiculturalism from various thinkers, philosophers, and authors and comparatively weights them to separate facts from fiction. (Mckerl, 2007, p.192).

There is a sense of creating a notion of balance between feminism ideology and the defender of multiculturalism and in doing so; she is establishing a link of mutual debate to highlights and bring the issue of women that has been ignored for sometimes to the surface. In contrast to article 1, these type of analytical approaches and references to other authors are not present which makes her arguments less energetic.

The issues of women and multiculturalism have been addressed by other writers such as, Johann Hari, Judit Hell, Himani Bannerji, and Sarah Song. The article entitled “How multiculturalism is betraying women” by Johann Hari can be seen as a direct criticism of multiculturalism in liberal and Western societies. She demonstrates her arguments by presenting several cases of Muslim women who were subjected to violence, rape, discrimination, and have been treated as third-class citizens. (Hari, 2007). She writes in different style and more critical of social justice and inequality of human rights especially concerning women. Although, her writing may not be considered as an academic piece of work, but she engages extremely well in raising the issues of women especially in courts room. Arguably, there is a sense of resemblance in arguments between this work and the previous two articles despite the differences in approaches.

Another example of resemblances in arguments can be found in the report of Judit Hell “Women’s Issue and Multiculturalism” in which the writer present her arguments about multiculturalism from feminist point of view to emphasis that there are many issues regarding women and girls needed to be addressed in both public and private sphere. (Hell, n.d.). Judit, like Okin concentrate in her discussion on the historical background to multiculturalism and elaborates on the gender issue, but this time on gender of male that use culture as an excuse to establish authorities upon women and to subordinate them.

In this respect, judit argues that multicultural societies are divided into two categories of societies, traditional societies and modern societies. She suggests that in Christian Europe the traditional societies were patriarchal by nature and male were the dominant figures, therefore the status of women was defined. The other ethnic communities groups, such as Jews, Gypsies and Muslims who arrived at later stage and settled in Christian Europe, once again male were the dominant figures in these groups. Comparing the patriarchal status in traditional societies to modern societies, the treatment of women by these dominant male from these ethnic groups were harsh and primitive. (Hell, n.d.).

Himani in her essay “A Question of Silence: Reflection on Violence Against Women in Communities of colour” raises issues concerning multiculturalism and women, but her style in this particular essay is completely different from Okin and Mckerl. She presents her writing in a form of a letter that is written to a friend in free verse style. She states “Breaking with scholarly protocols, I am writing this piece as a letter to you because what I want to say needs an embodied reader”. ( Bannerji, 2000, p. 151). This piece of writing is dedicated to friends and in it the writer opens up her discussion addressing the violation of women rights with especial references to ethnic minorities’ women in Canada. The piece is well structured and full of technical words, but easy to follow its main argument.

Sarah Song, is another feminist academic writer who highlights issues of multiculturalism and women in America. In her arguments, she presents case studies of several women from Hong Kong, China, India, and America who have been kidnapped and raped by men. She states that “not so long ago in the United States, unless there was obvious evidence of coercion, an American woman charging rape had to convince the court that she had resisted the defendant’s advances “to the utmost”. (Song, 2007, p.93). Because of the nature of the cases that she has presented, her style of writing is very descriptive and critical. Tradition and culture are the main themes that run throughout her arguments and seemingly it is critical rather than neutral.

In general, the above articles are written from feminist point of views and highlighted issues concerning multiculturalism and the status of women in the multicultural societies. The presentations of some arguments are convincing and straight to the point where social injustice and inequality of women were addressed throughout the articles. Article 2 in particular is more engaging and interesting because it involves depth arguments and involves the reader to make a decision for him/herself either to agree or disagree with the discussion that is presented. It is an intellectual article which contest political, religious, cultural, and gender issues that evolve around us to understand the core of the problems that we are facing in this multicultural societies.

Conclusion

Feminist writers have presented theories and ideologies of multiculturalism in different perspectives and argued that culture, tradition, religion, and politics play an important role in shaping and controlling women.

The interpretation of multiculturalism in itself could be ambiguous and cultural differences in certain parts of liberal societies are governed by dominant male and this will not help in empowering women.

The articles presented views and challenged the defender and agents of multiculturalism through presenting cases of abuse, sexism, discrimination, social injustice and challenged the policy makers that certain laws are bias and prejudice towards women.

Each article has its unique way in style and arguments despite the differences and similarities that embedded throughout the discussion. Each article had delivered the necessary message profoundly.

The debate and the tension between feminism and multiculturalism supporters has created a balance of understanding each other views to some extent although the division in arguments will continue in years to come.

References

Bannerji, H. (2000). The Dark Side of the Nation- Essays on Multiculturalism, Nationalism and Gender. Canadian Scholars’ Press Inc. Toronto, Ontario.

Hari, J. (2007). How Multiculturalism is betraying Women [online] The Independent News Paper. Available from: http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/johann-hari/johann-hari-how-multiculturalism-is-betraying-women-446806.html

Accessed: 4th November 2010.

Hell, J. No date. Women’s Issue and Multiculturalism. [online]. Available from: http://www.bu.edu/wcp/papers/Gend/GendHell.htm

Accessed: 1st November 2010.

McKerl, M. (2007) ‘Multiculturalism, Gender and Violence: is multiculturalism bad for women?’, in Culture and Religion, Vol. 8, No.2

Okin, S.M. (1999) ‘Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women?’, in Cohen, J. and Howard, M. (eds) ‘ Is Multiculturalism Bad For Women’? Princeton University Press, USA.

Song, S. (2007) Justice, Gender, and The Politics of Multiculturalism. Cambridge University Press, USA.

Volpp, L. (2001). Feminism versus Multiculturalism. In JSTOR accessed online at http://www.jstor.org/stable/1123774

Accessed: 1st November 2010.

Wenden, C.W. (1998). Young Muslim Women in France: Cultural and Psychological Adjustments. In JSTOR accessed online at http://www.jstor.org/stable/3792118

Accessed: 1st November 2010.

Britain is often described as an unequal society however the accuracy of this statement is regularly debated because; the term inequality is very vague as individuals often have opposing views when searching for the meaning. Due to the ambiguity of the word ‘unequal’ I am going to be approaching the question ‘is contemporary Britain an unequal society’ from a sociological perspective in order to best describe and explain social inequalities in Britain. The term social inequality from a sociological point of view means a lack of fairness between different groups of people living in society. Through this definition we are able to identify three main categories, in which social inequalities are divided, this occurs through gender, class and race which will be highlighted throughout my essay. The main focus of my essay would be based on the Marxist and Feminist views as they set the foundations to best describe and explain social inequalities. However, there are other sociologists whom also study this topic; therefore I will be examining their views very briefly.

Another form of social inequality that occurs in Britain is class inequalities; it is difficult to define this because in contemporary society class is fragmented. However, in order to fully understand class inequalities the concept must be operationalised. There are various sociologists such as Carl Marx who define class inequalities as ‘a group of people who stand in a common relationship to the means of production’. Although class is often perceived as a ‘dynamic, fluid, always changing’, in Britain there is still a clear class structure in which class is divided. This class structure is often compared to a pyramid which consists of three levels; these are the upper class, middle class and working class, this arrangement is known as social stratification, whereby each level of the formation has distinguishing features in terms of skills, status and income. The upper class consist of a small proportion of members of Britain’s population; these groups of people tend to have ascribed status such as the royal family. However members of the upper class with achieved social status are professionals with high status jobs such as property owners and employers. The middle class are employed in profession, managerial and administrative jobs for example lawyers, these groups of people are often described to have an intermediate class situation. The working class consists of the highest proportions of people in Britain’s population, the working class members are found at the bottom of the hierarchy, they have the low status jobs which include a complex division of labour. People from the working class groups tend to consist of unskilled workers who participate in manual labour. Although there are the three main layers in Britain’s class structure is divided the idea of the underclass also needed to be highlighted. This concept is developed by Charles Murray and is often used to describe a segment of the population located at the very bottom of the class structure in which they are marginalised from the rest society. Members of the underclass have very low living standard, they are thought to be relatively deprived therefore explaining why they have the highest rates of infant mortality. The majority of members in the underclass are unemployed and relay on the welfare state, as a result of this dependency the idea of the ‘nanny state’ was developed. In correspondence to the idea of the nanny state these recent trends show that the top 10% earners get 27.3% of all earning whilst bottom 10% get 2.6%. This trend highlights that there is an unequal distribution of wealth as income is an important mechanism which measures a person’s wealth, this therefore shows that social inequalities takes place in contemporary Britain. Marxist sociologist uses these figures to then develop their idea further. They argue that Britain is a capitalist society, whereby the bourgeoisies exploit the working class in order to benefit themselves. The process of industrialisation caused capitalism to develop further because Britain has moved from a manual intensive form labour to a more capital intensive labour as a result of this development British is often refer to this as industrial capitalism. There is also a clear relationship between class inequalities and education. For example the educational system in Britain has been changed on several occasions in order to prevent inequalities between different social groups i.e. the increase in government expenditure in education allows people from deprived backgrounds to complete higher education for free therefore creating more employment opportunities for them. However, despite these changes class inequalities still exists in the educational system, for example the curriculum is said to have hidden engenders in which favours the ruling class. The reason for this is because the curriculum is made by the upper class therefore favouring upper class pupils for example English exams requires pupils using the elaborated code which is a form of speech which the upper class use therefore giving them a competitive advantage as the working class use the restricted code, this view is also reinforce by sociologist Bernstein. Another common feature of the working class background is material deprivation; as a result of this they are at a drawback in comparison to upper class pupils as they are unable to purchase resources such as extra text books to further increase their knowledge. There are also other areas such as housing and health that put the ruling class at an academic advantage.

Another area in which social inequalities arises is through racial segregation. Race was traditionally referred to as fixed biological differences; however over the years this definition has been criticised. As a result of this contemporary sociologist defined race as a social construct based on the observed physical and cultural characteristics of an individual. Race is a term closely linked to ethnicity as ethnic groups are defined by their sense of sharing distinct culture. Ethnic minorities are also said to experiences inequalities, however due to the difficulty in separating the two terms I will be explain how racial and ethnic inequalities should be best described ant see if it still exists in contemporary Britain. There is a general idea that there is a racial division between black and white in Britain, it is argued that ethnic minorities have a minority status in society and are often perceived as second class citizens. However, in certain areas of Britain this type of social inequalities has been prevented because of legislations such as equal opportunities acts which protect ethnic minorities from being discriminated against giving them the same opportunities as the dominating groups. Despite the implementation of this legislation, covert racism still takes place. The concept that corresponds with this is institutional racism, where racionalised ethnic groups are systematically disadvantaged, it was recently highlighted in the media (BBC news) that institutional racism still occurs in contemporary Britain within the police workforce, the Macpherson report on the Stephan Lawrence case also show institutional racism taking place. The amount of ethnic minorities that have an established status in the political party is disproportionately imbalanced in comparison to the majority therefore suggesting that overt race/ethnic inequalities occur in British society. Although social inequalities still exist in contemporary Britain other parts of the world such as America are slowly developing, this was shown when the current president Barack Obama was elected. In Britain there is a negative racial stigma attached to African Caribbean families, one of the main reasons is because they have the highest proportion of single parent families. New right sociologist Charles Murray holds a strong view which states that single parent families are the main causes of deviant behaviour and the breakdown of society. On the other hand some sociologist argue due to the rapid technological growth in Britain the media has exaurate crimes that take place within the African- Caribbean community therefore leading to deviancy amplification as a result of this therefore policing within those area have been on the increase meaning they are more prone to getting caught for their crimes in comparison other ethnic groups.

