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Literature Review

2.1.Introduction

This chapter deals with the main theme which is ‘the Generation Gap’ and also analyses the general notion of Generation Gap. It will discover the causes of Generation Gap as well as revealing the analysis of the causes and the effects on the society in general.

2.2The concept of Generation Gap

‘Generation Gap’ is a term generally used to define the differences in culture, thought and behaviour between younger generations and their elders. It can be also described as the changes taking place when older and younger people are unable to comprehend each other because of their different experiences, attitudes, lifestyles and activities. A generation is “a select group born during the same years that experienced momentous events during significant development cycles” (Kupperschmidt, 2000). “Generation gap” was heavily researched in the 1960s and 1970s (Smith, 2000).

With the ongoing process of life, there will always be new generations. As society continues to progress and new technological innovations develop, a generation gap will continuously be predominant. “The old are completely convinced that the ideas they have had throughout their lives are the ultimate and ideal. They disregard certain vital issues that are no longer valid in the case of modernity’’ (Neff, 2011). The changes that occur as society evolves will never allow for complete agreement between generations. The Generation Gap is one of the perhaps most debatable issues of the era (Aliampi, 1969).

A generation is based on the range of birth years of a group of people. Generations may span several centuries from the time when people are individuals. Not all members of a generation demonstrate the same personalities. Generation differences were apparent in societal movements or changes (Brunswick, 1970). Generation gaps are unavoidable occurrences that take place in society. These changes in society arise because people become accustomed to an unstable environment. As our society progresses, people tends to change their likes and dislikes. These changes in society are important for development.

2.3History of the Generation Gap

Even though there has been changes between the generations all the time, until the twentieth century the drastic transformations that the term implies were not greatly in evidence. Previously during that era, society was not considerably mobile. Normally, young people were living in extended families. They were either working on their personal farm or in a relative business. With the introduction of TV and shows, the youngsters were exposed to traditional impacts unfamiliar to their own relatives and values (Adcox, 2015). The 1920s presented the younger generation to jazz melody and disco galleries, consequently constructing a gap between them and their seniors. But the actual reason behind the widening of the generation gap lies in the 1950s (Baby Boomers) when the soldiers had just come back from wars and started having kin. The veteran was actually a little harsh in nature and disliked the young who were greatly influenced by the arrival of the rock way of life. The generation gap of the 1960’s was because the older generation had severe values that the younger generation disagreed and they rebelled. Different diversions of pop culture were created, like Rock and Roll, Discos, and hippies. The following great gap was generated in 1980s that presented the MTV era (Pop, Rock, etc.) come from all parts covering the new generation completely different from their seniors. This gap begun widening enormously in the 1990s and now prolonged in leaps and bounds (The Generation Gap in India).

2.4Types of Generations

2.4.1Generation 1 (1900s – 1920s)

The generation of the 1900s – 1920s had a life expectancy of 47 years. Families were outsized during that time and infant death was high. Around a fifth of women were losing their lives in childbirth. Delivery was done at home itself. They were doing teamwork, accepting the hierarchical chain of command and performing all the task without complaining (Codrington, 2008). Tradition and history guided their attitudes and beliefs. Individuals of this generation were “past oriented and history absorbed” (Zemke et al., 2000, p.39). This generation were loyal and patriotic (Smith, 2011). People of this generation were unlikely to make complaints regarding conditions in which they sense uncomfortable (Zemke et al., 2000).

2.4.2Silent Generation (1920s – 1945s)

The Silent Generation valued family and patriotism. They had a parent remaining at home to look after the offspring, favoured dependability, and remained with one company over time (Allen, 2004). They were brought up in serious intervals when everybody were obliged to work. They were conventional and working hard as they hated getting into debts. They considered that by entire hard work, they could achieve success (Codrington, 2008).

2.4.3Baby Boomers (1946s – 1960s)

Baby boomers have been identified as being good at relationships. They respected others rights and did not find mistakes on others (Rath, 1999 and Zemke et al., 2000). Baby Boomers “may not agree with stands and opinions of every part of the cohort group or exhibit the same behaviour in the same situations, but they do, in their hearts, understand one another” (Zemke et al., 2000, p.72). They are individuals who work to earn their living and willing to sacrifice to attain success (Kerstein, 2014). They like adventure and tend to take risks. They are the primary generation to realise lifetime unemployment no longer exist, so job security means nothing to them, but they consider job satisfaction. They are the first generation to divorce in a large extent and at a younger age than the prior generations (Soroptimist, 2010).

2.4.4Generation X (1960s – 1989s)

The generation X raised up undergoing an era of crises. Generation x is often considered as the “lost or overlooked generation” (Ware et al., 2007, p.59). They were the first offspring in the olden times that mothers could take pills not to have. Throughout the turbulent era of the 1970s, majority of the generation X grew up (Smith, 2011). They work to have a life not live to work, they struggle to have balance in their lives. They are spiritual explorers who have faith in supernatural (Codrington, 2008). They are independent and are determined to be responsible and in control. They focus on their goals and solve problems (Soroptimist, 2010).

2.4.5Generation Y (1989s – 2000s)

Generation Y are spoilt by computers and intense technological advances. One of the foremost features of this generation is their relaxation with technology and being good at it (Kersten, 2002 and Niemiec, 2000). They are the first generation to grow up with internet and they are dependent on technology (Soroptimist, 2010). They are born with a micro-chip in the mouth instead of a golden or silver spoon. This generation considers that because of technology, task can be done everywhere (Smith, 2011). They are self-confident and egotistical as well (Codrington, 2008). A majority of generation Y were familiar with “divorce, drugs, sex, AIDS, gangs and guns” (Zemke et. al., 2000, p.136). This generation committed to work in group for development and this has also been an indicative of their workplace conducts (Zemke et al., 2000).

2.5.The Notion of Generation Gap

Generation gap has been considered as an unavoidable obstacle for the communications between the young and the old ones. These conflicts are normally arise as a result of urbanization, industrial development and family mobility (Bengtson and Achenbaum, 1993). The physical separation of the youngsters and the elders has led to a lack of consistent intergenerational connection and a rise in misperceptions and misunderstanding between the young and old generation (Newman, 1997).

Becker (2000) stated that “distinct generations emerge as a result of the effects of discontinuous macro-social change on individual behaviour during the formative period of the life course. As soon as a new generation has developed, the development of its members before and after the formative period can be studied together with research on institutions related to the new generation” (p. 117). Mead (1970) stressed on the fact that, “Adults today know more about change than any previous generations. So we are set apart both from earlier generations and from the young who have rejected the past and all that their elders are making of the present” (p. 79). Gutman (1985) contended that in the modern society “the present younger generation had been socialized into believing that ‘young is beautiful, old is ugly’ in retaliation to if ‘the young knew and the old could’ (Jefferys 1997, p. 82).

Chow (2001) pointed that youngsters care and give attention to their parents as well as accepting and obeying their preferences in the form of showing respect them. He also suggested that, “children nowadays are not as keen to consult their parents as in the past” in both side on marriage and job seeking. The social circumstance have evolved in such a way that they have often made the guidance of parents irrelevant and in appropriate (Chow, 2001). Children failed in fulfilling parents hopes on obedience when making their lifetime choices. Thus, this is one of the key issues in the reoccurrence of the ‘generation gap’.

2.6.The Causes of Generation Gap

Generation gap has developed in society presently from numerous factors such as technological innovations, fashion, the evolution of the media, gifts, communication, attitudes, and sex. These aspects cause people to change in different ways that changes human opinion of what is right and generally acceptable, or to make a distinction between good and bad. These factors may cause discrepancies between generations, but they overall lead to positive development in society.

2.6.1Technological innovation

At an early age, the younger generation starts making the use of technology and they never overwhelmed by it (Kelty, 2000). As the youth have grown up with technology and developed flexible skill, they are now considered as ‘digital natives’ (Courtois et al., 2009). The younger generation ‘know what to do’ with different updated technologies as they make the use of them more often with the pre-existing technology (Facer et al., 2001). Older generation find it difficult to learn how to use technology unlike the younger generation (Kelty, 2000). They have the feeling of sore when there are advancement in technology. Throughout the previous three eras, the degree and speed of technological advancement has brought new interest in generational differences (Clark. 2009 and Livingstone, 2003).

2.6.2.Television

One of the most important creations that has influenced the younger generation is the Television. Nowadays, television is superb compared to the television that the older generation. The television that the older generation remembers is dissimilar, it contained fewer channels and were available mostly in black and white and it was much smaller (Neff, 2011). Because of these changes, a big generation gap has developed concerning entertainment and the ethics resulted from it. Televisions turned to be more predominant in children’s bedrooms (Jordan et al., 2010). Video game strategies are no more restricted to comforts that assign to televisions as it was long ago, however they are now accessible in the form of handheld devices as cellular phones (Vaterlaus, 2012). The multi-uses of television have widen the gap between the generations. The T.V remote control has become too complex for the old person who used to on/off button. The old may not necessarily be uneducated but they are not a tech-savvy as their children and grand-children. The same goes for the other gadgets such as video games, smart phones, iPad and iPhone.

2.6.3.Internet

The Internet has had the major influence of widening the generation gap. It is the foremost persuasive technological innovation in the world nowadays with its multiple uses (Neff, 2011). The technology used to reach the internet has also advanced. The private desktop computer transformed into the laptops, and tablets. The internet can be currently reached on strategies as small as iPods and cell phones anytime and anywhere. Cell phones that permit internet access are referred to as “Smartphones” (Vaterlaus, 2012). A technology revolution has been produced by the internet in the younger generation.

Internet is used by the younger generation every day and it also permit children to develop a sense of freedom. These changes in ethics have been prominent as main differences between generations (Neff, 2011). Consequently, these technological inventions lead to a rise in the width of the generation gap in the world nowadays. The internet is currently used “to play video games, view movies, watch television shows, and download music” (Jones, 2009). Juveniles who make use of the internet are no more restricted to view media, however they may communicate informally with others across the globe (Courtois, Mechant, De Marez and Verleye, 2009). Email, social-networking, chat rooms, and video chat permit communication to be immediate and even face-to-face (Jones, 2009).

2.6.4.Evolution of the Media

Changes in media is another feature that causes generation gap to develop. Music, due to the increasing in technology is changing fast and new melodies are continuously released. The primary foremost apparent change among the two generations is the introduction of CD and MP3 player. Older generations grew up with records and record players. Music was not something that was freely accessible. Nowadays children have the facility of downloading songs and within minutes can listen to it in the earphones anywhere they want. This definitely ease causes the generation gap to widen. Not only have the types of melodies changed but the forms of genres also. For the older generation, the melodies of nowadays are basically noise for them, there are lack of beat and softer songs of the historical. “People are obsessed on the tune of their early life, the tastes keep on varying and it is inevitable and can’t be stopped”. The two generations will certainly disagree on what is noble music. Because of this, a generation gap is unavoidable. With the on-going changes in art and music, the gap will only continue to widen (Neff, 2011).

2.6.5.Fashion

The way youngsters dress and appear are some of the most apparent, yet main factors in widening the generation gap. Appearances frequently reveal how one feels and their way of behaving. When the older generation was younger, they were more traditional, and it was revealed in their way of dressing. They dressed in a manner that was generally suitable at that time. The advancement of outfit displays a deliberate change from a traditional to liberal attitude. The film star heartened a movement into liberal dressing that certainly helps widening the existing generation gap. This particular change identifies a fashion choice that usually the young embrace and the old deprecate. This was the final step into varying the standards of dress. Women’s evolution into freedom permitted for changes in the societal approval of this revealing show. As these values have transformed, the generation gap has only grown (Neff, 2011).

2.6.6.Attitudes

The two generations adopted different attitudes. Most parents accept a straight forward expression and do not display their emotional state while interacting with their offspring. Moreover, they yell at their children more often or even give them physical punishment. These are due to the traditional practice. On the contrary, children dislike to obey their parents’ instructions as they consider that there are no reasons to support why parents’ opinions are correct. Furthermore, youngsters do not want their parents to treat them as little kids. They believe that they are grown-ups and they want to be free from parent’s control and refuse their guidelines. This helps them to achieve more self-esteem. Overall, both parents and their children do not perceive things from the same perspectives. As a result, misinterpretation is a great cause for the formation of generation gap (Kwok, 2010).

2.6.7.Communication

The generation gap is considered to be one of the greatest communication failure (Aliampi, 1969). There is lack of time for communication. A majority of the parents spend less time to communicate with and listen to their children. Parents are unable to balance their time between work and family due to work overload. On the other hand, children are not sharing their day to day activities with their parents (Kwok. 2010). Social communication is moving with the fast paced nature of technological improvement (Vaterlaus, 2012). Communication channels offered by the internet are developing rapidly. Cell phone features comprise of speaking and texting which have convert into a consistent means of social communication for adolescents (Jones, 2009). Cell phone communication has become a family affair (Vaterlaus, 2012). There are less face to face conversation between parents and children, thus this causes the gap to widen.

2.6.8.Sex

Sex has always been an issue on which the generations vary intensely. There are different conceptions of sex between the two generations. The way they think how to conceive are unlike. For the older generation, sex is a taboo. The young should not talk about sex and they cannot fall in love and have sex before marriage, punishment was very severe long ago. Marriage was being broken in the past because of virginity. On the contrary, for the younger generation sex is a normal activity. Sex before marriage is no more a sin for the young. This is shocking for the older generation. Teenage pregnancy was very rare before and now because of no sexual education, sex is reaching the youngsters. There is a big gap between the two generations. That gap has narrowed, but not all the time because younger generation have become more and more permissive (Smith, 2004).

2.6.9.Gifts

Gifts play a key role in widening the gap between older and younger generation. The older generation were used to the custom of giving monetary gifts to the young (Nguyen, 2008). But today there is a big gap, gifts should be offered according to the demand of the young, they prefer gadgets. Younger generations of nowadays expect IPhone, IPad, mobile phones and laptops (Waterlow, 2012). When older generations are unable to accomplish the desires of the young, they have a sense of unfulfilment because the gift is not according to the social norm. The difference in utility value of a gift is enormous. The older generation’s concept of utility is quite opposed to the young. The older generation views utility of gift in terms of time associated to solidity and absolutism. The young has been brought up to consider gifts as something which are passing fads.

2.7.Summary

This chapter has dealt with the idea of generation gap which is a universal phenomenon existing since time immemorial. Each period of human history has witness the causes of generation gap and tried to explain today we are perhaps most up to bring a clear explanation and have a better understanding about Generation Gap.

Stereotype refers to the cognition aspect of feeling towards a given group of people. It is the picture that most people engulf in their minds about other people. However the picture painted by people with regard to other people is not necessarily a true depiction of the reality. Stereotypes hold the fixed view that people of a certain community or group exhibit specific character traits, which influence their behavior in general. Stereotypes as regards gender, refer to certain traits presumably adhered to males and females in the society, that define and distinguish these genders. According to Mynhardt, the two genders (males and females) portray traits which are both negative and positive. Gender stereotypes have far reaching consequences and cannot be taken only on face value. The issue of gender stereotyping is deeply entrenched in our society, that it has gone to an extent of defining the status of people and the positions people hold depending on gender. For instance, the character traits associated with women are regarded to be unfit for positions of a higher stature. This kind of attitude is not new even in the developed world. For instance at the height of campaigns in the United States, there were numerous debates on and off the media on whether America was ready for a woman president. This certainly illustrates the biased perceptions that more often than not prevent women from reaching the positions at the highest level, simply because of the gender.

There are certain aspects of everyday life that are traditionally attributed to males and females in the society. The manner in which the men and women carry themselves around is fundamental to the definition and distinction of gender in general. There are acts both of omission and commission that are associated with each gender. However as days go by, the society undergoes transformation and so do the traditions and cultures that shape and influence the society as whole. In the family set up for example, the different roles are distributed depending on gender. There are also perceptions relating to the behavior of people that distinguish what are expected and what is not expected from people of a given gender. For example sensitivity, dependence and expression of emotions are considered feminine in nature. The men on the other hand are expected to exhibit traits such are bravery, independence, assertiveness and none of those traits that are associated with the women. However these cultures that build perceptions continue to fade with each passing day. As a result, there are many incidences of deviation from gender roles prescribed by society. The violation of these gender role stereotypes are accompanied by consequences largely due to the perceptions held by the society.

