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Social ecological perspective is a discipline which tries to look into various results and correlation of social factors in the environment. It also examines the interaction among people within a certain natural environment and the challenges on the important affordances for knowledge which are provided by the very environment. Generally it provides the insight on how people in a certain environment influence one another in a way (Naess, 1989). This way, ecology is both reactive and creative; it also makes people contemplate on the changes within the system and around the environment. Social ecological systems go beyond an individual, since the world we live in have a greater impact on how we live.

Bronfenbrenner (1979) argues that it is not only the environment which affects the person directly, but there are some other layers factors. According to his research which basically began with thesis equations Bronfenbrenner states that behavior depends on the environment and the person. Bronfenbrenner (1979) also considered; community, individual, culture and environment as nestled factors. This is clearly illustrated in Charles dawn book on web of life. There are several outcomes which results from cross-level influences and interactions between and within levels that social ecology perspectives address. Interactions are parallels or discontinuities and cross-level effects according to (Rousseau & House 1994). Therefore this paper is going to provide a comprehensive overview on the theoretical concepts and constructs relating to social ecological perspectives, review on discrimination and inequality in relationship to this topic and then conclude by highlighting on how to achieve a better social perspective.

Levels of influence comprises of; Individual, interpersonal, organizational, community and public policies. The social ecological perspective looks into correlated relationship which occurs between individual and environment they live in.

In individual levels people are mandated to implement and enhance the lifestyle fluctuations to minimize risk and have better health. Family history, personal attitudes, beliefs all contribute to individual influence. They can be eliminated by encouraging good beliefs, behavior and attitude. Individuals who habitually engage In many unhealthy and dangerous behavior, for example intake of saturated fats, irregular sleep, lack of frequent physical exercises, alcoholism, high level of frequent stresses, live unhealthy lifestyles which can be controlled at individual level. The change of single pattern of unhealthy behavior can be modified. This can be archived through social influence patters like modification of an individual’s behavior, attitude and thoughts in terms of actions and the way others feel. Some of the ways in which to achieve social influence is; cognitive change where there is modification of individuals opinions and how he/she feels. Behavior modification entails individuals change on how he or she views the surrounding and effective modification with a shift with ones assessment of entities.

Interpersonal levels are a collection factors which raises risk as a result of relationship with family, peers and intimate partners. These are seen to modify behavior and experiences. These can be eliminated by promoting peer programs that educate on equality, trust and mutual respect among others. These interpersonal attributes are strong on how an individual perceives oneself. These qualities and factors can be learned, like in membership of a group, but many are ingrained (e.g., ethnicity, gender). “In the interpersonal sphere, there are also many components of the individual, including psychological and cognitive factors, like personality, knowledge and beliefs” (Gregson, 2001). Gregson continues by stating that;

The individual in his or her own micro system is constantly shaped, not only by the environment, but by any encounter or other individual they come in contact with”. This shaping is well explored in child development, as it would be unreasonable to believe a child is solely a product of the societal environment. There are multiple, simultaneous influences in child behavior and learning including culture, school, teacher, parental support and education level, involvement in extracurricular activities, etc. Examples of Microsystems outside the self also include groups of friends, family, unorganized athletics, or social clubs (Gregson, 2001)

The community level factor depends on an individual’s experiences and how he/she interacts with community in general involves social environment for example a neighborhood, schools and work places. “This can be promoted through social and norm campaigns based on trust, respect among others. A clear illustration is overweight and obesity where people normally believe that it is an individual’s responsibility which is correct to some degree” (David, 2001). The community also plays a crucial role for example where work places, schools food stores or restaurants do not provide healthy food options, in the neighborhood and where there are no fields for jogging, places for exercises, safe and accessible facilities for children to play, no proper healthy facilities and where physical education is not offered in school. All this are community responsibilities. According to David (2001) the community can promote healthy behavior through implementation of policies and environmental factors such as healthy cafeteria meals, Incentives for bicycles and pedestrian commuters, smoke free workplaces, sidewalks and bike paths, insurance cover for preventive services like tobacco cessation and work site wellness programs. These can lower the risks of diseases like stroke, diabetes, cancer and other heart diseases. The barriers to healthy behaviors are interwoven among the community in general. When these barriers are eliminated or lowered, behavior change will be achieved. Behavior change will then become more sustainable, this is according to James (2003). According to Gregson (2001) on the other hand these aspects can be rules, policies, and acceptable business etiquette within a more formal organization. He further argues that “there are some organizations that foster entirely different atmospheres than other corporations giving an example of Google, where employees may wear pajamas to the office”. “The organizational component is especially influential with younger, more impressionable employees, as it helps to shape the ethics and expectations of a typical organization for these individuals. Examples include schools, companies, churches, and sports teams” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Bronfenbrenner also claimed that the richer the medium for communication in this system, the more influential it is on the micro system.

Societal levels are larger things that influence individual behavior, they include; religion, gender, societal norms, cultural beliefs and societal policies.