It is evidently clear that social inequality still exists in contemporary Britain; however different sociological perspectives explain social inequalities many ways and opposing views on its impact on society. For example functionalist have a positive view on social inequalities, they see it as an enviable part of society, this is because there are different social positions in society which require particular skills therefore, through theses inequalities the correct role allocation are set therefore benefiting society in the long run. Whereas, both Marxist and feminist theories have a more negative approach on social inequities and the effect it has on society. They believe that it has lead to an increase in exploitation of members in society therefore leading to social breakdowns. On the other hand post- modernist take a very different approach as they have a more contemporary view as they believe that the British society is changing as a result of this it is incorrect to say that social inequalities means one thing or social inequalities still exists because it is a complex phenomenon. Therefore in order to fully understand social inequalities we must take the three categories in which social inequalities has been divided into and identify the correlations which they have with one another because social inequalities means different to different people.

In the US, racism is a very familiar issue. Racism manifests itself in various ways including police brutality against minorities, racial profiling and affirmative action. Issue like the history of slavery and the rising resentment against immigrants are also quite well known. The truth is, racism is not a thing of the past. Perhaps it has reduced in the past century, but it is still quite alive today. Eradicating racism is one of those processes that cannot happen in an instant, but they happen over a long period of time. Slowly, but surely, we are moving in a positive direction.

Low self-esteem has become a frequently repeated explanation for social and personal problems ranging from young people’s involvement in violent crimes to personal failures and racist behaviors. According to psychologists who have researched the topic, racism is about real power, it is not just something that people randomly think about. Social issues like racism are quite complex and multilayered. It partly has to do with issues of economics, political power, and domination. It is also based on how people perceive, interpret, and value differences. Basically, people act in ways that align with their perceptions. People define circumstances in ways that are real to them and also according to the values that they were raised with.

It is true that racial groups have things that make them distinct; however people sometimes dwell on negative distinctions as opposed to the positive ones. We humans tend to emphasize stereotypes that relate to our most closely held values. For instance, a group that values intellect may be quick to see another group as inferior in intelligence. Similarly, if loyalty is valued by a group, then it may label others as disloyal. It seems that racism helps racists feel good about themselves and their racial group by focusing on comparisons with other groups. These issues are what give these groups an identity.

There are many ways in which people try to feel better about themselves; as individuals and as a group. Seemingly, everyone likes to believe that their racial group is unique but people tend to overestimate the level of positive attributes present in the group. On the other hand, when it comes to negative qualities, people tend to underestimate those. Racism can develop because of limited information. As humans, we find ourselves putting people in categories like good versus bad and friend versus foe. Without these generalized concepts and categories, getting through the day would be highly demanding. Categorization helps us take shortcuts and helps us become more efficient in making decisions. Also, racism towards other groups often leads to feelings of anxiety when we encounter the members of other racial groups. When we are anxious, we tend to avoid what makes us anxious. We simply avoid contact with individuals by hiring someone else for a job, striking up friendships with someone else we feel more comfortable with, and sitting down at the lunch table with those who seem to be more like us.

Racism may help us feel better about ourselves, we avoid challenging our thinking. In other words, we become defensive and protective of our opinions and only reluctantly question our thought patterns. And these ways of thinking helps protect not only our self-esteem, but also privileges and benefits that we have as members of a racial group. For example, racist discrimination which in the past has limited slots available to minority groups at universities has benefitted the majority population by making more slots available to its members. So, maintaining our racist views of others allows us to feel better about our own group and to avoid challenging unfair social practices that benefit us.

Furthermore, we as humans seem to put effort into maintaining our views of the world. For example, we may pay attention to information that supports our views. The more strongly we hold a stereotype, the more we tend to remember confirming information about that racial group. For instance, the more we believe that Asian people cannot drive, the more likely we will remember incidents which seem to support these views. We also discount or rationalize information that is contradictory to our belief system. People who do not act according to our stereotype of them stand out to us as different. For example the Black person who is intelligent & articulate and the Asian man who is a good driver become exceptions to the rule, but the rule remains. It is almost like when we see someone from a different racial group, we look for those stereotypes that align with our thinking.

Racism, Violence & Immigrants in the workplace

The U.S. legislative system is currently battling over the Immigration bill for workers. Resistance is fierce in the House of Congress to any plan to legalize the estimated 12 million illegal immigrants or to create a program of millions of guest workers who would in turn be put on a path to citizenship. No one accuses House leaders of acting out of racism, but some say they are responding to constituents who are. The House leadership needs to show some progress on the immigration issue to soothe angry anti-immigrant forces in the country. But the President and Senate want guest workers and a path to citizenship as part of any deal.

The Democratic allegations of racism may sound like just another political strategy, but there certainly is a case to be made that racial fears are fueling some of the debate on the immigration policy. The political demand to seal the U.S.-Mexico border, and the President’s new proposal to send 6,000 members of the Army to help, is supposed to be based on national security. But why then is no one proposing sending additional troops to secure the U.S.-Canada border?

Most people want to know if the U.S. is trying to stop primarily undocumented Mexican workers rather than terrorists from crossing the border. Figuring out just how many immigrants, Hispanics or otherwise, to let into the country each year is exactly what lawmakers ought to be trying to do as they undertake immigration reform. Setting immigration targets that are in the country’s interest is, after all, the point of having an immigration policy to begin with. Policymakers should be asking questions like: what kinds of skills does America need to import? And how many of them do they need? What advantage is there is in allowing family members to join new citizens, as is currently the policy? Just as important, the debate could address the issue of race head-on: should ethnicity be a factor in granting citizenship? But until politicians define the goals of American immigration policy; who and how many do we want and for what reason, it will be impossible to eliminate the influence of anti-immigrant forces who, whether racist or not, draw dubious conclusions and make misleading statements.

In Canada, immigration reform needs to take place especially to protect long-term care facility workers who are immigrants. Long-term care facility workers include nurses, physical therapists, occupational therapists, administrators etc. Canadian long-term care facilities are violent and dangerous workplaces. This need not be the case, a study found that 43% of personal support workers endure physical violence at work on a daily basis, while another quarter face such violence every week. Most are women, and many are immigrants or from minority racial groups. Violence is a constant and ongoing part of their job. In contrast, they found that levels of violence are much lower in Nordic countries, indicating that the high level of violence in Canadian facilities is exceptional and not a necessary feature of work in long-term care.

The study is part of a larger project comparing Canadian long-term care facilities with Nordic European countries. Violence in long-term care is not just a workers’ issue. It is an immigration issue. The vast majority of care-giving staff are women, many of whom are immigrants and women of color. Personal support workers are the ones who suffer the most. The fact is that much of the violence occurs during direct care activities. Because personal support workers provide the bulk of direct care, they are most frequently exposed to violence. This does not imply that violence does not have an impact on other workers. In fact, the researchers found that 16.8% of registered nurses and 24.6% of licensed practical nurses, and registered nursing assistants experience violence on a daily basis. These numbers are shocking, but they do not come close to the prevalence of daily violence for personal support workers (43%).

Workers at 71 unionized long-term care facilities in Manitoba, Ontario and Nova Scotia were surveyed about their experiences of physical violence, unwanted sexual attention and racial comments. They also took part in focus group discussions. The workers were nearly seven times more likely to experience daily violence than workers in Nordic European countries like Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. Researchers also identified racism and structural violence. This stems from severe working conditions for caregivers who are committed to caring but robbed of the resources to do so. The researchers concluded that long-term caregivers work under conditions that not only foster violence but also render it invisible. Most violent incidents go unreported. Workers are afraid to report violent incidents, fearing that they will be blamed. Or they simply do not have the time to do so because of the paperwork involved.

The verbal violence experienced by care workers often includes threats, screaming, cursing, racial insults, and demeaning remarks. The physical violence experienced by care workers typically includes being slapped or hit with an object. It frequently involves being pinched, bitten, having one’s hair pulled, being poked or spit on. Having one’s wrists painfully twisted is also common. Unwanted sexual attention was also frequently experienced by those surveyed. Approximately one third said they experienced unwanted sexual attention on a daily or weekly basis.

Over 11% of the staff said they encountered racist comments on a daily or weekly basis. According to the research, this is likely an underestimation of workplace racism. A large number of workers from minority groups work in large urban centers with high likelihood of racism. Also, the questionnaires were available only in English and workers were required to fill them out alone, so workers with language barriers are underrepresented. In focus group discussions, many workers reported that they personally experienced or overheard racism at work.

Long-term care workers link violence and racism with working conditions. Having too much to do, working with too little time and too few resources places workers in dangerous situations. Working short-staffed is a major contributor. Canadian personal support workers reported that they routinely work short-staffed. Almost half say they do so every day. And over one third felt that they are too often left alone to care for residents. When these working conditions were compared to those of the citizens of Nordic countries, they just could not match up. Immigrants and minorities are simply not treated the same as non-immigrants and non-minorities.

What can one person do?

I recently read the story of a lady who currently resides in Canada but was born in the Philippines. A few years ago, the woman had a very difficult decision to make. She gave birth to her son in Canada and had the impossible choice between an impoverished life for him in the Philippines, or leaving him with strangers in Canada. Now Salvador, a Filipino migrant domestic worker in Montreal, is campaigning against what she calls the systemic racism and sexism of the Canadian government’s Live-in Caregiver program.

Salvador entered Canada in 1995 as one of thousands of Filipino workers in the Live-in Caregiver Program (LCP). The LCP is an initiative of Citizenship and Immigration Canada, allowing foreign workers (almost always women) to enter Canada as domestic workers living in their employer’s home. Salvador earns $271 for a 49-hour week and after taxes takes home $221. After completing 24 months of work within 3 years of arriving, caregivers are allowed to apply for landed immigrant status.

For Salvador, the choice to come to Canada was a matter of life and death for her family. She felt that she had no choice but to move to Canada. Even with the LCP, applicants pay fees to their own government, to the Canadian and Quebec governments, to the employment agency, and for their travel. For Salvador this amounted to over $4700 Canadian. This was such a large sum of money for Salvador and she struggled to gather the money.