Violation of gender role stereotypes

The reception to those who deviate from the normal traits associated to their respective genders is no bed of Roses. The manner in which the violators are treated is no doubt unfavorable in most aspects. The reception however differs depending on the environmental set up and more so whether the person is male or female. In the event that males and females deviate from the roles prescribed by society as regards their gender, the males are more likely to receive a hostile reception. The women on the other hand, will most likely receive little attention. This all has to do with the issue of status in social aspects. There is the general perception that the masculine traits occupy a higher stature than feminine traits. Looking at the issue of sexual orientation, for woman behaving in a masculine way, it does not raise eyebrows, however if a man were to behave like a woman, this will no doubt be a big deal. The man will most certainly be referred to as a homosexual. In the work place however it is the women on the receiving end in the event of deviation. A woman who is charge of a given organization will most likely receive an unfavorable evaluation compared to a man, if she acts in a manner that violates the perceived traits of women and takes the route of a leader which is authority and commanding results in the work place.

Social perception of males and females who violate gender role stereotypes

There are numerous perceptions as regards the question of gender role violation. However according to Sirin, Selcuk R., McCreary, Donald R., Mahalik, and James R. authors of the journal of menaˆ™s studies, the notable social perceptions revolve around social status, sexual orientation and the dissimilarity of value. The perceptions exhibited are most of the time firmly in the grip of culture and are subsequently fuelled and driven by the traditions of the people in the society. The issue of culture and tradition set aside, expectations also play a significant role. There is a general expectation from both genders on the manner in which the other gender should behave. One thing cut across the divide and this is the fact that women anchor the expectation that men should display masculinity. The same is anticipated by men who are of the view that women should be feminine. Any sort of trait that does not meet the above expectations, it is considered a violation of gender role stereotype, which is accompanied by negative perceptions.

For a long time, gender has maintained a significant influence in the manner in which people conduct themselves in the society. The issue of status as regards the males and the females is what dictates the way in which males and females are regarded in the event that they violate the prescribed code of conduct that is attributed to their respective genders. According to Feinman, in relation to the social status model, he writes that the men have a status that is superior to that of women. Going by the model on social status, then men will more often than not face an unfavorable evaluation, should they violate the prescribed code of conduct for their gender this is because, the violation means that they lose class when they deviate from a status of a higher nature to a status that is low. For women whenever they deviate from perceived traits are assumed to be transforming from a lower status to a higher status. Hence the social perception with regard to the violation of gender role stereotypes is positive to a large extent. This is no doubt something that is rife in the society, as a matter of common societal law, to whom much is given a lot, is expected. For instance woman who dresses and behaves like a man will most likely go unnoticed or may even command respect from people around. This however is not the case in men. A man who dresses and behaves like a woman will most likely be despised. To a large extent this is all attributed to the distinction of the social status between the men and women. According to Feinman the male role is more valuable than that of the female. He further writes that it is acceptable for women to adopt the roles of men rather than men take up the roles of women.

Violation of the gender role stereotype has consequences for both the males and the females. However there is no denying the fact that, the reception received by the males as regards their transgressions is more hostile compared to the women. If anything the women may in some instances be perceived in a positive way. The issue of desire is the other frontier for the perceptions of gender stereotypes. According to Sadalla, Kenrick, and Vershure (1987), men who show traits of not being dominant are deemed to be undesirable. This perception is however not just directly related only to the dominance aspects, but to all traits in general. There is the general perception that, men who exhibit traits that are a deviation from the known male traits are not desirable especially from the womenaˆ™s point of view.

The other perception that is anchored in the minds of the people is the issue of respect in the society. This directly affects men in a negative way and does not have any negative impact on women who violate the gender role stereotype. It is perceived that, men who deviate from the normal societal norms loose respect from their peers and even the society in general. For women on the contrary, the perception is that, they will command respect and admiration from their peers in the event that they deviate from the prescribed societal code for the female gender.

The perceptions on women who violate the gender role stereotype is not at all constant, it keeps changing depending on the environmental set up. For the men however, the perceptions when they deviate from the gender role stereotype are the same and fixed, at no time will the transgression committed by men receive a positive evaluation.

Conclusion

The gender stereotypes and overall stereotyping continues to not only shape but also influence the behavior of all people regardless of the environmental setup. As illustrated above, the burden to conform to societal norms associated with gender is more often than not rested on men to shoulder it. This is not to say that women do shoulder any negative perceptions, the women too have their fair share of tribulations that arise from the gender role stereotype. Even so, regardless of the environmental set up, the perception is that the men will always get a hostile reception when they violate the gender role stereotypes compared to women.

In view of the increasing role of women in public life and the efforts of the government in the direction of universalisation of education, the question of gender sensitization has assumed greater importance. Most Schools have become co-educational these days where boys and girls interact with students and teachers of the opposite sex. The physical proximity of the girls and boys has made interaction free and unrestrained. Reports of gender discrimination, sexual harassment, and other forms of sexually objectionable behaviour are quite common in Indian educational institutions. Numerous reasons can be forwarded behind such behaviour. We have to see the larger picture if we want to address this issue. Gender discrimination cannot be treated in isolation as it has its roots in deeper problems, which plague our society.

The Indian society is still in the process of modernisation where sections of the population continue to have traditional mindsets. The traditional Indian thinking considers males as superior to females and there are plenty of examples to show that young girls are discriminated against at home. Statistical evidence shows that boys in India have three times greater possibility of being taken to the hospital in case of a serious ailment. In many poor Indian houses males are fed first and the left – overs are eaten by the females. The dropout rate in Schools is much higher in case of girls. The scenario is even more grim in rural India where parents prefer to send the boy child to school and keep the girl child at home to assist in household work or to work in any other income-generating activity. This discrimination at home weakens the personality of women in general and they look upon themselves as inferior to men right from childhood. At the same time, boys are made to believe that they are inherently superior to females. Most boys and girls attend schools loaded with this mental baggage. The indoctrination received at home compounded by the already existing social differentiation between males and females give rise to attitudes in the male folk, which are far from egalitarian.

Though our constitution clearly proclaims equality of men and women in all spheres of public and private life yet it is not so in practice. Among the vast sections of the population groveling in illiteracy, concepts like gender equality are unheard of. Even in the so-called modern and affluent Indian houses gender discrimination may be discernible in some form or the other. Unless the economic standard of the country improves, girls may continue to be considered as burden of the family and gender sensitization may remain elusive. However, greater stress on education of females especially in rural India will definitely reduce the gender gap as education equips a person with courage to fight against discrimination.

The general moral debasement of our society is also responsible for disrespect for women. If the morality of the child improves then he will display greater respect for women and cases of sexual abuse or assault in educational institutions will reduce. In the modern times, earning money has become the prime motive of man and the child is imbued with the same zeal. Teachers, guardians and educational institutions are geared at academic advancement as it is considered as a sure way to success in life. Success in life is equated with earning money. When the primary goal of education becomes moneymaking then moral values definitely take a back seat in schools and colleges. Cases of sexual misconduct in schools are a direct result of the failure of guardians and teachers in inculcating moral values in children. Though, students are taught moral values as part of the curriculum yet it is done in a perfunctory manner. Inculcation of moral values in children has to be done in a very systematic manner by narration of stories with moral overtones. Such narration should be done to students at a very young age by a conscientious teacher. This needs to be followed up even in the middle and senior levels in schools. Moral uprightness should be lauded so that the seeds of moral values planted in children at a young age take firm roots. Teachers and guardians have to take a joint responsibility in this regard. They must understand that they can act as catalysts in bringing about a change in children’s mindsets and in society in general. The behaviour of teachers cannot be considered to be above board and they are often found to be behaving immorally. Sadly, enough schools are also not very careful in the recruitment of teachers. Most private schools operate as business houses and the sole concern is to earn money. Thus, the noble motive of imparting man-making education is lost.

Schools have to be more vigilant and careful in providing good-quality education and should provide proper care to the child. Only then can we expect children to grow strong academically, physically and morally. Schools should provide sufficient scope for engaging the child’s mind in various pursuits beyond the pale of academics so that their abundant energies may be diverted in creative activities. This would naturally curb the negative tendencies in children who are likely to develop a more positive attitude towards others. Students should be involved in-group activities involving both the sexes so that the curiosity and inhibitions regarding the opposite sex end. Cases of sexual misconduct within the school should be identified and dealt with strictly. The guilty, have to be counseled or punished depending on the severity of the case. The students including both boys and girls should be enlightened about the essential equality of all human beings irrespective of caste, creed, race or gender. Teachers should treat the students in a humane manner so that the students also behave likewise while dealing with their peers. Right attitudes have to be developed in the students so that they abstain from any kind of objectionable behaviour . Students can also act in groups helping each other to thwart the attempt of any abuser.

Teachers in schools should be ready to act as aids in helping students deal with such situations. Guidance by NGOs engaged in this field can also help to train children in tackling such situations. The schools should act in close collaboration with the guardians as the students receive the first impressions of life at home itself and ideas formed at the formative stages of life continue to linger in the later stages also.

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Gender Sensitization in Schools
By Moushumi Ghoshal
Motilal Nehru School of Sports
Rai, Sonipat

The issue of gender sensitization has taken gargantuan proportions due to a national crisis which shook the nation to its core at the beginning of the year. The incident which was referred to as the ‘Delhi Gang rape’ left the issue of women’s safety split wide open, putting a question-mark over the attitude of the average Indian male in terms of his behavior with the opposite sex. Educational institutions must accept their share of the responsibility since the issue at hand is largely ignored, and often swept under the carpet, by private and govt. schools alike. Govt. policy on this issue too is vague and reactionary, leaving schools with no clear directives as to what is expected of them.

The first major concern of the society should be the formulation of clear cut laws which ensure women of a gender-sensitive environment in their workplace. The primary step taken, it then must ensure that schools are made the chosen vehicle to spread the message so that the society does not only have to take punitive measures, rather the desired aim is inculcated in the youth. Gender sensitization must be made part of the teacher-training programme so that all the aspects are well-ingrained in the teachers to pass on to the students.

More than at the senior or college level, gender related issues must be addressed at the primary level, so that young children growing up together may look upon each other as friends and partners rather than persons with whom no interaction was acceptable. Making children sit in small mixed groups and encouraging pair work/group work/project and activities in which there is a judicious mix of both boys and girls would make the children look on each other as just another student, rather than feeling shy of each other, which may lead to embarrassment, in articulation, a sense inadequacy in dealing with them and a feeling that they are “different”.

Another important step would be to make community service a vital part of the school curriculum. This would become the basis for moving towards a kinder and more compassionate society which reacts to gender issues with sensitivity and understanding. Community service helps to hone the finer qualities of a human being while also highlighting the joys of helping and working together.

One important aspect which must not be ignored is the treatment meted out to those who flout the accepted norms of gender-sensitive behavior. Keeping in view the fact that we are dealing with children at the formative age, it is vital that we do not alienate the offender; rather we try to bring him into the mainstream by counseling and an assurance of continued support in his guest to improve upon his behavior. Censure, public ridicule and a harsh punishment such as expulsion may bring about an entirely opposite result, further alienating the child. It must be assumed that certain children will take a long time to overcome gender issues, given the chauvinistic environment in most Indian homes. The key would be to press on resolutely rather than crack the whip.

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Gender Sensitization in Schools

Kavitha Nair

Senior Secondary Teachers

Muljibhai Mehta International School

Gokul Township, Virar (W)

Gender sensitization refers to mental process of an individual when he or she comes in contact with individual of opposite gender. The thought process of an individual is always different for each gender.”Gender sensitization” the word evoke a mixed reaction in the mind depending where you are from ‘cities’ or ‘villages’ .The city bred youth think that girls are being given more than their due and from the village they are so insensitive to the need of a girl child that it is natural for them to think that a girl is subservient to a boy.

The significance of gender sensitizing, gender equality to the development is widely recognized globally accounting the various efforts by governments, civil society and development agencies in the holistic development. For the past few days all our mainline news channels and news papers have been reporting the growing atrocities against women across India .The ever existing issues of low sex ratio, female infanticide, denial of education to girls, dowry and the likes haunt us everyday .Crime against women are increasing at an alarming rate. It is surprising that ‘educated’ young men commit a lot of these crimes.

Nevertheless wherever you are from the need of being sensitive to the need of a girl is imperative and important. That does not mean that you should be insensitive to the needs of a boy but a girl requires a little more care as after the age of thirteen .She undergoes a lot of change physically as well as emotionally .When the kids are young that is before the age of ten, both boys and girls play with each other with no thought about gender differentiation .But as they start reaching adolescence parents , teachers ,friends and society keeps reminding them about gender differences. This creates the first seed of gender discrimination. A girl start with her menstrual cycle and a boy has certain changes in his body that he ‘starts’ becoming aware a girl as a ‘girl’. Boys and girls both show the traits of rowdiness, jealousy, camaraderie and infatuation in certain cases.

To Educate A Child Holistically (TEACH) is why a teacher is needed. A teacher is the best person to explain to the child various topics to the adolescent like the need of gender sensitization so as to be aware of the needs of each other.

How can a Teacher / school be helpful?

Many governments have achieved significant levels of success in reducing the gender gap in enrollment by increasing the enrolment of girls. Various programmes were included for the improvement of girls access, retention and performance like:-

Building schools close to the homes to provide safety and security for girls.

Flexible time table for subsistent activities.

Establishing community libraries.

Provision for separate toilets for boys and girls including proper bathroom facilities, sanitary ware and privacy related to management of menstruation for girls.

Proper rules against sexual harassment and sexual violence.

These issues can be dealt in the school level by using a very effective tool for gender sensitization like:

School to provide a value based approach in handling one’s sensuality.

For gender sensitization the ideal age group should be 12 to 15 years as in this age the children learn to differentiate a good touch and a bad touch.

Senior teachers, doctors, psychiatrist and child psychologist are ideal teachers because they know how to convey the point.

The delivery of a good gender sensitizing programmes can be more effective if interactive learning methodologies like debates, discussions, games, role play included in the session.

Over the years on the need of gender responsive teaching and learning materials, textbooks have many examples of gender stereotypes. As a matter of fact the teachers who were using these textbooks were not aware that there was anything wrong in the textbook. For curriculum setting teacher’s contribution is essential.

Well researched interesting audio video content on gender sensitization can reach out to the children, either through computer lab or through audio visual rooms.

Proper language should be used by the teachers in the class rooms. A healthy teacher student interaction should be carried.

As we are all social animals it is the responsibility of each and every individual to realize the duties with respect to the problems pertaining to the gender sensitization .Even after 6 decades of independence one frequently read about bride burning and dowry death. Therefore it is the prime responsibility of our education system to teach the child to discuss his thoughts, action and deeds. Education should help him or her to take right decisions in the right direction.

Teacher training must be necessary including training skills for children otherwise attainment of quality education and achievement of MILLENIUM DEVELOPMENTS GOALS and for gender equality for education as a whole will for a long time remain an illusion.

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Gender Sensitization

Mrs Rukhsar Tanveer .Shaikh

Pre Primary section.

D.A.V Public school, Airoli

Till December 16, I had assumed that I am living in a state where sweet river flows, birds chirp, a cool air blows swiftly, nature around me is so beautiful and I am like an independent human being, where I have my self-esteem, dignity, respect and an identity as a woman. In a fraction of second, everything has got shattered, shaken and uprooted as if a tsunami, Katrina or torrential rain swept away. I was in a state of shock; I was not able to express my anger, frustration, sadness, pain. Now my soul is lost and only my body remains. Now I am scared, yes, it’s true because I am woman and above all I am blessed with a beautiful daughter Damini.

I get shivers as this name is given to that brave girl who has fought for her life till her last breath. I can feel a pain. Suddenly I became an educator because I have started educating every child and of course I can’t forget my own daughter. I have observed that adolescents are still not aware what has happened and if we, as a part of society will not take a drastic step to educate them, our soul will be lost for ever.

Every one of us is playing a vital role in our field. But we need to sow a seed by educating not only girl or boy but every citizen of our country. As a parent if I am guiding only my child, is that enough? Will crime stop forever? We should not forget the root. Each and every member of the society must be aware, educated, enlightened and imbibed with the roles, duties and responsibilities.

First of all we have to understand that in our journey we have to go to different stages i.e. infant, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. As a teacher I have an opportunity to interact with kids. I am nurturing the age group of 3.5 to 5.5 years. That doesn’t mean that I can’t inculcate values at this age.

I have taken initiative by making children aware of what good touch is and what bad touch is. And they must not allow any stranger or an unknown person in a society, bus, school, and road or on any occasion or festivals to misbehave. As a teacher we can narrow the bridge by making strong bond of friendships. Children either speak out to their parents or a teacher who is very close to their heart. With kids, also we need to orient parents to keep an eagle eye on their kids when they are playing in the society, mall, or school. Guide them through stories, discussions questioning and dramatization or puppets.