This can be prevented by working in conjunction with social bodies associated with policies, mutual respect, social norms, gender equality, mutual respect, trust, and foster intimate relationship. These influences are more easily seen than the other factors, mainly due to the magnitude of the impact. Examples of significant intercultural effects include Communism, Western culture, Military, Islam, and Christianity. For instance, the macro system of Communism is a Marxist philosophy that believes that wealth should be shared in the macro system. A Communist country, such as Cuba (exo), governs and regulates the environment within which corporations (meso) and society or individuals (micro) exist. Media plays a significant role on all levels, as it communicates information and assists in the development of expectations for all individuals in the respective culture (Bronfenbrenner 1979)

The best way of achieving healthy behavior is put in to consideration of factors at all level which are; interpersonal, organizational, individual, public and individual. By so doing, behavior change will be implemented and sustained.

In the corporate scenario a lot of disagreements are understandable others while others are explicit. In these scenarios there are stakeholders who are workers, clients, shareholders and managers who normally raise conflicts. Interactive and cross-level consequences while observing from a different angle are seen, this is because a lot of companies think they only have the duty of creating monetary value for the stakeholders whilst upholding responsibilities to their customers. In some organizations, it is usually hard to tell events where devotion is taken too far towards owners and workers at the expense of the clients.

Directions of influence

“Isomorphism’s are parallels that cause impact on one level then the resulting impact affects other levels” (Rinderle 2006). People carrying out Researcher on isomorphic models are required to see an equal impact on both the magnitude and direction in cases where at least one cause changes in level shifts.

Discontinuities are basically antonyms of isomorphism. They cause effect one level or group hence producing an unequal, potentially in the opposite direction, they cause impact on at least one or more groups.

Top-down effects are most prominent of any social ecological component, according to5 (MCLeroy 1996) the environmental outcomes shapes the persons behavior. The nested factors are basics which react while in crisis situations (Rinderle 2006). “OK-FIRST” is a program that alienates people on how to help others respond to whether related dangers in a better way (Oetz 2006). Historical interactions also shape peoples conflict behavior. This is clearly illustrated in several situations as observed in the many conflicts of the society. Media also plays an important role in strengthening these issues.

Bottom-up effects illustrate how people or society affect the upper levels, as in how people form coalitions to achieve their goals 7(Rinderle 2006). There are also effects on cultures as a result of global corporations’ existence in some countries. For example, china has raised the accessibility of news to reach a larger audience in a Communist nation. 8 Guerrero (2006) shows emotions are as a result of feelings which includes anger, jealousy, greed, guilt among others and the feelings affects the events likely to happen.

Interactive effects are interdependent variables and taking place simultaneously in many groups 10(Rousseau & House 1994). For example in Italy where culturally different workgroups, conflicts among group members may occur. This deters relationship impacts in accomplishing the goal of group members for an organization and learning at the personal level. Thus technology also plays an important role in community, cultures, interpersonal conflict and organization (Rousseau & House 1994).

Political conflict

The role of politics is in the making up of decisions. Politics encompasses the appeasing of all stakeholders towards realizing an ultimate objective, “decision may be required of an individual, organization, community, or country. A decision a congressman makes affects anyone in his or her jurisdiction. If one makes decision not to vote for the President of the United States, one has given oneself no voice in the 15election” (Ungar, 2002). If a lot other people decide not to put in their efforts to vote, they would have unintentionally permitted a greater part of others to carry the day on their behalf. Internationally if the administration of a country like America decides to inhabit another nation say in the Middle East, this will not only have an influence on the administration of that country but it will also have an effect on American soldiers and the whole environment where they come from. Another thing is that when America uses funds on conflicts that are political in nature, the value of the U.S. currency may be negatively affected. This shows that many cross-level and interactive consequences of a decision can arise. An example of this is like the act of a terrorist could possibly interrupt with the lives of soldiers, the lives of people close to them and the country at large.

Economics

Basically, from a top-down view point, the physical environment determines a considerable extend to the lifestyle of a person and the country as whole. If the area is hilly or very dry and there is limited land for agricultural activities, the nation generally will not grow compared to other countries. The general, human habits, cultural characteristics and economics are shaped by geography and output is determined by natural resources, technology and human resources. Entrepreneurial mind has an impact on technology. These indicates that there exits bottom-up effects on economics.

Health

People’s efforts to modify their own healthy practices are mostly dictated by social, economic and cultural setbacks. Poor educational status, time and money, energy and chronic exposure to neighborhood violent and proximity to friends and family members who often exhibit healthy threatening behavior are some of situation factors that can affect people’s best efforts that and intentions to improve their health practices.

There are several ecological variables that can improve or stop danger to individuals healthy physically. To eliminate diseases, an individual should keep off from an environment in which they may be more exposed to virus or where there body defense system would be compromised. This also entails possibly avoiding workgroup if they are breathing or inhalation dangers or keeping off from a sick work mate. Some environments are good for health benefits. Staying around people who are physically fit will encourage you to be active, good diet and physical exercises in general. The state putting a ban on saturated fats manufacture may add value to top-down effect on individual’s health in a country.