Colonialism and global capitalism have created a situation in the Philippines where its economy is dependent on transnational corporations, where low-wage contract work, poverty and unemployment are rampant, and where 2000 workers leave the country daily in search of a livelihood. It seems like the Canadian government’s need for cheap labor and the Labor Export Policy of the Philippines makes the LCP a functional system. The government of the Philippines systematically pushes Filipinos out of the country, so that they can earn money abroad. Meanwhile, there are millions of dollars being sent back to the Philippines by these migrants.

Salvador has been elected vice-chairperson of Pinay, a Filipino women’s advocacy and support organization. Pinay gives caregivers information, advice, and guidance through the problems they may encounter with employers, agencies, and the government. Many of its members are current and former caregivers who call strongly for the LCP to be overhauled or abolished. The Canadian Filipino community in general also wants the program scrapped and campaigns across Canada on the issue.

Critics of the LCP say that significant problems arise for migrant workers under the program. As caregivers live in the home, they often work unpaid overtime, including extra tasks such as cleaning, cooking and tutoring. Theoretically, live-in caregivers are granted basic rights such as access to employment insurance, pregnancy leave, overtime pay, vacations and paid holidays. The law states that people with complaints about their employers should file them with the appropriate Commissioner in Quebec. And if the caregiver is fired, they are still allowed to find another employer in the meantime.

But there is a gap between the theory and the reality that caregivers face. One problem Salvador finds with this procedure is that if a caregiver is fired, whether or not she files a complaint, the 4-6 month waiting period for a new work permit is too long. In Salvador’s case, when her employers learned she was pregnant, they fired her. She was not allowed to work between permits, eventually could not fulfill the 24-month requirement. She says some employers considered her to be unwanted. In contrast, a pregnant colleague heeded her employer’s suggestion to have an abortion, kept her job, and eventually became an immigrant.

Salvador was unable to fulfill the immigration requirements because she was pregnant, gave birth and was fired. If she was a man, of course she would have no problem fulfilling the 24 months. Salvador did not comply with her first order to leave the country, as she has filed an appeal to remain in Canada on humanitarian grounds. She met with an immigration official, however, and was told to leave the country or be deported by force.

According to Salvador’s affidavit, the immigration officer found that the applicant’s volunteer work with three local community organizations did not show integration into Canadian society, because the organizations exist to help persons of Filipino origin. When a local member of the National Action Committee of the Status of Women found out about the situation, she was outraged. She could not believe that helping the Filipino Canadian community was not considered tangible. This is pure discrimination and racism.

Furthermore, although an employer made known his willingness to hire her, the immigration officer expressed doubts that Salvador could find a job in Canada. But throughout her irregular employment, she had never let herself become a burden to the Canadian government. Neither was she ever a burden to the government of her country. Some of the caregivers were skilled workers such as nurses or accountants in the Philippines, but in Canada are confined to domestic care giving, jobs that Canadians do not want to do.

Salvador was always willing to be a care giver, as long as she is able to obtain residency status. All she wants is a better life for her family. For example, when Canada brought in foreign nurses to fill demand, they were given status. In fact, the work of care givers allows both Canadian parents to work and contribute to Canadian society. Care givers also contribute taxes and fees to the Canadian government, which is if great benefit to them. Salvador points out that the Canadian government saves money importing the cheaper labor of women from developing countries, instead of instituting a national childcare program. Basically, the government is filling a public need with a private solution.

Her affidavit states that the immigration officer suggested that her son should be left behind in Canada. It is believed that he would not suffer trauma due to separation from only one parent, as he has never seen his father. How outrageous this is. Salvador’s lawyer argues that Salvador and her son should remain in Canada for humanitarian reasons. Her son is a Canadian citizen, and as a result he has all the rights accorded to a Canadian citizen, including the Constitutional right to live in Canada. If the mother is deported, his rights would be violated, either the right to live in Canada if deported along with his mother, or the right to security of the person if he stays in Canada because he would be separated from his mother, the only parent he has ever know.

Salvador was refused an extension on her work permit. She should theoretically be granted all the rights and access to services of any other Canadian citizen, including access to health care. Salvador was not able, however, to renew her son’s Medicare card when her employment authorization ran out.

The Campaign to Stop the Exploitation of Melca Salvador has included many community members and students in research, letter-writing campaigns, media outreach, raising legal funds, organizing demonstrations, and distributing information. Petitions and letters of support have been received from migrant worker communities around the world. Their press release states that LCP critics insist deporting women live-in caregivers such as Salvador and others in several recent cases, is unjust on humanitarian grounds. These women are not disposable commodities that Canada can use and dump at will.

Demands for the Canadian government include allowing Salvador to remain in Canada with her son Richard, recognizing the rights and contributions of foreign caregivers and nannies to Canada, granting Melca and all LCP workers residency now, and abolishing the LCP as it now exists. In many cases these women are overworked and underpaid but because they have to complete 24 months of work within 3 years just to apply for residency status, they put up with it. Campaign members are organizing a Canada-wide day of protest in support of Salvador, which is Thursday, October 19th. They hope to reverse her deportation order so that she can stay with her son. Unfortunately, the federal government does not seem ready to hear their critiques of the LCP. It does not seem like there are any changes planned for the LCP, not even a re-evaluation of the program’s impact. Recently, several Canadian Filipino activists insisted on meeting Canada’s Minister of Citizenship and Immigration, to discuss their concerns.

Conclusion

By changing our behavior, for example, putting ourselves in close situations with members of other racial groups, we increase our familiarity with these individuals. As we become more familiar with them, we naturally see that we are more alike than different. Not all contact will lead to positive attitude changes. It seems the contact is best if structured; encounters among equals who are cooperating to achieve a common goal. These kinds of behavioral activities are some of the most effective ways to change prejudice against people of other races.

Islamic law, or Sharia (termed ‘Syariah’ in Malaysia), refers to the sacred & holy laws of the Islamic religion. Sharia mingles with multiple fields addressed by secular law, which may include economics, crime, and politics, as well as personal matters such as hygiene and sexuality.

Sharia mainly derives from two sources, of which the 1st one would be the heavenly revelations in the Qur’an, and the 2nd being examples and sayings laid down by Prophet Muhammad within the Sunnah. In addition to the above mentioned sources, secondary sources are also adopted. One example of these secondary sources is the ijma of various prominent ulamas in the Islamic world.

In regards of the topic at hand, I shall explain how Islamic law is practiced in Saudi Arabia.

Before I go into explaning how Sharia is practiced in Saudi Arabia, I would like to point out that this essay will only touch on the developments and the ways in which Sharia is implemented in the Third State of Arabia, also known as the current Saudi Arabia.

Sharia was officially enforced in Saudi Arabia by the ‘Basic Law’ in 1992.

The Basic Law of Saudi Arabia is a charter written in Arabic which bears marking resemblance to a constitution. It is divided into nine chapters, and consists of 83 articles. It is based on the Salafi school of understanding of Sharia and it does not bypass the fiqh.

In Chapter 1: Article 1 of the said charter, it is expressly written that, “The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is a sovereign Arab Islamic state with Islam as its religion; Allah’s Book and the Sunnah of His Prophet, Allah’s prayers and peace be upon him, are its constitution, Arabic is its language and Riyadh is its capital”.

In Saudi Arabia, criminal cases are tried under Sharia courts. These courts exercise authority over the entire population. In other words, people who are not of Islamic faith are still subjected to the criminal laws of Saudi Arabia. Cases which involve small penalties are adjudicated in Sharia Summary Courts, whilst more serious crimes are tried in Sharia Courts of Common Pleas. In events where either party finds the decision made was unsatisfactory, the said party can also appeal through the Court of Appeal.

For civil cases, it could also be tried in Sharia Courts, but with one exception: Muslim of the Shia denomination may try such cases in their own courts. Other civil proceedings, such as those involving claims against the Saudi Arabia government, and claims on the enforcement of foreign judgements, are held before a special panel in certain specialized administrative tribunals, such as the Board of Grieviences, and Commission for The Settlement of Labor Disputes.

In strict adherance to the Saudi’s sources of law, the system prescribes corporal penalty or capital penalty, which in the Sharia sense may include amputations of limbs for certain crimes such as homicide, rape, robbery, drugs trafficking, adultery, and homosexual/bisexual activities. It is to note that petty theft is also punishable by the means of amputation of the hand, although, it is rare for first-time offenders. For less serious crimes, such as drunkenness, the courts may impose less severe punishments, such as floggings.

Under Saudi law, when someone commits murder, accidental death, and/or bodily harm, the said person is open or subject to punishment from the victim’s family. Retribution may also be, and are usually, sought through the method of ‘blood money’. It is to note that the blood money being payable for causing a woman’s accidental death, or, that of a Christian male, is only half as much as that for a Muslim male. All the others (men or women of different faiths and believes other than Islam) are valued at 1/16th.

The main reasoning for this, according to the Sharia, men are expected by right to be providers for their families and thus are expected and assumed to earn more fiscally in their lifetimes. The blood money by a man would be expected to be enough to sustain his family, for at least a short period of time.

Honor killings are also not punished as severely as murder. This generally stems from the fact that honor killings are within a family, and done to compensate for some ‘dishonorable’ act committed.

Saudi Arabia is also the one and only country in the world where women are prohibited to drive on public roads. Women can only drive in off-road conditions and in private housing compounds, some of which extend to many square miles. The ban may be lifted soon, although with certain conditions.

The Saudi government regard its construction of Islamic law as its sole source of guidance on human rights, and Sharia has failed to evolve and develop to ensure the rights of women are protected. In addition to prohibition on driving on public roads, women are not allowed to travel around without the permission, written or verbal, of their closest male kin. This resulted in women being restricted from travel by their sons and/or younger brothers. Divorcees are required by law to return to the home of their father, and any form of travel must then be approved the father. In other words, under Saudi’s law, women of 30 or more years old cannot make independent decisions without the approval of male relatives.

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QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE PRACTICE OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN SAUDI ARABIA

Human rights in Saudi Arabia are based on sharia laws under the rule of the Saudi royal family. The Saudi Arabian government has also been known and criticized for its lack of regard for the religious & political minorities, homosexuality, and women. The Human rights of Saudi Arabia are specified in article 26 of the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia, the constitution of Saudi Arabia, as mentioned earlier. Then, in October 1997, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ratified the International Convention against Torture according to the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights. The first independent human rights organization in Saudi Arabia, the National Society for Human Rights, was established in 2004. In 2008, the Shura Council ratified the Arab Charter on Human Rights.

It is to note that Saudi Arabia, is one of around thirty countries in the world with that still practices judicial corporal punishment. For Saudia Arabia’s judicial corporal punishments may include amputations of either limbs for robbery, and flogging for smaller crimes such as drunkenness. The exact number of lashes is vaguely prescribed by the law; it is varied in accordance to the judges’ discretion, and may range from dozens of lashes to several hundred, which is usually applied over a period of weeks or months.

