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The nature of inequalities between men and women dates back to the sociologist view of Emile Durkheim, and the idea of social facts and the essence of an individuals ability to act independently of the obstacles that deter from their personal right of achieving social equality (Ferrante 5). As Durkheim lay the groundwork for gender inequalities in society, the inequalities in leadership roles in the workplace are also in turn modeled by a society’s hierarchical structure or choice of social agency. Furthermore, the patriarchal social structure in the workforce in which women are seen as inferior is perpetuated by the collective social belief of female inferiority and a male dominance of power, as created by a mutual interaction between men and women. Since the women’s rights movement, the presence of women in the workforce has been increasing greatly, but discrimination and inequality in earnings is still prevalent in leadership positions. The nature of gender inequalities in society have laid the foundation for a structured system of inequality in the workforce while simultaneously reinforcing the social construct of male dominance and the psychological belief of self inferiority in females.

The nature of gender inequalities in leadership positions can be partially attributed to the viewpoint of Emile Durkheim in relation to social facts and the effect of a social structure that invests most power in males. Werner J. Cahnman and Joseph Maier’s article on sociologist, Emile Durkheim, in the Encyclopaedia Judaica, highlights Durkheim’s inquiries on social inequalities that are still prevalent today. Durkheim’s legacy was partially created by the connection he made between a social fact and it’s affect on societal structures, such as occupational status. According to Durkheim, because society “is above man and penetrates man [at the same time], it is ultimately the only thing that has the power to [. . .] submit them to rules of conduct, to privations, and to the kind of sacrifice without which society would be impossible” (Cahnman and Maier 63). Durkheim suggests that the individual of society experiences an indirect dependence “by focusing his attention on everything essential to the maintenance of society: its principle norms, values, institutions, its sacred symbols”, and as a result, they are subject to obey the popular belief of a hierarchical structure. This in turn leads to a distinct gender inequality between men and women (Cahnman and Maier 63). The opposing force of an authoritative societal structure is agency. According to writers Terri Apter and Elizabeth Garnsey of the Women’s Studies International Forum, the sociological debate of structure and agency emphasizes “the individual’s capacity to act independently of structural constraints” (20). Whereas Durkheim suggested that society maintains stability and structure through the individual’s submission to structure, agency advocates for the individual to be an active participant in society and face the constraints of society head on. As women are constantly perceived as inadequate active citizens in their society, they have learned to internalize the social constraints and reinforce the perception of females in society as the inferior counterpart of males.

The nature behind this hierarchical social structure that gives way to gender inequalities in the workforce is partially affected by psychological constraints that women experience through the structural constraints of society. Apter and Garnsey explain that social actions refer to the interactions and “mutuality of experiences” between the participants of society to formulate a common belief stemming from “constructional constraints in society” (19). Furthermore, as the belief of male superiority and female inferiority is formulated as a common conception, the “woman’s failure to act independently of social constraints prevents [her] from asserting their rights and successfully challenging the status quo in which [she] has an unequal share” (Apter and Garnsey 21). Women have been socialized to accept social constraints, causing an overall lack of agency that is essential to obtaining positions at the top of the hierarchical social structure. Societal gender inequalities were first formulated centuries ago, with causes stemming from social constraints working against women as enforced by the male dominance and the female’s submission to the society’s structural hierarchies. The American Psychological Association released the article, “Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice Toward Female Leaders” in the Psychological Review in July of 2002, to highlight the blatant prejudices toward women in leadership positions, as well as the obstacles women face in their endeavor to reach the top. Researchers Alice H. Eagly and Steven J. Karau state in this article that “leadership has been predominantly a male prerogative in corporate, political, military, and other sectors of society” and although women have, indeed, gained “increased access to supervisory and middle management positions”, they continue to “remain quite rare as elite leaders and top executives” (575). While women have come far from the times before the Women’s Rights movement, there is still room for improvement, as societal constraints continue to hinder a woman’s occupation of a leadership role in the workforce.

The causes behind workforce gender inequality is undoubtedly a product of societal constraints that inhibit a woman’s upward strive to leadership. The belief of male superiority in the workforce is reinforced as the “terms of male power rest on the assumption that society is structured to support male interests” (Apter and Garnsey 19-20). This belief of male superiority has perpetuated a distinct gender segregation that has been a long acting force in nearly every aspect of a woman’s life, as “prejudice against women causes and continues job segregation at work, while directly and indirectly men maintain that power in the home” (Apter and Garnsey 21). Because women often are expected to stay home and help create a family unit, “women are viewed as largely powerless when faced with such structures as the educational system and job segregation, which appear in crucial ways to embody male power” (Apter and Garnsey 20). As a result, a female’s worth is often determined by the male population, and the possibility of success is limited.

As social constraints block upward mobility, women have become socialized to psychologically limit themselves as a gender in their vocations, allowing the male gender to take on the role of superiority. This is emphasized by Apter and Garnsey in the Women’s Studies International Forum suggests that “women are seen from this perspective to take a shrewd measure of the cost of success in male terms in a male world and, accordingly, to choose different goals and other means of achieving them” (20). This viewpoint suggests that the inequalities in gender are not only enforced by powerful male figures, but also by the female population instead. According to this perspective, “if women freed themselves psychologically, if they changed their outlook, they could take action to remedy inequalities” (Apter and Garnsey 20). As society has formulated a belief of female inferiority, the possibility – in both a woman and man’s mind – of a woman reaching an elitist position of leadership in the workforce is seen as completely unattainable.

The main reason that perpetuates the job inequalities between men and women in the workforce can be attributed to the blatant discrimination of women’s entrance into previously male dominated jobs. The article, “Gender Inequality Across Local Wage Hierarchies” by Matt L. Huffman explains this gender discrimination and the limitations of female workers. Huffman states that the explanation behind “gender inequality jobs include a cultural devaluation of work done by women” as well as the fact that “hiring discrimination restricting women’s access to some jobs” inevitably results in “occupational crowding that drives down pay in female-dominated jobs” (324). Huffman accordingly inquires that another mechanism in perpetuating this inequality is “in the ability of powerful groups (such as men) to monopolize the most powerful positions in organizations” which can be found in jobs that ensue “the highest skill requirements, opportunities for advancement, and/or chances to exercise authority” (325). Huffman furthers his argument by conceptually calling his claim a “social closure process” in which “gender inequality is created and sustained through the allocation of women and men into positions that differ along key pay-related dimensions” (325). Huffman argues that societies “function to maintain the dominant group’s interest by sustaining existing inequalities in workplace through power and rewards” (325). This social closure process coincides with the sociological term the “glass ceiling effect” of which “blocks women’s social mobility into the upper levels in organizational hierarchies” as it explains the constant limitation experienced by women in climbing the ladder of success when in competition with male authoritative figures. Accordingly, studies have shown that within the presence of the glass ceiling effect, “increased inequality at high levels of an outcome, such as earnings and authority” are often present as well (Huffman 326). The inequalities in the workforce can be best understood by the wage discrepancies between equal paying jobs of men and women, primarily in leadership positions.

The findings from research in this particular area of study on gender inequalities show that there is a noticeable inconsistency between the earnings of men and women not only in equal job statuses, but primarily in positions of leadership as well. Two sociologists, Steven Sweet and Kimberly Baker, designed two learning modules to increase college student’s understandings of gender and racial inequalities in their intended vocations. The study supplied students with information and data from the census of that particular year, showing that the gender inequalities do exist in today’s society and are extremely prevalent. The data show that women under-earn men in 94.1 percent of the student’s chosen occupations, in 91.1 percent of all occupations, and in 92.4 percent of upper tier occupations (Sweet and Baker 7). Accordingly, it is only found that within 5.5 percent of the student’s chosen careers, 8.4 percent of all careers, and 7.1 percent of upper tier careers that men and women make equal earnings today in America (Sweet and Baker 7). As shown in these statistics, it is nearly impossible to escape gender inequalities in the workforce throughout America. Furthermore, The Psychological Review shows research that coincides with this phenomenon as they collected an array of statistics pertaining to major leadership roles that consistently show inequality, namely: “women constitute 4% of the five highest earning officers in Fortune 500 companies and 0. 4% of the CEOs (Catalyst, 2000); 13% of senators, 14% of congressional representatives, and 10% of state governors (Center for the American Woman and Politics, 2001); and 2% of military officers at the level of brigadier general and rear admiral or higher (U.S. Department of Defense, 1998)” (Eagly and Karau 573). As the preceding statistics show, women representation in the elite power jobs is highly limited; despite the fact that the number of women in the workforce has been steadily increasing. According to the New York Times, “throughout the 1900s and 2000s, and until this recession, women occupied less than 49 percent of the workforce. However, that percent has now crossed the 50 percent threshold for the first time” (Mulligan). Yet despite this achievement, “women make only 77.5 cents for every dollar that men earn” and to further these facts, statistics show that as the amount of education a woman has increases, the greater the disparity will be that she will have to accommodate for; stating that “women in specialty occupations were found to earn just 72.7 percent of what men in the same occupation were earning” (Mulligan). Although women’s rights have come a long way since the predating times of the Women’s Rights Movement, there is still a blatantly obvious discrimination towards women in the workforce, hindering the gender from attaining the success that society has strictly deemed achievable for the male species only.

Industrialization is a period in time in which economic and social changes lead a pre-industrial agrarian society into an industrial one. During this period, both economic and social changes are paired with technological innovation, leading to a massive manufacturing growth, where the economy itself, is organizing for the purpose of manufacturing. [1] Industrialization is also defined as the replacement of farming and resource extracting by manufacturing and the growth of the service industry. [2]

Industrialization started with the industrial revolution, around 1760, in Britain. It is considered to be a huge turning point in history; Daily life of everyone around the world changed because of industrial revolution. Average income and population underwent a sustainable growth that was never seen before. Nobel Prize winner Robert E. Lucas, Jr. said: “For the first time in history, the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth … Nothing remotely like this economic behavior is mentioned by the classical economists, even as a theoretical possibility.” [3]

I believe, along with literature evidence, that industrialization impacted the society and economy of the countries in which it occurred in so many ways. Industrialization caused or at the very least heavily participated in the shift from rural to urban our current society is a result of, it also changed the family structure as argued by many scholars, along with many other changes. I will first discuss the different views on the social impacts resulting of industrialization, before moving on to the economic ones.

The most widely agreed upon social impact of industrialization is urbanization; urbanization is the increase (both in population and in size) in the urban area. It is caused by rural migration, which is itself caused by the increasing concentration of labor into factories. [4] I personally believe that industrialization is the direct cause or urbanization. Since most of pre-industrialization societies were only based on subsistence, where each country would produce what it needed to “survive”, and that was mainly food, which made most of these countries rural; based on their own agriculture to create their means of survival. This is what we call subsistence agriculture. But with industrialization, a lot more goods were able to be produced and traded, so less and less subsistence agriculture was needed, and more people to work on the factories were needed. [5] Those workers needed houses to live in with their families, shops to buy the goods needed for their well-being and that of their families, etc. These needs caused large towns to be created as the number of workers needed to operate factories kept on increasing as industrialization started setting its roots deeper and deeper within the societies it started in.