To inculcate values in adolescence is the next step by giving our students responsibility, awareness, alertness, by taking precautions and self defense.

Positive Attitude We all go through some bad phases. Children at this age, when are frustrated at home,. they tend to get isolated and get involved in bad company, bad habits and make hell of their life. If we sow a seed of positive thinking through seminars, workshops, or half an hour talk we can overcome negative feeling and help them lead a positive life. We can make a difference and we can make them a positive human being. A positive human being with a positive mind will never do wrong and will never encourage wrong deeds, because he is aware of the consequences and understands what is right or wrong.

Awareness adolescence goes through many stages. But life has its own turmoil. A child goes through many crises. Some parents are separated, some have financial problem, some have drunken father who beats his/her mother daily. Some do not have even the basic necessities of life. We teachers as moderators must encourage them to read news paper. And not just the headlines. It is our duty to help children read, understand and give their opinion. Through a healthy discussion between a teacher and a student, it is the role of a teacher to identify if there is any negativity and talk to the child. We can also take guidance from school counselor. Make them aware by involving them through street play, through workshop, of their responsibility. While talking there shouldn’t be any gender bias but equal respect and responsibilities. And help them understand to deal with crises.

Alertness we must help them understand that they have to be alert all the time. And for that they should not use mobiles, or listen to music by putting earplugs while they are out of school or while walking. They have to be alert while interacting with strangers at home or in society. And if they feel wrong gestures, they must immediately report to teacher or parents. Children must be updated and made aware of all the numbers i.e. of ambulance, police station, of parents, relatives and neighbours.

Self defense Help them learn the art of self defense. And remember every martial art has a rule to follow and we should use it when in trouble and not to trouble others.

Same conditions are applied for adulthood and old age. A worse situation can be faced by any one of us. But if we are aware, alert, with positive feeling and self defense we can make this world a better place to live in

I believe in ”practice what you preach”. All these are within my reach. I am doing my bit. Have you done yours?

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Gender Sebsitisation in Schools
Shikha Sharma,
Lecturer,
Dept. Of Education,
C.C.S. University Campus,
Meerut
INTRODUCTION –

Around the world gender is the primary division between people. Gender consists of whatever traits a group considers proper for its males and females. Gender stratification means males and females unequal access to power, prestige, property on the basis of sex. No matter what we attain in life we are labelled as male or female. These labels carry images and expectations about how we should act. From birth right till death gender has a hand in shaping human feelings , thoughts and actions. Children quickly learn that society defines males and females as different kinds of people by the age of three. Gender affects how we think of ourselves , also it teaches us to act in a normative way. Gender roles are attitudes and activities that a society links to each sex. You learn your gender as you are socialized into the behavior and attitudes thought appropriate for your sex. The sociological significance of gender is that it is a device by which society controls its members.

Society expects males to be ambitious and competitive ,play sports and assume positions of leaderships. Females are expected to be deferential, emotional, supportive helpers and quick to cry. We expect them to be passive and emotional while males are expected to be independent and active. This perception of parents, communities and even policy makers is the root cause of social discrimination of girls. In most of societies girls and women are considered to be inferior to men. Girls are treated as a liability. Education of girls is a waste of scarce resources. This is because our social norms are built around the belief that girls only have a domestic role in the household economy. She does not provide for the family but only is a consumer. Her use is only as a potential child bearer and rearer . Parents believe that –

-Girls education has no relevance for her future life

-If girls are educated they get ideas of equality.

-When they invest in a girl’s education there are no returns.

Discrimination against women began centuries ago. This discrimination begins at home when a girl is born and in some cases even before she is born resulting in female foeticide. There are dietary insufficiencies both qualitative as well as quantitative. Girls are more often undernourished than boys. Everywhere there is male patriarchy where male dominates females. Throughout the modern world the portrayal of women and the image associated with them is that of a docile, beautiful creation in need of protection and care. This impression has been passed on from generation to generation through social norms. Women are expected to be submissive, obedient and humble individuals who have to play multiple roles of daughter, sister, wife , mother , daughter-in-law etc with perfection. An ideal women is one who does not raise voice or go against the wishes of the male members of the family. From early childhood she is trained to lead a life dependent on others and if she does not do so she is considered bold, immoral and therefore should be punished. This is evident from the rise in violence against women who have dared to challenge male domination.

ROLE OF SOCITEY-

Gender consiousness starts very early in life with the kind of roles one is expected to play. Girls help their mothers in household work and boys help by doing odd jobs outside. Girls are taught that their whole life revolves around their home. This image is further strengthened when an ideal gift for girl’s is dolls and cars and guns for boys. This carries forward the role society expects each one of them to play. Girls should remain at home caring and looking after every need of the family members whereas boys should be more aggressive and outgoing. Major and healthy portion of the food is kept for the male members of the family. In case of scarce resources it is the girl who has to make all the sacrifices. This is the price she has to pay for the security she is assured of by the male members which is the basic spirit behind various festivals like Raksha bandhan.

SCHOOLS-

This gender consiousness unfortunately is further strengthened in schools when we quickly label a boy who is crying as sissy or acting like a girl. Even in subject selection this consiousness is so overpowering that girls usually opt for fine arts, home science or biology. Maths is generally for boys. Girls going in for medical profession usually specialize in Gynecology, Paediatrics or physiotherapy; rarely do we find female cardiologist or oncologists. This biasness is found in every field – in Engineering it is computers and electronics for girls , Civil and mechanical is for boys. In M.B.A. girls usually go in for Marketing and HRD whereas Sales is for boys. Tradition fosters gender aspirations in their students by encouraging females to choose occupations in consonant with future husbands and children. Our society still defines high paying profession and the drive & competitiveness needed to succeed in them as masculine.

Again when we look at the world of sports here also feminine and less aggressive games are for girls like badminton ,tennis, swimming or athletics .Sports like Cricket, football are more popular with boys although female teams for such sports exist but they are not so popular. Girls usually are left for cheerleading to boost and motivate their male counterparts. Although there are exceptions like Alka Tomar, Mary Kom who have made a mark for themselves in such allegedly manly sports like wrestling and boxing. This discrimination in the field of sports is a world wide phenomena. This creates a prejudiced image on the impressionable young minds and which they carry with themselves for the rest of their lives. Whenever they encounter an image which clashes with their established views there is conflict which we are witnessing in the varied forms of violence and atrocities on women these days.

MEASURES –

Thus, gender sensitization is needed in every sphere of our lives be it schools, society, peer groups etc. This stereotyped image needs a complete overhaul especially the one depicted in our movies. But it should begin at the very grass root levels when the young mind begins to take shape i.e. at school. Because school is the second home of the child .It should begin from the very basic. They should be taught that girls or boys are not different .They are just two separate individuals who might be physically different but this physical difference should not guide their behaviour. Children should be taught to respect each others feelings and accept each others capabilities.

Image associated with what types of games one can play should also be broken. Girls should be encouraged to take up subjects for which they have aptitudes and which they want to pursue even if it goes against conventions. Stereotypes must be broken and children should be encouraged to do what their heart desire and not be deterred by the dictates of the society. Choice of a career should be their own decision and it should not be affected by what the society expects them to do.

Gender sensitivity should be made a part of the curriculum. The students should be made aware about the contribution of the females in the development of the society and how the two sexes can co-exist. Merely worshipping her as a goddess is not sufficient; she should be treated with respect and as a thinking individual. The society has to realize the immense potential they are wasting by denying equal status and opportunities to girls.

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Gender Sensitization in Schools

Charul Mahendru

PGT (English)

DPS Rohini

Rohini, Sector 24 Delhi-110085

Wherever women are honored, there the gods are pleased – The Code of Manu (Manuscripts)

We live in an advanced society. Having enslaved even the most dangerous animals, we proudly live in the territories that once belonged to these ‘wild beasts.’ We have invented machines to make our lives easier and work faster. The world has shrunk and we plan to set up colonies on the moon! We have become more advanced as compared to our ‘barbaric ancestors.’ Man surely has come a long way from his hunter gathering stage.

However the position of women in society has changed little. Every day, newspapers are replete with the news of rape, molestation, domestic-violence or any other such crime against women. Girl students have the highest dropout rate in the rural areas, there is discrimination related to the salary earned by women especially in the rural areas. Women are subjected to discrimination at every stage in their life.

Statistics reveal that there are 65.5% literate women in India as compared to 82.1% males. 26.1% of women form the workforce in rural India as compared to 54.7% of men. The average salary of women in rural areas in 2009-10 was Rs.155.87 and that of the men was Rs.249.15. A total of 24,270 cases of crime against women were reported in India in 2011. The recent rape case of Nirbhaya has yet again revealed the sorry state of women in our modern society.

Is it the same India where women are worshipped as goddesses? In our culture the figure of Ardhnarishwara or half man and half woman is revered and worshipped. The Ardhnarishwara, in a way is a symbol of equality of the sexes, of the fact that both sexes are equally significant and none is less than the other. This is our culture that treats both sexes as equals. However, we, who take pride in our rich heritage and in the culture of revering womanhood, are slipping into the morass of depravity. All doesn’t seem well in man’s paradise.

This wasn’t the case in the hunter gathering society. There was no male supremacy over women as there was almost a division of labour between the sexes. Men did most of the hunting and women did most of the gathering. (Chris Harman: A People’s History of the World). Industrialization brought with it new ways of production which created new relations between the sexes. The man strengthened his position as the bread earner and the role of women was reduced to child bearing and rearing of the family. Gradually women were thrust into a position of dependence and subordination to men. This led to the great divide and women were no longer treated as equals.

In order to bring women at par with their male counterparts, the need of the hour is to instill ender Sensitization among the youth. Gender Sensitization can be defined as the modification of behavior and instilling empathy into the views that we hold about our own and the other sex. It helps people in examining their personal attitudes and beliefs and questioning the realities they thought they know. Since home and school influence a child’s development the most, it becomes imperative that such training begins from here to nip the problem in the bud.

There are several ways in which we can instill gender sensitivity among our students. Morning assemblies can be organized to promote gender equality. Skits, debates, street plays and panel discussions can also be conducted to sensitize the students to this issue of national importance. Not only this, the subject of gender equality could be integrated with the subjects. Students can be asked to carry out surveys to assess the prevalence of gender inequality, for eg. students can be asked to find out the names of some famous Indian women physicists/ mathematicians. Apart from this, value education classes can also act as a handy tool to motivate students to respect everyone irrespective of sex. A meeting with parents can be organized by the Principal in order

Children learn from their parents and society the conception of

“feminine” and “masculine.” Much about these conceptions is not biological at

all but cultural. The way we tend to think about men and women and their gender

roles in society constitute the prevailing paradigm that influences out thinking.

Riane Eisler points out that the prevailing paradigm makes it difficult for us

to analyze properly the roles of men and women in prehistory “we have a cultural

bias that we bring to the effort and that colors our decision-making processes.”

Sexism is the result of that bias imposed by our process of acculturation.

Gender roles in Western societies have been changing rapidly in recent

years, with the changes created both by evolutionary changes in society,

including economic shifts which have altered the way people work and indeed

which people work as more and more women enter the workforce, and by perhaps

pressure brought to make changes because of the perception that the traditional

social structure was inequitable. Gender relations are a part of the

socialization process, the initiation given the young by society, teaching them

certain values and creating in them certain behavior patterns acceptable to

their social roles. These roles have been in a state of flux in American

society in recent years, and men and women today can be seen as having expanded

their roles in society, with women entering formerly male dominions and men

finding new ways to relate to and function in the family unit.

When I was growing up a woman was never heard of having a job other than

a school teacher or seamstress. Our(women’s)job was to take care

of the house. We had a big garden out back from which we got most

of our vegetablesaa‚¬¦A garden is a lot of work you knowaa‚¬¦We also had to

make clothes when there were none to be had(hand-me- downs)

Gender can be defined as a social identity consisting of the role a

person is to play because of his or her sex. There is a diversity in male and

female roles, making it impossible to define gender in terms of narrow male and

female roles. Gender is culturally defined, with significant differences from

culture to culture. These differences are studied by anthropologists to

ascertain the range of behaviors that have developed to define gender and on the

forces at work in the creation of these roles. The role of women in American

society was conditioned by religious attitudes and by the conditions of life

that prevailed through much of American history. The culture of Europe and

America was based for centuries on a patriarchal system in which exclusive

ownership of the female by a given male was considered important, with the

result that women were regulated to the role of property with no voice in their

own fate. The girl-child was trained from birth to fit the role awaiting her,

and as long as compensations were adequate, women were relatively content:

“For Example, if in return for being a man’s property a woman receives

economic security, a full emotional life centering around husband and children,

and an opportunity to express her capacities in the management of her home, she

has little cause for discontent.”

While this statement is arguable in the way it assumes that women are

not discontented under such circumstances, it is clear that for most of history

women were expected to be content with this sort of life and were trained for

that purpose. Clearly, circumstances of family life have changed in the modern

era. Industry has been taken out of the home, and large families are no longer

economically possible or socially desired. The home is no longer the center of

the husband’s life, and for the traditional wife there is only a narrowing of

interests and possibilities for development: “Increasingly, the woman finds

herself without an occupation and with an unsatisfactory emotional life.” The

change in sex roles that can be discerned in society is closely tied with

changes in the structure of the family. Changes in both family structure and

sex roles over the last century have produced the ferment we still see today,

and one of the problems with the changing role of women is the degree to which

society perceives this is causing unwanted changes in the family, though it is

just as true that changes in the family have altered the roles of women.

As women entered the early 1990s, they faced a number of problems.

Most of these problems have been around for some time, and women have challenged

them and even alleviated them without solving them completely. They are

encountered in the workplace, in the home, in every facet of life. Women have

made advances toward the equality they seek only to encounter a backlash in the

form of religious fundamentalism, claims of reverse discrimination by males, and

hostility from a public that thinks the women’s movement has won everything it

wanted and should thus now be silent. Both the needs of women today and the

backlash that has developed derive from the changes in social and sexual roles

that have taken place in the period since World War II. These changes involve

the new ability of women to break out of the gender roles created for them by a

patriarchal society.

The desperation women feel has been fed throughout history by the

practice of keeping women in their place by limiting their options. This was

accomplished on one level by preventing women from gaining their the sort of

education offered to men, and while this has changed to a great extent, there

are still inequalities in the opportunities offered to men as opposed to women.

Susan Brownmiller writes:

The sad history of prohibitions on women’s learning is too well known to

be recorded here. . . In much of the world women are barred from advanced

knowledge and technical training

Yet opening the world of business with new opportunities for women does not

dissipate much of this frustration because both men and women continue to be

ruled by their early training, by the acculturation process which decides for

them what sort of existence they will have. This can result in feelings of

guilt when their reality and the image they have been taught from childhood do

not mesh.

It would be a mistake to see changing gender roles in society as

threatening only to males who dominate that society. Such changes also threaten

many women who have accepted more traditional roles and see change as a threat.

“I don’t know how your mother does it all. . . I think time are harder for women

these days. . . so many choices.” This response is not new. When women first

united for the right to vote at the beginning of this century, they were opposed

by women’s groups who wanted things to remain as they were. Many of these women

were ladies of means and social position in society:

The main burden of their argument was that woman suffrage placed an

additional and unbearable burden on women, whose place was in the home. . .

These arguments are heard today from religious fundamentalists who believe that

the women’s movement is a threat to the family. The fact is that the family has

changed and that the traditional family structure of homemaker, husband as

breadwinner, and children bow constitutes only 10 percent of families. The role

for women has expanded with more women in the workplace and with a variety of

family structures with new roles for all members of the family. Business has

been slow to change and to acknowledge the new family, and for all the

complaints about the women’s movement as anti-family, the movement has instead

followed the trend of placing the family in the forefront of addressing family

issues as vital to women.

There is much evidence that boys and girls are treated differently form

birth, and this fact has been noted in every world culture:

It may never be possible to separate out the precise effects of

physiology and cultural conditioning on human beings. Not only do they

individually influence people but they interact with each other and with each

person’s unique essence to affect human behavior. To accord with the reality of

this complex interplay of factors, and to accord with an increasingly complex

external world, feminists ask simply for options in life styles.