In 2004, the United Nations Committee against Torture criticized and deplored the Saudi Arabian law over the amputations and floggings it carries out under Sharia. The Saudi delegates, responded, unfazed, in the defence of “legal traditions” that has been held since the birth of Islam 1,400 years ago, and rejected interference of any kind in its legal framework.

For serious law-offenders, Saudi Arabia also engage themselves in capital punishment, which in Sharia include the likes of public executions by beheading. Beheading is the punishment for rapists, armed robberers, drug traffickers and of course, murderers, according to strict interpretation of Islamic law. In 2005 there were 191 executions, in 2006 there were 38, in 2007 there were 153, and in 2008 there were 102.

To illustrate how serious is human rights infringement in Saudi Arabia, I would like to draw a simple reference to a spokesman for Saudi Arabia’s National Society for Human Rights. He reasoned that numbers of executions are rising because crime rates are rising, that prisoners are treated humanely, and that the beheadings deter crime, saying, “Allah, our creator, knows best what’s good for his people…Should we just think of and preserve the rights of the murderer and not think of the rights of others?”

WOMEN RIGHTS/GENDER ISSUES

Religion affects all aspects of life in Saudi Arabia, and Saudi women face discrimination in many aspects of their lives.

The Sunni Muslims in Saudi Arabia, which is about 90% of the population, are governed by strict conservative interpretations of Islam. Saudi Arabia is a patriarchal society in which women are treated and seen as 2nd class citizens only. And because of that, they continue to become victims of discrimination, everyday. They have lesser say than men in family matters; their freedom of movement is very limited; and their economic opportunities and rights are restricted. In addition, women’s actions and choices depends on the permission or wishes of their mahram. Saudi Arabia also applies rules of strict gender segregation and unrelated men and women are separated in all public places. Women also, do not enjoy the freedom of dress, but are required to cover themselves completely from head-to-toe. The usual dress-code includes a jet black cloak-like garment (abaya) and a matching face veil (niqba). Women who deliberately choose to not cover or as they say, ‘protect’, themselves fully, which rates is increasing in certain parts of the country, run the risk of being provoked and harassed.

Although they make up 70% of those enrolled in universities, for social reasons, women make up just 5% of the workforce in Saudi Arabia, the lowest proportion in the world. These treatments of women has been referred by social scientists as “Sex segregation” and “gender apartheid”. Even implementation of a government resolution supporting the expansion of employment opportunities for women, met strong resistance from within the labour ministry, from the religious police, and from the male citizenry.

In most parts of Saudi Arabia, it is thought that a woman’s place in this world is in the home, tending for her spouse and family. Rooting from tradition, there is also segregation inside their own houses as some rooms have separate entrances for men and women.

Before 2008, women were not allowed to enter hotels and furnished apartments without a chaperon or mahram. With a 2008 Royal Decree, the one and only requirement needed nowadays to enable women to enter hotels are their national ID cards, but the hotel must let the nearest police station know of their length of stay and room reservation.

The driving ban for women was unofficial until 1990 when it was introduced as official legislation after 47 Saudi women drove cars through the streets of the Saudi capital, Riyadh. Even though illegal, women in rural areas and other areas outside cities do drive cars. It may sound made-up, but according to credible studies, many Saudis believe that allowing women to drive could lead to Western-style openness and an erosion of traditional values.

Women’s rights calls for reform in Saudi Arabia – calls that are testing the Kingdom’s political status quo. International, as well as local women’s groups are also forcing the government to react, taking advantage of the fact that some rulers are eager to project a more progressive image to the West.

WOMEN/FAMILY LAW

While the Saudi Arabian law is silent on the legal age of marriage, the practice of forced marriages was prohibited by the country’s religious authority in 2005. Nevertheless, to be fair to the case, the level to which said bride is involved in decision-making in regards of her own marriage varies between families. According to Saudi’s family law, the marriage contract is between the mahram of the bride and the husband-to-be. An estimated 16 percent of girls between 15 and 19 years of age are currently married, divorced or widowed in Saudi Arabia.

Polygamy is allowed under Sharia and a Muslim male could take as many as 4 wives, given that he can give equal support and treatment. The practice is reportedly on the decline, but both for demographic and economic reasons.

Women are discriminated against with regards to parental authority as, legally, children belong to their father. If divorced or widowed, a woman is normally granted custody of daughters until they reach the age of nine and sons until they reach the age of seven. Older children are often awarded to the divorced husband or the paternal grandparents. Women cannot confer citizenship to their children (if born to a non-Saudi Arabian father).

Female genital mutilation is not a general practice, but reports suggest that there is some occurrence of the practice among Shia Muslims in the Eastern Province, and possibly among some Bedouin groups.

Violence against women is common and there are no specific laws addressing the issue, nor any adequate protection for the victims. Incidents of domestic violence are rarely reported or even talked about publicly. For instance, the so-called ‘honour crimes’, whereby a woman is put to death or punished by male family members for having put disgrace to the family honour, are also prevalent. The suspicion alone of a woman’s wrong-doing is often enough for her to be subject to violence in the name of honour. Women, as well as men, may be subject to harassment by the country’s religious police, the mutawwa’in; torture (although outlawed); and physical punishments, often without having their case presented in court.

Islamic law provides for detailed and complex calculations of inheritance shares. A woman may inherit from her father, her mother, her husband, her children, and under certain conditions, from other members of her family, but her share is generally smaller than a man’s entitlement. A daughter, for example, inherits half as much as a son. This is commonly justified by the fact that a woman has no financial responsibility towards her husband and children. Women, particularly in rural areas, are often deprived even of their entitled share as they are considered to be supported by their fathers or husbands.

Until recently, the existence of zoos in our society was never something which we thought twice about. Zoos were widely accepted as educational and entertaining institutions. Children, and adults, love seeing animals, and a visit to the zoo has always been something we look forward to. Gradually, however, discussion has aroused about the morality of keeping animals, and other creatures in captivity, as animals have rights such as we do. “There are around 430 zoos in Britain alone and 10,000 worldwide. Conditions vary greatly, with the worst being nothing more than concrete prisons holding very distressed animals.” (Born Free Charity). This quotation shows the insensitivity of the proprietors of such establishments and gives us a clear picture of the conditions in which creatures are kept.

Rather than encouraging animals to thrive in natural settings, zoos place very unnatural boundaries on their residents. For example, in zoos, polar bears are usually confined to spaces that are only around one-millionth the size of their minimum home range in the wild. Animals who stray across large distances in nature often develop ‘zoo chosis’ in captivation which is similar to dementia in humans. Typical behaviours resulting from boredom and distress when placed in zoo enclosures, are endlessly pacing or swimming in circles. Animals have evolved from nature, just as humans, and each belongs undisturbed in its own natural habitat. To remove these animals from what they are used to against their will is immoral.

As humans, we must treat animals humanely in our role as “stewards of the earth.” It is therefore unacceptable that animals in zoos under our care, are suffering from neglect and early death, through distress and health problems. In the wild, creatures such as the ones found in zoos are free to roam without restraint and interact with other species. Whereas, in captive conditions they are only able to mix with their own species, sometimes only being a few of each species. If these animals do not get on with the others in the enclosure, they have no way of escaping each other’s company, and animals, like us, have personalities and forge friendships and rivalries. Furthermore, animals do not gain the necessary skills for survival in zoos and so will never be able to be reintroduced back into the wild and survive. Therefore they will have to live an enclosed, cramped lifestyle entirely dependent on humans who do not always care for them appropriately, for the entirety of their lives.

On this note, Attachment relationships between animals are often studied by separating pack animals and recording their subsequent behaviour. Studies of primates have shown that separation results in changes of behaviour that are symptomatic of both psychological and physiological stress. Because of this, it is clear that in order to maintain physical and psychological well being in animals, it is vital that animals which are used to being together with animals of their kind should not be isolated from one another. In many zoos, it is felt necessary that animals should be alone as it saves costs and ensures there are no conflicts between them. Zoos are therefore knowingly causing the animals’ psychological and physiological trauma.

Animals kept in zoos have no privacy; they are continually watched by the public and have little enclosed space where they can hide. Zoo animals develop anxious behaviours if they are always in the public gaze. Being stared at all the time can be predatory and threatening. Another strange species staring at you or enproaching in your environment is disconcerting and agitating for wild animals in the same way that a tiger coming into your house and staring at you would be not just threatening, but simply terrifying. This in turn can lead to aggression and distress in the animals. Even when the animals are not disturbed by human presences watching over them, there is constant noise of other creatures and maintenance works on the zoo (e.g. Tractors). They will get no peace and quiet. This is not natural for any animal. They should be able to have time on their own to relax in harmony.

Zoo Keepers and many employees of zoos do not treat the animals living within the exhibitions with enough compassion or care. A San Diego Zookeeper described an incident in which an African Elephant was beaten for two days with axe handles, as ‘a way of motivating the animal to put on a display for visitors’. This kind of treatment is extremely vindictive and clearly demonstrates how in some zoos, the living beings are not treated as well as they should be. Even though they are given all the ‘necessities’ for life and they have a veterinary surgeon on hand at all times, the animals only get enough to get by, and no more. After all, zoos are a money making business. They often scrimp and save at the expense of the animals’ well being and comfort. Large animals such as elephants are often subjected to cruelty above and beyond that of smaller animals. A study has proven that in a certain American zoo, the elephants there were dying at a faster rate than they were breeding, as a result of disease spread by the lack of space and dirty cages. The exhibition of animals in captivity tells an impressionable public that cruelty to animals can be condoned.

Many zoos claim that they are of high educational benefit, and although some visitors only spend around two minutes at each inclosure, using the animals for entertainment rather than for instructive matters. Although, children do get to see animals and experience how they live, which they wouldn’t get the chance to do if animals were only in the wild. Zoos have to educate the public about the value of animals so that people understand the importance of conservation. After a fun trip to the zoo, visitors leave with a newfound awareness and perceptive about animals. How are they going to discover these interesting facts if they don’t get to see the creatures? Zoos give people an appreciation for animals. They need to see, listen to and smell an elephant to gain love and respect for the creature. Viewing an animal on TV does not give a person the same effect as seeing it first hand does.

An arguable advantage of having zoos present in today’s society is that many endangered species will be protected and will refrain from becoming extinct. Zoos promote the awareness of animals that are being wiped out. This would allow for people to help fund the repopulation of those animals. If more people are aware of new animals on the endangered species list, there is more of a chance that researchers will get more funds. But endangered species may not gain as much support and attention of the crowds as people are only usually interested in popular species like Lions. Furthermore there is some debate because of the inadequate gene pool of a species in zoos. This could, lead to inbreeding which would then create mutations and defects in the offspring.

In conclusion, animals are born wild and therefore should live and die wild. It is wrong that wild creatures should be kept in enclosures in zoos as they do not get to behave naturally: a lion cannot hunt for its prey, or experience the nobility of living with other lions in a pride. My overall view is that keeping animals in zoos is extremely cruel as they are not free to convey their natural way of living, whether it is to roam in a large area, to breed with a partner of their choice, or to kill their own prey. The animals are troubled every minute of the day by people observing them, something which, in the wild, would hint great danger. All of these factors contribute to my strong sensitivity to this topic of treatise.