Along with urbanization, industrialization caused the family structure to change heavily. In the pre-industrialization era, extended families used to live together in the same place for generations (uncles, grandparents, etc.), but with industrialization, men had to go work in the factories far away from home, so their nuclear families (parents with their growing children) eventually had to move depending on where work was available, making the extended family bonds less and less significant. [6] Talcott Parsons also argues that in the modern industrial society, individuals gain more by rejecting extended families relationships than by holding on to them, as an evidence of this, he shows how the only families maintaining kinship relationships are from the upper-class, where such connections have direct economic benefits, while in lower classes, nuclear families lived by themselves, as their extended families did not bring anything to them but obstacles.

Another social impact of industrialization has to do with women’s place in the society. It is argued in the literature that industrialization is the “real” beginning of women’s participation in the labor force; however, women were always expected to work, some of them were working on farms in agricultural oriented societies, else they were either heavily involved in textile work, or they were working alongside with their husbands in their shops, this while giving birth, raising children, and running the house. These kind of jobs could be done from home, since they did not require any heavy kind of equipment. Maxine Berg quotes an observer in Scotland: “Here as in all semi-barbarous countries, is the woman seen to be regarded rather the drudge than the companion to the man. The husband turns up the land and sows it – the wife conveys the manure to it in a creel, tends the corn, reaps it, hoes the potatoes, digs them up, carries the whole home on her back, when bearing the creel she is also engaged with spinning with the distaff” [7] With industrialization, women were expected to work outside of their homes, with completely different conditions. With strict work hours, women could no longer pace themselves, and find that balance between running the house, raising the children and doing work. Plus, the conditions under which they worked were a lot tougher, even dangerous. But they were still earning less than men even working equal hours. Due to these new conditions, women were no longer able to raise their children, so they were sending them to be nursed in the countryside: “”close to one third of all babies born in Lyons (some 2,000 of 5,000-6000) were carted off to the countryside” to be nursed.” [8] Based on the different opinions in the literature, I came to the conclusion that women’s working conditions changed with industrialization, for the worst during the industrial revolution (considering the fact that women now work outside their homes for the “first” time, and the fact that they were working in terrible and dangerous conditions), but as conditions got better with time, industrialization’s effect on women’s work conditions definitely became positive. One might even argue that the only reason women are now working in the same condition as men is industrialization.

Industrialization also had a direct impact on income and income distribution; a perfect example is the increase in income observed especially in Europe directly following the industrial revolution. The following graph describes those increases in income levels:

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Maddison_GDP_per_capita_1500-1950.svg/350px-Maddison_GDP_per_capita_1500-1950.svg.png

The graph is showing the gross domestic product per capita starting from year 1500 till 1950. The unit used is 1990 International dollars. [9] We can clearly see that following the industrial revolution, which started during the second half of the 18th century, income levels skyrocketed to the roofs in the countries that took part in the industrialization process.

Ronald Hsia and Larry Chau discuss in their journal article how industrialization in Hong Kong affected income and income distribution. Unsurprisingly, income levels rose as industrialization set foot in the country, but the authors argue that the increase was far more important for “the poorest” of the country, this is explained by the fact that a lot more jobs were created for those who were looking, and getting a job in a factory at that time only required to be physically capable to do the work. [10] With this disparity in the increase of income levels, income distribution got significantly narrowed as the poor are making “a lot” more money, while the rich are only making “a little bit” more. I believe this to be true in all countries affected by industrialization, while this might not hold for every single industrialized country; it is at least a direct consequence of a rapid industrialization.

It is also heavily discussed how much industrialization impacted the economy of the societies it reached, and even the world economy. Pollard argues in his article that the major economic impact of industrialization is time-space compression, which is something I agree with. Time-space compression means that with industrialization, it now takes a lot less time to travel the same distance compared to the pre-industrialization era. [11] One might wonder how is travel time relevant to the economy, it is pretty simple, since it now requires less time to travel, it also takes less time to trade, which directly makes the global economy more active. With this reduced “trade time”, countries no longer have to be subsistent, they can produce what they excel at and sell what is left, while buying other goods they need and don’t produce. Another thing time-space compression allowed was the access to previously unavailable regions; some of these regions had many resources to be used to expand the economy, plus the population growth could be better managed with the increased available space.

Industrialization impacted the society and the economy of the countries in which it set foot in so many ways. Industrialization caused the massive urbanization we can still witness today, it caused the family structure to be changed (dominance of nuclear families), it had to do with how women’s place in the society changed. Industrialization was also a catalyst for the income levels increase, and arguably for the decrease in the income level distribution, and it also, among other things, cause the time-space compression that now allows trade to be such an important part of the economy. To put it in a nutshell, industrialization had many impacts in the societies in which it was introduced, although some impacts seemed negative at first (like the working conditions in the factories along with the child labor with all the dangers involved in such conditions), it was all for the best in the end.

Sociology is defined as the study of social life of human beings. It helps social analysts to understand the working of human beings and society (Moore Kelly, 2008). Relationship between the individual and society has formed the major basis of sociological principles.

George Ritzer’s Integration model:

Ritzer’s model is a good example of sociological theory based on integrationist approach. It combines both macro and micro level theories in it. According to him, there are four highly interdependent elements in the society which are a macro objective component, a micro objective component, a macro subjective component, a micro subjective component. This theory is beneficial in understanding the society in both objective and subjective levels. It also aims at understanding the society norms and individual benefits from the society (Ritzer et al., 2003).

Adapted from (Ritzer et al., 2003)

According to this theory, all the four components are distinct and interdependent to influence the society. It emphasizes that individuals can change cultural norms and society according to their behaviour.

Behaviour of the individual doesn’t essentially influence the society. However certain habits may create positive or negative effect on the society. When a individual tries and modifies their bodies away from the knowledge of the society, it makes no difference. However, when individual tries to modify the society by habits and behaviour, it creates a social impact.

According to Ann swindler, ideology is a determining factor for influencing empowerment in the society and body modification is one such ideology. Body modification increased rapidly in the western countries over the years and slowly spreading to other countries as a trend of fashion. Body modification refers to changes to the external appearance of the body by using devices or fashion to change the body rapidly or gradually. Some of the body modifications include tattooing, piercing, cutting, branding, inserting rings or studs to ears, navel, nose, eye brows (Featherstone, 1999). Body modification can also be extended to the practices such as gymnastics, dieting and physical exercising techniques to alter the existing body structure. These modifications are gradually occurring and take a period of time to get noticeable (Featherstone, 1999).

Use of technology in body modifications is another additional practice, and this includes wearing spectacles for clear vision, using hearing aids and various body implants at heart, kidney and skin surfaces. Use of these modifications is necessary in normal functioning of a body in absence of regular controlled physiological process. When the body tends to become weak or unable to resist changes, these technological devices and nano technological products are used within or over the body to improve health condition and reduce pain in human beings (Featherstone, 1999).

Science and fiction influence body modification procedures indirectly by fascination and intention to follow or copy. Films are the major sources of science fiction and some of them include Robocop (Paul Verhoeven, 1987), Blade runner (Michael Deeley and Ridley Scott, 1982). Some of the films also emphasized on cyberspace and its influences which markedly improved fashion sense of human beings (William Gibson, 1986).

Media and magazines are alternatively cheaper resources to human beings which influence fashion. These resources create a cultural impact on human beings to adapt very commonly to makeovers and changeovers. Cultural aspects of the society have been gradually changing through media (Featherstone, 1982, 1991). Society tends to copy the fashion culture and adapts to it rapidly. Clothing is one such example, which changed over the years from extensive heavy clothing to lighter loose clothing exposing the skin (Bourdieu, 1978; Featherstone, 1987). However, these changes could create a wrong social and cultural impact on the society when wrongly used and interpreted in certain circumstances (Lloyd, 1996).

One of the major body modifications noticed almost everywhere is body building in men and dieting practices in women to change their body pattern to an entirely different look. According to Lee Monaghan, Males tend to in habitat the culture of musculature increasingly and depend on gym and training centres to shape out the body. They tend to adapt these changes to gain the attention of women and society. Females, on the other hand are in a trend of zero-size and slim versions and depend drastically on gym and dieting centres to shred the extra fat away (Featherstone, 1999). These attempts by the society although improves the heath and physique of an individual, it also brings some deleterious changes in the human body. Some of the changes include unimaginable body shapes after rigorous work outs and change in the feminine body structure in females. According to Roberta, not every body reacts in the similar manner to technology and exercise. Some bodies tend to improve and some tend to become abnormal in look and sense. In certain women, changeovers and makeovers could lead to deleterious effects such as change in feminine features (Doug Aaoki, 1996). She describes the use of lipsticks and feminine aids to restore the lost feminity. Regardless of all these attempts, it appears as ‘gender crossing dressing’ to the society (St Matin and Gavey, 1996). Many of the body modifications are irreversible and hence care should be taken in order to adapt to them.

Many of the body modifications are based on changing culture and fashion. Improving with fashion is different from complete transformation. Many of the body modifications cannot be reversed and irreversible body modifications are a risk to try (Paul sweetman). Sweetman describes that fashion trends vary from person to person and permanence of fashion depends on the type of body modifications he is willing to adapt. According to Polhemus and Procter (1978), body modifications are anti-fashion trend followed in modern days and is a means of escapism to avoid the traditional attire. Giddens (1991) supports the context by description of ‘body project’ whereby tradition is dissolved in modern times with relevant excuse of fashion trends.

Positive influence of body modifications on the society:

Body modifications are seen as positive phenomenon by various sociologists. Many of them describe it as growing modern with the changing world. Shildrick describes that society tends to change rapidly and body modification is an enhancement procedure to individualise and identify ones own self separately and uniquely. The positive aspect of modifying body according to the latest trends to inculcate modernity in the system is appreciated by many modern sociologists.

In addition, Society has gained a lot from using certain body modifications to ease their lifestyle (Featherstone, 1999). Use of spectacles and hearing aids has improved style of living with betterment. Adventures in surgical and clinical field by body implants of heart, kidney and artificial limbs have created a milestone. Use of these clinical modifications reduced mortality rate and improved longetivity of life (Featherstone, 1999). Use of artificial limbs has paved an ease of lifestyle for the physically challenged people. This improved their lifestyle and increased chances of competition and survival in complex modern life.

Body project as described by Giddens (1991) is complex and scrutinising the body projects by individuals for their own benefit has become a common practice in modern times. Use of clinical, scientific body modifications for the individual benefit is encouraged by many socialists and has become a common practice in all the places of the world. According to Virilio, body modifications are part of third technological revolution (Armitage, 1999).

Negative influence of body modifications on the society:

Some sociologists have rightly said that great inventions or developments are always followed by potential risk to the society. The modern society has incorporated many body modifications as a part of their lifestyle. Many sociologists discuss that although human beings neglect the fast pace of time, time is always reflected in the body change (Featherstone, 1999).

Society has imbibed the craze of fashion and body modifications to the maximum and these changes tend to be irreversible and deleterious in certain conditions. One of the most objectionable body modifications is cutting and piercing. Insertion of studs and rings to various parts of the body has become a common practice in modern days. Victoria Pitts argues that body modification is seen as factor of mutilation by the media and severely leads to certain mental disorders. Irvine Walsch (1993) describes the body modification as a craze and addiction to the society.