Those stuck in sexism, however, cannot grant even the simple request to ask why

women are inferior. The reason sexism exists at all is because of an

acculturation process which subtly creates it, and it is perpetuated in part for

that reason and also because perceived changes in the roles and status of women

create a backlash based on fear of change.

Surveys have shown that identical resumes or scholarly articles are

rated lower if the applicant is though to be a woman rather than a man: “Man’s

success is more likely to be attributed to ability and woman’s to luck.” While

advances have been made over the last decade, the challenge remains for the next,

and “as long as women constitute small minorities in nontraditional employment

contexts, substantial obstacles will remain.” The women in the workplace must

work harder to succeed than their male counterparts, and once they have

succeeded they have to deal with the envy and anxiety this arouses. Women who

do not advance only confirm the stereotype for others:

The perception remains that women can’t make it by conventional

standards, or are less committed to doing so. In either event, they do

not seem to warrant the same investment in training, assistance,

and promotion opportunities as their male counterparts.

Feminist theorists have been calling for some time for a change in the

political climate. They want more than just more women in office and the

political arena; they want a new type of political thinking, one that empowers

people rather than government and that addresses the issues that are of

importance to men and women:

If we can eliminate the false polarities and appreciate the limits and

true potential of women’s power, we will be able to join with men

–follow or leadaa‚¬”in the new human politics that must emerge beyond

reaction. This new human liberation will enable us to take back the

day and the night, and use the precious and limited resources of our

earth and the limitless resources of our human capital to erect new kinds of

homes for all our dreams. . .

The perception the public has had on the role of men and women is

outdated and has been for some time, but public attitudes change slowly even in

the face of overwhelming evidence. More than 40 years ago, anthropologist

Margaret Mead noted the way the West had developed its concept of male and

female:

There has long been a habit in Western civilization of men to have

a picture of womanhood to which women reluctantly conformed,

and for women to make demands on man to which men adjusted

even more reluctantly. This has been a accurate picture of the way in

which we have structured our society, with women as keepers of the

house who insist that the man wipe their feet on the door-mat, and men

as keepers of women in the house who insist that their wives

should stay modestly indoors.

Today, people are far less willing to accept these artificial roles even

reluctantly, and this includes the provision keeping women in the home and out

of the public arena. To have more women in office it is necessary to have more

women run.

As noted, public views change more slowly than the reality of gender

roles. They will continue to change slowly as long as we continue acculturating

children with the same sexual stereotypes that have so long prevailed. It is

necessary that we address this issue from early childhood, with parents

demonstrating a different view of gender and sexual roles just as the school and

church should take a part in eliminating the old stereotypes in favor of a more

reasonable and equitable way to view both men and women.

The discussion of the results is presented in this chapter. More specifically, it presents, the demographic data gathered, the male nurse’s point of view in choosing to be in the nursing profession, their experiences as male nurses, and the stereotyping regarding males experienced in the profession. Most importantly, this chapter of the thesis presents relevant literature that supported and disputed the results found by the research. Also, the strengths and limitations of the study are discussed.

5.2 Demographic data

The thesis results showed, in relation to the demographic data, that the majority, 28 nurses, or 80.7% of the male nurses were between the ages of 20 to 35 years old and that 32.2% worked for less than five years. This data conformed to the data collected from a qualitative study of Lou et. al., (2009), where 83.8% of the participants were under the age of 35 years, and 49.4% had been working for less than five years.

The present results revealed that a greater part of the male nurse population was diploma holders (59%) and 26% baccalaureate graduates. These results are similar to Lou’s et. al., (2009), studies conducted in Taiwan where 47.1% of male nurses were in the possession of an undergraduate degree The thesis results showed that male nurses usually worked in male wards (58%) and mixed wards (42%) and never (0%) in female wards. These mixed or male wards included the emergency department, operating room, pediatric area, psychiatry, medical area, and intensive care unit (LaRocco, 2007).

Similarly, in Norway and other Western countries, male nurses usually worked within the health sector’s limited parts such as the psychiatry and acute medicine ward and administration (Bakken 2001). In terms of “speciality, 24% worked in the operating rooms (Lou, et.al. 2009, p 905)”. In fact, psychiatry is one of the most common fields where 15% of all male nurses transfer to (Abrahamsen, 2004). Furthermore, Dassen et.al. (1990) found that in The Netherlands, men were dominating” technical wards, and critical care units”(p.367). It seems that they wanted to be involved in less feminine aspect of nursing. As Evans argues (1997), to compromise his reputation in patriarchal society, men in nursing develop different strategies as to occupy administrative and elite specialty positions in order to protect themselves from the feminine image of nursing .The latest results from UK reveal that “one third of the almost 100,000 nurses who have a mental health qualification are men” (Torjensen & Waters, 2010, p.21).

In the 1960s, men were not allowed to enter the delivery room and this still remains until today. Even though inequity is diminishing, situations like these in areas such as the obstetrics and gynecology departments continue (Chung, 2006). This may then be attributed as the primary reason why the study results found that 0% of the responses worked in female wards. However, it is worth mentioning that in Malta, up to the 1960’s female nurses were excluded from the male wards (Camilleri, 1964).

5.3 Challenges that male nurses encounter at work

The present findings indicated that approximately half of male nurses were aware of opportunities in the nursing profession. With increased postgraduate qualifications, pursuance of managerial positions is fast paced (O’Lynn & Tranberger, 2006, Marsland, et al, 2003) among the male nurse respondents, and their propensity to earn more is improved (Hader, 2005). Also, studies found that it is easier or quicker for males to acquire top managerial positions than their female counterparts (Kvande 1998, Hoel 1995). Similarly, Abrahamsen (2002), findings showed that 70% of male nurses after twenty years from graduation were in leadership position, and away from somatic wards. Furthermore, Yang (2004) found that the male nurses’ future development has more potential because their careers would not be disrupted by a maternity leave. In addition, an interview done by LaRocco (2007), confirms as one man stated that “being a male in a predominantly female profession sets you up to be recognized” (p.127).

In contrast, most of the respondents in this survey, or 61% disagreed that men in nursing are promoted quickly, which is not in the agreement with the statement of Williams (1992), that men in nursing are privileged minority which enables them to move out of female dominated profession by the “glass escalator” to the most rewarded and respected jobs reserved only for men in this patriarchal society.

In relation to this, LaRocco’s (2007), study showed that one man revealed his income to be “below $50,000, while three indicated that theirs was greater than $100,000 per year (p.123)”. However, the findings of Stoltenberg et.al.,(2008), suggest that” nursing needs to continue to raise the bar pay, because only 46.67% of male nurses rated nursing as financially rewarding.” Hence, these results are in agreement with the thesis results findings where only 32% of male nurses agreed that nursing provides good salary and benefits.

Despite these advantages, some men, however, find inequities in other fields, like obstetrics and gynecology, which put considerable pressure on them (Williams 1995, Tseng 1997). Truly, Hart (2005) found that 56% of male nurses were seen as “muscles”(p.48), and “uncaring” by their female colleagues, just because of their gender. This then puts a strain on how the male and female nurses communicate with their colleagues (Hart, 2005).

Furthermore, some studies found that males perceive that being in a predominantly female profession brings about a low status upon the male nurses (MacDougall, 1997; Williams, 1989). In History of Nursing in Malta, during 19th Century, it was written that “the social class from which nurses were recruited was illiterate and without any education”, and that the same conditions existed in other European countries (Camilleri,1964). Also, labeling nursing as an extension of women’s domestic role devaluated profession in relation to male occupation. Although this image is changing, many negative images still persist. Further still, in relation to the slight increase of men in the nursing profession, uneven numbers of male nurses are leaving compared to female nurses due to deficient respect from their colleagues, job dissatisfaction and problems arising in a predominantly female profession (Sochalski, 2002).

However, results in this research revealed that majority, or 88%of respondents disagreed that men in nursing feel insecure because it is a female dominated profession. Findings in this thesis suggest that male nurses in Malta do not feel as they are ‘crossing segregated work boundaries’, and ‘infiltrate’ in female domain (Bagilhole &Cross 2006, p.35). In addition to, 71% of men in nursing in this survey expressed that they are satisfied with the work they do. As one respondent wrote ” nursing is a male’s profession as the other profession or jobs are”. Hence, this result tally with findings of Rochlen et. al., (2009) where men employed as nurses were satisfied with their work in non-traditional career. According to Avery (2007), despite the feminine image in nursing, “nursing is profession for everyone”, due to the fact that men were present in nursing since 250 B.C when “males-only nursing schools opened in India”(p.1). They continued playing an important role in nursing (Meadus, 2000), until Florence Nightingale stated that “Every woman is a nurse”, establishing nursing as only one gender profession.(Fitzerald, 2007), and portraying the presence of the men nurse in this profession as an “anomaly”(Meadus, 2000, p.6).

5.4 Respondent’s motivation for choosing a traditionally female profession

The present findings indicated that 48% or fifteen male nurses choose the nursing profession to help others. As one male nurse replied there is “nothing better than being able to help people”, and ” bringing smile to others”. However, 16% or 5 respondents stated that the “money kept them in the profession”. These results coincide well with previous studies of Bartlett et.al.,(1999) where altruism and job satisfaction, rather than extrinsic rewards, have been found to be the main motivating factor for male nurses. Furthermore, Larocco’s (2007) study showed that eight men specifically stated that connecting with patients and aiding people are important factors when nursing is considered. One participant also added that “I just thought of nursing as caring for patients” (LaRocco, 2007, p.126).

Moreover, according to Boughn (1994), Brown and Srones (1971), Bush (1976), Garvin (1976), Mannino (1963) and Perkins et al. (1993), interaction with patients and helping people are important reasons in choosing nursing. Even Taylor et al. (1983), Skevington & Dawkes, (1988), Galbraith, (1991), Cyr, (1992), Kelly, et al (1996), MacDougall, (1997) suggested that caring for others and having the desire to be of help is a main factor for men in choosing a career in nursing.

Family and friends also served as the motivation for the resulting 26% or 8 of the male nurses who took part in this thesis survey. Positive family influence, like a nurse relative, a mother who is a nurse, became a good motivation for men. Moreover, in La Rocco’s (2007) study, five of the interviewees had a mother nurse. This response was found to be similar to the results of this thesis where three males had a mother nurse, and surprisingly one respondent had both parents working as nurses. Also, these findings conformed to the data collected from a qualitative research of Whittock et. al., (2003), where positive influence, for most participants, on choosing nursing as a career comes from the parents, specifically mothers who worked in nursing sector or other healthcare profession. Also, friends who gave positive reactions helped with their career choice of being a nurse (LaRocco, 2007). Eleven men in LaRocco’s (2007) study, claimed that their family was very pleased with their career choice.

In contrast, some men were discouraged by both family and friends, to enter the field of nursing and other medical fields (LaRocco, 2007). As found in a study done in the UK, only 12% of the male nurses said that their parents were happy about their career choice (Skevington & Dawkes, 1988). Abrahamsen (2004), also stated that most men who decide to qualify as a nurse find themselves problematic because the decision to become a nurse causes family and friend’s disbelief and surprise. In a society where nursing is seen as a female profession, very often family and friends ask, ‘You want to be a nurse? Why not a doctor?’ I guess they feel that traditionally males are doctors and females are nurses.”( Chung, 2006, p.1).

Other than that, ten percent of the male nurses who served as the respondents for this study stated that their motivation was good pay and security. It seems that nursing in Malta, according to the data collected from the survey, is being” one of the last secure job posts”, as one respondent replied. Furthermore, Yang (2004), interviewed a man who stated “One day I noticed a statement in the newspaper which said, ‘Male nurses earn as much as NT$ 50,000 per month’, so I put ‘nursing department’ down on my form as my choice” (Yang, 2004, p.645). In addition, LaRocco (2007), also had a dialogue with a male nurse who stated “I knew I would always have a job, [and] I did it for a steady job that I could handle” (LaRocco, 2007, p.125 ). Most importantly, Boughn (1994) found that money and job security were two major motivations for choosing nursing. On the other hand, Simpson (2005), found several reasons that motivate men to “seek” a non-traditional career, and one of them was” that most were not seeking entry”(p.365). They entered female-dominated occupations almost by”default” in that they were not actively seeking such entry, but simply ‘fell into it’.(Williams & Villemez’s s, 1993 p. 66.)These results are in agreement with the results in this study where, three or 10% of respondents couldn’t give the reason for choosing nursing as a career, which suggests, as found previously, that “they were not actively seeking such job but simply fell into it, either through availability or convenience”(Simpson , 2005, p.365).

Finally, the least percentage of participant stated that they considered nursing as a last resort and one even said: “I didn’t get accepted by any school except for that nursing one, so it was my only choice, and I studied there” (Yang 2004, p.645). The findings in this thesis revealed that two nurses or 6% didn’t have other career opportunity, which supports the previous research results of Yang (2004). The findings also showed that these nurses were age over 40 and with working experience of more than 20 years. These two respondents stated that “fear to change”, and “lack of a good opportunity” where the reasons for remaining in nursing profession.

5.5 Perceived stereotypes of men in nursing

In addition to the problem that nursing is a female profession, male nurses also have to face the problem of overcoming the stereotype that they are gay or effeminate (Williams, 1995). Some of the stereotypes that these male nurse have to contend with were presented in the thesis results that 52% of male nurses were not embarrassed of their choice of profession. These results are similar to the findings of Hart (2005), where 40% of respondents sometimes feel “awkward or defensive when asked about their profession”(p.47). According to the thesis results, most of the respondents or 64% strongly disagreed that men in nursing are being questioned if they are a ‘real men’. Furthermore, 77% disagreed that men in nursing are too gay or feminine. These findings revealed that they are not in agreement with the results of several studies that have found supporting data regarding these stereotypes. For example, because of inequities, male nurses’ sexuality is usually questioned and they are labelled as homosexuals (Kelly, et al, 1996). Moreover, Wingfield also reported that men in nursing consider themselves as sufferers of homophobic abuse, with a respondent even claiming that “I’ve been called awful things-you faggot this, you faggot that” (2009, p.23). Furthermore, Harding (2007), explored “discourses which stereotyped or labeled male nurses as gay and conflate homosexuals and sexual predators”(p.639). Also Harding (2007) reported that majority of men in nursing are heterosexual but public perception is still that most male nurses are gay. This stereotype persists only in general nursing, men working as psychiatric nurses are perceived as masculine due to need of physical strength. Although society is becoming more comfortable with men as nurses, nearly half or 48% of the respondents experienced the stereotype that men choose nursing because they failed to enter a medical course.

Because of the situations and stereotypes, a more serious stereotypical belief was formed that male nurses are not appropriate caregivers (Evans, 2002). Truly, different societal norms have created concepts of caring as something that is not included in masculine images of males, and that caring falls under a female conception (Evans, 2002). Evans (2002) found out that for men nurses” touching patients is potentially dangerous”, and that men are “vulnerable caregivers”(p. 7). Similar results were found by Abrahamsen (2004), where male nurses were minority in somatic wards due to the fact that they were pressurized by their friends and family to apply for more ‘masculine jobs or seek a leadership positions’, because it is not natural for men to undertake intimate nursing tasks (p.12).

Gender stereotyping creates a compound and conflicting situation of rejection, acceptance and doubt for male nurses’ ability as caregivers and nurturers (Evans, 2002). Thus, as a sad effect of this, and to avoid tight situations, some male nurses alter their caring principles and nursing roles (Egeland & Brown, 1989; Kauppinen-Toropainen & Lammi, 1993). Even though, studies of Ekstrom (1999) resulted that male nurses exhibit lower caring behaviours, they in general, do not effect the care given to the patients. As Mac Doughall (1997) stated, man do have ability to care, but they need to be shown how. (p.813). Lately, society is becoming more comfortable with men as nurses. As Cyr (1992), stated, “the art and science of nursing has not always been a predominantly female profession”(p.54).

5.6 Conclusion

In all, this chapter has presented a discussion of the findings of the study. The various demographic profiles of the respondents, the reasons for choosing nursing, the experiences, and the stereotypes among male nurses in Malta were presented, with subsequent presentations of other relevant studies. At the end of the analysis and discussion, it was found that various related literatures, both old and new, confirmed the results of the study, while there were a few others that disputed it. Overall, the findings suggested that men employed in nursing, are just as committed to the profession as women.

5.7 Strengths and Limitations of the study

It should be noted that this study has several limitations and strengths. Firstly, the chosen sample does not represent male nurses as a whole. The male nurses that work in Gozo, and other different hospitals in Malta were not included in this research. Moreover, a satisfactory response rate (88.6%) helped strengthen the outcome of the study.