Word count- 1310

Sources

www.bornfree.org

http://www.captiveanimals.org/zoos/zfact1.htm

Pros and Cons : A Debater’s Handbook [Paperback] published 1999

http://www.idebate.org/debatabase/topic_details.php?topicID=1

Medicine is very complicated field. There is no doubt that it has helped human beings through history to live longer, but it has had its bad times too. Because of medicine we have found cures for various diseases, and now can extend our lives for years. Medicine is helping animals too. However, on occasions, medicine is a very controversial field, and animal testing is one of the most controversial fields of medicine. Some people and medical experts regard animal testing as necessary and helpful in discovering various cures. On the other hand, many animal right groups, and also medical experts, consider animal testing cruel and unnecessary. In my opinion animal testing is unethical and if not forbidden it should be limited to the maximum. Animal testing kills innocent animals in the cruelest ways such as dissection, poisoning, vivisection, toxicology testing, and other methods. To better understand why animal testing is unethical and why it should be limited I will present the pros and cons arguments of animal testing.

First of all, animal testing should be forbidden because for certain products there is no need for testing. There are products, which pose no danger to the human health, but medical personnel still performs tests on animals to see the results. These are “just in case” tests, which kill animals for no cause. For example, killing animals just to find out if a shampoo or soap smells good is unethical. Medical companies, and experts, should create some kind of ethical code for animal testing. For example, animal tests are forbidden for products that do not cause serious health problems in human beings. Lab experts and doctors should find other ways how to conduct safety testing for such basic products, and limit the number of animals that are killed.

Additionally, many experts argue that results from animal testing may generate at least two or more different outcomes. For example, soap may cause allergy in rats, but not in rabbits. In this case both animals would be killed for no result. Also, blinding or killing a rabbit just to see if some new kind of mascara is satisfactory is very cruel and unethical. Further, animals are different from human beings – they have different bodies and other organs, so testing on animals may not bring the expected results. Rats, frogs, or rabbits may react to some chemical or drug, but this does not guarantee that the reaction will be the same or similar when tested on human beings. Because, humans are different from animals there is no need for animal testing. Medical workers should find more efficient ways to test products that will get them the right results.

According to many animal rights groups and medical experts, that are against animal testing, the biggest argument against animal testing is that there are now many other alternative testing methods available. The medicine has become so advanced that animal testing is obsolete. If we want more accurate and real results we can use human cells for testing. They may show the exact reaction and results from drugs or other testing. Also, tissue studies are very advanced methods for testing medical cures and drugs. Tissue samples can be used to analyze the effects of a soup or other body creams, or an allergen or other type of drug. These tissue experiments will show the desired effects on human beings. Because of the above mentioned alternative testing methods, and many others which are available nowadays, animal testing should be banned or very limited, as there is no need for it.

Even though, many people consider animal testing cruel and unethical, many other consider it essential for achieving the desired medical results. These pro animal testing groups have their arguments about this issue.

One of their strongest arguments is that medical research saves millions of lives each year. Because of testing on animals, they argue, medical workers around the world could find cures to HIV/AIDS, cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and many other non-curable diseases as of the moment. Therefore, those supporters of animal testing argue that if animal testing is eliminated there may be some future problems in finding new cures for existing and new diseases. That is why animal testing is so important.

Another argument for animal testing is that animal testing not only helps human beings, but it also helps animals. During the last two to three decades, the discovery of various cures for animal diseases has increased dramatically. Animals today live longer compared to 40 to 50 years ago. Pro groups argue that thanks to animal testing, animals now have better chance to survive diseases and injuries. Animals are treated from various diseases thanks to them and the experiments done on them. Nowadays, a whole field of medicine is dedicated to animals. Doctors are performing surgical operations on animals; horses and dogs and other domestic animals are treated for various kinds of viral infections, etc.

Also, defenders of animal testing argue that if there were other testing techniques, that can substitute animal testing, then they will accept them. But, as of the moment, according to them, there are no other advanced testing techniques. That is why now and in the future, until some other testing methods are found, animal testing remains the most valuable testing method. People and medical science are massively dependent on animal testing to find cures for some serious diseases.

Moreover, as some supporters of animal testing claim, we should be more concerned with saving human lives than with saving animal lives. According to them, animals are worthy to some respect, but they are not as worthy as a human live. Many of them argue that if a person comes in the situation to choose between saving the life of a rat or the live of his mother, the answer is already known. That is why, animal testing should be allowed, because saving human lives is more beneficial than saving animal lives. However, the testing processes and experiments should be controlled.

Finally, the strongest argument for animal testing is that the complaints of the people, who are against animal testing, are not correct and they are vague, and they do not constitute serious arguments. The pro groups argue that animal testing has generated very valuable information of how certain drugs, and other medical cures, work inside human bodies. Because of animal testing we are where we are in medicine today.

Even though, both pro and cons groups have strong arguments, according to me, animal testing is unethical and cruel. Maybe it should not be forbidden altogether, but certainly it should be limited. Animal testing should be used when looking for cures for some serious disease such as cancer. But, it should be strictly controlled when the testing is done for products that cannot harm human health, such as testing animals for detergents. The medical companies and experts around the world should seat and discuss ways to reduce animal testing to the minimum. There should be some ethical standards of how animals should be used and treated during tests.

This paper is an argumentative essay on gay adopting rights. Gay adopting rights refers to a form where there is a joint adoption by same sex couple (males) adoption by one partner of a same sex couple of the other’s biological child and adoption by one gay person. “Adoption is a legal process whereby an individual or a couple presumes the parenting for another who is not kin and, in so doing, permanently transfers all rights and responsibilities from the original parent or parents” (Pertman, 2000). Globally, it is only 14 countries that have legalized same-sex adoption. In most countries, the phenomenon is against the law despite the fierce debate to allow such a phenomenon to be practiced. Oppossers’ main argument stems from the question of whether the adopting parents are in a position to be better parents.

In America, between 6 and 14 million children are living with at least one gay parent. Most of the American states no longer hold back the consent of accepting peoples’ sexual orientation. It is worth noting that the courts as well as state agencies put in practice a principle of best interest of the child standard in order to arrive at a solution. It is as a result of this approach that an individual sexual orientation can’t be used to limit them from adopting children least it is proven beyond doubt that the relationship will be harmful to the child. Close to 22 states permit gay men and lesbians to adopt children via state or private run agencies (Bozett, 1987).

It is worth noting that since the 1977 Florida law is the only state that had completely banned gay and lesbian from adopting children. The legislation of 1977 was passed in the wake of a campaign dubbed, “Save Our Children”. It is the following states Vermont, New Jersey, Massachusetts and California that allow same sex couple adoption. Some states permit single people to adopt, others discourage it. According to Saletan, 2002, the American academy of pediatrics declared that gay, lesbian parents should be allowed to adopt children. This provoked outcries from all quotas. Despite the fact that the proponents have strong arguments supporting the notion that gay parent should be allowed to adopt children, the paper will strongly argue why this is wrong by drawing and presenting ideas in a succinct manner.

Argument against gay adopting kids

In the reflection of the gay adoption, there has been constant dispute on the issue of their custodies. It has widely been believed that the children who have been headed with heterosexual parents are better off by far than the one from single sex especially from the gay parents. There several aspect that have been cited to affect these children (Golombok & Tasker, 1996).

Sexual identity

This is one of the major concern that the children who have been adopted by gay parent experiences difficulties in the development of sexual identity. It has established that children who have been brought up by gay parents are constantly disturbed by gender identity where they are unable to personal identify themselves as male or female. In addition, they are disturbed by gender roles where they cannot be able to distinguish the d4egree to which different culture are regarded as feminine or masculine (Bailey & Dawood, 1998). Moreover, they are reported to get a problem of sexual orientation where they get a lot of problem in choosing the sexual partners. They get confused on whether to have a bisexual, homosexual or heterosexual relationship.

According to the research that was done by Kirkpatrick, he established that though it was very hard

Natural order

According to religion and science, kids are brought to the world by both a man and a woman. For this reason, it is only natural for kids to be raised in a family that has both father and mother as this is the natural order and perverting it is wrong to say the least. For this reason homosexuals should not be allowed to adopt children. It is no doubt that human are influenced by a number of factors among them those people we closely associate with such as parents

First of all, we are all influenced as we grow up by our parents which means they may take on the same sexual preferences as there parents. Homosexuality is common place in society but in the natural order of things it is not normal. We are born into this world by man and woman not by the same sex. Secondly, children have a hard enough time trying to figure who they are and how they fit into society as they approach puberty and in to there teens. They don’t need to deal with teasing and ridicule from peers and there parents. Some things should not be allowed. Our society has become a joke and I will definitely petition against this. If you grow up and decide that you want to be gay that’s your business but it is not fair to allow homosexuals to influence innocent children period.

In the reflection of the gay adoption, there has been constant dispute on the issue of their custodies. It has widely been believed that the children who have been headed with heterosexual parents are better off by far than the one from single sex especially from the gay parents. There several aspect that have been cited to affect these children.

Sexual identity

This is one of the major concern that the children who have been adopted by gay parent experiences difficulties in the development of sexual identity. It has established that children who have been brought up by gay parents are constantly disturbed by gender identity where they are unable to personal identify themselves as male or female. In addition, they are disturbed by gender roles where they cannot be able to distinguish the d4egree to which different culture are regarded as feminine or masculine. Moreover, they are reported to get a problem of sexual orientation where they get a lot of problem in choosing the sexual partners. They get confused on whether to have a bisexual, homosexual or heterosexual relationship.

According to the research that was done by Kirkpatrick, he established that though it was very hard to establish these differences, they were notable. He noted that as for the daughters who have been adopted by a gay parent, they tend to engage in rough and tumble play. They were reported to play with such toys as gun that mostly is masculine oriented. The male gender also, though to very little percentage, were found to have feminine orientation as they participated more to the feminine games more than the children who are being taken care by heterosexual parents.

Sexual orientation was another problem that the children from gay parents experienced. From Higgins interview to teenagers, very few teenagers who identified themselves that they are from gay parenthood. Compared to their counterpart from their real parents who were heterosexual, they seemed to have a problem of sexual orientation (Bailey & Dawood, 1998). Even for those who identified themselves to be from such family, they were not confident and suffered inferiority complex.

According to behavior genetic perspective, most of the teenagers who have been brought by gay parents most of them end up being either lesbian or gay still. According to bailey study from the teenagers who were mature enough to give their sexual orientation, out of nineteen teenagers from gay parenthood and similar number from heterosexual parenthood, seven from gay parenthood claimed to be interested in their life to be involved in gay or lesbianism. On the contrary, no among the nineteen from the other divide reported to be interested in such. This shows that moist of those children who have been brought up by either gay or lesbian parents, they prefer copying their parents eventually. In fact according to Bailey report from gay parents interview, 9% of the children they bring up turn to be gay or lesbian.