Conclusion:

In the modern era, body modification and fashion have become a common trend. Society has reacted to the new change increasing over the period of time. Although there is a positive impact of the new change in the society, the negative phenomenon is also associated along with it. Sociologists have mixed reactions to the change. The positive factor considered is reformation in medicine and improvement of human beings. The negative impact associated with it is craze, addiction and racism associated with the new fashion trend.

The media role in informing society about the surrounding world is imperative. Media has the influencing power of decisions both for what is news and what gets to be published, and the capacity to signify, events, places, people and situations in definite ways. Accordingly, media is considered as a dynamic stakeholder in giving significance to issues and events as they come up in the public sphere. Considerable levels of discussions are in progress about the effects of the media; a core assumption of media analysis is that the making of news has the prospects of influencing readers or audiences (Street, 2001).

Indigenous people’s representation in mainstream media of Australia is vital; as the media has the potential tools of describing indigenous people to non-indigenous Australians. The media present a baseline regarding what to think about Indigenous Australians, which has an impact on their mind-set afterwards. The media role of reporting race related issues was discussed in the report of The National Inquiry into Racial Violence 1991 (NIRV) stating that the perpetuation and encouragement of negative racial stereotypes, a propensity towards conflictual and sensationalist reporting and an inattentiveness towards, and often unawareness of, minority cultures can all add to build a social climate which is tolerant of racist violence (HEORC, 1991).

I found that Yolanda Walker’s article “Aboriginal family issues” which effectively enlightened the problems of Aboriginal people in contemporary Australia. This essay inline with Yolanda’s findings provides an analytical brief account of how mainstream Australian media portrays the Aboriginal family issues. This essay is focused on the removal of aboriginal children from their families, its effects on their development and

the reporting of these issues in the media.

2. Media – Positioning public opinion and perceptions

The role of the media in shaping public perceptions and opinions about significant political and social issues has long been the subject matter of much speculation and debate (Wilson & Wilson, 2001). Generally, it is acknowledged that our knowledge, thinking and beliefs about the happenings in the world, outside of our personal first-hand experience, is shaped, and some would say orchestrated, by how all these events are reported in print media and communicated through the electronic media.

Bernard Cohen stated “the press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about” (Cohen, 1963, p.13).

Explanations of the media’s influence describe, to some extent, what actually happens. The media can and often does decide what is reported, and these stories, in whole or in part, are assimilated and accommodated into the emotional fabric and cognitive

structures of individual readers and viewers.

3. Aboriginal: the concept of family

The expression “family” necessitates for brainstorming for finding its meaning for different cultural setups. The family is a social unit made up of father, mother, brothers and sisters. All these members play an important role while living together. The family has to fulfill some primary roles in respective cultures. Children in their early age of dependency are nourished and looked after by their families. A family passes on to their children the communication skills such as language providing a code of dealings with others enabling them to play an active role in the society.

And the family inculcates values and norms, the feeling of what is essential, what is worth protecting, defending and, if essential, fighting for. For Aboriginal people kinship and family are of particular importance. The concept of family is very strong among them in a sense that they give more importance to the members in their families such as more respect to their elders; respect their decisions, great love for their younger ones (Working with ATSI, n.d.).

Envisioning, the grief that develops when families consider themselves inadequate to fulfill their liabilities, or the child dies, or is taken away through state intervention, never to return. In public hearings of HREOC (1997) frequently, it was heard from Aboriginal presenters the assertion that “Our children are our future” and almost as often the lament “We have lost our parenting skills”.

4. Aboriginal Children removal from family

The Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission’s national inquiry for separation of indigenous children from their families in its final report (‘Bringing Them Home’) has exposed the level to which Aboriginal families have been disrupted since the entrance of Europeans on these coasts (HREOC, 1997).

It is hard to regard the level of impact on the Aboriginal families as result of removing children from them but the report (‘Bringing Them Home’) has recognised the fact that in 1910 until between one in three and one in ten indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families and communities. This forceful removal of children has affected most of the families for one or more generations (HREOC, 1997).

Since 1937, the removal of indigenous children from their families on such a large scale depicting it as national policy. Therefore, the Human Rights Commission said that official strategy and law for indigenous families and children were opposing to recognise lawful rule introduced into Australia as British common law and from late 1946, constituted an offense against civilization. It violated the accepted values and principles of the times and was the focus of dispute and confrontation. The officials and other contributors are to be held responsible for the imposition of such biased legislation which was harmful of vulnerable and needy children whose parents were incapable to inquire and know their children’s situation and defend them from misuse and mistreatment (HREOC, 1997).

Genocide is the forcible transfer of children from one group of national, ethnic, racial or religious to another group and to destroy them in whole or in part. At the height of the strategy of disconnecting Aboriginal children from their families is `genocide’ (HREOC, 1997, p.270.) The colonisers of this continent have thought that the best way to make black people act like white people was to get control of the children who had not so far learned aboriginal lifeways.

The removal policies have severely affected every concerned individual – where worst lives were lost. A little known but the most astonishing fact that 43 out of the 99 Aboriginal people had died in custody were separated in childhood from their natural families by the involvement of the State, Mission organizations or other institutions’ was exposed by the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody (RCIADIC, 1991).

5. Child Removal: Effects

Aboriginal children removed from families often suffer from or demonstrate

Mostly isolation from others.

Low self-esteem and thoughts of worthlessness.

Mistrusting everyone including state functionaries who maintain to shape community relationship to them.

Loss of identity: A former Aboriginal footballer Sydney Jackson’s exact age cannot be assured because the birth of Sydney Jackson can’t be verified by reference. July 1, 1944 was simply understood to be his birthday. Thus, people like Sydney have problems applying for lawful credentials such as passports (The Stolen Generations, n.d.).

Difficulties to find their religious beliefs: Since they were brought to many different missions or homes where they were taught different kinds of religions.

Inner guilt: Because Aboriginal children often blame their families for not caring and loving for them, based on incorrect information communicated by caregivers. However, later they often find out that their powerless families were frequently trying to bring them back to home.

Psychological problems.

Inspite of living parents most children (particularly boys) were told that their parents were dead, caused many to suffer severe Psychological problems… some just wanted to end their lives. -Bill Simon, taken away aged 10 (The Stolen Generations, n.d.).

Difficult to administer associations: Because they have never had a role representation to be taught from. Many interactions are vicious and abusive which left affecting and bodily scars so deep they would have a permanent impact on victim life and all his future relationships.-Bill Simon, taken aged ten (The Stolen Generations, n.d.).

Loss of cultural affiliation and language: Since they were deprived of traditional knowledge, therefore, Aboriginal children cannot take a part in the educational and religious life of their own communities. “I don’t know nothing about my culture. I don’t know nothing about the land and the language,” says Cynthia Sariago whose mother has died. “It’s hard going back to your native traditional setup because you’re not really accepted by your mother’s traditional people”

(The Stolen Generations, n.d.).

6. Negative Exposure: A Snapshot of Aboriginal Family issues in Australia’s
Mainstream Media

Since the white settlement in Australia, Meadows (2001) outlined the growth of media and journalistic practices in Australia. According to him, earlier the media coverage of Indigenous people mostly composed of conventional reflections that have been obviously racist (Meadows, 2001). His idea includes instances a subtitle from news publication The Bulletin in May 1908 that state publicly below its masthead: Australia for the Whiteman, a subtitle that practiced till 1960 when the magazine changed ownership (Meadow, 2001, p.41). The Moreton Bay Courier, an early newspaper of Queensland, incorporated a regular section titled The Blacks, which transmitted to its readers the most recent news of disagreement between settlers and Indigenous Australians. Even recently, exposure of Aboriginal proceedings and issues has sustained to place Indigenous people in a specific way, but has carried out this through a continuing structure of mind-sets and inferential racism, relatively than the previously overtly racist coverage. Meadows concluded that “… overall, Indigenous people remain largely excluded from mainstream media processes, their interests ignored, and their voices seldom, if ever, heard” (Meadow, 2001, p.163).

Elliott Johnston QC in his reports to the Royal Commission recognised that usually the Aboriginal people complain that they have had an extremely bad deal from the media, experiencing discrimination in access and presentation. We all accept that and know the pain and suffering that has been caused by the lies and distortions, negative stereotypes that the media often uses when reporting on Aboriginal issues (RCIADIC, 1991).

Sweet (2009) quoted Stanley (incharge of The Telethon Institute for Child Health Research) that “the more that the dominant culture reports negative stories about Aboriginal people, the more that Aboriginal children feel bad about being Aboriginal”. She says that the positive stories have better impacts at many levels. Academic articles published for years about the benefits of swimming pools for Aboriginal children’s health, with comparatively little impact. But in the media just one positive front-page story “resulted in swimming pools being put in all over the place.” Says Stanley: “I have these fantasy conversations with Rupert Murdoch and say, ‘you could Actually turn around Aboriginal people if you could change the way you report, even if you just made just 50 per cent of your articles positive, you could reduce suicide rates’” (Sweet, 2009).

Some Positive Stories: However, on the other hand media has some positive stories as well on its credit like Elliott Johnston QC in his reports to the Royal Commission recognised the positive role of the media.

The media played a significant roleaˆ¦in the establishment of this Royal Commission. By its coverage of the issues, from the death of John Pat to that of Lloyd Boney, by placing them in their broader social and moral context, and by its presentation of the campaign of the Committee to Defend Black Rights, the media has acted as one of the protagonists in the process of achieving greater justice for Aboriginal people that is the goal of this Commission (RCIADIC, 1991).

Therefore, in recommendation 208, the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody states:

That, in view of the complaints of Aboriginal people about portraying them prejudicially by the media, the media industry stakeholders should develop and promote formal and informal contacts with Aboriginal people through Aboriginal welfare and media organisations. The objectivity of such contacts should be the creation of more improved understanding on all sides, of issues relating to the media management behaviours of Aboriginal affairs (RCIADIC, 1991).

The media, though – for all its faults – is merely a mirror of Australian society. Certainly their production is based on the wishes of their consumers. Thus, one can argue that Australians allow their media to be languid and imprecise. It is also recognizable that rarely media as a whole attained the high moral standards that it imposes on other segments of the society. This unfair attitude is criticized by people and organization and deems it as oafish, bureaucratic, egotistical and occasionally utter dishonesty (Graham, 2005).

7. Conclusion

Media outlets make decisions about what to report, and what not to report. Similarly, they make decisions regarding what makes front page, and what does not. It is evident from the demographic information that Aboriginal family issues did not feature prominently in mainstream media. Only stories that involved controversy made it to the front page. This suggests that journalists and editors believed that newspaper readers had only marginal interests in the political and social affairs of Indigenous people. Given this, it is possible to argue, as stated by Molnar (2001) ‘that bad news is good news, and good news is no news’ (p.320).