“Efforts to persuade a person to adopt health practices can be unfruitful if the person is not ready to embrace the suggested behavior. This can also be limited by exposure to environmental toxins and safety hazards” (Haekel, 2003). The current research studied predictors of health-related social influence tactic use in close relationships. According to the social ecological perspective, predictors were grouped as reflecting characteristics of the agent of social influence, characteristics of the target of social influence, characteristics of the agent and target’s relationship, and characteristics of the social influence situation. One hundred and nine spouses reported on situations in which each partner was attempting to influence his or her spouse to change a health-related behavior. Using the actor-partner interdependence analysis approach, results revealed only actor effects for characteristics of the agent, primarily partner effects for characteristics of the target, and both actor and partner effects for characteristics of the situation when predicting health-related tactic use. Effects for relationship characteristics only emerged in interactions with respondent sex. These results indicate that social influence in marriage involves reciprocity and interdependence.

Physical and social environment can serve as a media for disease transmit ion; waterborne and airborne diseases. The environment can also act as a stressor exerting detrimental effects on people’s mood, performance and physiology as a result of their exposure to uncontrollable demands such as noise, political upheaval or interpersonal relationship. The environment can act as source of safety or danger; residing in an area contaminated by chemicals, geographically unsafe, or socially violent.tne environment can also serve as an enabler of healthier behavior exemplified by inhalation of safety devices in motor vehicles, proximity of physical fitness devices to work place or home and exposure to interpersonal modeling or cultural practices that foster health behavior. The environment can act as provider of health resources such effective communication sanitation systems, public health services and legislation ensuring citizens access to health insurance and primary care.

Risk communication

In event of a natural disaster or hazard, there are ways of ensuring that people who are affected are safe. SEM can be required in helping one analyze when information and receivers and those involved. These conditions are environmental influences which are far reaching. The person’s level of education, understanding, and privileged circumstances may determine the kind of information the person receives and the mediums through which the information is conveyed. If the information received is altered through the mode of communication, there would be a bottom-up effect on the people involved.

In general MCLeroy (1996) points out that:

The social perspectives try to, eliminate obstacles on healthy risks, generate conditions favorable for individuals well being plus all people around, creates a positive reception on how people be at vary, facilitates individuals interdependence, coexistence and interrelationships that are found among other individuals and the society as a whole, they try to show in which way; broader physical, social, political, economical, ethnical and cultural context and histories influence the ways in which individuals( and other people) make meaning out of observation and experience and it embraces the sense of care and concern for others (MCLeroy 1996).

Other things that social perspectives accomplish are; they help in the recognition of competitive interests, access to resources and relationship with authority which is seen to manipulate people’s abilities, societies and countries to gain stability. These perspectives also assist in the reflection of self and thinking critically that eventually ends in positive actions, encourages social justice, helps learners to counter the ever shifting world, and enables youthful people to look past their selves while working towards expectations and a future encouraging people in taking necessary actions where appropriate in order to develop better healthy practices.

Bullying and Victimization

The idea of a multiple society influencing an entity is not a new concept. In fact much has been researched on the interplay between the individual, family, peer group, school, community and culture. This reciprocal interplay between individuals involved in the bully/victim continuum can be clearly illustrated, the social ecological perspective can be applied to the conceptualization of bullying behavior.

According to Dolls (2001), “in a nut shell, bullying does not occur in isolation. This phenomena is encouraged/or incited as a result of complex relationship between the individual, family, peer group, school community and culture. The individual is the centre of his/her social ecology”. The individual involved ion bullying may be involved as a bully, bully victim, victim or by stander. Individual factors will influence participation in bullying. “Ecological systems theory purports that all individuals are part of the interrelated systems that locate an individual at the centre and move out of the centre to include all the systems that affect the individual”l Bronfenbrenner (1977). According to his theory, a child is inseparable part of social network comprising of four interrelated systems: Microsystems, mesosystems, exosystems and Microsystems.

The child is at the centre of and actively involved with this interplay of systems. The micro system involves the child’s relationship with one system; home, classroom or playground. The Microsystems depicts he the child’s immediate interaction with others, and including others reaction towards bullying behavior. This conceptualization of Microsystems also includes the status of the child along the bully/victim continuum. Thus the bully, bully victim, victim or bystander interact with others in his or her social environment, and this interaction either exacerbates or mitigate bullying and/or victimization behavior. The mesosystem includes the interrelationship between system in the child’s life; home and school. The mesosystems depicts the congruence between two or more environments such as congruence between and home and school in regard to bullying behavior. The exosystems includes influences from other context, such as the effects of a schools district anti bully policy or parental involvement in the school system.

Finally, the macro system is the influence of cultural mores, such as societal attitude towards bullying behavior. The social ecology that encompasses the daily life of youth dictates the engagement and non engagement in bullying and/or victimization behaviors. 19Simons (2000) because individual are affected by their surroundings, it logically follows that intervention the environment in which youth function. Interventions that do not follow the target multiple environments in which youth exists are likely to be fewer effectives than interventions that address social ecology.