The interpretation of this study then show that most of the children who are brought up by the gay parents, they suffer from genetic conflict where they are unable to completely orient themselves sexually. Therefore, they mostly grow to be either gay or lesbian.

Social relationship

Children adopted by the gay parents are constantly in loggerhead with social relationship. This is brought by the difficulties that seem to be inherited from their parents. This is because; their parents constantly have difficulties to deal with their peers especially who refute the idea of one being a gay (Gottman, 1990). Anecdotal and first man account explains that children get stigmatized as they are constantly in worries of being asked about their parents’ sexual orientation. This brings a lot of peer relation difficulties to these children and as a result they may withdraw from social relationship. This may result to low performance in their school, low temper control among other antisocial behaviors in search of consoling themselves.

Adult relationship

Children adopted by gay parents seem to change their relationships to the parent depending with the sex of the child. It has been noted though not very pronounced, that male children tend to have a more nasty relationship to female genders as the female children in gay parenthood learn more masculine roles thus behaving like men. This makes females to have more intimacy to male adults than to female adults. The male are also seen to be so dashy towards female adult and have low relationship towards female gender.

Sexual abuse

Most of the children who have been adopted by the gay parents end up being sexually abused. According to statistic, gay parents are seen to be more reliable to perpetrate the children they have adopted than any other marriage partnership. Therefore, children in these families live in heightened fear that they may be abused sexually one day or the other. This makes them to get stigmatized and psychologically tortured.

Behavior problems

Most of the children who are in the gay parenthood, they tend to have a problem in the way they view different behaviors. Most of the behavioral changes are adopted from the parents. Therefore, putting in mind that the parents who are giving them custody are not biologically their parents, they trend to be reluctant to shape their behavior (Gottman, 1990). Most of them do not care much from exposing these children to behaviors that affect their moral. In addition, due to the state of their parental sexual position, they attend to be inquisitive to explore diverse behaviors also that may find them doing things that are not contrary to the community norms.

Self esteem

Due to the stigma that these children get especially from their peers due to their parent sexual orientation, they mostly develop low esteem. They are not capable of completely exploring their potential due to their low self esteem. This makes some of them to develop psychological problem as they feel that they are not complete in their life (Martin, 1993). It is believed that there is that idea of maternal and paternal love that makes the children to deal with different situation in their life which generally lack in these children. These children grow to be weak and vulnerable to various circumstances.

For instance, it is true that boys who are brought up by lesbian parents are taught and adopt feminine characteristics unlike their counterparts raised by heterosexual parents (Bailey, 1995). Similarly, girls who live and brought up by homosexual parents are at higher risk of adopting masculine behaviors. The result is that these individuals will tend to associate more with people from the opposite sex because they will believe that they are not fit to be with members of the same sex like them simply because they exhibit varied characteristics.

Moral judgment

According to Martin, 1993 most of the children brought up by the gay parents have very poor judgment towards moral. Morally, most of the society especially the religious community has been against this act. However, these children have been brought through these environments. This makes them to get confused on the moral judgment. Due to the segregation that most of these children have in their growth stage from their peers, they tend to be ignorant of the moral behaviors that are required in the society. This makes them to get constant criticism due to the way they carry themselves in the society though out of ignorance. It has been proved by psychologists that kids brought up in a single sex parent environment are prone to mockery, prejudice all these and related activities might work against the kid being a good performer in schools as well as other spheres of life.

Locus of control

Their locus of control against most of the vices is low. They are vulnerable to such things as drug abuse especially when they are under pressure to counter their situation. Due to the lifestyle that they have been exposed to from their family setup, their locus of control from their behaviors, feelings, temper among others tend to be lower than for those who are from especially heterosexual parenthood.

On the same note, it is only a husband and a wife who are happily in marriage full of faith that are capable of adequately and satisfactorily answer the persistent question asked by adopted kids, “Who is my dad, or mum, why did they not raise me”? Through such a union, parent can make the kid understand that he/she is loved as well as not all men or women are bad as the notion may be held by the kid (Bailey, 1995)

Conclusion

From the review of the concept of gay parent adopting kids, it is evident that between six and 14 million American children are being raised by gay parents; either lesbians or homosexual. It is only four states that have allowed gay parents to adopt kids. This has been possible for a number of strong reasons brought forth by proponents of the phenomenon. Most of the American states no longer hold back the consent of accepting peoples’ sexual orientation. It is worth noting that the courts as well as state agencies put in practice a principle of best interest of the child standard in order to arrive at a solution.

However, in light of this, the paper has brought forth a number of arguments that are against gay parents adopting kids. Among the concrete reason I believe that gay parent should not be allowed top adopt kids include the following; according to religion and science, kids are brought to the world by both a man and a woman so there is no need of going against natural order, kids raised in gay relation have difficulties in coping with sexual life as they will in most cases be influenced by what the parent do, encounter social problems, exposed to social ill such as drug use, violence among others.

What is identity?

Our identity is what differentiates us from each other. How we look, talk; think all contribute to our various identities. It is what sets us apart from each other. Similarly leisure and recreation has its own identity that sets it apart from all other modalities. I shall speak on how leisure form and change identities.

Roots of identities

Numerous philosophers have dealt with concepts of a person’s “self”. But not until the late 19th century did people try to dismantle identity and see what identity really is. Researchers and theorists like Freud and Jung are the greatest influences on recent interpretations of identity. There are also developmental theorists who believe that there is a process in forming an identity.

BIRTH a INFANCY a CHILDHOOD a ADOLESCENCE a ADULTHOOD a DEATH

This has become the norm. People think that our identities are derived from social status and our roles in society. Due to this, emphasis is placed on the exterior and aesthetic gimmicks to improve our identities. This is known as a social construct. Everything is constructed by society and people. Not by pure hard facts.

Personal and social identities

These are the two parts that are brought together and eventually makes up our identity. Personal refers to how the person perceives themselves. Whether they think they are funny, happy or confident. The social part refers to the roles we take on. We become recognizable by these roles. E.g. daughter, student, teacher sister etc….

Identity is greatly formed during adolescence (ages 13-23). Although we keep growing, our core characteristics are created and carved into us during these years. Erikson (1968) says that the more successful kids are at resolving problems during younger ages the better psychologically equipped they will be to adjust and consequently, happier.

Developmental theorists focus on how people accept and embrace their roles. They have come up with a checklist that describes what a psychologically healthy person should be. In America, a healthy person contributes to the community by means of employment, civic involvement and general community participation.

As I said earlier, the bulk of our identity is formed in adolescence. From ages 23-60, people’s identities are completed with their jobs and the work they do. However this can cause devaluation of people who are unable to work due to disability or other circumstances. Leisure can change this and these people formulate identities.

Leisure and identity formation

There are numerous factors that contribute to development such as biological, social, family, school etc. But during adolescence we experiment and we stick to what we think is best for us. In America adolescents are allowed to step out of line with regards to appearance and behaviour. This is known as social non conformity. During adolescence people can take part in numerous leisure time activities, be it structured or unstructured. People believe that these activities can help identity formation or conversely believe that their identity has already been formed and that is why they commit themselves to the activity. Both show that leisure has direct impact on people’s lives and identities. Leisure can be instrumental or expressive.

Instrumental leisure is when a person uses a leisure activity to help in other areas of life. Art is a good example as a person may paint for their pleasure but may have high levels of talent and hope to get into an art school. Because instrumental leisure is usually based on an outcome of leisure, it is said to be externally motivated.

Expressive leisure is done just for the pure enjoyment of the activity. Continuing from the above example if you take graffiti art, although it is often called vandalism, those artists do it for the pure enjoyment and they also produce some amazing pieces of art.

Leisure contexts are transitional

Adolescence is the transition phase of development. Leisure and other factors contribute to this transition. The stimulus (activity) can have benefits for development. But when partnered with the participant’s enthusiasm and commitment it has the power to increase benefits for development. Some skills that can be learned through leisure are communication, negotiation, flexibility and teamwork etc. All these skills develop during adolescence which as I mentioned earlier is the transition phase.

Leisure contexts provide opportunities to explore and try different leisure identities

In America, they are exposed to a whole host of recreation and leisure programs (structured and unstructured) and this contributes to their and the peoples identity. They have their summer camps, boy and girl scouts for kids, which are done in holidays and after school. Haggard and Williams (1991 & 1992) believe that there is a correlation between these activities and the person’s future identity. E.g. people that play musical instruments when kids are more likely to become musicians.

But what happens to non-participation? Does it mean that if we don’t participate we are identity-less? I believe that we are not identity-less but rather direction-less because recreational activities are activities that we do in our free time. We aren’t going to engage in activities that don’t give us pleasure. So from our recreational activities we get direction to who we are going to become.

Flow producing activities contribute to intrinsic motivation

If a person pursues an activity and they achieve some form of enjoyment from it, more often than not, they will continue to pursue it. And do avoid stagnation they will keep on challenging themselves in that activity. When we take it to a high level, we have to take charge of our behaviours and we can feel responsible and confident about our lives.

Leisure activities across the life span assist with continuity

Leisure can give a person stability if practiced over long periods of time i.e. childhood to adulthood. People can learn how to react and cope in different situations. For example a person that initially takes up running to lose weight soon finds themselves enjoying the running. Their primary aim which was weight loss now shifts to enjoyment and the weight loss is a positive by product of the running. Other positive outcomes of the running are more active lifestyle, stress reduction etc. The running has been infused into the person’s identity.

Conclusion

Whether we believe it or not, our leisure and recreational activities contribute largely to our identities and who we are. It has been highlighted that leisure gives us direction and more often than not leads us to our destination of discovering ourselves. Best part is that we have fun on the way there…. it is recreation after all.

Social values of recreation and leisure
What is important to you?

Everyone is different and have different ideas and opinions as to what the perfect or good life is. What we perceive are the products of values instilled into us, as well as past experiences. An individual’s recreation behaviour is controlled by personal, social and cultural beliefs e.g. drinking.

Social values

These are important in shaping behaviours associated with leisure and subsequently delivering the right programs. Social values relate to action, vitality, individualism, materialism and group identity. Western society lean towards goal orientated action. They value time and keeping busy. Their values are demonstrated in their work i.e. the job they do and how they do it. And this is further reflected in their activities. In America, the more active you are the more of an asset you are because it implies that you can produce and consume more goods and services. This is known as vitality. It is, however, important to keep intact the principle if individualism. Recreation shouldn’t force people to suppress their individualism but rather allow them to explore and express it fully.

Materialism is being judged on your possessions. What you have, where you got it from and how much you paid for it is all that matters. Peoples ring up the credit cards in order to attain immediate pleasures as they simply have to have that item at that exact time. There has been a huge boom in the equipment and apparel market due to materialism and people’s extra large consumptive behaviour.