However, the purpose of the study was not intended to allow generalisation among the male nurses working in different hospitals in Malta and Gozo.

Secondly, a self- administered questionnaire was used to collect data, and thus all data that were used in this study were self-reported. Although the questions for the survey were carefully chosen and modified by the researcher reading an extensive literature especially Smith (2008), it seems that some of the respondents did not understand that their sexual orientation was not questioned, but only concept of gender stereotype. To avoid similar misunderstandings, in future studies, a focus group design method could contribute to explain the motivation for choosing nursing as a profession, and career development of male nurses in a female dominated profession.

The rather high response rate of 88.5% indicated that male nurses were interested in subject, and this helped strengthen the outcome of the study. Although in this study, the research tool was a questionnaire, some qualitative data were also obtained.

Despite being time limited prior to specific deadlines, this study has educated and motivated the researcher to understand more nursing as a science.

Although this study was purely quantitative, some findings provided valuable information about male nurses in a female dominated profession. Further qualitative research could give clearer picture about the real perceptions of men in nursing, and establish the extent to which the findings from this research can be applied in more general context. The next chapter shall conclude this dissertation with recommendation for further research, and implications in nursing.

Gender reflects the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities, and attributes that are considered apt for men and women in any society. Mostly the terms gender and sex are not differed and taken as closely related terms. Sex relates to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women while gender refers to cultural differences rather than biological ones between men and women. Male and female are sex categories while feminine and masculine are gender categories.

Moser (1993) says that the differences between women and men within the same household and within and between cultures are socially and culturally constructed and can be altered over time. These differences are mirrored in social roles, responsibilities, access to resources, social limitations, opportunities, needs, perceptions, views, etc. Thus, gender does not take only women, but considers both women and men and their interdependent relationships and responsibilities.

Reversal

A reversal can be taken as change whether the change is a positive or negative against the prevailing trend. It is a change from one state to the opposite state turning the situation into an opposite direction or situation.

Gender Roles

A gender role defines the appropriate social and behavioral norms adopted by men and women in a social setting. Gender roles vary from culture to culture and traditions and roles can change over time even in the same cultural settings. Gender roles are cultural and personal to determine the speaking, dressing and communicative styles of males and females within a society. These cognitive frameworks are deeply embedded within the minds of males and females to define the masculine and feminine roles. Various socializing agents like parents, peers, teachers, television, movies, music, books and religion influence determining the gender roles within a society. Parents are the biggest factor to decide the gender roles especially of their young offspring.

Parents usually treat male and female infants differently. Expectations for males and females are set in a very early age. Traditionally, boys are taught how to fix and build things and how to earn for household and girls are taught how to cook, sew and manage the household. Children then receive parental and social approval when they conform to gender expectations and adapt themselves to the cultural and conventional roles which are reinforced by the additional socializing agent, media. In other words, gender roles and the values pass from one generation to the successive generation in a society.

Linda L. Lindsey and Sandra Christie (n.d.) say that as long as the girl infant is wrapped in the pink blanket and the boy infant is wrapped in blue blanket, the development of gender roles gets started. The pink and blue colours are the first indications given by the society to distinguish a female from male. As they grow up, the other cultural factors assure the distinction to remain intact. Girls are given dolls, doll houses and tiny stoves to pretend run a whole household system while boys are given toy tools to construct buildings and toy weapons and tanks to wage wars. In the teen and adult age, girls buy cosmetics and clothes while boys buy sports components and stereo components that is a result of gender role socialization. Commonly the gender roles espoused in childhood remain constant in adulthood.

Gender Roles in Pakistan

According to a Gilani Research Foundation survey carried out by Gallup Pakistan (april 27, 2009), majority of the Pakistani males and females have distinct roles to play in the society. In the recent years although women’s status and role has been uplifted beyond being a housewife, the priority is still given to men in politics, education, employment, and related walks of life.

Dr. Rakhshinda Parveen (n.d.) expresses that the constitution of Islamic Republic of Pakistan dictates equal rights for men and women. However, men are more equal than women in reality. The reality shows women in lower status than men in every sphere of life whether it’s education, food, health care or freedom of choice of partner. According to the Human Development Report 1999 of UNDP, the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) rank of Pakistan among 185 countries is 100. This rank determines the empowerment of women on a country basis. This measurement results in unequal status of women in economic resources, participation in political decision-making and economic decision-making. In spite of the fact that the Holy Quran dictates the equal rights for women wellbeing and development, women have always been the main target of rights violation in the Muslim countries. The typical subjugated image of Pakistani women reflects the centuries old patriarchy deeply rooted in the sub-continent. Although, emancipation and empowerment has always been documented in the legal documents, this has not come to the reality to its full extent yet.

The two fundamental perceptions establish the gender relations in Pakistan that women are inferior to men and that a man’s honour is determined by the actions of women of his family. In the Muslim societies, women bear the honour of the family name. To ensure that honour, they are not supposed to dishonor their families, their mobility is limited and they have restrictions on their behavior and activities and have very limited contact with the opposite sex. Women are constrained to have “Purdah” (veil) to restrain their protection and respectability. “Purdah” creates physically and symbolically different spheres for men and women by separating their activities. Mostly women spend their time at home to do homely tasks and go out only for serious and approved reasons. Social life generally revolves around the activities of men in society. In the most parts of the country, except in Islamabad, Karachi, and wealthier parts of a few other cities, those families are considered shameless who do not restrict their women. “Purdah” is practiced according to the family tradition, class and rural or urban residence but men and women do not mix freely anywhere without serious reasosn. The most extreme restraints can be found in parts of the North-West Frontier Province and Balochistan, where women are not allowed to almost leave the house before they get married and are not allowed to meet the unrelated men and they cannot contact with their male cousins on their mother’s side, because these men are not classed as relatives in a strongly patrilineal society. In the rural areas of Punjab and Sindh, gender relations are relaxed because women are equally responsible with men fosr transplanting, rice seedlings, weeding crops, raising chickens and selling eggs. When a family aspires a higher status, it entails stricter ‘purdah” as a first social change. (Jone Johnson Lewis, 1994)

Some urban women, residing in the close-knit communities in the old cities of Lahore and Rawalpndi, generally wear a burqa(fitted body veil) or a “chadar” (loosely drapped cotton cloth used as a head covering and body veil) when they leave the homes. They usually live in a multistory (havelis) building constructed to accommodate large extended families. The places where people do not know their neighbours, there are less restrictions on women’s mobility.

Reversal of Gender Roles

In the modern times, the old perceptions of a patriarchal society are destabilized that has shifted the earlier unequal power dynamics between males and females and has resulted in the empowerment of women over men. The traditional gender roles have given a way to totally reversed roles to reserve the rights and emancipation of women. Now a days, wives are earning as much as 20% more than their husbands in the whole world that dictates the changing power dynamics that shows that women have got the power to harness the economic power upsetting the old traditional patriarchal beliefs. Traditionally, the women used to need physical protection and economic stability provided by men to save their submissiveness. (Kandiyoti,1988). The traditional patriarchal hierarchy has been shattered and resulted in females patronizing their male counterparts in courtship.

Modern women have become more educated and successful, that education and awareness has empowered women resulting in displacing men from their gendered position in society. The emergent trend of educated women out-earning their partners has led to changes in social perceptions and household roles. It has gradually shifted the institutionalized and privileged status of males in society. If women become the breadwinners, the domestic order shifts automatically to men because there is not any other option and this can give both men and women a sense of purpose and identity.

Alongside the empowerment of women, the emasculation of men redefines the masculinity and femininity which has determined the gender activities of society. Men, who have become domestic, have redefined the masculinity by entitling them as “providers” who provides not only economically but also emotionally and logistically. The traditional notion of masculinity of a father has been limited to begetting protecting and providing for children. The difference between what is masculine and what is feminine is what is determined by the gender roles adopted by both the genders. However, by bearing the role of childrearing and household chores, the masculinity of males comes into question that results in confusion in the individual male’s social identity. As a result, unemployed husbands preserve their masculinity by claiming that they are still provider if not economically but emotionally as they spend more time with their children than their own fathers. (Liza Mundy, 2011)

Deccan Herald (2012) conducted a research to study the effects of massive social changes on gender relations. The study has found that men today want babies and commitment, while women are more likely to want independence in their relationships. The study was conducted on over 5,000 American adults and the results revealed that more than half of the single men wanted to have children as compared to just 46 percent of women. The results showed the effects of the growing gender role reversal.

History of Gender Roles Reversal

The gender ideologies have changed since 1970s. Women became aware of their rights and emancipation with the emergence of feminist movement in 1970s. In 1960, 19 percent of married women with young children were in the paid labour force (U.S. bureau of the Census 1999). By 1998, the ratio of working women was up to 64 percent. This movement of mothers into the work places in the time span of 40 years left a profound effect on the attitudes towards the working women in the public and private spheres. The most of the American men approved and expected their wives to be active in working outside homes as the paid labour force. At the same time the provider role ideology continued to have great effects on males and females. The modern men and women are more receptive for women participation in working places than they were in 1970s. The nostalgia for breadwinner/homemaker family can still be found but more in men than women. Although some men resent the constricted definition of masculinity that narrows their role as economic providers, they stick to their roles as emotional providers among their children. (Teresa Ciabattari, n.d.)

A minority of U.S men resisted changes in women’s roles that could result as harmful for children and family life. These rapid changes in the roles of women have resulted in the widening gap between men’s and women’s attitudes. There is a larger gender difference in attitudes than it was 25 years before. (Teresa Ciabattari, n.d.)

Reversal of Gender Roles in Pakistan

Gender roles have not been altogether revolutionized in Pakistan but have still been treading the way to transform. The contemporary socio-political and economic conditions in Pakistan are restrained in the paradigm of patriarchy and capitalism. The envoys of women rights movements have been shouting out loud the revolution in the gender roles that has resulted in women working in every field of life. Women have come out of their spheres at home to take part in the tread of progress but they have instigated some initial stages yet and have a long way to trek on. (Pak Tea House, 2012) The women of Pakistan had confronted great challenges in the early 1990s such as increasing practical literacy, gaining access to employment opportunities at all levels in the economy. This development promoted a change in perception about women’s roles in society. Women status in society gained public voices from within and outside the political process.

The twentieth century has seen various attempts to bring social and legal reforms to improve the Muslim women’s lives in the subcontinent. Islam has played very important role to develop the rights of women since partition.

Muslim reformers in the nineteenth century introduced women education to ease some of the restraints on women’s activities to ensure women’s rights under Islamic law. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan organizes the Mohammedan Educational Conference in the 1870s to endorse modern education for Muslims, and he founded the Muhammadan Anglo- Oriental College. Many of the early proponents of education improved the status of women education by initiating cooking and sewing classes initially in a religious framework to advance women knowledge and skills. Still the literacy rate was very low as in 1921, there were only four out of every 1,000 Muslim females were literate. (countrystudies.com, n.d.)

Different organizations have been developed for the betterment of women’s rights. The Gender and Development (GAD) was introduced as a replacement to the Women in Development (WID) approach. Both organizations aspire to construct the gender equality and tackle the subordination of women in the home and in the public sphere. WID was established in the late-1970s, when it was acknowledged that women were left at the sideline in the process of development and progress of country. WID tended to examine women in isolation while GAD developed the female gender roles maintained by many facets of society, community, economy and not least of all, men. Gad aims to empower women to increase women self esteem, to encourage women organizations. (Jenny Mason, 2009). GAD challenges the social norms which dictate the women subordinate position to men. The educational gender gap in Pakistan is the result of the specific historical, political and cultural forces. (Jafar, 2002)

The movement for independence from the British colonization in 1947 was very significant for women who challenged their traditional, domestic gender roles in the male patriarchal society to actively participate in the fight for common Muslim rights. (Jafar, 2002) During the period from independence to the beginning of Zia ul-Haq’s rule in 1977, there was a coalition between the women’s movement and the state with a common goal to create a modern Pakistan by equalizing women’s rights: by granting them government jobs and increasing educational rights for women. (Jenny Mason, 2009)

In 1977, General Zial ul-Haq overthrew the government of Zulfiqar Bhuto thinking it to be un-Islamic and aspired for Pakistan to “return to Islam”. General Zia ul-Haq emphasized the dichotomy of Islam versus the West. This Islamization approach appealed many anti-colonialists and nationalists who supported patriarchy in the country. They accentuated the symbol of Pakistani women as traditional and a symbol of honour for their male partners. Women were taken as ideological boundary makers between Muslims and the western World. (Jafar, 2002) These laws and norms moved women to the private sphere and those who continued to work in the public sphere were portrayed as the symbols of moral decay.

In spite of Zia’s efforts to restrict women’s liberty in the public sphere, the women’s movement in Pakistan continued to develop during his rule. The Women’s Action Forum (WAF) was established in 1981, which fought for the policies created by Zia and their promotion gained international attention which placed a negative pressure on Zia’s government which helped to avert the further discrimination of women’s rights. After the suspicious death of Zia in 1988, Benazir Bhutto, the daughter of Ali Bhutto, was elected as the first female Prime Minister of Pakistan which was a big step towards the growth of women in Pakistan. (Jenny Mason, 2009)

Although today women’s rights’ movements and organizations are active in fighting for gender equality, only few are willing to touch the family traditions and honour. Others tend to remain traditional when it comes to the family honour and name.

Islam as well as Pakistan’s constitution has dictated equal rights for man and woman but the society greatly violates women rights. Despite all these violations, Pakistani women have elevated their status in society with the help of some organizations, enlightened groups and government. It has happened just because of the increase in awareness of girls’ education

Now in Pakistan women are working everywhere as in schools, colleges, universities, offices, factories, hospitals etc. they are students, workers, teachers, doctors, nurses and pilots. Pakistani women have proved to do whatever they are capable of despite all the hardships they face in society. These working women are seeding a silent revolution in Pakistan. A silent social revolution has seeped in with rising number of women joining the workforce and moving up the corporate ladder in Pakistan. (Fehmina Arshad, n.d.) They are doing everything from pumping gasoline and serving burgers at McDonald’s to running major corporations. Women now hold 78 of the 342 seats in the National Assembly. The cultural norms regarding the women in the workforce have been changed.

Despite all the enlightenment and development regarding the rights of women and their being in the workforce, the society has still been captured into the old shackles of conservatism and the working women have to face criticism and condemnation from some for being bold enough to stand up for their rights. Working women are always blamed for being poor mothers and condemned to bring a bad name on the honour of the family in Pakistan. (Fehmina Arshad, n.d.) Despite women taking earning responsibilities, men do not take any attention about household chores. Women have to bear outside as well as inside home responsibilities.

Pakistani Television Dramas (History)

The Pakistan Television Corporation or PTV is Pakistan’s first national television broadcaster. PTV transmitted its first live program on November 26, 1964, in Lahore. Pakistan started its broadcasting from a small pilot TV Station which was established at Lahore from where first transmission was beamed in Black and White with effect. Television centres were established in Karachi and Rawalpindi/Islamabad in 1967 and in Peshawar and Quetta in 1974. (Rafay Mehmood, 2011) Pakistani media has played a foremost job in programming many unforgettable Pakistan classical dramas which inspired the generations in the past history. PTV started the tendency of making classic dramas with the help of intellectual writers, powerful direction, and multitalented actors.(Anum saulat, 2010)

The decades of 1970s, 1980s and 1990s have seen the tremendous success of dramas and telefilms in the Indian Subcontinent. There was only one TV channel, PTV, at that time which had touched the peak of success in drama making. PTV telecasted many popular dramas like ‘dhoop Kinary’, ‘ankahi’, ‘tanhayian’ and ‘dhuan’. The whole concept behind telecasting such dramas is to present a well prepared family drama with a strong script to provide a clean environment. The credit of such classic dramas goes to the brilliant story writers like Haseena Moen, Seema Ghazal, Ashfaq Ahmad etc. Their stories mirrored the heart touching issues of society. This was the magnificent time for Pakistani classic dramas which won many national as well as international awards. (Anum Saulat, 2010) The most famous drama serials of this time include Khuda Ki Basti, Unkahi, Tanhaiyaan, Akhri Chatan, Zair Zabar, Aangan Terha, Fifty Fifty, Studio Dhai (2-1/2), Studio Ponay Teen (2-3/4), Andehra Ujala, Sona Chandi, Uncle Urfi, Taleem-e-Baalighan, Alif Noon, Waaris, Dhoop Kinare, Sunehray Din, Alpha Bravo Charlie, Ana, and block buster serials like Pesh, Dhuwan, Kath Putli, Wafa Ham Nibhaein Gai, Bandhan, Kaghaz Kay Phool, Muqqdas, Bint-e-Adam, Malangi, Sawan, Sheela Bagh, Tinkay, Aisa Bhi Hota Hai bhar, rasta de zindgi, and many others.