Perspectives on Nursing Health, Culture And Society. This essay will discuss Indigenous health as an important issue to the Australian community and the problems that Indigenous Australian may experience within the current health care system. This will firstly analysis in depth the historical, cultural, social and political factors that have affected the healthcare for the Indigenous Australians. Secondly, some strategies that may improve the health care system.

Indigenous Australians culture is complex and diverse. The indigenous culture of Australia is the oldest living cultural history in the world dating back at least 50,000years. The reason why it’s survived this long is their ability to adapt and change over time. Aboriginals keep their cultural heritage rich and alive by passing their knowledge, arts, rituals and performances the passing from one generation to the next. The fundamental wellbeing of the Aboriginal people is their land, its environment that sustained by the people and culture, full of spiritual wellbeing. Aboriginal people were hunter-gathers who foraged for uncultivated plant and wild animals. The traditional diet was high in carbohydrates, proteins and nutrients and low in fat and sugars. However, modern Aboriginal diet are heavily westernised and tend to be high in fat and sugar but low in carbohydrate, fibre and nutritional value.

The World Health Organisation, social determination of health (SODH)are defined as ‘the fundamental structures of social hierarchy and the socially determined conditions these structures create in which people grow, live, work and age.” The structural organisation for the Aboriginal people is to settle them with housing, employment, educations and health services so they can live in a well presented environment. Health interventions have a clinical focus on individual behaviours such as diet, condom use, exercise, alcohol, etc despite the fact that when structural issues such as poverty is not addressed. Poverty, as represents most Indigenous people as lower socio economic status shows unhealthy behaviour, smoking, poor diet and physical activity which put a risk for numerous health problems. Indigenous people have been victims of societal and racism since colonial times. The dominant culture promotes exclusion, inclusion, inferior conditions or assimilation (loss of individual, unique culture). Though education is available it is often unmet to the needs of the indigenous children resulting to have low enrolment rate, poor school performance and high dropout rate which increase the vulnerability to child labours. It is important to have tradition Indigenous education to be acknowledged and valued. Literacy for the Indigenous must be proficient in their own languages but also to the nation language. Also education should include the land establishment forms of livelihoods that usual involve the land to understand the tradition competencies. The underinvestment in health care in areas in which Indigenous people live is due to rural/remote nature. There are a number of cultural barriers that prevent access to health care. Indigenous languages are often difficult leading to poor communication between nurse and patient. The may experience discrimination by the staff. The traditional land is vital source of material and spiritual well being serving a crucial resource for their reproduction. The loss of land due to polices of dominant culture creates a social problem. The restored relationship to the land is central to restore sense of identity, social status and political power as well as economic, food security, rehabilitation of land. It is important for health care workers to have a degree of cultural competence and work with traditional healing modalities to make cultural safety.

In 1788 European settlers colonised Australia. Upon settlement, the aboriginal people lost their land, their social and economical structure and in general, their way of life. Since colonisation Indigenous Australians have experienced extreme levels of loss, grief, disempowerment, cultural alienation, and loss of identity (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2002, 2003; Hunter, 1993) The trauma suffered by the stolen generations as a result of the assimilation policies of the Australian Government has direct relevance to the psychological adjustment of indigenous Australians when considered within the framework of attachment theory. Attachment theory is the quality of early parent-child bonding, as well as the infants actual experience of the relationship with their parents has important implications for psychological and emotional adjustment later in life. (Strahan, 1995).

There is enough evidence to suggest that Aboriginal people do not have the same degree of access to many of the health services as other Australians. This implies negative implications for the outcomes of Indigenous health. The access of primary health care is compromised or obstructed as they are more likely to present care later stage meaning more unhealthy state. “I was shocked by the poverty, disadvantage and a medical model of care working “downstream” patching local people up and sending them home again without any longer term, preventative care. The issues are not only health services offering primary health care but also acute care providing in hospitals and specialist’s services. Issues such as distance, transport, affordability, availability, language, and cultural stability are all potential hindrances to access health services. Transport, long waiting time, cost to be some of the most commonly cited barriers. Indigenous people also feel disempowered and are less likely to use health services. It is also very important to note that communication difficulties come from those living in remote areas. However the presence of an Aboriginal health worker can be a strong determinant in whether an Indigenous person will access health services. It is important that primary health care services are run by Aboriginal communities to aim to offer health care in a culturally appropriate setting. This causes to a major source of providing education and training for staff. Indigenous health workers and nurses are to provide primary care services based to interlinked with a holistic Indigenous specific definition of health that states: ‘Aboriginal Health is not just the physical well being of an individual but is the social, emotional and cultural well being of the whole community in which each individuals is able to achieve their full potential thereby about the total well being of their community. It is a whole -of- life view and includes the cyclical concept of life- death-life” (NAHS, 1989) It is also important to build a shared understanding of how community input will inform policy or decision making processes. Numerous attempt to define Indigenous mental health concepts, the common theme has consistently been the holistic nature of health and wellbeing. The word punyu (Ngaringman) encompasses both person and country. In fact caring for the country has been associated with improvements in wellbeing. Suggesting that for Indigenous people ‘our identity as human beings remains tied to our land , to our cultural practices, our systems of authority and social control, our intellectual traditions, our concepts of spirituality, and to our systems of resource ownership and exchange. Destroy this relationship and you damage- sometimes irrevocably-individual human beings and their health'(cited in Burgess et al.,2008,p.2).

On February 13 2008, the Prime Minister of Australia, Mr Kevin Rudd, offered an apology to members of the ‘stolen generation’. The apology attracted words and gestures of gratitude, relief, pride and sorrow. Also for some closure to a painful emotional wound. This let the healing begin it was an act of hope, dignity and respect acknowledging the existence and impacts of past policies and practices of forcibly removing indigenous children from their families. The apology represented that the ‘past of mistreatment and blemished chapter in our country to reconcile indigenous and non indigenous people to a better future. The Prime Minister and opposition leader Brendan Nelson both pledged to close the 17 year life expectancy gap between Indigenous and non- Indigenous Aboriginals by 2030. Promising that Indigenous Australians to have access to same quality health services. As Mr Rudd said “he is determined to make a difference.” Curtin’s University professor of health economics, Gavin Mooney said “it is important that Aboriginal people are involved in the process” It is important to involve the indigenous and ask what they want. As it is important to ensure that the voice of ordinary Aboriginal people to be heard and what it is that they want.

In conclusion aˆ¦.. the services of Aboriginal health aˆ¦.. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s health disadvantage needs to be considered in the broader context of social disadvantage, inequality and exclusion, political marginalisation and the historical currents of colonialism. In order to find strategies for health services for the Indigenous Australian need to take account of historical, social, cultural and political factors in order to understand the health disadvantage faced by Aboriginal peoples in contemporary society. This enhances our knowledge of unequal health outcomes between Aboriginal and non – Aboriginal people by focusing on the impacts of social structures and cultural appropriateness of health care services.

Indians are known for family-oriented culture. The family values play a very important role in their social life. A very important responsibility of family is the transmission of beliefs, traditions and core values.

India has a strong tradition of joint family system, in which members of multiple patrilineal related generations stay together and may or may not linked with possession of joint family property (Ghosh & Basu, 2008). Married women usually live with their husbands’ families, with retaining bonds with their natal families. They live under same roof, working, worshiping, eating, and cooperating together in social and economic activities.

Under this structure, there are clear lines of hierarchy and authority. And great respects should be shown to the members who are at higher position in the hierarchy. In general, elders rank above juniors, and among people of similar age; males outrank females. And traditionally, the oldest male member, which is usually the grandfather in the family, is the head in this family unit. And he has the authority over the whole family, especially in terms of big decision making and discipline creation. However, in some cases, grandmother also has certain authority over the younger females in the family (“Essay on the concept of joint family system in India”, n.d.).

With the economy development and urbanization, traditional large families face difficulties to adapt to modern rapid and flexible life style. More and more traditional joint families have split into nuclear families, in which a couple live with their unmarried children, as a reaction to a variety of conditions, including the requirement for some members to move from village to city, or from one city to another to obtain the advantage of employment opportunities. And this trend has been increasing under the impact of westernization and secularization.

However, the relative ties are still strongly connected to each other within kinships and loyalty to family is still a deeply imbibed principle from family members.

When facing with crucial decision and emergencies, seeking family agreement and support are still their first consideration. Numerous prominent Indian families, such as the Tatas, Birlas, and Sarabhais, retain joint family arrangements even today and they work together to control some of the country`s largest financial empires (“Indian family structure, indian society”, n.d.).

Indian Family Structure – Indian families

Some family types bear special mention because of their unique qualities. In the sub-Himalayan region of Uttar Pradesh, polygyny is commonly practiced. There, among Hindus, a simple polygynous family is composed of a man, his two wives, and their unmarried children. Various other family types occur there, including the supplemented subpolygynous household–a woman whose husband lives elsewhere (perhaps with his other wife), her children, plus other adult relatives. Polygyny is also practiced in other parts of India by a tiny minority of the population, especially in families in which the first wife has not been able to bear children.Among the Buddhist people of the mountainous Ladakh District of Jammu and Kashmir, who have cultural ties to Tibet, fraternal polyandry is practiced, and a household may include a set of brothers with their common wife or wives. This family type, in which brothers also share land, is almost certainly linked to the extreme scarcity of cultivable land in the Himalayan region, because it discourages fragmentation of holdings.

The peoples of the northeastern hill areas are known for their matriliny, tracing descent and inheritance in the female line rather than the male line. One of the largest of these groups, the Khasis–an ethnic or tribal people in the state of Meghalaya–are divided into matrilineal clans; the youngest daughter receives almost all of the inheritance including the house. A Khasi husband goes to live in his wife’s house. Khasis, many of whom have become Christian, have the highest literacy rate in India, and Khasi women maintain notable authority in the family and community.

Perhaps the best known of India’s unusual family types is the traditional Nayar taravad , or great house. The Nayars are a cluster of castes in Kerala. High-ranking and prosperous, the Nayars maintained matrilineal households in which sisters and brothers and their children were the permanent residents. After an official pre-puberty marriage, each woman received a series of visiting husbands in her room in the taravad at night. Her children were all legitimate members of the taravad . Property, matrilineally inherited, was managed by the eldest brother of the senior woman. This system, the focus of much anthropological interest, has been disintegrating in the twentieth century, and in the 1990s probably fewer than 5 percent of the Nayars live in matrilineal taravads . Like the Khasis, Nayar women are known for being well-educated and powerful within the family.

Malabar rite Christians, an ancient community in Kerala, adopted many practices of their powerful Nayar neighbors, including naming their sons for matrilineal forebears. Their kinship system, however, is patrilineal. Kerala Christians have a very high literacy rate, as do most Indian Christian groups.

–end (need to simplify into 5 sentences)

Family-building strategies in urban India: converging demographic

trends in two culturally distinct communities

Contemporary South Asia

Vol. 17, No. 2, June 2009, 141-158

Since the early 1950s, India’s population is characterized by a persistent trend of a masculine sex ratio4. In recent census enumerations, this trend has been especially noticeable in sex ratios at birth and in the child population (0-6 years old). Several studies on inter-regional variation in the

overall sex ratio and child sex ratio report stronger masculine sex ratios in the northIndian states of Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh than in the southIndian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu 5.