Group identity is very important. Nobody wants to be left out and therefore everybody wants to fit in. People then create these groups, private clubs and associations so that people with similar thoughts and interests can join these groups and have their own identities. There are very many groups and because of this there are many service providers in leisure program delivery i.e. public, non-profit and private sectors.

There has been a huge shift of recent and values that were important before have lost their importance and other patterns have now emerged. There has and always will be different values and thoughts between urban and rural people. This is so because their priorities are very often different. Social and moral values are an eternal concept. How they are expressed is a different issue.

Values or recreation and leisure experiences

Some theorists analyze the value of recreation ion terms of its meanings and motives. Why a person did a specific activity and what they would have got out from that activity. Other theorists aren’t so intense and believe it to be a pleasurable activity. Leisure and recreational activities can be either planned or spur of the moment. It can be done in groups, alone physical or non physical in nature. Because recreation is so diverse, everybody can extract individual meanings from their recreational activities.

Clawson and Knetsch’s (1966) explanations fit outdoor recreation almost perfectly. They proposed that there are five steps involved in recreational activity. These five are planning, travelling, doing, returning and reminiscing. All of these stages add to the enjoyment of the activity as a whole and add to the excitement of the activity.

Another concept is serious leisure which is the pursuit of a role, hobby, or activity that the participants find so fulfilling that they centre their lives on that activity e.g. musicians who use their talents for charity or causes only. Angelina Jolie and Madonna charity work in Africa.

The opposite also applies and it’s aptly called casual leisure. This is when people do stuff just for the fun of it like relaxing, watching television etc. Both types have value for the individual. Kleiber (2000) said that people don’t appreciate the simple things like casual leisure.

Benefits and motivations for recreation and leisure

People do leisure because of the benefits that accompany it. People take part to achieve benefits and these benefits are closely linked to the motivation that initially encourages the participation. Some benefits affect the individual, the community, the environment and the economy.

There are 6 benefits associated with leisure. They are:

Physiological- benefits that affect health and fitness of the individual

Psycho-physiological- benefits that span physiological and psychological health (stress management)

Psychological- benefits that can lead to enhanced self competence and self worth.

Economic- tourism is in face leisure and it spurs on the economy.

Environmental- protection of the environment has been an avenue ventured to save and promote outdoor recreation.

Socio-cultural- benefits that arise when you feel proud of you community

A new program has emerged- the benefits based movement. This movement can be split down into three components namely benefits based awareness, programming and management. The programs main aim is to increase awareness of leisure and recreation through effective programming and campaigning to create a large support base for parks and recreation.

Constraints to recreation and leisure

There are many benefits to be gained from leisure and recreation, but we must also look at the limiting and inhibiting factors. Leisure constraints include things that affect participation, frequency, intensity, duration and quality of the experience. Constraints affect the person and how they feel. Various models were made to try to conceptualize and understand leisure. A successful model categorized it in four categories.

Intrapersonal constraints- this deals with the person and may lead to lack of interest.

Interpersonal constraints- associated with relationships and how people work togethera cooperation.

Intervening structural constraints- outside elements that affect participation. Lack of money, transport or facilities.

Antecedent structural constraints- external factors that stop a person from participating or enjoying the activity to the fullest. These constraints need to be overcome by the community. E.g. people want to walk, but there are no sidewalks.

Economic values of recreation and leisure

Basic economics say that the success of a product is measured by its demand and subsequently its supply. With recreation the demand is always there as people want to have fun and want to have safe places to do it in. The three sectors have reacted to this demand and have supplied the facilities and programs. Citizens can benefit hugely as jobs, personal growth and revenues increase.

Usually we look at the income statement of companies and sectors to ascertain its success. But with leisure and recreation it is better to look at the expenditure statement rather than income. Over the years recreation expenses have increased from 2% of a family’s expenses to 10%. This is a positive sign and step in the right direction as people are starting to recreate more. Recreation is also described as inflation and recession resistant. Recreation is big money but expenditures aren’t only what the public spends on recreation, but also what government spends on recreation. So with government have three levels, there should be large amounts of money being spent on recreation. But that is not the trend.

Participation rates

By checking and keeping proper records of how many people engage in leisure and recreation we can also measure the effect leisure and recreation has on the economy. If more people participate, then more money needs to be allocated for facility upgrading, or new facilities and new programs.

Intangible benefits

Leisure and recreation also include economic benefits such as increase in area and property values.

Location and property values

Most places in America are dependent on tourism to sustain the community e.g. Orlando Florida Disneyland or the Atlantic Coast. Majority of the community would be without jobs and the hospitality and tourism industry would be without clients. If this had to happen property values would decrease and employment issues would crop up. When recreation facilities are correctly constructed and maintained they appreciate the land that they are on. Lake properties generally have higher values.

Economic impact

All communities have common places for recreation e.g. Bowling alleys, gaming arcades, pool halls, restaurants etc. These places generate money from tourists and the community. But more often citizens recreate at home and tourists use these tourist attractions where they spend foreign money and boost the economy.

Goods and services

People want to work in a happy environment and a place where they are comfortable. They want family time and satisfaction. Recreation can give this. Recreation keeps people happy which makes them more productive and therefore increases the economic value of that area.

Employment

Job opportunities are numerous in recreation such as managers, supervisors, programmers, admin clerks etc. These are positions often seen in the public sector. The non profit sector is just as huge. If you take a camp for example, these are the possible jobs that are available: camp counsellors, admin staff, coaches, instructors etc.

Conclusion

Leisure has a clear cut place in the economy. A lot of people earn their keep by producing items of recreation. All these leisure programs and parks would not be needed if there was no interest in leisure. As time goes by leisure is getting bigger and bigger and these are great steps in the right direction.

Through past experience and research, hypermasculinity has led African American culture to be defined as a culture that strongly fights for their sign of status, and sexual aggressivity and dominance appear to be highly regarded. Research has concluded that media and false misinterpretations of hypermasculinity are the main causes, and the strong influences they have are causing these dominant, aggressive and demanding behaviours. Research has been done through personal interviews, field work and observation. Perhaps present and previous research is showing a better understanding for many cultures as to why African American men display certain characteristics, in which demonstrate power and control. Furthermore studies are creating awareness for society, although they are not justifying these behaviours as being acceptable.

Introduction:

Life threatening situations are brought upon us every day as we walk out the front door, into the bus or into the front doors of school. Growing up in today’s society and conforming to various norms, values and behaviours in which one witnesses, is traumatic and time consuming amongst young men and women, especially young African American men. Gender roles and societies’ expectation are presented at such a young age, this leading to pressure and unjustified behaviours, such as drug trafficking, prostitution and pimping. Within African American society, gender roles are depicted precisely and followed. Various different ethnic groups live in different parts of the world, but the “status of black males in American society has been in flux for the last several decades (Lips 2001, p.5)”. The reasons why all these groups must show status is to prove their images of what it means to be masculine. “Sentimental, submissive and superstitious (Lips, 2001, p.5)” are qualities associated with females in every country. On the other hand males are more likely to be connected to characteristics resembling “dominance, forcefulness and strength (Lips, 2001, p.5)”. In a variety of Hip Hop, Rap music video clips, the images being portrayed of how young men must behave always consists of the same factors; dominance, power, aggressivity and the ‘tough guy’. The question of how hypermasculinity is defined in African American culture and why sexual aggressivity and dominance appear to be highly regarded within this culture, has been an ideology for many. Despite false interpretation that the media portrays, and the pressure of “role models” and “real men”, the following paper will examine the main points and answers to these questions. Furthermore it will observe the use of the term “nigga” and “gansta” from an open minded point of view.

Hypermasculinity defined and expressed

Hypermasculinity is an extremely important sign of status for black males. Hypermasculinity is defined in the (Oxford Dictionary) as an “exaggerated masculine qualities”, although this term can be negative, it is also personalized when examining these behaviours as adaptive or maladaptive impassively. The term ‘gansta’ for example comes from the word gangster, which means a criminal who is a part of a gang; who would want to be viewed as a criminal. The other term often miss used, is the word ‘pimp’. A ‘pimp’, is an agent for prostitutes who lives off their earnings (Oxford Dictionary)”. Today pimp is being used to refer to guys who sleep with many girls, or the ones who can pick up any girl they want. Where will society draw the line, and who comes to decide whether one corresponds to the definition of a man “an adult human male, sometimes also used to identify a male human regardless of age, as in phrases such as men’s rights (Oxford Dictionary)”.

DeReef examines African American behaviour and defines masculinity to “the degree where a male is able to successfully manifest their attributes (DeReef, F. J. 2006, p.46)”. These behaviours are being shown in different ways where males are modifying or distorting their real behaviours in order to conform into society, as to what seems to be “correctly” acceptable. Over a long period of time until today black compulsive masculinity has been a dysfunctional response to solving racial domination and has been causing more problems within the environment. In other words black compulsive behaviours is an ideology composed of African consciousness, in which has created a reactionary masculinity in many African American males who “seek to imitate their white male counterparts (DeReef, F.J. 2006, p. 47)”. According to Wolfe African American males strongly believe it is hard to achieve masculine identity through usual work or responsibilities. They are justifying their behaviours through assumptions in which they believe that they are the only ones who must work hard and have responsibilities in order to achieve masculine identity. Maladaptive hypermasculine behaviours such as drug trafficking, or being a pimp are the ones being justified because there is not enough employment opportunities given to black men. There has been a correlation between joblessness and higher incidence of various maladaptive behaviours.

Hypersexuality and homophobia

Black males, especially young men are so afraid to be referred to as “wimps”, or “homos”, that they have even created the term “no homo (Masculinity, homophobia and Hip Hop, n.d )”,. The term ‘No homo’ must be said at the end of each sentence, in order for people not to think they sound gay, or they said something gay. During an interview regarding the term “no homo“, males claimed not to be reinforcing that their not gay because they know they’re not, but they are just making sure that when they speak others don’t assume they’re gay. Homophobia is a big issue that has aroused and has become serious within the generation today. Elijah G.Ward, discusses how the black churches are also encouraging homophobia amongst black males and most of the time those who are against homosexuality are uncertain of their own sexuality and fear that they will be categorised as a community. This strongly emphasizes their powerful beliefs that heterosexuality is the right way. Many cultures do not support homosexuality, a significant amount of black people according to Elijah G. Ward, see “homosexual relationships as unacceptable and morality wrong p.494”. In the black community a famous gansta-rapper Ice Cube has implanted in one of his famous songs “true niggers ain’t gay (Ward, G.E .2005, p. 497)”. Homosexuality is seen to be a sign of weakness and is associated with feminine characteristics, these also encouraging labels towards men such as ‘fags’ or ‘queers’. The black church strongly enforces that homosexuality is not what a ‘man’ is and a man should be violent, demanding and have control. Their main priorities are their labels and they pay close attention, not to be called ‘sissies’ which is the opposite of being cool. They want to portray that hard core ‘gansta’ rapper role model who is an “intensified, black male cultural reflection of patriarchy, sexism, hetorosexism and gansta-style (Ward, G. E. 2005, p. 497)”.