This assertion is related to consistent findings that the youth who are involved in aggressive behavior experience problems in multiple area including the family, peer group, school, and community.

It is important to determine whether or not an intervention is effective in preventing and /or eliminating bullying behavior. Thus assessment of bullying phenomena must utilize multiple methods of assessments, use multiple informants and include assessments across the context.

While this can be a daunting task, best practices demands that we asses all the social ecological if we are to accurately determine the effects bullying prevention and intervention programming. An example of this type of best practice is reflected in schema proposed and implemented by Simons (2000) these studies state that data should be collected across all settings (home, school, community, laboratory and others), by multiple informants, observers, children peers, parents, teachers and using multiple methods home observations, lab tasks, classroom, playground questionnaires, records among others.

Conclusion

We can conclude that a better social perspective can be achieved by putting into consideration of factors at all level which are; interpersonal, organizational, public and individual. Behavior modification entails individuals change on how he or she views the surrounding and effective modification with a shift with ones assessment of entities. By so doing, behavior change will be implemented and sustained.

The main purpose of this report is to give the values of marriage in terms of contemporary Chinese perceptions. According to a survey through questionnaire of naked marriages, this report reflects the different view points of marriage between contemporary and traditional Chinese people. In order to indicate the new trend of people’s marriage views, the report will firstly analyze the results of research in terms of percentage. Then, the report will give an account of naked marriages, with people standing on different opinions. Next, it will analyze the main causes from different standpoints. It will state the root reason as well as other reasons. Finally, the report will give the comprehension of naked marriage and reach the conclusion on the basis of the research’s result and the reasons above.

2. Introduction

Naked marriage refers to a phenomenon that people are directly married at a registry under condition of lacking house, car, even their wedding ring. In other word, naked marriage is to get married without debt and luxury. In this case, there are less complicated things to prepare and to undertake than previous marriage. It is a new network vocabulary which gained popularity in 2008. With the development of civilization in modern society, the first objective of a marriage has transformed into love from breeding offspring. As is known, marriage and material are always inseparable in Chinese traditional marriage perception. Before 1949 when the new country was established, both boys and girls should get married on coming of age, and they would be tied in wedlock formally through matchmakers on the basis of financial situation of the men’s family. After the founding of new China, the feature of marriage was simple and thrift which followed the style in revolution time and the wedding just means a common meal. In the 1960s, the marriage began to attach importance to exquisite decorations; it was common to see that couples asked the carpenter to make wooden furniture such as wardrobe, table and chair. When it comes to 1970s, three major items including watches, bicycles and sewing machines were necessary in marriage. Approximately ten years later, however, they changed into the refrigerators, color TV sets and washing machines. In addition to home appliance, many brides must own the gold necklace, gold earrings and the gold ring, which afterwards were called three pieces of gold. At the beginning of 21st century, house, money and the car becomes the new contents of three major items. Contrasts to the Chinese family concept in the past, the modern couples emphasize freedom and independence to a higher degree and pay less attention on wedding from the standpoint of marriage. Meanwhile, marital status is regarded as one of the privacy in the eyes of young white-collar, and then the phenomenon of hidden marriage appears. Under such background, naked marriage is brought to the public’s attention.

3. The Analysis of Research

In the investigation of naked marriage, as for the question of whether naked marriage is the trend or the helpless option, 18% of the respondents choose trend while 82% of them choose helplessness. When being asked the opinion of the relationship between naked marriage and happiness, the number of people who hold the views that the naked marriages can obtain happiness accounts for 44 %. In their opinions, only love can endure the test of lacking material products, can it mean precious. The ratio of people with the opposite views is just the same. They argue that economic basis is the prerequisite for the daily life and the absence of substance will cheapen the quality of life and the degree of happiness. Another 12% people are uncertain about this. Interestingly, the research indicates that the attitude to the naked marriage between men and women are quite distinct. 80% of men are in favor of naked marriage while 70% of women feel that naked marriage is infeasible. In regard to the approval of naked marriage, the proportion of people who welcome the naked marriage takes 57.7%, they argue that love is the core of marriage and couples can make efforts together to buy house after marriage.in the meantime, those who disapprove of naked marriage accounted for 35.7%.

The research also reveals that the majority of people who agree with the perception of naked marriage family are at the age of 20 to 35. Furthermore, most of them are urban white collar with high education and large income.

4. Literature Review

As a token of modern marriage perceptions, naked marriage has been brought to public attention with people standing on both sides. Some people welcome this new form of marriage with applause, arguing that holding a wedding for others’ watching is costly and time-consuming. As a result, it can be omitted if couples themselves feel it is unnecessary .The money spending on houses, cars and other things is a great mass of expenditure for their parents. In this case, the things like ostentation and extravagance have nothing to do with marriage. Anyhow, marriage is related to two people and it can be conducted as long as both of them feel proper.