The widely discussed ‘divide’ between north and south also relates to gender relations, status of women, and the kinship systems. Traditionally, the south Indian kinship system has been described as bilateral, with women having some rights ofinheritance and flexibility of residence after marriage. This is in stark contrast to the patrilineal, patrilocal, and exogamous kinship system in the north (Dyson and Moore 1983; Kishor 1993).

Some studies suggest that desire for a small family size in India is associated with a decline in preference for sons and in balancing of the sex ratio among children in the family (Bhat and Zavier 2003; Saluja 2005). A recent analysis of the National Family Health Survey II data suggests that a majority of married couples in Kerala and Punjab want a sex-balanced family and that a decline in the desired family size is associated with a weakened preference for sons in India.

–end

The nuclear family

The extended family

Dynamics of the family

Parental roles

For Indian women, giving birth to a child is a socio-religious obligation, adding accomplishment and fulfillment to their social roles. And after 30 years old is considered old to give birth to the first child. Besides of breast-feeding their children, traditionally, the mothers usually put great effort on taking care of the food and eating aspect of their children.

With female literacy growing to 54% in the 2001 census, more and more women are taking part in work force (need reference).

Marriage and courtship

http://www.chillibreeze.com/articles/tips-for-the-visitor.asp

It is amazing to see how often well-educated, independent professionals have to consult their parents before accepting a job offer or traveling abroad. At the core of Indian culture lies an innate respect for parents and other elders in the family, and usually no major decision is taken without consulting them. Parents often live with their married children, typically with a son. There is really no concept of a grown-up son or daughter ‘moving out of the house’ unless it is the result of circumstances like a job in a different city.

The arranged marriage is another practice that illustrates the importance Indians place on the family. A majority of marriages in India are arranged by families and several people are involved in the decision-making process. As popular belief goes, a marriage tied with many knots will not come undone. This is in complete contrast to the American culture where only two people tie the knot and experience has indeed shown us that it can be undone more easily. The divorce rate in America is much higher than in India.

American culture can sometimes appear to be too rebellious and independent, with children growing apart from their parents as they grow older. At other times Indian culture can seem too dependent on other people’s opinions and subject to unnecessary involvement from relatives, near and far. There are positives and negatives in both cultures. However it is important for foreign businessmen visiting India, especially those who are new, to remember that in general, important decisions are not made individually but as a family. This may not be apparent on a daily basis but will surface in critical situations.

—end

Female/male roles (changing or static?)

http://www.indianchild.com/culture%20_1.htm

Certain families observe a matriarchal concept i.e. the groom resides in the house of the bride or also follows a tradition as per the bride’s ancestors. Generally India is patriarchal in the sense the children get the surname of the father and the wife changes her surname to follow that of the husbands. It is also a tradition in certain families that the wife changes her maiden name but again this concept is also changing. Indian families are very accommodating and willing to accept change. It is a concept to observe the karva chauth or the raksha bandhan with great aplomb. There is an occasion for gifting and seeking the blessings of elders. It is important to respect and hold certain family traditions which are unique in terms of cooking, rituals and beliefs. Families give a lot of importance to lighting the diya in the evening and also each person in family has a habit of doing the puja in his own way.

–end

Education

http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+in0044%29

Education is divided into preprimary, primary, middle (or intermediate), secondary (or high school), and higher levels. Primary school includes children of ages six to eleven, organized into classes one through five. Middle school pupils aged eleven through fourteen are organized into classes six through eight, and high school students ages fourteen through seventeen are enrolled in classes nine through twelve. Higher education includes technical schools, colleges, and universities.

–end

—Summarized from (Cheney, Ruzzi, & Muralidharan, 2005)

Historically, Hindu education was tailored to the needs of Brahmin boys. Together with the colonial rule under British from 1700s until 1947, the education system was geared to preserve the position of the more privileged classes, permitting an avenue of upward mobility only to those with resources. Even today, the vast majority of students with high school education come from high-level castes and middle-to-upper class families in urban area. Due to the historical barrier and previous education focus on tertiary education, more than 1/3 Indian citizens (42% of adults) is illiterate, with 25% males and 46% females, according to 2001 Census (need original data search).

–Summarized from (Cheney, Ruzzi, & Muralidharan, 2005)

From: A Profile of the Indian Education system (in education folder) cited in above text as (Cheney, Ruzzi, & Muralidharan, 2005)

National center on education and the Economy, 2006

India has the second largest education system in the world (after China). Experts estimate that 32% of its current population is under the age of 15. Males in India complete just 2.9 years of schooling on average, females just 1.8 years. The quality of instruction varies widely, depending on the region of the country and whether one is enrolled in a State-supported public school or a fee-based private school.

Despite the highly inefficient delivery of public services, high levels of tesacher absenteeism and non-teaching activity, many Indian students remain motivated to succeed on the college entrance exams. The high level of competition for entry into the Indian Institutes of Technology, the Indian Institutes of Management and other top institutions is enough to spur millions of students to achieve at remarkably high levels, particularly in the areas of science and mathematics. Only 10% of the age cohort is actually enrolled in higher education. But in a country with sucha a large population, it amounts to 9 million students, resulting in 2.5 million new college graduates a year.

–end

1. The role of education in society

a. Primary education (quality, levels of development, etc.)

Summarized from (Cheney, Ruzzi, & Muralidharan, 2005)

The Indian school system follows the British structure. Primary school consists of grades 1-5 (ages 6-11) and middle school consists of grades 6-8 (ages 11-14). Primary school and middle school are compulsory. However, researchers estimate that an average of 70% percent of children between the ages of 6 and 14 actually attend school (need to search source, Karthik Mualidharan’s work).

Quality of state-run schools ranges from top-notch to abysmal. Private schools are, on the whole, better, but are charging high fees and are competitive to get admission. Mostly, they are choices of middle and higher class families. A recent phenomenon is the rising of low-cost private schools in both rural and urban India. Facilities and infrastructure are poorer, but they can offer smaller classes and greater teaching activity due to the lower salaries paid to the teachers and more teachers hired.

2 out of 5 first-grade students will not complete the primary cycles of 4 to 5 years (depending on the State) (need source, world bank).

Primary Stage (5 years)

The curriculum includes:

Grade 1 and 2

One language- the mother tongue/the regional language

Mathematics

Art of Healthy and Productive living

Grade 3 to 5

One language – the mother tongue/the regional language

Mathematics

Environmental studies

Art of Healthy and productive living

Upper Primary/Middle stage (3 years)

Grade 6-8

Three languages – the mother tongue/the regional language, Hindi and English

Mathematics

Science and Technology

Social Sciences

Work Education

Art Education (fine arts: visual and performing)

Health and Physical education

The issue is not a lack of demand, but the quality of supply. The main reason for students to drop out is because their public school experiences are often so poor that students can learn very little.

Girls get less chance to be supported in education. It is estimated that for every 100 girls that enroll in school in rural India, only one will make it to grade 12. Parents perceive returns to investment in educations of boys higher than that of girls. The PROBE study revealed that 98% of parents surveyed felt education was necessary for boys, and 89% of them felt it necessary for girls.

Secondary education

India has more than 100,000 secondary and senior secondary schools serving 30 million students, with the average teacher to student ratio of 1:34. The education in government schools continues to be free for grades 9 and above. But the majority of enrollment is in private schools whose fees vary considerably.

Secondary stage grades 9 and 10 (2 years)

Curriculum includes:

Three languages – mother tongue/regional language, Hindi, English (some schools offer as electives other languages such as Sanskrit, Chinese, Japanese, etc.)

Mathematics

Science and technology

Social sciences

Work education or pre-vocational education

Art education (fine art: visual and performing)

Physical and health education

—-Summarized from (Cheney, Ruzzi, & Muralidharan, 2005)

b. Secondary education (quality, levels of development, etc.)

c. Higher education (quality, levels of development, etc.)

2. Literacy rates

Languages:

With 15 main languages and hundreds of other languages and dialects, India has more languages than any other country. With 30% primary tongue, Hindi is the national language. English is ubiquitous language, because of the historical colonization by British. Other main languages include Bengali, Gujarati, Paunjabi, Tamil and Telegu and Urdu.

In 1980s, about 4 to 5 % of the population were estimated to use English. In 1997, 1/3 of population in India had the ability to carry on a conversation in English. And it’s estimated that there are 350 million English-speaking Indians in 2005 a8 (need data 2012).

Referrence:

“Essay on the concept of joint family system in India”, n.d. Retrieved Sep 19, 2012 from http://www.preservearticles.com/201106027427/essay-on-the-concept-of-joint-family-system-in-india.html

Ghosh, A & Basu, D. 2008. Evolution of joint family structure in India and the role of legislative inroads. West Bengal.

“Indian family structure, indian society”. n.d. Retrieved Sep 19, 2012 from http://www.indianetzone.com/38/indian_family_structure.htm

a8 David Crystal (honorary professor of linguistics at the Unileversity of Wales, Bangor) “sub continent raises its voice.” Yale global online. Nov 30, 2004.

Political system

Political structure

http://www.rogerdarlington.me.uk/Indianpoliticalsystem.html

the Indian political system is a much more recent construct dating from India’s independence from Britain in 1947. The current constitution came into force on 26 November 1950 and advocates the trinity of justice, liberty and equality for all citizens.

India’s lower house, the Lok Sabha, is modelled on the British House of Commons, but its federal system of government borrows from the experience of the United States, Canada and Australia.

THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH

The head of state in India is the President.

As members of an electoral college, around 4,500 members of the national parliament and state legislators are eligible to vote in the election of the President.

for the first time a woman now occupies the role of Presidency: Pratibha Patil who was formerly governor of the northern Indian state of Rajasthan.

Vice-President is elected by the members of an electoral college consisting of both houses of parliament. The Vice-President chairs the the upper house called the Rajya Sabh.

The head of the government is the Prime Minister who is appointed by the President on the nomination of the majority party in the lower house or Lok Sabha. Currently the Prime Minister is Manmohan Singh of the ruling United Progressive Alliance

Ministers are then appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Prime Minister and these ministers collectively comprise the Council of Ministers.

–pause

THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH

http://loksabha.nic.in/

Lok Sabha is composed of representatives of the people chosen by direct election on the basis of the adult suffrage. The maximum strength of the House envisaged by the Constitution is 552, which is made up by election of upto 530 members to represent the States, upto 20 members to represent the Union Territories and not more than two members of the Anglo-Indian Community to be nominated by the Hon’ble President, if, in his/her opinion, that community is not adequately represented in the House. The total elective membership is distributed among the States in such a way that the ratio between the number of seats allotted to each State and the population of the State is, so far as practicable, the same for all States.

–end

–end pause

Currently the size of the house is 545 – made up of 530 elected from the states, 13 elected from the territories, and two nominated from the Anglo-Indian community. By far the largest state representation is that of Uttar Pradesh with 80 members.

Each Lok Sabha is formed for a five year term, after which it is automatically dissolved, unless extended by a Proclamation of Emergency which may extend the term in one year increments.

The upper house in the Indian political system is the Rajya Sabha or Council of States.