Violent behaviours and “gansta”

Throughout history, the black population have undergone several changes some harder to adapt to then others. The main issue with behaviours constantly changing and deviance sometimes being accepted, is when you adapt to an aggressive dominant behaviour you don’t want to let go of that control you have obtained. A problem which has occurred and is important to understand is to know the difference between, understanding what you have been told and believing and making your own judgements accordingly; if it is right. For example in the black society it is a “sign of status”, to sleep with as many women as possible. William, A. & Wolfe, summarize in their article that “it is right to deceive a girl in order to have sex with her (Wiliam, A. & Wolfe 2003, p 848)” and that they don’t believe in the use of the condom for a simple reason that they would be “undermining their masculinity (Wiliam, A. & Wolfe 2003, p. 848)”.Black males have been socialized into using their penis as a way to achieve manhood. Different expectations within a culture or society and how values have changed over time. This has also caused many African American women to fear their partners, and studies say that a woman has been in an abusive relationship is more likely not to speak up and fight her partner. In regards to sexuality and power the black African American society believes that when “sexual aggression exists in a relationship (Wiliam, A. & Wolfe 2003, p. 848 )”, this shows violence is involved therefore he is a man; concluding violence is manly. Adolescent black males are also accounted for having a “higher victimization rate than any other racial or age group (Gregory,S. 2007, p 371)”. African American women compare to their counter parts are the ones to usually get involved in abusive relationships and stay quiet due to their surroundings and or an abusive father. African American women are more vulnerable and listen to their partners when they use aggressive behaviours. This also brings out statistics which show that over “fifty percent of babies are born to minor females, fathered by African American men. They also show that the father is usually on average 26.1 years older (Wiliam, A. & Wolfe 2003, p. 849”.From this one can clearly conclude that a young African American female is no way has interpersonal skills and dominance over her partner to demand the use of a condom.

Furthermore, black males are often taught or trained to control their emotions internally towards exercises that stimulate minor frustration, although this does not emphasise the power that long term “maladaptive, self destructive and life threatening (Gregory, S. 2007,p.386) ” consequences have above it all. An infant who is brought up in a dangerous neighbourhood, attended an unsafe school and dealt with racism is more prone to recognize feelings towards aggression and violence. Black men who have experienced a tragic event of a life threatening situation will want to be prepared if it ever happens again, this is why Gregory, S. discusses the use of carrying of a weapon. In most neighbourhoods today and schools, young teens will not walk around with knifes and use it as an excuse of security purposes, although in neighbourhoods where there are at least three people getting stabbed every day, these young kids want to feel safe. The college of New Jersey evaluated that males are more likely to carry a weapon than females, and a survey in 2007 showed that 27% of boys did carry a weapon (Gregory, S. 2007, p.369). Carrying a knife or a gun is a sign of security, despite its encouragement towards violent behaviours. A weapon stimulates the “fight or flight” response which is a decision you make when experiencing a dangerous situation. Is the individual going to walk away, or will he make a decision and fight. In a situation where someone is carrying a weapon, almost one hundred percent of the time if they feel secure enough to fight and win, the weapon is their support and will cause them to partake in this dangerous behaviour. Statistics show that” in 1994, gun control accounted for approximately 1,700 Black youths aged ten to nineteen (Gregory, S. 2007, p 368)”. The following statistics tell us that most of crime is being committed at a young age by youth. Young children are the ones who are victimised, especially in schools in poor neighbourhoods and the fear they experience is unpleasant and it creates an awareness of danger.

Hip Hop; a justifiable reason leading to hypermasculinity

The third point, if not one of the most influential one in society influencing power, dominance and control is Hip Hop. As a whole Hip Hop has become a culture for most black African American men and this has brought up a new image of acceptable behaviours and hypermasculinity. Many video clips you watch or lyrics you read are not only full of vulgar language, but it’s always a battle over a girl, power or insulting someone’s mother. Rap has created a new lifestyle for young men, and also many role models like Eminem, 50 cent and Tupac. Luxury has also become a big part of status. Many African American men today believe that rap is a way to express their true black life. There are different kinds of rap music, this having an influence on different kind of behaviours that are being acted out in society. Rap is categorised using five different forms. “Teacher-rap, nation conscious rap, gansta rap, player/lover rap, porno rap and last religious rap (DeReef,F.J. 2006)”. These different kinds of rap all influence different ideas from social commitment to struggle, romance, sexual aggressive behaviours and spirituality of Christianity and Islam. It is amazing to listen to a rap song and interpret all these different ideas, and thinks to yourself, how can a young fifteen or sixteen year old kid understand this. What is being said is sometimes due to a personal experience or the rap artist is expressing his feelings and or emotions. Media has shown violence to be a part of masculinity, that it has become a norm and is no longer deviance within society. Statistics show that one in four men will use violence against their partner, and eighty-five percent of murders are being committed by men. As one can witness sexuality, criminality and violence play a strong role as being partners. Hip Hop role models like Lil Wayne display high rates of criminality for young African American men, and also use violence and strength towards sexuality. Young males are being brain washed and influenced in regards to these being the real characteristics of men and it’s a direct justification for hypermasculine behaviours.

Roots of slavery

The 17th century African American slavery was devastating and today has become a part of history. Slaves were not entitles any equal rights compare to what other had. They were demanded to do hard labour work and were treated with cruelty. Slaves were working ridiculous amount of hours a day and weren’t even treated as human beings.These slaves were being sold as if they were commodities from city to city. Slaves were seen by many as a different class of people in society. Many slaves tried to fights their master although there was not much success as they would be arrested or sent somewhere else. Slavery today plays a role on how society view black males and how they view themselves compare to society.

The word “nigga”

The word “nigga” is a good example or a word that has different meanings and that has been re-appropriated in society depending on who uses it. The word “nigga” comes from the word nigger which was originally used to refer to black people. The word was also used in the time of slavery for the black who were trying to escape. Today many African American men use the word amongst each other like white people would use the word “brother”. Although if a white person were to use the word nigger it is seen as insulting and some African American men take it to the extreme of being offended they might even beat someone up. Nigger for the African American culture is a sign of self identity amongst one another and pride. It is a moment in time of history and they want to hold onto this. In the 1970 the word nigger was seen as racists, offensive and as early as today it is a word that many will refrain from using.

Slavery and hypermasculinity

Men have enslaved other men to show their mastery over them, and think it is a weakness to show or express their feelings towards other human beings. Patriarchal masculinity has caused problems that are so complex. Long after “legal racial segregation ended ( Lips, 2001, p.2 )”, it is still clear how the white society treats Black men. Unless close attention is being payed to little factors which make a difference; often Black men are “referred to not as men but as boys (Lips, 2001, p.20)”. Black men lived through times where they were never given the same privileges as white men, and they always had to earn their masculinity, most of the time not feeling good about being a man. Black males were always viewed as inferior to other cultures and always had to prove themselves one way or another. They were always stereotypically related to drugs, poverty and violence. Black American youth during the period of black power to Hip Hop, were denied opportunities to exercise their citizenship; this having an effect today, they don’t want to fall back down beneath everyone. Being denied opportunities, rights and not able to achieve personal goals has stuck with the black society until today. Not only is being labelled “black” a mental damage, but creates physical aggression as well.

It seems that an individual who has been constantly emasculated over the years would at least try to conform to the dominant culture in hope of their being some acknowledgment of acceptance. It has been proven throughout society especially in the United States, that growing up as a black male has been a tough process. “Being a black male is a burden at times because some people see and think of me, and men like me, as “menaces to society.” The masculinity that has been a part of my life has been one that has been used to oppress others and oppress me (Clifford, A. 2006, and p.4)”.

The status of poverty for African American youth is the one that is the most revealing. ” In 2001 among all American children under the age of eighteen, the poverty rate was sixteen percent, but it was three times as high for black children; 30 percent (Collins, H, P. 2006, p.3)”. Black youth are the ones who are affected the most by social problems. Increasing employment opportunities for African American males would be ideal, this would give them a better environment, better surroundings and influence them that they are like the rest of the society. This is also why many black males rape, because that act of aggression towards a women is a form of status in which they would use in a workplace which is often not available for them. In other words, having the right to work and live a “normal life style”, will affect them positively. Several African American men have shaped their understandings and realities based on the past and keep exercising those actions. Having a normal life style remains a dream for many black youths living under the age of eighteen. The main problem that touches upon poverty is the “ineffectiveness of political strategies that strive to resist it (Collins, H, P. 2006, p.9)”. The civil rights movement was the primary strategy to solve racial integration, although African American politics are trying new social challenges to meet old responses. Despite some accomplishment, African Americans are frustrated because they don’t see anything opening up ahead of them and they are still dealing with high unemployment rates. Beyond social problems resulting to poverty, unemployment and lack of civil rights, masculinity today is a big part relating to the past. African American societies have developed strong personalities to prove who they are and what they are capable of. For instance when you look around today, you will see more black males working, neighbourhoods are less poor and opportunities and chances have been and are being given to black communities. Considering that young African American males occupy such a visible position within society, they have demonstrated a zero tolerance for “race, nation, gender, age and sexuality (Collins, H, P. 2006)”. All these different aspects that influenced black men have created the drives towards manhood today. When black men were in slavery they were being ordered around and always given commands; comparing that to this new generations they are the ones who are in control, and for the most are the ones giving commands.

Conclusion:

The issue of hypermasculinity is one that is quite complex and a total solution cannot be found. Research has shown that African American men believe in proving themselves as “real men”; this leading to behaviours in which can no longer be controlled. These actions are being ‘tolerated’ by society today especially for young black males. Sexual aggressivity, dominance and hypermasculinity are highly responded within the culture for a countless amount of reasons. Media is portraying false misinterpretations as to what it means to be masculine, there is always a constant pressure being brought upon black males which enforces violent and controlling behaviours and they are being accepted as ‘normal’. Thirdly, African American culture has such a strong influential past of slavery that their culture is looking at society through a different lens.

Black male needs to accomplish giving themselves an identity that will cause them to be comfortable with themselves. Ideally black males should critically assess the dominant culture’s norm of masculinity instead of reworking the norms to satisfy their social situation. Many black males have failed to see the problem of the dominant culture’s norms of masculinity in their lives. Society in general has labelled black men as being dangerous, and regardless if you know the person or not before even speaking to many black men they fall into that category that they are violent, dangerous or a sex maniac. Society has enforced black males to feel this way and cause them to do things in which they shouldn’t do. It has caused a psychological problem which is hard to erase. In no way do African American men believe they can show weakness, this would mean they are not men. Violence in the media is glorified, and is exposed to children of all ages. Police will not hesitate to use violence against suspects, and these young black males are often the targets of violent behaviours in their neighbourhoods; drugs, rape, gang related fights or domestic violence.