Professor Chen who has engaged in social psychology research since 2002 illustrates the popularity of naked marriage in terms of sociology. She has been holding the opinion that it is sagacious for couples to live together simply. They should get marriage certificate from marriage registration office under the insufficient material conditions. (Chen, Fu-Mei and Li, Tsui-Shan. 2007, p400) It shows the increasing legal consciousness among the new generation of young people. Besides, Lu Rucai thinks that compared to the premarital cohabitation, naked marriage is worthy of being advocated. Moreover, it also deserves to advocate as a simple way of life in the high level of material development. Naked marriage gets rid of the material restrictions and secular ideas and makes couples get married without any burden. (Lu Rucai. 2004, p34)

Other Sociologists also indicate that naked marriage should give praise and support. Professor Chia thinks that it is not only a return of rational knowledge but also a kind of social progress. According to the analysis of them, during the 1950s, due to the restricted conditions, many people’s weddings were naked marriages. However, it has not prevented the passion of this generation in work and life. (Chia, Rosina C. etc.1986, p599) In fact, the form of marriage is considered less important when taking sincere love into account. Accordingly, parents are supposed to put aside outmoded thoughts, and offer more freedom to the next generation in order to reduce their economic pressure.

Feldman also points out that naked marriage encourages to forming a plain life style which is worth recommending. Thanks to naked marriage, young generation no longer acts as the NEET group (Not in Education??Employment or Training). Instead, they rely on their own efforts to create the future. (Jin X, Li S, Feldman MW. 2005, p30)

On the other hand, there are also many opponents who strongly believe that basic material is the foundation of a marriage. Professor Cao who criticizes the naked marriage on a realistic basis, argues that it is not a feasible thing to do, especially in this fast-developing material world where the divorce rate is rising alarmingly. Naked marriage will result in more life pressure and competition. (Liv Jiang and Cao Yang. 2006, p40) In this context, material preparation is equivalent to a promise for a new marriage, particularly for expensive urban living. Having a home and a car is really beneficial to a new family and it helps them grow from a pretty good start.

Jill Savege predicts that naked marriage will not be always in vogue in China. It is common that China has constant custom with long history towards marriage that cannot be easily changed. Marriage has a close relationship with material in Chinese traditional marriage perception. (Shi, Qijia; Scharff, Jill Savege. 2008, p310) In this regard, even through couples have reached consensus on naked marriage, their parents would object strongly to the wedding , and the reason is that they cannot afford a diamond ring and marriage ceremony, let alone a home and a car. In their opinion, house and car represent the capability of getting established in society.

In addition, the scholar Olga thinks that due to the insufficient material foundation, their children may lag behind others at the starting line at birth. Many educators like Lu also point out that good material elements have far-reaching influence on mental development of children, and they reveal that children with good material elements are inclined to form the extroverted and gregarious character which is benign to their future. (Pochagina, Olga. 2004, p140)

Both sides of the scholars discuss the naked marriage from different angles and aspects which offer plenty of valuable ideas for this report. On the basis of their works and results of research, the report makes synthetic and comprehensive analysis.

5. Methodology

This report is mainly to discuss the modern Chinese marriage perceptions by questionnaires and interviews of naked marriage, and it will use data analysis and the qualitative analysis. Data analysis will offer sufficient data to support the facts. And qualitative analysis will see through the appearance to perceive the essence. This kind of analysis will expound from different aspects to form an integral evaluation for the viewpoints of marriage. However it should be pointed out that questionnaires failed to take into account people’s real-life action, the data getting here is the possibility of what people are willing to do, rather than what they would do in practice.

6 Causes of the Naked Marriage
6.1 Social Pressure

Young generation that has reached marriageable age is inflicted with the heavy pressure from work and life, and it is the social pressure that makes young people cannot afford to houses and cars. In recent years, the soaring housing prices in China give rise to the increase of marriage cost and become the biggest obstructions in the preparation for marrying. Therefore young people begin to choose naked marriage as a way of compromise. A survey conducted by statistical bureau shows the average wedding cost in shanghai reached a high point at 18.7 million in 2009 and the spending was in line with that of the United States. Undoubtedly, the wedding cost in Shanghai ranks the first place in China and it is twice more than Harbin that has the least wedding cost in China. Another Investigation reveals that fifty percent of Chinese newly-married couples manage to get married at the cost of emptying their parents’ funding. A new national statistics conducted by Ministry of Civil Affairs show that the total consumption amount produced every year due to the marriage has reached 25 million Yuan.