–pause

http://rajyasabha.nic.in/rsnew/council_state/council_state.asp

Article 80 of the Constitution lays down the maximum strength of Rajya Sabha as 250, out of which 12 members are nominated by the President and 238 are representatives of the States and of the two Union Territories. The present strength of Rajya Sabha, however, is 245, out of which 233 are representatives of the States and Union territories of Delhi and Puducherry and 12 are nominated by the President. The members nominated by the President are persons having special knowledge or practical experience in respect of such matters as literature, science, art and social service.

–end

–end pause

—end

Political parties

http://www.rogerdarlington.me.uk/Indianpoliticalsystem.html

In India, political parties are either a National Party or a State Party. To be considered a National Party, a political party has to be recognised in four or more states and to be either the ruling party or in the opposition in those states.

The original Congress Party espoused moderate socialism and a planned, mixed economy. However, its spin-off and successor, Congress (I) – ‘I’ in honour of Indira Gandhi – now supports deregulation, privatisation and foreign investment.

Over the years, India has evolved from a highly centralised state dominated by one political party to an increasingly fragmented nation, more and more influenced by regional parties and more and more governed locally by unstable multi-party alliances.

The Indian Congress Party is the leading party in the Centre-Left political coalition called the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) which embraces a total of 16 parties.

The other major, but more recently-established, political party in India is the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). Created in 1980, it represents itself as a champion of the socio-religious cultural values of the country’s Hindu majority and advocates conservative social policies and strong national defence. The BJP, in alliance with several other parties, led the government between 1998-2004.

The Bharatiya Janata Party is the leading party in the Right-wing political coalition called the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). When it was originally founded in 1998, there were 13 parties in the coalition but currently there are eight.

-end

http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+in0147%29

At the beginning of the 1990s, political domination by the Congress (I) branch of the Indian National Congress (see Glossary) came to an end with the party’s defeat in the 1989 general elections, and India began a period of intense multiparty political competition.

The Congress (I) political leadership had lost the mantle of moral integrity inherited from the Indian National Congress’s role in the independence movement, and it was widely viewed as corrupt.

The main alternative to the Congress (I), the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP–Indian People’s Party), embarked on a campaign to reorganize the Indian electorate in an effort to create a Hindu nationalist majority coalition. Simultaneously, such parties as the Janata Dal (People’s Party), the Samajwadi Party (Socialist Party), and the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP–Party of Society’s Majority) attempted to ascend to power on the crest of an alliance of interests uniting Dalits (see Glossary), Backward Classes (see Glossary), Scheduled Tribes (see Glossary), and religious minorities.

The structure of India’s federal–or union–system not only creates a strong central government with centralization of power.

–end

3. Stability of government

4. Special taxes

5. Role of local government

D. Legal system

1. Organization of the judiciary system

2. Code, common, socialist, or Islamic-law country?

3. Participation in patents, trademarks, and other conventions

4. Marketing Laws

Why is theory important in the area of sociology?

A theory is a proposed relationship between two or more concepts. In sociology, sociological theories are statements of how and why particular facts about the social world are related (Marcioni & Geber, 2010, p14). They range in scope from concise descriptions of a single social process to examples or models for analysis and interpretation.

Some sociological theories explain aspects of the social world and enable prediction about future events (Robert, 2012), while others function as broad perspective which guides further sociological analyses (Kallom, 2002). The importance of theory in the area of sociology cannot be overemphasized. Theories such as the social conflict theory, structural functionalism theory, positivism theory, field theory, rational choice theory, and so on, were developed to explain social phenomena.

In sociology, a theory may specify deterministic properties of a set of entities, thus permitting point predictions about future states of the relevant system, or it may specify probabilistic relations among entities, giving rise to statements about the distribution of possible future states of the system. A theory is provided with a set of “bridge” statement that permit the theorist to connect the consequences of the theory with predictions about, observable state of affairs.

Sociology is an examination of human beings in social contexts. Observing how people in specific communities interact, taking surveys and conducting experiments yield new data to build sociological knowledge. Sociological theories are frameworks explaining how specific aspects of society are linked to larger processes. An element characterizing society is interdependence. Individuals or organizations cannot survive independently while even seemingly dissimilar concept such as religion and the rise of an economic system can be closely connected. In other words, theories help determine interdependent aspects. Civic competence involved been able to make informed and rational decisions on every issue, from participating in elections to settling disputes with their neighbours. Theories in the area of sociology will help people understand how society works and how they can be a useful part in it.

Furthermore, it almost impossible to make decisions affecting a certain community without deep knowledge of its structure, as miscalculated decisions can have a severe impact on people’s lives. Tackling societal problems such as alcoholism, high criminal rate, requires decision makers to know what exactly the problem is and its causes. Sociological theories provide an insight on such issues, making it easier and safer for elected representatives to find solutions to social problems. Sociologist focus on how a society is structured, how each and every individual works as part of the whole, how society has changed over the years and predictions of future changes. In essence, sociological theories help people understand society and knowledge of the world as it grows.

Conclusively therefore sociological theory was defined by Rizzer (2013) as a set of interrelated ideas that allow for the systematization of knowledge of the social world. This knowledge is then used to explain the social world and make predictions about the future of the world (p5).

Discuss any sociology theory of your choice

The Social Conflict Theory is one of the theories in sociology. The conflict theory was originated by Karl Marx in the mid – 1800’s. The theory states that human behaviour results in conflicts between competiting groups. The belief is that in all stratified societies, there are two major social groups, a ruling class and a subject class (Anderson & Taylor, 2009). The ruling class enjoys been the owner and having control over forces of production hereby exploiting the subject class. This has resulted in a basic conflict of interest between the two classes.

Social conflict is the struggle between segments of society over valued resources (Aghababa, 2011). Social conflict turned a small population into capitalists in the nineteenth century. Capitalists are people who own and operate factories and other businesses in pursuit of profits. However, capitalism turned most people into industrial workers whom Marx called proletarians. Proletarians actually sold their labour for wages. Conflict theories draw attention to power differentials such as class, gender and race conflict, and contrast historically dominant ideologies.

It is therefore a macro level analysis of society that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social change (Macious & Gerber, 2011, p15). Social conflict theory is a compact of the four major paradigms of sociology. Other important sociologists Harriet Martinean, Hane Addams and Dubois (Macious & Geber, 2011) argue that this sociological approach does not look at how social structures help society to operate, but instead looks at how “social patterns” can cause some people in the society to be dominant and others to be oppressed.

The social conflict theory opines that individuals and groups (social classes) within society have differing amounts of material and non-material resources (such as the wealthy vs the poor) and that the more powerful groups use their power in order to exploit groups with less power. Two methods by which this exploitation is done are through brute force usually done by police, the army and economics. Earlier social conflict theories argue that money is the mechanism which creates social disorder. It can also be deduced from their beliefs that the society is created from ongoing social conflict between various groups. The social conflict theory believes social relationships are about power and exploitation; the rich exploiting the poor. Citing an example of this oppression is a renter for instance, living in a rented apartment for fifty years and having no right or economic interest within the property.

In sociology, conflict theory opines that the society functions so that everyone or group involved can make the best use of benefits which in the long run brings about social changes. Most times, the theory is applied to explain conflict between social classes in ideas such as socialism and communism. Competition plays a vital role in understanding conflict theory. Accordingly, there are three primary assumptions of modern conflict theory. The first is competition over scarce resources such as money and leisure which is characteristic of human relationship. Second is structural inequality which has to do with inequalities in power and reward. Thirdly, it is believed that revolution is eminent because change occurs as a result of conflict between competing interests, rather than through adaptation. According to McCafferty (2006), conflict theory emphasizes the social political or material inequality of a social group. It also contrast dominant ideologies and make open differences in power.

Conflict theory is mostly associated with Marxism, but as a reaction to functionalism and positivist method, may also be associated with number of other perspectives including critical theory, feminist theory, post-modern theory, post structural theory etc (Rodney, 2007). Conflict theory posits that social groups or classes compete with each other in order to obtain resources that the society deems important. A realistic social conflict theory is an understanding of the positive role of social conflict in serving the common good. It is actually expected to put change in perspective since all substantial social change involves social conflict. Social conflict theory plays a position role, when properly understood, in promoting groups to find common ground, form alliances, define core values, identify differences in view point, set group boundaries, and inform strategies for achieving expected change. Understanding these functions of social conflict in the context of a social conflict theory is an essential process in positive social change.

To understand social conflict theory, it must be known that in a democratic society, no one group should dominate all other groups. The power any group is supposed to have and especially of large institutions, is limited by force of law and by social impact, custom and social tradition within that frame of reference. Various interest groups and institutions compete, negotiate and work out changes in socio-economic arrangements generating social conflict in the process.

Wright Mills who has been called the founder of modern conflict theory opined that social structures are created through conflict between people with differing interest and resources. Individuals and resources in turn, are influential by these structures and by the unequal distribution of power and resources in the society (Knapp, 1994, pp228-246).

REFERENCES

Aghababa, Hossein (October, 2011). There will be Blood http://www.independent.fil Reviews. Com/there will be Blood

Anderson, M L. And Taylor, H.F., Sociology: The Essentials, (Rhomson Wadswoth, Belmot Ca, 2009).

Berger, Joseph,2000 “Theory and Formalization, Some Reflections on Experience. Sociological Theory 18 93): 482 – 489.

Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical Sociological Theory. Wiley – Blackwell pp.1

Gerber, John J. Macious, Linda M. Gerber 2011 “Sociology” (7^th Canadian Ed) 2011., Toronto: Pearson Canada p. 15

John J. Macious, Linda M. Gerber, “Sociology” Seventh Canadian Edition, Pearson Canada.

Keel, Robert.”What is Sociological Theory?” Robert Keel. Retrieved 29 February 2012.

Knapp, P-. (1994) One World – Many Worlds; Contemporary Sociological Theory (2^nd Ed.) It Apprercollins Colleges Div, Pp 228 – 246

Liz, Sharon, Granehoolz, Boiuma – Holtrop (2003) “Explaining Critical Sociological Thinking. Teaching Sociology 31 (4): 485 – 496.

Macious & Gerber, John J. and Linda M. (2010). Sociology 7^th Canadian edition. Uppersaddle River, New Jessey, USA: Pearson Education Inc P.14

Marx, karl 1971, Preface to Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, TR S.W. Ryanzanskaya, Edited by M. Dobbi. London; Lawrence & Whishart.

McCafferty Kevin C (2006) Conflict Theory How Contributor, http://www.Ehow.Com/Facts-5518763 – conflict-theory.

Obserschal Anthony, Theories of Social Conflict, from Annual Review of Sociology, Vol 4, pp291 – 315, (1978).

Rizzer, G., Contemporary Sociological Theory and its Classical Roots from The Basics, 4^th ed., (McGraw Hill, St Louis, 2013).

Rodney, Stark (2007).Sociology (10^th Ed.) Thomas Wadsworth.

Sears, A., A Good Book, In Theory A Guide To Theoretical Thing North York Higher Education (University Of Toronto Press, P.G, 2008) pp 4 -6.

Skocpol, Theda., States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China, (Cambridge University Press, New York, 1980).