Many programs were very popular even in India. Indian streets used to become deserted when few of the most popular Pakistani TV dramas were broadcasted. Although Pakistan and India are always at daggers drawn with each other, still the dramas of PTV were very popular and still are studied in the acting academies in India.

In the early 90s, the private produces entered the territory of Pakistani TV for the first time and presented some phenomenal programs such as drama serial ‘Jaal’ and ‘Kashkol’, cooking shows like ‘potluck’ and sitcoms including ‘family Front’ and ‘Teen Bata Teen’ that enthralled the viewers for a long time. Though Indian programs like ‘CID’ and Ekta Kapoor’s ‘Hum Panch’ created a small cult of their own but the local channel STN and PTV kept the countrol. Whether the field was drama , sitcom or crime stories, the 1990s gave a tough time to Indian Programming because of the quality, cultural relevance of the local dramas and because the access to the satellite channel wasn’t easy In Pakistan and was considered a luxury. (Rafay Mehmood, 2011) As the sun was setting on PTV’s golden era, Family Front’s Sumbal, Nusrat and Bobby; Alpha Bravo Charlie’s Faraz, Kashif and Gulsher; Samsung VJ’s Faisal Qureshi, Jawad Bashir, Ahsan Rahim, Amna Khan and Ahmad Ibrahim; Teen Bata Teen’s Lucy, Johnny and Shaffu became a cult icon and are still remembered for their brilliant performances to make the characters everlasting. (Shiza Nisar, 2010)

There came a time starting from 2001 when Indian dramas showed on a channel, Star Plus, were immensely popular that they not only attracted the women but also children started watching them. But now Pakistani dramas once again have touched the peaks of fame. Indian dramas got famous because of the glamour and family politics shown in them. These dramas affected the Pakistani cultural norms values and traditions so badly that the living styles of the viewers became Indian and they corrupted the society as they were so unreal. They showed the unrealistic lives of industrialists, elites and landlords through glamour. In the start Pakistani dramas started copying their style but soon they turned back to their own identity with the arrival of new competitive private producers in the industry.

With the realization that the Indian dramas had corrupted the society, these drama makers extinguished the Indian elements from the productions to follow their old trends of limited episodes and powerful story line. Many writers started writing many powerful stories for different TV channels like Geo, Hum TV, PTV, ARY digital. (Anam Saulat, 2010) Now a day, expression in media has resulted in a lot of channels and variety of Pakistani dramas for the viewers and every channel is now struggling hard to provide the audience with the best dramas ever. This competition has aggravated them to make good serials which reflect and mirror the true picture of Pakistani culture and traditions. Because of this sudden revival of Pakistani dramas, the audience loves the new dramas very much. (Shiza Nisar, 2010)

The modern dramas that have gained popularity are ‘meri zaat zarraye be-nishan’ ‘Ainee ki aygi barat’ series on Geo and , ‘nur pur ki rani’ ‘malaal’ ‘wasal’ ‘nur bano’ ,qaide e tanhai’, ,humsafar’ and many others on Hum TV. These dramas are realistic with powerful direction and script. They mirror the societal issues that actually exist in the society. Moreover, dramas like ‘wasal’, ‘ishk junoon deewangi’ ‘doraha’ and ‘malaal’ focus on the problems that are faced in a marriage because of modernity and reversal of gender roles. These problems do prevail these days. The reason why the ratio of divorces has increased is well depicted in these dramas. People should be well aware of the bitter realities that prevail in society. (Anum Saulat, 2010)

Reversal of Gender Roles in Pakistani Dramas

The electronic media in Pakistan has become an avenue for women to be seen shoulder-to-shoulder with men where they can work as diligently as they can to be an active part of the society. However, the role of women in our media seems to be heading in a direction where only their looks and attractiveness can be rewarded. (Zirgham Nabi Afridi, 2010)

Most of these dramas revolve around the family, especially women, often as independent individuals and most often as mothers, sisters and wives. The majority of Pakistani dramas today are a strange mix of progress and retreat. Some of the serials hold a few liberal, progressive and gender-sensitive messages, most of them emphasize patriarchal values existed in society. The Pakistani dramas reflect two main streams to depict the gender roles. One is to portray women as dependent on their male partners in a male patriarchal society. Women are shown being brutalized by men, slapped, beaten up, disgraced and ill-treated and men are depicted as the decision makers of the family, who simply dictate women what to do and what not to do. The other stream is to show the women indulged in working shoulder to shoulder with men to be an active participant in the progress of society. They are well aware of their rights and can stand for their liberties if ill-treated but the working women are also portrayed negatively who are the main source for a home breakup. It is rather difficult for the general viewing public to understand the contradictory messages lying within the modern day drama. Working women are depicted as strong and independent, yet also negatively portrayed as cunning (In Durr-e-Shawar the male lead, Haider, laments the fact that his wife, Shandana, is a working woman). (Tasneem Ahmar, 2012)

Television dramas can be considered as important tool to propagate gender equality. The dramas depicting equality of gender roles do not expose the overt victimization of women in them. Female characters in these serial are strong, independent and intelligent. How women are portrayed on TV is linked to the prevalent trends set by the management of entertainment television channels. The women who have reached the top in management struggle to change the prevailing trends. They act like new trend setters. Sultana Siddiqui, for example, established a policy that no woman will be slapped in the dramas aired on the TV channel she heads. Moneeza Hashmi, as managing director of the state-run television in Lahore, supported extensive programming intended to guarantee the women’s rights and gender equality. After she left, the policy unfortunately seems to have disappeared. (Bushra S, 2012)

One usually obtains their gender roles usually through social interactions rather than obtaining it genetically. When humans are born, one are endowed with a small concept of gender. Manners and proper behavior is mainly learned through the social interactions with others and also the relationships with one another. Our gender identity is build through the interactions or experience from our parents, media, people from school, work or at home and also society can influence our gender identity. Depending on how we are raised greatly affects on how one acts as they grow up. The media can influence every aspect of one’s life, their lifestyle, fashion, physical appearance, and also behavior. Society has the power to change the behavior and people’s point of views way more than what genetics or biological can.

The genetic make-up for all living beings mainly humans are usually born with might affect their physical abilities, but one usually learns how to act in specific ways by just watching the people around them. An example of this would be that when boys of a young age watches cartoons or anything that involves a male aspect, theses young boys are usually influenced by the characters or what they see on television. Usually these characters are portrayed to be in a violent and aggressive manner, which cause these children to act what they see. On the bright side mainly super heroes are the ones that influence young boys the most such as Superman,

Spiderman, Iron or even Batman and they are usually portrayed to be a strong, very athletic and brave hero which can influence a boy’s every action.

In cartoons like these there is also a downside to it to where boys are depicted to be destructive and usually aggressive as well to a point where it suggest that males should be very competitive to one another. Children at younger age are also more vulnerable to be influenced by television when compared to an adult due to the maturity level of one another. Not only just the boys also the older males are influenced by today’s media, televisions, music and society. An example of this would be the music artist Eminem where he wants males to be very violent and rebel against homosexuality and also be dominant towards females. Usually the younger teens are influenced by this because of the lack of maturity to make their own choices or decisions and these young males are gullible to a point where they are influenced by what they see. There was a Columbine massacre or incident in 1999 that proved that the boys who killed all those innocent students derived all of their ideas from certain movies and television shows. This proves that teens at a very open age that can be easily manipulated by society to act in predictable or spontaneous ways.

According to Diekman, author of “Stereotypes as dynamic constructs: Women and men of the past, present, and future.” states that “typical characteristics for women are piety, submissiveness, and domesticity, while authority, and social behavior, are traits commonly held by men”. When girls are young, they are usually given a Barbie doll to play with and are expected to grow up as the ideal Barbie girl who is very beautiful looking and supposedly very feminine. Girls are usually less athletic when compared to boys due to their genetic make-up; they just tend to not be athletic. Due to this genetic unfairness between males and females, parents would not treat each gender the same way when it comes down to sports. The boys are usually taught to be very aggressive because they are more athletic and competitive than girls while on the other hand girls are encouraged to express or release their feelings and its ok for them to cry openly. Boys are never encouraged to cry or complain about anything. They are taught to replace the feminine feelings of fear and sorrow and replace them with excitement or anger. Boys or males in particular use the phrase “be a man” referring to being tough or strong and one that never shows his emotions.

Children can also be influenced by their peers to act in specific ways at a very young vulnerable age. One can be made fun of easily if they are usually doing things that don’t suit

their gender. An example would be if a young boy or any male would easily be made fun of if they like to play with dolls, like shopping or just play in the kitchen. The society and media shows what types of things that certain gender should usually be doing for each gender. On television, it would usually have specific types of clothes, toys, jobs, etc for each of the genders and what they think each gender should follow. Due to these social influences, males and females act the way one does because of how society taught one to grow up to be. As for careers men are the dominant one because of how they can handle tougher jobs than a woman. Women are depicted to be caring for others or cooperative with anything and also just less valued. Woman careers are preferred to usually be models, nurses or even housewives.

According to InfoRefuge on an article about Gender Roles and the Media, it states that “our society continues to respect and represent men more than women in every aspect of our daily lives.” People were raised by the society to think what men and women are capable of. Due to these circumstances these are usually the reasons why men mainly get “better” jobs than women do and also have a better chance of getting jobs in the work force. Gender stereotypes are everywhere and still occur today. For example, it is not acceptable in this society for a female to coach a men’s sports team at any type of level professional, college or either high school team male oriented teams. This is a huge deficit and disadvantage because of the fact that females too can be amazing coaches sometimes way more superior to most males and therefore the players would miss out the chance from learning and gain experience this coach. The female coaches also suffers from not gaining or they miss the opportunity to coach these male players and are often force to pass down their knowledge to just female players. Society is unfair to judge solely on one’s capabilities on gender. Therefore theses better jobs that usually pay a lot, females are solely at a disadvantage of getting the job due to their gender which is unavoidable.

Another influence that society has on one is when people begin to date. There are certain specific behaviors that are supposedly expected by each gender because of the social influence, custom and usage in society. Men are the ones that should be expected to pay for the date, drive and also ask the girl out and many more outdated manners that guys should usually do for a woman. Women on the other hand, also have a specific role in the dating game. When two people get married, society assumes specific roles according to their gender. Men are expected go to work to pay for the bills, put a roof over their heads and also put food on the table. According to an article on CliffNotes on gender stereotypes, it states that “Traditionally, the female stereotypic role is to marry and have children.” This means usually women are the ones staying at home to take care of the children or plainly be a housewife. These stereotypical roles are starting to deteriorate because of the fact that it’s society’s standards. Women are far more important that what society depicts, they also have the same capabilities as any other man or human being. They could also be working or doing the exact same thing as man could or even better. There are no biological or physical abilities that hold men and woman to these assumed roles in society.

Humans are born knowing which gender they are, but one learns their gender identity through the interactions of what we grow up with and learn how society expects them to act. There is no possible way that one could learn what one believes in and behaviors through biological influences; society has a much stronger influence on the way people act solely based on gender. Everyone in this world is born with some kind of innate ability on how to act relative to gender, but the way on is raised, how one interact with others and also the influences that the media has is what influences one’s gender identity.

“Gender is the division of people into two categories, “men and women”. Through interaction with caretakers, socialization in childhood, peer pressure in adolescence, gendered work and family roles, women and men are socially constructed to be different in behaviour, attitudes and emotions (Borgatta. E.F. andMontgomery, R.J.V,2000,p.1057).

HOW DO WE LEARN TO ACT AS MALES OR FEMALES?

We learn to act as males or females through:(1) gender roles

(2) gender identity

(3) gender socialization

WHAT ARE GENDER ROLES?

Gender roles are the roles that society assigns to men and women based on their gender. They especially influence relationships between men and women

Womens’ lifestyles are changing to accommodate new careers, education and family structures, and their role in society is being adjusted accordingly. Education has evolved from providing them with skills necessary for building a family and managing a household into a more broad, extensive education that benefits them in a variety of careers as well as allows them to reach a higher social status as educated members of society. In secondary schools, teachers who provided female students with homemaking skills have switched to more intellectual courses like physics and biology.

Bitter feminists around the world were often heard blaming men for the current state of the world, but it should be realized that part of the future of the twenty first century, is determined by how much women corporate with working with men to influence the direction of the nations of the world. There is the link of the relationship between female literacy and independence growth where the level of female literacy is higher and the dependency growth is lower. The twentieth century has been the dawn of a new era for women in the world. They have evolved and broken many barriers in social status and education level. Stemming from backgrounds that were tough and limited where they were maids, field labourers and cooks, they have definitely matured, transitioning to higher and more meaningful roles in society. Their determination and push for social equality has had a major role to play in the development of the world. This development is a major factor responsible for the state of the economies in the world today. Women have graduated from being mainly domestic workers to that of doctors, athletes, and Prime Ministers. They are also specializing in jobs that were once only occupied by men, for example, filling the position of managers, engineers, safety-officers and welders just to name a few. Young girls and women living in these modern times must take advantage of the opportunities provided and use the resources that are available to them. Women must become less dependent on the opposite sex and strive to earn their own in terms of possession and finances etc.

Women are venturing out and challenging themselves but some of the men have occupied traditional female roles and at a slower pace, for example, men have become hairstylists, cooks house-keepers, baby-sitters etc. Traditional hierarchical organizations are a thing of the past. In the working environment, the strategies used by women to reach mid-management levels are preventing them from breaking through the glass ceiling. To be successful, both men and women must be able to get excellent results through people-oriented leadership practices. They become self-disciplined, ambitious and are likely to embrace a visible, take charge and influential approach to their roles. Contrary to common stereotype, women are better team players than men and are better at communicating and keeping people informed; are able to put the success of the team first, using influencing skills rather than authority to accomplish objectives. As far as leadership values go, co-workers rate women higher in such skills as hiring the right people for the job, developing and coaching subordinates, and organizing, monitoring and controlling the work of others. They are also better at creating a vision and setting clear direction and high standards of performance.

Even though women’s decisions are of high quality, they continue to be viewed as less objective, less flexible and lower in emotional control than men. Their more forthright communication style, may appear less polished and diplomatic than men’s when dealing with those above them in the hierarchy. In the future, there should be transformational leadership for regional and national renewal for sustainable development using methods by the media, including church women and social welfare organizations and communications programmes on the concept and practice of a new kind of leadership, which is gender issues, and expectations in leadership and improving the capacity of various interests groups in understanding and analysing issues from gender perspective through seminars, workshops and public as well as community meetings. At a regional level, steps of the process of assigning people to do different tasks , must take place as well as setting up a monitoring framework and specific demands should be developed and implemented. From this a new culture will emerge when building positive relationships, command authority and interacting with the world. Everything involving women has changed and will continue to do so over the next decades. In every arena, women have continued to excel and have definitely made a dramatic difference in the world.

WHAT IS GENDER IDENTITY?

Gender identity refers to the feeling that one is male, female or transgender. Many things contribute to the formation of gender identity, including society, family and factors that are in place before birth. Transgender individuals may have the genitals of one sex but a gender identity, usually associated with the other; example, a person born with a penis who feels female may identify as transgender.

According to Paul Connelly (1998), a study showed interesting insights into the relationship between gender and ethnicity. I t was seen that children in schools, though young brought the ways of thinking about masculinity, family and ethnicity into the school arena. I t was found that teachers at these schools were more likely to criticize the behaviour of black boys than other children, and for this the boys were sent outside for deviant behaviour, were singled out and instructed to stand by a door or wall, or even the outside the staff room during playtime. These boys were stigmatized for being black and were accused of being part of “race” crime and gangs. Their black sisters were perceived as potential disruptive children, likely to be good in

sports and also singled out and punished. On the other hand, the South Asian boys were seen as immature rather than seriously deviant. Their behaviour was viewed as silly rather than a threat, and according to the teachers, they were described as passive, conformists and vulnerable. They

were not able to express their masculinity as their performance in sports was not good. However, they preferred to focus on school work. The South Asian girls appeared to be more hard-working and obedient than the boys and compared to other girls. The teachers encouraged the girls to focus more on their school work which in turn caused them to be very competitive with other girls in the school. This study shows how gender and ethnicity interact in creating identities among children, also some of the ways this might influence educational achievement in schools as well as showing how these children create the gender identities found in schools.