6.2 Pursuit of Pure Love

The young generation pursues pure romantic love in this frugal way of marriage. From the view point of love, the marriage is based on the ideal of common life between men and women, and then they will form a strong admiration for each other in their heart. True love means a strong pure feeling of a desire for people to become lifelong partners regardless of material constrains, and naked marriage can prove that true love is everlasting. The Associate Researcher Johnson, who works in institute of sociology and demography, argues that naked marriage can aid in getting rid of the secular concepts and making couples get married without any material burden. (Johnson, Julie R. 2010, p27)The ones who have a naked marriage can throw common customs and reveal the true meaning of marriage, so that the so-called honeymoon, wedding and money are not necessities if people are marrying with the people they really want. Besides, No matter how poor the man is, as long as this man has perseverance and ambition, he will not let his beloved women suffer from hardships through his hard working. Only when people eliminate factors such as ceremony and traditional material concepts and just immerse themselves in the joy of marriage itself, will such naked marriage show distingue and faithful. And people can put off difficulties which are tough to handle temporarily in marriage and do them when the conditions are abundant.

7 The Significance of Naked Marriage

On the one hand naked marriage manifests the changing attitude towards marriage in modern China. Choosing naked marriage is not only a familial decision, but also an individual’s choice of love and lifestyle. Contrast to Chinese traditional wedding concept, marriage stands for the spirit of mutual assistance and efforts rather than the actual wealth people possess. On the other hand it also reflects the varying concept of material nowadays. Instead of spending extra money on unnecessary products, couples should make effective use of it and meet the challenge in a positive attitude. Love is a kind of intellectual product that needs the joint efforts of couples to accumulate. Therefore, choosing naked marriage might be taking a test in the future and the state of poverty after efforts cannot be accepted by everyone.

Additionally, the popularity of naked marriage partly proves the struggle of social equity from men. Obviously, men have undertaken excessive pressure of marriage in modern life. As everyone knows, society calls on the equality between men and women for a long time, but these days the actual fact is that society pays close attention to ensuring women enjoy equal rights in employment and promotion with men, whereas the uneven marriage cost that men has taken on is neglected by most people. It seems that the men’s natural responsibility is to buy houses for their families in the perspective of traditional Chinese people, and therefore many young men would like choose to support naked marriage in order to reduce their pressures of being mortgage slaves. But for women, they don’t have a deep understanding of marriage cost due to the lack of houses supplement burden. In this regard, women don’t need to carry too much pressure, thus they inclined to support the concept that it is appropriate to own houses at the time of getting married.

8 Conclusion

This report is mainly to discuss the issue of naked marriage in the current China. It makes a detailed analysis based on the questionnaire survey with respect to whether naked marriage is appropriate and reasonable for love. It is apparent that people hold various views on this phenomenon. And it is a great challenge to the traditional family values. This trend is regarded as the sublimation of love which lacks the material and secular opinions and goes back to the essence of love itself. Of course, when considering choosing naked marriage, people should take account of both the enthusiasm of enterprising spirit and the growth of wealth to make full preparation for the unpredictable future of life. In conclusion, whether adopting naked marriage or not depends on the couple, and if their economic backgrounds and mutual perception of money is similar, naked marriage will bring them the happiness. It makes couples work hard together and start them off on an equal financial platform. But if their relationship is not strong enough, then naked marriage will have a higher probability of failing.

9 Appendices
APPENDIX A: Questionnaire

Dear Sir/ Madam, Thank you for your attention and opening this questionnaire. The project aims to give the values of marriage in terms of contemporary Chinese perceptions. Your opinion will be of great help in my project. Your response will and your information will be coded and will remain confidential.

Thank you very much for your time and support. It will take approximately 10 minutes to complete the questionnaire.

Please mark the appropriate answer to the questions below.

1. What will you place more weight on when you marry to your fiance?

A. House

B. Pure love

C. Wedding ceremony

D. Car

E. Honeymoon

2. Do you think naked marriage is the trend in modern society or the helpless option?

A. The trend of marriage

B. The helpless option with regard to modern society

C. Not Sure

3. Do you think naked marriage can obtain happiness?

A. Definitely Yes

B. Yes

C. Should be

D. Not Sure

E. No

4. Do you approve of naked marriage?

A. Definitely Yes

B. Yes

C. Should be

D. Not Sure

E. No

Thank you very much for completing this questionnaire.

If you have some questions that we do not list, please write it down below. Thank you

APPENDIX B: Interview Questions

1. What is the reason for couples to choose naked marriage in your opinion?

2. What do you think of the marriage?

Nationalism is a concept that is not easily defined. There are numerous definitions and forms of what is nationalism, and many of these definitions even overlap. However, there is no one definition that is more adequate than another. Keeping in mind that these definitions are constantly evolving, with thorough analysis and the juxtaposition of arguments set out by eight prominent scholars, a clearer definition of nationalism can be attained.