Thio, Alek (2008). Sociology: A Brief Introduction (7^th Ed) Pearson.

Understanding Social Conflict Theory [online], Available from: http://www.orgownneysinto-the Justice.Com/Social Conflict Theory_ht,.

http://neo humanism./org/c/co/conflict_theory.html. [Accessed 23 March 2014].

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INTRODUCTIONDefinition of sociological imagination

Sociological theories describe causes and effects of human behavior; study the social life, and society. Above definition displays two concepts: human being at the micro level and society at the macro level. Sociological imagination is a sociological theory that encapsulates these two concepts: individual, and society (What is Sciology). An individual is an element of society. The society acts forces on this element. Sociological imagination enables the individual to identify these forces, their impacts. Sociological imagination is the ability of connecting micro level to the macro level, and distinguishing personal troubles and social issues.

Importance of sociological imagination

External act of an individual displays what one does, which is the result of cause and effect. The cause aspect defines why one acts in a specific way. Individual act also displays the structural arrangement of a society at a location and a historical point of civilization. Individual act, history, and location are intertwined. Sociological imagination demonstrates how an individual perceives the social forces, as well as the cause and effect relationship of an individual or group of individuals with social issues or social forces. This is why we should care for sociological imagination.

Examples

In India, many centuries ago, widow women used to commit ritualistic suicide by being burnt alive along with the dead husband. The act of widow women was the result of social forces that existed during that time in India (Deducing with sociological imagination). In John Grisham’s novel A Time to Kill, the African American Carl Lee Hailey kills two white men who raped and killed his little daughter Tonya. Acts of the white men and Carl Lee Hailey were the result of social forces that existed in social groups in the USA at that time. The social force in this case was racism. Two white men raped and killed Tonya because she was black. Carl Lee killed the white rapists because he knew justice would not prevail for white men (A time to kill 2008).

Thesis statement

When I analyze my own life through sociological imagination, I am able to explain my acts and social forces behind them. If I can distinguish, good and bad acts using wisdom then I can change my behavior and worldview. Conflict theory envisioned a society as fragmented into groups. More powerful social groups exert forces on less powerful groups. Social imagination discloses the characteristics of social forces when and only when individuals interact with these forces.

SOCIAL CONTEXT

Definition of social context

In a net shell, sociological imagination is an interaction between an individual and social forces. This abstraction points towards the concept of existence of correlation between psychology and sociology. Social context theory reveals this relationship and show societal and social changes over the passage of time, explains the causes that brought changes and offers future change patterns. The model includes three factors: micro socialization process through the behavior of individual and collective of individuals, macro social forces through the social structure, and time (Social context theory). Social context theory is analyzed through social environment dimension and time dimension. Social environment dimension consists of social structures that shape the behavior of individual or group of individuals, social process demonstrates how individuals perceive, interpret and interact with the social structures, and social behavior represents the social realities through behavior of individuals. Time dimension enacts the power of the existing societal forces in maintaining social behavior patters (Social context theory). Social imagination acknowledges the existence of interaction between individual or group of individuals and social forces. Social context theory explains how and why the relationship emerged and what changes the relationship could bring over the passage of time.

Specific socio-historical force – 1

I lived in Russian part of the Ex-Soviet Union. During mid 1980s, country’s economic conditions started deteriorating. By late 1980s absence of adequate commodities started hurting public. Bad economy as a social structure shaped individuals behaviors with the concept that Russian Federation was feeding the parasites, non-Russians, so Russians must abandon “them,” the non-Russians. When social structure (bad economy) and social process (individuals interaction) came into conflict, it resulted the break up of the country.

Specific socio-historical force – 2

I was born and raised in Palestine. Social structure was poor economy, poor living conditions, fundamental religious belief, and constant aggression from Israel. Social process was my perception about Israel and their politics towards Palestine. Poverty, religion, and bad living environment shaped my behavior. My perception was to change living environment, which I found in cooperation with Israel. I voted for peace roadmap with Israel.

How your social context could be different

Imagine I am living in the USA during the period of segregation. I am an African American. The social structure created by European whites suppressed my rights; I cannot get proper education, proper job, and even a decent place to live. Now, guess I live in the USA when the country has a president who is an African American. It took a long time to make this change, however, now I have equal rights as whites.

SOCIAL LOCATION

Definition of social location

The concept social imagination assigns two attributes: an individual or group of individuals and social forces. Social imagination defines the interaction of an individual or group of individuals with social forces. At the same time, the individual is a character located at a certain place in the society. In American society, white, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant, male, heterosexual, upper middle-class, educated, older defines social location of a person (Social location). Social location defines a person’s place in their particular social order. A person’s bias, belief, and values are shaped based on social locations. Gender, color, economic level, coming from the village or town, healthy or sick, young or old; these are some of attributes of social location. Individuals from similar social location create their own social hierarchy. Social hierarchy classifies individuals in a group based on esteem, prestige, economic success, and accumulation of wealth into social classes.

Description of social location

I am from India, a country with 1.22 billion populations. I am male, less than 25, from town, literate, which respectively corresponds to 50 %, 51 %, 75 %, and 28 % of the total population. From the economic standpoint, 18 % constitutes rich and upper middle class, 23 % constitute middle class, and 59 % of the total population are poor. I belong to the 18 % social class (India’s middle class population 2011; India’s population 2012).

Personal experience #1

My childhood social location should be classified than middle class. I faced absence of money in fulfilling a child’s desire of purchasing toys.

Personal experience #2

Teenage years were financially little better, but my parents still were unable to pay tuition for schools with better teachers, and technology. I studied in schools for children from underprivileged families.

Personal experience #3

In college years, I became interested in Marxism and concept of conflict theory. Years of impoverished economic conditions contributed social imagination that rich and upper middle class are greedy and want to keep the middle class economically handcuffed forever.

RELATIVE CULTURE

Personal beliefs, values, or attitudes #1

Edward Taylor defined culture as a complex of behavior pattern and perception which includes knowledge, beliefs, morals, customs, ethics and any other skill and habits acquired by man as a member of society (What is culture?). At the same time, belief, customs, and ethics are relative to individual within his own social context. This is how anthropologist explains comparative culture concept (What is culture relativism?). Sociological imagination is interaction between individual or group of individuals’ acts and social forces. Individual act is a function of social process; hence, it characterizes consciousness of individuals. Perception, on the other hand, is a function of relative culture. Belief, morals, ethics form the foundation of human perception and its value varies from one social context to other. Social imagination relates to the culture.

Personal beliefs, values, or attitudes #2

My social location is poor class in India. Belief, morals, customs relate to orthodox Hindu religion. This culture determines my social context. Hindu religion believes cows are sacred animals. On the other hand, Muslims of the society sacrifice cows in the name of their religion. Social imagination is to make protest to this practice and stop sacrificing cows in the name of religion.

Personal beliefs, values, or attitudes #3

I am a Palestinian youth, spend the life in the ghetto in poverty; this is my social location. Belief, morals, customs and ethics relate to fundamental Muslim culture. Social context is formed by the fundamental culture. I perceive that Israel is the cause of my personal problems. Social imagination is to change Israeli attitude toward Palestinians. That is way; I am a member of Hamaz political party.

Personal beliefs, values, or attitudes # 4

Social location rich, male, middle aged, an Arab, and an owner of an industry that feeds 300 families. I believe my financial position is vital for the well being of employees. However, due to the economic downturn, the plant has stopped several employee support activities and has reduced salary by 15 %. Employees are blaming me for their personal financial problems. Employees are also blaming that the owner has not reduced own expenses. Employees have taken vows to fight me back. My social imagination is to suppress these new social forces with the help of country’s law enforcement agency.

CONCLUSION

Sociological imagination to a certain extent accepts Marx’s conflict theory and agrees that society is divided into fragmented classes with respective social, political and economic power. Conflict arises when a class or group feels social forces from other classes. Social imagination theory recognizes that social behavior is a result of social culture.

There has been an abundance of literature surrounding the importance of self-esteem in developing a greater understanding of the self. The present paper introduces an alternative perspective on the self which incorporates important features of previous perspectives and shares many theories with them. The functions of self-knowledge, however, are highlighted and rather than the drive for self-esteem this paper argues for the need of self-knowledge in acquiring a more elaborate understanding of the self. According to Neisser (1988) there are several types of self knowledge, the ecological self, the interpersonal self, the extended self, the private self and the conceptual self. Each ‘self’ operates in unison with the other, with each exhibiting fundamental importance, however, this paper concentrates on the extended self and how a person’s life narrative identity can affect various aspects of the individual including interpersonal relations, self-presentations and the “need to belong” thus leading to a more clarified idea of the self. The extended self, is the self as it was in the past and as we expect it to be in the future, distinguished primarily on the basis of memory (Neisser, 1988). Belk (1988; cited in Ahuvia, 2005) uses the terms “self,” “sense of self,” and “identity” to describe how an individual subjectively distinguishes who he or she is. Belk refuses to accept any definition of the self that can relate consistently across individuals and cultures because according to him what comprises the self is a personal appraisal that differs among people and across time.

Self-knowledge – The extended self

Bluck (2003; cited in Conway, 2005, p. 596) claimed “A stable, integrated, self with a confirmatory past that yields a consistent and rich life story constitutes a self that is able to operate effectively, achieve goals, and relate to others in productive ways.” According to such a perspective, memories and stories of an individual’s life experiences thus affect various aspects of life and develop other features of the self. Interest in the past enhances as the child starts to grasp the social relevance of autobiographical recollection, for example, its ability for developing and continuing relationships beyond the here and now. The main adaptive purpose of memory is perhaps that it allows for the making of permanent interpersonal relations, and therefore to a great extent strengthens the unity of individual groups (Neisser, 1988). The findings of Swann and Predmore (1985) suggest that relationships provide stability to the private self. In their study partners in a relationship actively helped people sustain a stable consistent view of themselves by working to discredit contrary evidence. Having a long term, stable relationship is thus a potentially powerful source of self concept stability. Also Tice and Baumeister (2001) claim that the human mind is devised for interpersonal relations and that developing and sustaining interpersonal relationships is a key function of the human being. With the individual’s memory and narrative identity contributing to such relations the extended self becomes more and more significant as we grow older.

According to Negele & Habermas (2009), “Life narratives are manifestations of the subjective representation of one’s life course. They interpret a life through explicit statements on the narrator’s identity and self-concept as well as by selecting specific personal experiences to be included in the narrative.” (p. 1). Along with this view, McAdams (2006) claims a person’s life story offers a life with a general sense of unity and reason. There are many different views on the importance of life stories and memories in relation to the self but there seems to be an overall standpoint that such stories allow people a way to explain who they are, how they came to be and where they believe their lives may be going (Bruner, 1990), which are all essential questions to be tackled in the quest for self clarification. Research by McLean and Thorne (2003) concentrate on what constituted self-defining memories of 19-year olds regarding their experience of relationships. Results showed that memories of parents were more inclined to highlight issues relating to separation however self-defining memories of friends highlighted closeness and romantic relationships. Therefore, memories of teenage years are often of occasions in which identity creation is at its greatest, a period that Arnett (2000) labelled emerging adulthood. Many theorists including Habermas & Bluck (2000) suggest that this period, in which identity formation is at its peak, entails the development of a more distinguished and integrated knowledge of their own self. Singer and Salovey (1993) suggest that each person creates self-concepts from the information enclosed in the life experiences they choose to share. As they do so, they expand a remarkable source of knowledge, including knowledge about their individual capabilities, accomplishments, desires, values, and aims. This creation of the self-concept does not come about by chance; the information is precise, original, and inspired to each person. Disparity in the content and order of self-knowledge portrays crucial variations among individuals in social histories, insights, and behaviour. It is from this knowledge that self-images materialize, which are defined as mental ideas of the self regarding the past, present, and future ambitions and make up part of the conceptual self (Conway, 2005).