WHAT IS GENDER SOCIALIZATION?

Gender Socialization is the process of learning the social expectations and attitudes associated with one’s sex. Through this process, sociologists explain why human males and females behave in different ways; they learn different social roles, for example, girls learn to wash and keep a home clean and boys learn to clean the backyard and put out the rubbish.

Socialization is the primary means by which human infants begin to acquire the skills necessary to perform as a functioning member of their society, and is the most influential learning process for a child to experience. Though the variation is materialized in the customs and behaviours of societies, the most fundamental expression of culture is to be found at the individual level, which can only occur after the individual has been socialized by the family, extended family and external social networks. This process of both learning and teaching is the way in which cultural and social characteristics are continued and passed down to generations.

Sociologists, such as Durkeim, noted the relationship between norms, values and roles during socialization. The following are the different types of socialization:

PRIMARY SOCIALIZATION

This occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values and behaviour suitable to individuals as members of a particular culture. For example a child witnessing his/her parent giving a derogatory opinion about a minority group, then the child would automatically think that behaviour is acceptable and continue to have this opinion about minority groups.

SECONDARY SOCIALIZATION

This socialization refers to the process of learning what is acceptable behaviour as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. It is normally associated with teenagers and adults, and involves more minute changes than those which occurred in the former socialization; such as, relocating to a new environment or society.

DEVELOPMENTAL SOCIALIZATION

With this process learning behaviour is done in a social institution or social skills are developed.

ANTICIPATORY SOCIALIZATION

Anticipatory socialization refers to the process of socialization where a person “rehearses” for future positions, occupations and social relationships, for example on the job training (O.J.T).

RESOCIALIZATION

This refers to the process of discarding former behaviour patterns and accepting new ones as part of a transition on one’s life. It occurs throughout the human life cycle and can be an intense experience with an individual having a sharp break with the past, and needing to learn and be exposed to radically different norms and values. An example would be a religious convert internalizing the beliefs and rituals of a new faith. An extreme example is the process by which a transsexual learns to function socially in a dramatically altered gender role.

ORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALIZATION

This process involves employees learning the knowledge and skills necessary to assume their organizational role. As they are new to the institution, they become socialized by learning about the organization and its history, culture and procedures etc. They also learn about the skills needed to do the job, their work group and formal procedures and informal norms. Socialization functions as a control system in that newcomers learn to internalize and obey organizational values and practices.

WHAT IS DOMESTIC VIOLENCE?

Domestic violence is a pattern of coercive and controlling behaviours and tactics used by one person over another to gain power and control. This may include verbal abuse, financial, emotional, sexual and physical abuse. Domestic violence occurs in heterosexual as well as same-sex partnerships, and crosses all ethnic, racial and socio-economic lines.

Domestic violence has many forms of which there are five:

PHYSICAL: which is inflicting or attempting to inflict physical injury. Examples of these are, grabbing, shoving, slapping, hitting, arm-twisting, kicking, punching, stabbing, shooting. Physical abuse can also be used to deny access to resources necessary to maintain health, such as, medical care, hygienic assistance, forcing alcohol and other drug use.

SEXUAL: Forcing or attempting to coerce any sexual contact without consent, for example, marital rape, forced sex after beating, attacks on the sexual parts of the body. Another method used is attempting to undermine the victim’s sexuality, such as treating him/her in a sexually derogatory manner, criticizing sexual performance and desirability and accusations of indidelity.

PSYCHOLOGICAL: this involves instilling or attempting to instill fear, example, intimidation, threatening physical harm to self/victim, threatening to harm/kidnap children, mind games, destruction of pets and property. There is also the method of isolating or attempting to isolate the victim from friends, family, school/work, example: withholding access to a phone, constant “checking up”, undermining victim’s personal relationships.

EMOTIONAL: undermining or attempting to undermine the victim’s sense of worth by using constant criticism, belittling victim’s abilities and competency, name-calling, insults, put-downs, silent treatment, and undermining a partner’s relationship with the children.

ECONOMIC: this involves making or attempting to make the victim financially dependent. For example, having and maintaining total control over financial resources including the victim’s earned income, public assistance if any, withholding money/access to money, requiring accountability and victim giving an account for all money spent.

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST OF THE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY AND THE GENDER SCHEMA THEORY

The social learning theory of Bandura specifies the importance of observing and modelling the behaviours, attitudes and emotional reactions of others. Most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from this, one is able to understand how the new behaviours are done.

Aggression is one type of behaviour that can be learnt through models. Through a lot of research, it was found that children become more aggressive when they observe aggressive or violent models. Bandura stated that there were conditions that an individual requires before successfully modelling the behaviour of someone else. The person must first pay attention to the model in order to be able to remember the behaviour that was observed, then must be able to repeat what was demonstrated. Finally, motivation is needed to complete modelling a behaviour. Modelling helps to increase the frequency of similar behaviours, for example, a girl noticing her friend excelling in dancing and then she may try to excel in singing as she does not have the skills for dancing. Most of the time persons engage in certain behaviours because they believe they can put them into action successfully. As a result, it can be said that the person has ‘high self-efficacy’. Persons who have high self-efficacy tend to be better and often achieve more at whatever they pursue.

In contrast, the gender schema theory (Bem 1981) focuses on the role of cognitive organization in addition to socialization This theory postulates that children learn how their cultures and societies define the role of men and women and then internalize this knowledge as a gender scheme or unchallenged core belief. This scheme is then used to organize subsequent experiences. Children’s perceptions of men and women are thus an interaction between their gender schemas and their experiences. Eventually, they will incorporate their own self-concepts into their gender schema and will assume the traits and behaviours that they deem appropriate for their gender. So, even with children learning from modelling behaviour and also learning how their culture defines the roles of male and female, what is internalized and is actually modelled are very different in terms of positive and negative behaviours and roles.

INTERVIEW OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE SURVIVOR TAKEN ON 5/4/2011

Question: Is this your first experience of Domestic Violence?

Answer: Yes.

Question: When did you notice the signs of Domestic Violence?

Answer: I was twenty, there were subtle signs from the relationship. The other person was ten years older than me.

Question: When did you decide to seek help or did someone call for help for you?

Answer: I called for help myself.

Question: Were there others in your family who were also abused?

Answer: No.

Question: How many incidents have you experienced with Domestic Violence?

Answer: Only one, but many were built into it.

Question: Is this prevalent in your family?

Answer: Yes, my mom and my two sisters went through it.

Question: Which organisation did you contact or go to for help?

Answer: I called the police after being beaten and raped, then went to hospital and subsequently a safe house in Piparo.

Question: How did the organisation protect you?

Answer: I had police security on 24 hour shift in Piparo in 2004, then the same in a safe house in Port-of-Spain.

Question: What have you learnt from this experience?

Answer: “You never know your strength. Pay attention to the smallest signs, pay attention to what is said in jest”.

Question: What stood out for you from this experience?

Answer: Having a relationship with God is what is most important. Knowing that it has a God and having a relationship with God are two different things.

Question: What would you advise young people to do to avoid this situation or what to look out for before taking action?

Answer: Look for signs of the person keeping you away from friends, belittling you and telling you ,you are not good enough. If you’re hit once don’t let a second time occur and the perpetrator saying ‘look what you made me do’.

Question: Has this experience affected your psychological thinking about men?

Answer: Yes, I don’t have patience with men.

Gender bias exists in the content, language and illustrations of a large number of children’s books (Jett-Simpson & Masland, 1993). This bias may be seen in the extent to which a gender is represented as the main character in children’s books and how that gender is depicted.

Numerous studies analyzing children’s literature find the majority of books dominated by male figures. For example, Ernst (1995) did an analysis of titles of children’s books and found male names represented nearly twice as often as female names. She also found that even books with female or gender-neutral names in their titles in fact, frequently revolve around a male character. Many classics and popular stories where girls are portrayed usually reflect stereotypes of masculine and feminine roles. Such gender stereotypes are prevalent not only in mainstream children’s books but also in Newbery and Caldecott medal winners. Children’s books frequently portray girls as acted upon rather than active (Fox, 1993). Girls are represented as sweet, naive, conforming, and dependent, while boys are typically described as strong, adventurous, independent, and capable (Ernst, 1995; Jett-Simpson & Masland, 1993). Boys tend to have roles as fighters, adventurers and rescuers, while girls in their passive role tend to be caretakers, mothers, princesses in need of rescuing, and characters that support the male figure (Temple, 1993). Often, girl characters achieve their goals because others help them, whereas boys do so because they demonstrate ingenuity and/or perseverance. If females are initially represented as active and assertive, they are often portrayed in a passive light toward the end of the story. Girl characters who retain their active qualities are clearly the exception (Rudman, 1995). Thus, studies indicate that not only are girls portrayed less often than boys in children’s books, but both genders are frequently presented in stereotypical terms as well.

WHY IS GENDER-REPRESENTATION IN CHILDREN’S LITERATURE SIGNIFICANT?

Many researchers and authors argue that readers identify with characters of their own gender in books. Therefore, the relative lack of girl characters in texts can limit the opportunity for girls to identify with their gender and to validate their place in society.

The manner in which genders are represented in children’s literature impacts children’s attitudes and perceptions of gender-appropriate behavior in society. Sexism in literature can be so insidious that it quietly conditions boys and girls to accept the way they ‘see and read the world,’ thus reinforcing gender images (Fox, 1993). This reinforcement predisposes children to not question existing social relationships. At the same time, however, books containing images that conflict with gender stereotypes provide children the opportunity to re-examine their gender beliefs and assumptions. Thus, texts can provide children with alternative role models and inspire them to adopt more egalitarian gender attitudes.

Gender stereotypical roles are constraining to both genders. Just as girls are trapped in passive and whiny roles, boys and men are rarely described as people demonstrating emotions of sadness and fear, having hobbies/occupations that are not stereotypically male and in roles where they aren’t competing or meeting high expectations. These stereotypes limit boys’ and girls’ freedom to express themselves (Fox, 1993; Rudman, 1995) and pressure them to behave in ways that are ‘gender appropriate’ rather than ways best suited to their personality.

WHAT SHOULD TEACHERS KEEP IN MIND WHILE SELECTING CHILDREN’S BOOKS?

Ideally, all children’s books used in the classroom should have well-rounded male and female characters. However, teachers seldom have much control over the children’s books they use as their selection of books is often restricted to what is cheap, easily available, or contributed by parents and well-wishers. Despite these constraints, it is possible to take active steps to ensure the use of books that promote gender equity among the sexes.

One recommendation is to look actively for books portraying girls/women in a positive light with active, dynamic roles. Another suggestion is to look for books and stories that do not portray either gender in a stereotypical manner. Rudman (1995) recommends gender-neutral books where

*individuals are portrayed with distinctive personalities irrespective of their gender

* achievements are not evaluated on the basis of gender

* occupations are represented as gender-free

* clothing is described in functional rather than gender-based terms

* females are not always weaker and more delicate than males

* individuals are logical or emotional depending upon the situation

* the language used in the text is gender-free, etc.

Teachers can also choose books that have counter-sexist attitudes embedded in them, such as feminist texts that can help children recognize gender-stereotypical messages. Combining traditional and non-traditional books can also spark discussion of how genders are portrayed in different books (Jett-Simpson and Masland, 1993).

Regardless of the type of book chosen, the message of respect for both genders should be subtly contained in the texts. It is important to avoid books that have strident messages on gender equity, as children tend to reject books that preach. In Mem Fox’s (1993) words, “laboring the point kills the point of the laboring.”

HOW CAN TEACHERS USE CHILDREN’S LITERATURE TO PROMOTE GENDER EQUITY?

Before using strategies to identify gender stereotypes and develop gender-equitable perceptions among children, it is important for teachers to first recognize and articulate their own attitudes (Rudman 1995). Then they can guide children to be critical by using scaffolding strategies like the following:

* collectively analyzing gender assumptions in the text

* raising questions about main characters and their portrayal.

* asking children to reverse the genders of individuals, e.g., “What if Sleeping Beauty was a boy?” (Temple, 1993)

* having children guess a writer’s gender on the basis of the story they have just heard (Lawrence, 1995)

* asking children to use gender-neutral names in the stories they write and read this aloud to other students so that they can guess the protagonist’s gender (Lawrence, 1995)

* have children adopt the opposite sex’s point of view about a very gendered issue (Lawrence, 1995)

Children can discuss a novel by participating in the above activities in heterogeneous groups. It is important for teachers to support children’s group discussions by posing thought-provoking questions and facilitating student exchanges. McGowan, McGowan & Wheeler (1994) have described a number of children’s books that can be used as catalysts for discussions, and suggested different group activities for primary grade students. The authors have designed these activities for the purpose of promoting gender awareness and using them to explore issues such as: respect for yourself and other individuals, similarities and differences between boys and girls, traditional and non-traditional gender roles, gender stereotypes, and friendships between boys and girls. Along similar lines, Lawrence (1993) suggests getting older students to conduct surveys and create collages to sensitize themselves to gender issues they encounter in books they read.

Trites (1997) reminds us that during discussions with children, it is important to validate both feminine and masculine voices, and to listen to dissenting individual opinions. Teachers need to recognize that many children may have attitudes that are gender stereotyped only towards certain issues. Students need to be allowed to make choices that are consonant with their own personalities and which are self-empowering. It is also important to keep in mind that rethinking gender roles cannot be achieved in a day but is an ongoing process.

Introduction

Throughout history women have been portrayed as subordinates of men or the “weaker gender.” This essay explores the portrayal of femininity as the weaker gender through the discourse on pornography and femininity portrayed in popular culture. Its purpose is to broaden the understanding of femininity- gender discourse from the perspectives of pornography and femininity portrayed in popular culture. In order words, how does the perception of pornography and the portrayal of femininity in popular culture emphasise the weaker gender perception of femininity? Therefore, the purpose of this essay is clear but the lingering question is how it can be achieved. In this regard, the essay advances four propositions. The first section provides a conceptual understanding of gender and femininity for analytical discourse. The second section critically explores the femininity- gender discourse within a legal structure and questions like is femininity the weaker gender? How and why femininity is portrayed in this regard come up for discussion. This will also be discussed in relation to how femininity gendered roles disadvantages women. The section that follows critically analyses the law on pornography and femininity nexus. The third section critically explores how femininity is depicted in the media. The last is the summary and the conclusion.

What is Gender?

Gender can be defined in many ways. Sociologists contend that gender is a consequence of nature resulting from the effect of hormones, brains or genes of two different sexes.[1] However, this essay will explain Butler’s perspective and views on gender. According to Butler, gender is defined as a social construct formed through constant cultural reinforcement and rigorous regulatory practices.[2] Hence, gender is associated with how an individual takes part in certain manners of conduct. In order words, through everyday practices or actions, laws, dress codes, taboos, pornography and advertisement the conception of “essential” masculinity and femininity is developed. Butler asserts that gender operates from the cultural associations and values that the sexed body takes on.[3] This creates the concept of essentialism. Essentialism is defined as the “characteristics of persons or groups which are largely similar in all human cultures and historical periods, since they are significantly influenced by biological factors.”[4] Through the course of essentialism, gender roles are created in the society and are related to an individual’s sex. Gender essentialism often creates stereotypes in relation to the behavioural pattern that should be exhibited by men and women. The problem with this is that the perceptions of gender is not fixed and changes from culture to culture, society to society as well as generation to generation and within these confines changes and evolves. Therefore, the rationale behind social constructs of masculinity and femininity being associated with a particular biological sex is void. Butler asserts that “taken into its logical limits, the sex-gender distinction suggests a radical discontinuity between sexed bodies and culturally constructed genders.”[5] For Butler, there is no need for a “doer” behind the deed’ but the “doer” be constructed through the deed.[6]

In terms of understanding identity, the distinction between gender and sex must be established. Hence, the concept of gender and sex has been used interrelatedly. While sex involves the biological aspects thus distinct and unchangeable, gender is a social construct formulated by the culture in which an individual lives in.[7] Therefore the labels “man” and “woman are biologically and socially different.[8] The importance posited on this distinction is that the biological fact of sex is merely a fact of interest as a result of the cultural importance attached to it.[9] This categorisation usually begins from childbirth and parents are required by the law to specify whether the sex is male or female. The traditional ideology concerning gender and sexuality involves the notion of heteronormativity which relates to the idea of heterosexuality as the natural and normal behaviour in the society.[10] However, sexuality is natural and normative if it if it fits into the context of heterosexuality.