To begin with, the most well know definition today is from Professor Anthony Smith. He states that nationalism is simply “an ideological movement for attaining and maintaining autonomy, unity and identity for a population which some of its members deem to constitute an actual or potential “nation” (Smith, 2001).” In this definition, Smith reveals what he believes the three main goals of nationalism are: autonomy, national unity, and national identity. Even Smith’s profound definition has not been available for very long considering he was born in 1933. Although there is much argument on the definition of nationalism, Smith agrees that there is one main point of agreement and that is that the term nationalism is a modern phenomenon (Smith, 2001). Civic nationalism is basically defined as a group of people which have a certain loyalty to civic rights or laws and pledge to abide by these laws. Ethnic nationalism is basically a group that possesses a common culture, language, land, etc. It is more specific in terms of who can be in it (McGregor, 2010). Smith writes that “every nationalism contains civic and ethnic elements in varying degrees and different forms. Sometimes civic and territorial elements predominate; at other times it is the ethnic and vernacular components that are emphasized (Smith, 2001).” Smith’s most popular argument features civic and ethnic types of nationalism as opposed to eastern and western types. Even more specifically, Smith makes the distinction between both civic and ethnic nationalisms. He also believes that “Many modern nations are formed around pre-existing, and often pre-modern, ethnic cores (Smith, 2001).” Smith is claiming that nations had pre-existing-origins prior to their ‘new origins’ of their new nation. One of the most important arguments by critics is that the civic and ethnic viewpoint of nationalism collapses too much on the ethnic category (Shulman, 2002). Smith’s definition seems to be the foundation for nationalism, although he certainly was not the first to attempt to define it. Other scholars go in to more detail on certain elements of the definition, but most relate back to Smith’s original definition.

On the contrary to Anthony Smith’s definition of nationalism pertaining to the civic and ethnic type, Hans Kohn has argued that the two main types of nationalism are eastern and western. His definition states, “Nationalism is a state of mind, in which the supreme loyalty of the individual is felt to be due to the nation-state (Kohn, 1965).” Kohn’s argument includes both eastern and western types of nationalism which refer to Eastern and Western Europe. “Eastern nationalism conceived the nation as an organic community, united by culture, language and descent (McGregor 2010).” This particular idea could possibly be related to Smith’s ethnic type of nationalism. “Western nationalism conceived the nation as a political and civic community, held together by voluntary adherence to democratic norms (McGregor 2010).” Again, western nationalism could be perceived as a civic type of nationalism. This can be recognized as two similar classifications on two unfamiliar grounds. Kohn believes that nationalism relates directly with eastern and western Europe and that it is also where the ‘state of mind’ of nationalism originated. The main criticism of Kohn’s classification of nationalism is him being over simplistic (Auer, 1997). Two Types of Nationalism in Europe?. He certainly does not go into as much detail as Smith on the definition. He also relates only towards Europe which is why he is being identified as over simplistic.

Next, Carlton J. H. Hayes’ definition of nationalism states, “Loyalty and attachment to the interior of the group (namely the nation and homeland) are the basis of nationalism (Hayes, 1926).” In this definition, a common cultural background and a common cultural group are considered the main factors in forming a nation (Naqvi, Ali). That remains true with most of the definitions of nationalism. Hayes definition of nationalism seems to be more specific to the ‘ethnic’ ties toward nationalism. In other words, Hayes is saying that land, language, and blood are the basis of nationalism. He is saying that nation is something to be proud of (Naqvi, Ali). Hayes also believes that these ‘ethnic’ qualities are the most important; even religion does not compare. “It is attachment to nationality that gives direction to one’s individual and social postures, not attachment to religion and ideology. A human being takes pride in his national achievements and feels dependent on its cultural heritage, not on the history of religion and his faith (Hayes, 1926) (Naqvi).” This quote further proves Hayes’s view on nationalism and how it relates to one’s culture and past, and specifically not related to religion at all. The reason Hayes’s definition is unique from others, is his emphasis on the fact that religion is not a factor in forming a nation. To further specify Hayes’s definition on nationalism he says, “What distinguishes one human being from another are not their beliefs, but their birth-place, homeland, language and race. Those who are within the four walls of the homeland and nation, belong to it, and those who are outside it, are aliens. It is on the basis of these factors that the people have a feeling of sharing a single destiny and a common past. (Hayes, 1926).” This quote goes hand in hand with Hayes’s definition of nationalism and just further explains it. According to Hayes, nationalism does not exist without that ‘ethnic’ background.

Furthermore, according to scholar Benedict Anderson, nationalism is, “a new emerging nation imagines itself to be antique (Anderson, 2003).” This is similar to how Anthony Smith and Carlton Hayes defined nationalism. It is mostly like Smith’s ethnic nationalism, which focuses more on the origin of the nation. Anderson focuses more on modern Nationalism and suggests that it forms its attachment through language, especially through literature (Anderson, 2003). An important part in Anderson’s theory is the stress he puts on the role of printed literature (Anderson, 2003). In Anderson’s mind, the development of nationalism is linked with printed literature and the growth of these printed works. People were able to read about nationalism in a common dialect and that caused nationalism to mature (Anderson, 2003). Anderson’s definition of nationalism and nation differ greatly from other scholars. He defines nation as “an imagined political community (Anderson 2003).” He believes this because “the nation is always conceived as a deep, horizontal comradeship. Ultimately it is this fraternity that makes it possible, over the past two centuries, for so many millions of people, not so much to kill, as willingly to die for such limited imaginings (Anderon, 2003).” Not only is Anderson’s theory distinctive because of the “printed literature theory”, but also because it is the “imagined political community.”