The main argument throughout this paper is that human memory is a key element of the self and there has been much research carried out supporting the notion that memory can be reconstructive in order to support current aspects of the self, e.g., Loftus (1993), Loftus & Ketcham (1994). According to Conway (2005) this is done in order to make memory coherent with an individual’s present goals, self-images, and self-beliefs. Therefore, memory and key features of the self shape a system in which, regarding healthy persons, ideas about, and knowledge of, the self are verified and sustained by memories of particular incidents. According to Neisser (1988) what information we remember is dependent on what we currently believe along with what has been stored. What we recall and what we decide to share with others is crucial as it influences others’ perception of us. This can be related to our “need to belong” and studies such as Tice (1992) and Schlenker, Dlugolecki, & Doherty (1994) suggest that people use self-presentations to uphold a certain identity, and how they portray themselves to others determines how they end up viewing themselves. Jones, Rhodewalt, Berglas, and Skelton (1981) provided a biased scanning model suggesting that certain behaviours cause people to scan their memories for certain kinds of information, and these scans can leave a biased example of one’s own behaviour in memory, thereby determining how the person thinks of himself or herself. McLean et al. (2007) claimed that “To witness the construction of situated stories is to understand the dynamic development of the self. Indeed, sharing stories is the mechanism through which people become selves.” (p. 275). This final quote sums up the argument of the paper in that the self can never fully be appreciated without the memories and experiences with which it is defined.

Conclusion

The argument presented in this paper introduces the importance of self knowledge and in particular the extended self in developing a greater understanding of the self. While incorporating other theorists’ views, self knowledge is emphasized in that it can shape and is inter-related with various other aspects of the self. Autobiographical memories and life stories of the extended self affects interpersonal relations, which in turn can affect an individual’s “need to belong” and self presentations or vice versa and so on, thus, is at the heart of the discovery of the self. As stated in the introduction, the view portrayed in the present paper is similar to that of Belk’s, that the ‘self’ cannot simply be viewed through components which are universal. Self knowledge and specifically an individual’s extended self is a vital contributor to a greater understanding of the self, one that is completely unique to the person and thus defines the self through their own personal life stories and experiences. This does not mean to deny the important contribution of self-esteem and a variety of other components in understanding the self but merely addresses the significance of another perspective which incorporates the contribution of self-knowledge in the construction and perception of the self.

To get to know your subject, one must be immersed with the subject in order to gain valuable information regarding the customs, culture, and systems of life from another culture other than your own. Immersing oneself can be a tedious project that lays ahead. But, if you are careful and well educated regarding the study of ethnography, then this task at hand should not be as tedious as one may think. Ethnography is the study of other cultures with clear and critical rules to engage interaction among non-Western societies.

We will first describe the study of ethnography in this paper to form the basis of what ethnography really is as opposed to what the study could be. The study of ethnography has had three important changes in the formation of ethnography which will also be a focus in this discussion in this paper so that we can better understand and use the study of ethnography as anthropologists. There are similarities and differences between the three changes which will examined to fully gather the importance of the changes. We will also review an example of a real life ethnographic study to provide the discussion with evidence that the ethnographic study has clear rules and guidelines to describe other cultures. To add to our discussion, we will take an evaluation of ethnography whereby we will look at the pros and cons of using this method of inquiry.

The purpose of this paper is to review the importance of learning the study of ethnography to do the best way to study other cultures other than our own which includes the participant observation method. The next section will define what ethnography is, how anthropologists use ethnography, and carefully discuss why anthropologists use ethnography when studying other cultures.

The Study of Ethnography?

We often take for granted the importance of learning about other cultures and peoples who live outside our communities, however, if there are efforts to learn about others, we can begin to understand the importance of similarities among human civilizations and societies. There is a study that studies the importance of other cultures as well as during the process we learn about ourselves. We come from a place of extravagance, where the modern world allows us Westerners to have everything at our disposal; therefore we must be cautious when we learn about other cultures especially from places with non-Western ways of doing things.

There are however certain forms and guidelines that are used for this purpose specifically. These guidelines are developed by anthropologists who use these guidelines to study other people’s cultures in non-Western nations. Anthropologists determined that the study called ethnography would be the basis for studying other cultures than their own. Ethnography is the systematic study of other cultures by use of observation, participation- observation, and what I will coin the term, participation-observation-inclusion.

Ethnography is mainly used to gather in a scientific manner the evidence to show that how and why groups of people chose to live as they do. Ethnography is more importantly used in purposes to perform a logical and laid out script to guide all ethnographic work. Some examples were provided in our textbook by Schultz. Ethnography is essentially the form of observation, whereby the anthropologist observes the actions, rituals, and customs of a society.

Three Changes in Ethnography

We have now examined and defined what ethnography is and why we use such a method of inquiry when studying other cultures that may differ vastly from our own ways. Early founding anthropologists used specifically observation to study cultures around the world which laid the foundation for learning about human culture, which lead to the first change in ethnography. The first change involved not being exclusively objective, rather they became aware of their biases. These early anthropologists knew that there were forms of subjective-ness in their works produced and published; therefore, partly tarnished. This first change also involved not being able to be completely invisible. The subjects were aware of the anthropologist studying them from afar (Schultz:2005).

The second change come from the first change where the subjects were studied as above but the anthropologists also included participation of the subject. They were now aware of the benefits of asking questions in order to compare to the actually actions of the subjects. When we ask the participants, we are including the subjects with the research which is more sophisticated than just learning from a distance. Anthropologists using this method of inquiry became more susceptible to more information that helped them understand the similarities and differences of other cultures among ourselves.

Lastly, the third major change in ethnography was the usage of multiple sites for locations of gathering information. Many anthropologists were unaware of the multiple sites of locations that participants participated in that this information of multiple sites may have been gathered when anthropologists asked participants questions of daily living. We have reviewed the three changes in ethnography and we can conclude that there are significant changes that led to the modern day ethnography that is still being perfected as we speak.

Similarities and Differences of the Three Changes in Ethnography

There are several similarities and differences among the changes of ethnography. The similarities are they all require the study of the subjects, they all still gather evidence to support their arguments, and the last similarity is that they all try their best to study the best way possible.

The differences were lightly touched above but to get further in discussion, we can view the differences as ways of improving. One major difference is that the first change and the second change came out of misleading society about other cultures. The ramifications occurred due to the discriminatory practices from the outcome of the anthropologists. Another difference is that the third change became more inclusive than the other previous two changes in ethnography. Both similarities and differences are important to outline to provide a critical overview of the topic of ethnography and its changes to improve the method of inquiry.

Impacts of the Three Changes

There were impacts of the three changes in the study of ethnography, which include having a more sound method of inquiry, more elaborate detailed descriptions of the societies they studied, and there is more sensitivity towards subjects. The method of inquiry, participant observation, was improved with the three changes by ways of including participants themselves. This allows the researcher/anthropologists to fully engulf their selves into the society they are studying. Previous anthropologists who laid the groundwork for anthropology were Malinowski and Varandeh (Classnotes:2010). They both developed ethnographical fieldwork to better study the cultures they were interested in. One major impact was the introduction to Reflexivity. When an anthropologist is reflexive, they are more aware of their assumptions and position they are working and imposing on (Classnotes:2010).

An Example of Ethnography that should have utilized the Three Changes

The anthropologist, Jean Briggs, studied the Utkuhikhalingmiut (Utku, for short) in northern Canada in efforts to gather ethnographic research (Schultz; 2005). She was inducted into the community however there was a misunderstanding that prevented her from proceeding with her ethnographic study. The Utku were unable to fully communicate with the anthropologist and thus became frustrated with the anthropologists actions and misunderstandings. In short the anthropologist had a very difficult time in gathering valuable information that she ended up seeking help from a local Utku who could help her with the communication process. The anthropologist needed more than just the study of ethnography; Schultz suggests that there should be more work like this (2005). The Utku is a great example of how the anthropologist should have utilized the three changes in ethnography, which are participant observation and multiple sites. The example of the ethnographic study above was provided in this essay to provide a detailed explanation of how ethnography can still require improvements.

The use of sensitivity is critical to understand others regardless of different cultures or races. The use of sensitivity allows researchers to understand that we are human beings with feelings, responses, and thoughts that the anthropologist would act very suspicious if there were no human effects of doing such research. For example, Briggs, the anthropologist discussed above, was not sensitive to the fact that these people of the north do speak a native language that would never have the same meanings in English. So there should have been some sort of awareness of this prior to going out and doing fieldwork in ethnographic methods of inquiry. Soon there will be educated native people performing ethnographical studies who enter into their own communities speaking their own languages that will make the ethnographic research more viable. These three changes have had a great impact on ethnography.

Critical Evaluation of Ethnography

We have learned that there are three major changes in the way anthropologists conduct ethnographic research and that there must be an understanding from all areas of the research spectrum. Ethnography is the study of other cultures and there were significant changes in the way anthropologists perform observations of the other cultures. These changes benefited mostly the society the anthropologists were studying but the anthropologists also gained a modified form of gathering information. The impacts are important to study as well as the history of the ethnographic study whereby the impacts are also ways to improve the method of inquiry of other nations from the perspective of the anthropologist who happens to be subjected to Western ways of life. The perspective of the anthropologist is now a function in the reflexive process. Reflexive is the key to successful ethnographic research as now the research has a foundation to build on.

When the anthropologist includes their view of life and how it differs from the group they are studying, the work that is produced is more truthful. Let me explain so that there is no confusion. This is what we learned in other classes that there is a method called grounded approach. The researcher goes back and forth between the researcher’s assumptions and the subjects’ evidence in order to compare and modify the results that are being recorded and published. The grounded approach is a sensible way of conducting research by constantly checking and rechecking the data that is developed out of observation. The grounded approach verifies information as it is being recorded, as there is no other way to take apart a cultures complex systems of living. Overall, the ethnographic study of other cultures has many points that the evaluation of the three changes only proves that the study is improving.

Conclusion

This paper has examined the use and benefits of utilizing the study of ethnography to better understand the world we live in and the people who live in this world. There were three major changes that occurred over the course of the period of the development of ethnography, which included participant observation and multiple sites for gathering data. These three changes gave ethnography the substance to continue as a valuable and trustworthy method of inquiry that all anthropologists should be aware of these three changes. For a final thought, we should ask the subjects themselves which is the best method to inquire learning about their culture.