Femininity

Shea describes femininity as the classified set of attributes, behaviours, mannerism, interests, expectations, roles and appearances that are associated with being female.[11] Under Butler’s view of repeated acts “appropriate” gender-specific roles are formed. Simone Beauvoir contends that “one is not born, but rather becomes a woman.”[12] She further asserts that the concept of femininity is actualised by consistently creating gender through interacting with individuals in a specific social context.[13] Women can be different things; they can be wives, mothers, lesbians, heterosexuals and criminals.[14] However, Butler does not allude that the individual can choose which gender he or she wants to enact but “the script is invariably already determined within a regulatory framework and the individual is given a limited number of costumes in which he or she is obliged to make a particular choice of gender style.”[15] Butler describes this act as “girling the girl”[16] it is important to note that though essential femininity relates to women, men can also exhibit “essential feminine traits” likewise women exhibiting “essential masculine traits”.[17] This alteration of society’s binary gender roles is described as gender nonconformity. Therefore, if a woman does not fit into this premeditated identity formulated by law and society her essence could be “invisible”. [18]

Gender Performance

According to Butler, gender is performative. She defines performativity by stating; “gender is in no way a stable identity of locus of agency from which various acts proceed; rather, it is an identity tenuously constituted in time [. . .] an identity instituted through the stylization of the body and, hence, must be understood as the mundane way in which bodily gestures, movements, and enactments of various kinds constitute the illusion of an abiding gendered self.”[19] She argues that gender and gender roles are social acts that an individual performs in daily life, the hegemonic versions of which underlay prevalent concepts of male as masculine and female as feminine.[20] Zimmerman further contends that a person’s gender is categorised based on how they perform it.[21] Therefore, the way society reacts to gender performances forms gender identification. Men and women in the society are required to comply with specific gender roles according to the sex in which they are categorized. Oakley states that gender roles have an important impact on human lives as numerous reports suggests that “gender are culturally rather than biologically produced”[22] Conclusively, individuals are taught on how they are expected to behave within the society. Traditional stereotypes associated with men described them as protectors, providers, openminded and aggressive whereas women were perceived to be weak, passive and emotional.[23] These stereotypes have shaped the way masculinity is seen as the stronger gender and femininity as the weaker gender. Hence, this essay argues that feminine norms regularly relegates women to subordinate or secondary roles and performing such gendered roles disadvantages women in the society. This aspect of the essay focuses on gendered objectification of women. Objectification described as the act of objectifying an individual is often significantly gendered (mostly towards females) and, vital towards the process of gendering a person and rendering them as lesser human beings.[24] In western society, the pressure on females to perform an ideal expression of femininity is so extreme that it is impossible for a woman to be adequately skinny, beautiful, submissive, sexy and conventional so as to be seen as a good woman.[25] Women tend to be dehumanised even in situations where they perform their gender roles according to hegemonic norms.[26] Ironically, they are being dehumanised for performing their gendered roles. Objectification acts as one basis against which the gender binary criticises women’s gender performance irrespective of appropriate performance of gender norms. They are constantly ridiculed as merely weak tools for emotional and sexual satisfaction of other people.[27] Performing gender tends to objectify women and this objectification goes beyond sexual objectification. Arguably, when a woman performs the role of motherhood, she is required to prioritise the needs of her child over that of herself thereby treating herself as an object through which the physical and emotional desires of the child are sustained. This can be regarded as an extremely gendered experience as society does not require fathers to give the same level of care and treatment a woman gives to a child. This can be considered as demanding because it requires placing a child’s needs ahead of the mother’s. Although, these occasions themselves are episodic, their repetition and reiteration in addition to the background discourse of “the good selfless mother”[28] provides a structure to legitimise the treatment of women as objects that nurture children into adulthood.[29] This can be partially attributed to social customs which dictate that good mothers take care of their wards and their failure to perform motherhood brings about punishments ranging from social alienation to government intervention and loss of parental privileges.[30]

Conclusively, feminist theories of objectification have classified it as a universal problem that mainly affects women. However, they mostly define it based on the constant repetition and reiteration of episodic experiences rather than why it occurs. Wilson contendsthat “By using Butler’s theory of gender performativity to analyse the structure of gender it seems that we can redefine objectification as a systemic occurrence that is significantly gendered and also important to the very process of constituting gendered categories.”[31]

Pornography

Several definitions of pornography exist from debates surrounding it. Joel Feinberg gives a broad definition of pornography as “sexually explicit writing and pictures designed entirely and plausibly to induce sexual excitement in the reader.”[32] Dworkin and MacKinnon state that “The bigotry and contempt pornography promotes, with the acts of aggression it fosters, diminish opportunities for equality of rights in employment, education, property, public accommodations and public services.”[33] This critique states that pornography is more than just a sexual fantasy but rather recognised discriminatory acts against women with damaging effects.[34] Williams asserts that pornography as a genre proves to be more about gender than sex.[35] Under UK law, there exist no definition of pornography instead it relies on the concept of ‘obscenity’.[36] Hence, pornography is regulated under the Obscene Publications Act 1959 and 1964 and Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008 which establishes the criminality of pornography on “appropriate” pornography and “appropriate” sexual expression.[37] Section 1 of the OPA 1959 states “an article shall be deemed obscene if its effect or the effect of any one of its items is, if taken as a whole, tends to deprave and corrupt persons who are likely, having regard to all relevant circumstances, to read, see or hear the matter contained or embodied in it.”[38] Therefore, the threshold test drawn from the case R v Hicklin[39] is “whether the tendency of the matter charged as obscenity is to deprave and corrupt those whose minds are open to such immoral influences, and into whose hands a publication of this sort may fall.”[40] In regards to this, section 63 of the CJIA 2008 outlaws the possession of an extreme pornographic image. It states that an image is ‘pornographic’ “if it is of such a nature that it must reasonably be assumed to have been produced solely or principally for the purpose of sexual arousal.”[41] Justice Stewart in the case Jacobellis v Ohio[42] commented on obscenity, stating that “I know it when I see it.”[43] Hence, what this depicts is that what may be perceived as obscene to a group may be normal to another. The deductions that can be made from the above Acts, shows that, Article 10 of the Human Rights Act 1998 will permit any action that does not violate the law against obscenity. This is rendered problematic as the messages pornography relays should not be protected under free speech, neither should the effect it ultimately has on gendered roles especially on femininity.[44] Hence, this essay contends that any form of pornography is harmful in the society as they send negative messages about gender roles. Scoular opines that “pornography is a political statement of women’s inequality rather than a sexual imagery for pleasure.”[45] However, Dworkin argues that the way pornography is seen to be sexual depictions and representations about sex indisputably emphasizes how the society views femininity.[46]

For the purposes of this essay, four elements of subordination of femininity will be discussed. These are; hierarchy, the dynamic of dominance and submission, violence and objectification. Foucault’s concept of ‘texts’ of pornography and society can be used in explaining the concept of hierarchy.[47] Men tend to define feminine sexuality through images and writings.[48] Fiedler states that “pornography is produced mainly by men for men, using women’s bodies as objects for male pleasure.”[49] Men through pornography tend to portray the female gender role as inferior and how it should be performed. Such characterisation has an adverse effect on feminine roles in the society as traditional social norms usually associates masculinity with certain traits (dominance, power, superiority) while femininity with (submissiveness, weakness, inferiority).[50] According to Dworkin “Pornography is the material means of sexualizing inequality and that is why pornography is a central practice in the subordination of women.”[51] Pornography is initially presented as a sexual imagery for erotic satisfaction, but in-depth assessment depicts that it is rather a political statement portraying feminine inequality. Scoular supports by asserting that, pornography is a powerful depiction of feminine subordination and inequality, societal degradation and emphasising the ‘phallocentric hierarchical power’ of men over women.”[52]

Inequality is sexualized; the relationship between masculinity and femininity is that of dominance and submission, which is constantly played out during sexual intercourse, which defines sex as a man being possessive or domineering and a woman submitting to a man.[53] MacKinnon believes that pornography is an ideal representation which displays masculine dominance and feminine submission, and describes it as a political campaign by the strong against the weak (males against females) that legitimizes, sexualizes and permits abuse against women.[54] Masculine dominance and feminine submission also exist in ‘soft-core’ pornography for example Vogue Magazine or Calvin Klein commercials where women are depicted as being desperate to be taken and used by men.[55] It is noteworthy that the dominant and submissive representation is not limited to only heterosexual pornography but also lesbian pornography. Arguably, some women prefer to play the submissive role, however, this is due to the mentality instilled by the sexist power structures that they are meant to enjoy these acts[56]. Deckha contends that females who claim to enjoy performing a submissive role do so because they have been brainwashed into believing that it is required of them to do so.[57] The argument as regards to lesbian pornography is that, even with the absence of men, this still represents the patriarchal power structure through the representation of the ‘butch’ lesbian controlling the ‘femme’ lesbian.[58] As explained earlier, there is a possibility that without the influence of the sexist power structure, these individuals might have different opinions as to what they actually prefer. Therefore, the constant repetition and reiteration of these constructed identities of masculine dominance and feminine submission tends to be classified as the ‘norm’ in the society.

According to Dworkin, not only does pornography cause violence against women, it is violence.[59] Violence towards women either in physical or psychological form tends to be the norm in modern society. Men believe that they can commit these acts, either as a means of enjoyment or an assertion of masculine dominance. Feminists believe that images of women being bound, tortured, raped, degraded or murdered for sexual stimulation and satisfaction creates a psychological link between sexuality and violence, and teaches men that women are ‘easy targets’, ‘masochistic’, ‘hypersexual’, and a sexual plaything, who derive pleasure from being pushed around, and that violence in itself is a sexual turn-on. Such portrayal teaches women to feel passive and helpless and to assent to victimization.[60] Reports from a research conducted in America on the commonness of verbal or physical aggression in pornographic contents show that of the 304 scenes studied, 88.2% included physical aggression and 48.7% of scenes contained verbal aggression with the perpetrators usually the male and the female being the victims.[61] Because of the way femininity is portrayed, people tend not to be interested in the fact that women are actually hurt even in violent pornography. Cole compares this by stating that “just as behind a facade of marital bliss there could be a battered wife, likewise, behind the appearance of consent and pleasure in pornography, there could be rape and violation.”[62]

Furthermore, numerous debates have emanated concerning if there is any correlation between pornography and sexual violence. In the case of Coutts[63], Jane Longhurst died during asphyxial sex with a man that had a tendency for extreme pornography involving rape, necrophilia and asphyxiation. After this incident, the CJIA 2008 was implemented to ban the possession of extreme pornographic materials.[64] From this, it can be perceived that this act was created because pornographic contents could influence people to commit sexual abuse. Barry emphasises that pornography can significantly influence human behaviour and numerous behavioural scientists support this position as witnessed in their dealing with sex offenders.[65] MacKinnon also opines by stating that the subscribers of violent pornography are also interested in practicing it.[66] Andrei Chikatilo, who was a Russian killer, responsible for the murder of over 53 women and children blamed pornography to be the cause of his suicidal behaviour[67]. The evidence above depicts that, there is a strong link between violence and men who watch pornography.

Fredrickson and Roberts define objectification as ”being treated as a body (or collection of body parts) valued predominantly for its use to (or consumption by) others.”[68] MacKinnon asserts that pornography tends to objectify women, exploit their sexuality for men’s pleasure, and portrays sex roles in which women are inferior, violated or subject to physical abuse.[69] Dworkin describes sexual objectification as occurring “when a human being, through social means, is made less than human, turned into a thing or commodity, bought and sold.”[70] Women tend to be inhumanely objectified and displayed as objects for the sexual satisfaction of men. For example, both men and women magazines are based around eroticised images of women viewing them as sexual objects basically used to satisfy or provoke the desires and attention of readers. The editor of a UK magazine Esquire stated in an article that women were objectified in various publications (both male and female) stating that “we provide pictures of girls in the same way we provide pictures of cool cars. It is ornamental.”[71] By using pictures of women primed for sexual pleasure amongst advertisement of fine cars and good scotch portrays women as commodities that can be easily bought. Arguably, a reason why people fail to link acts associated with pornography is because such acts are seen as ordinary in the society. Society tends to define the images portrayed by pornography as normal and ordinary, therefore, if pornography is seen as the ordinary, it cannot be harmful to women. In recent times, concerns have been raised about the objectification of women in society. Clare Short a former Labour M.P introduced a piece of draft legislation advocating for the ban of Page 3 of The Sun newspaper which Caroline Lucas had criticised “for normalising the notion that women’s primary function is to titillate men.”[72]Therefore, this raises awareness of the backward, damaging and hypocritical media treatment of female bodies and the society becoming more sympathetic of the plight of women’s objectification.[73]

Gender essentialism also exists in objectification. Collins believes that black femininity is differently represented from white femininity.[74] Black women are mostly presented to be “breeders, raped for pleasure and profit of their owners” in interracial pornography which is a recreation of the colonial slavery a period when black women were used as sex objects for the pleasure of white men.[75] This also reflects the hierarchical system of race as Walker states, “that where white women are depicted in pornography as objects, black women as depicted as animals.”[76] The portrayal of black women as animals reiterates their lesser status in the society. Therefore, whilst white women face gender objectification as gendered oppression, black women deal with both racial and gendered oppression. A critique against obscenity laws in the UK, is the inability to protect women from the violence and objectification which pornography portrays but rather focuses on what is regarded as “prurient interests.”[77] Conclusively, the way masculinity is portrayed in pornography influences male attitudes towards the treatment of women as the weaker gender. Jensen highlights that “the sexual violence and cruelty that characterizes much pornography, and to the evident pleasure that men take in viewing this material, evidence that there are serious problems with our understandings of what it is to ‘be a man’ today.”[78] Additionally, the similarity between the portrayal of masculinity in reality and in pornography is that to be classified as a real man, one is supposed to be aggressive, dominating and controlling. Green asserts that in gay pornography, where there is a female absence, there is a contention that one of the men performs the role which patriarchal sexuality assigns to women; ‘the role of receptivity’, ‘passivity’, ‘subordination’. This confirms that, we can have ‘women’ without having any females.[79]” The portrayal of masculinity in pornography has an influence on how men view women in society. Hence, it can be concluded that pornography certainly plays an important role in the construction of femininity as weak.

Popular Culture

James Rosenau defines media as “a label that is presently in vogue to account for peoples, activities, norms ideas, goods, services, and currencies that are decreasingly confined to a particular geographic space and its local and established practices.”[80] The mass media is one of the most universal and powerful vices influencing how men and women are viewed in the society. Intertwined through our everyday lives, the media integrates messages into human consciousness at every opportunity. Different forms of media convey images of the sexes, which disseminates biased, stereotypical, and limiting perceptions.[81] Hence, this essay argues that all forms of media sends negative subliminal and stereotypical messages about female gender roles in the society and the portrayal of an ‘ideal’ woman as shown in the media is harmful. In recent years, the representation of femininity in the media has constantly exploited women merely portraying them as trophies to be won or objects to be shown off. It has also established a standard of beauty that women are compared to either by men or by the women themselves. Swami asserts that “In patriarchal societies, the roles and privileges accorded to women are inferior to those assigned to men, and as such, sexism plays a central role in the continuing oppression of women.”[82] Reiterating the ‘beauty ideals are oppressive’ (BIO) hypothesis, the existent patriarchal structures and attitudes influences the relationship that exists between “sexist attitudes and the endorsement of beauty ideals and practices.”[83]

Craft asserts that physical features such as attractiveness and thinness are the requirements for women in news media rather than intellectual capabilities expected from their male counterparts. (Craft, 1988; Sanders & Rock, 1988).

The media creates an imagery of two that of women that exist namely the good women and the bad women. A good woman is supposed to be respectful and mainly focused on taking care of her home. Subordinate to the male gender, they are usually represented in films as victims, supportive wives and helpers. Though, women who defy the traditional roles are represented positively, this is done either by making their alienating career lives like Claire Huxtable on “The Cosby Show,” whose career engagement in family matters was well portrayed while her career as an attorney was alienated. or feminizing careerwomen so as to align them with the traditional aspect of femininity. The producer of the show “Cagney and Lacey” Barney Rosenzweig complained, “These women aren’t soft enough. These women aren’t feminine enough” regarding the characters of the actresses thereby illustrating the media’s bias towards favouring traditional femininity. Faludi asserts that for female gender to be considered as successful, it is necessary to portray the traditional stereotypes of femininity and maintain an identity dependent on the male gender who