Another prominent Nationalist researcher, Ernest Gellner states that, “nationalism is primarily a political principle that holds that the political and the national unit should be congruent (Gellner, 1983)”. Gellner was once a teacher of Anthony Smith. Although most scholars would agree that nationalism appeared after the French Revolution, Gellner further argues that nationalism became a “sociological necessity in the modern world (Gellner, 1983).” His argument is similar to the uniqueness of Benedict Anderson’s “printed literature” theory, but Gellner focuses more on the industrialization of work and cultural modernization to explain how nationalism expanded (Zeulow, 1999). Gellner believes that “states only exist where there is division of labour, therefore the state comes before nationalism (Gellner, 1983).” Like other scholars, Gellner believes that nationalism is a political force. Gellner also stresses the congruency of nation and politics. He does not believe one can occur without the other one. There are many criticisms to Ernest Gellner’s theory, including Anthony Smith saying, “It misreads the relationship between nationalism and industrialization (Smith 1998).” Not all of the critics view Gellner’s theory as a misread. Most agree that he is the father of nationalism studies and most say that his nationalism work was brilliant (University of Wales Press). One can usually relate their definition of nationalism with Ernest Gellner or Anthony Smith. Gellner stresses the importance of the political side, while Smith puts the importance on cultural. Neither are right or wrong, just a difference of opinion.

Historian John Breuilly defends a more modern theory of nationalism, similar to Benedict Anderson’s. In reference to nationalism, he concludes, “The rise of the modern state system provides the institutional context within which an ideology of nationalism is necessary (Breuilly 1985).” Breuilly argues that the process of “state modernization provides an important factor in understanding historical signs of nationalism (Cormier, 2001).” Breuilly argues that nationalism does not have much to do with ethnicity or ethnic background, but rather more to do with political motivation. Breuilly is not the first scholar who believed that ethnic background had nothing to do with nationalism. In fact, Breuilly’s definition relates well to Gellner’s in the sense that they both argue in favor of political motivation. “Nationalists are seen to create their own ideology out of their own subjective sense of national culture. (Breuilly, 1982).” This particular quote is quite similar to Anderson’s imagined political community theory in that Breuilly does not support the ethnic side of nationalism nearly as much as others nationalists. Breuilly criticizes most scholars due to the fact that they believe in national culture because he believes that there is no such thing. He believes that the political component of nationalism is by far the most important. Breuilly indicates in his definition the importance of the state system; hence the political force necessary for nationalism to occur.

Next, Michael Hechter defines nationalism as a, “collective action designed to render the boundaries of the nation congruent with those of its governance unit (Hechter, 2000).” He further explains, “Nation and governance can be made congruent by enacting exclusive policies that limit full membership in the polity to individuals from on one more favoured nations (Hechter, 2000).” Hechter stresses the importance of the correspondence of the government and the boundaries of the nation; much like Breuilly in the sense that both of them indicate that nationalism requires congruency for it to take place. In Hechter’s book, Containing Nationalism, he expresses his belief that the reason nationalism occurs is because of “self-determination.” Hechter further explains his definition and clarifies that there are two different types of nationalism. The first one is of the ideology of freedom and he gives the example of the French Revolution. The second form is “xenophobic or even goes as far as genocide” (Hechter). This explains where the different views of nationalism come in; civic versus ethnic or eastern versus western. Furthermore, Hechter defines the two different types of nationalism to even more specific forms of nationalism that go beyond his original definition. These definitions include: state-building nationalism, peripheral nationalism, irredentist nationalism, and unification nationalism (Hechter, 2000). Hechter doesn’t argue that there are two definitions of nationalism like other scholars do, but he concludes that nationalism is specific to the means of each and every situation.

In Peter Alter’s definition of Nationalism, he states, “Nationalism is a political force which has been more important in shaping the history of Europe and the world over the last two centuries than the ideas of freedom and parliamentary democracy or, let alone, of communism (Alter, 1994).” His argument is similar to John Breuilly in the sense that he agrees that there is a strong emphasis on nationalism being a “political force.” Alter is saying that it has everything to do with being a political movement instead of the idea of freedom. In reference to nationalism, Alter states, “It can be associated with forces striving for political, social, economic and cultural emancipation, as well as with those whose goal oppression (Alter, 1994).” His outlook on nationalism seems much broader than other scholars. This particular reference virtually sums up many scholars definitions together. Alter does not seem to have a specific argument on nationalism, as in civic vs. ethnic or western vs. eastern but just an acceptance that nationalism could be based on all of these arguments. Again, Alter says, “It can mean emancipation, and it can mean oppressionaˆ¦ dangers as well as opportunities (Alter, 1994).” There is no precise argument when he tries to define nationalism even though he does have the idea that nationalism is directly related to a political force. Alter also states that nationalism was important to shaping Europe, however most scholars agree with that statement to begin with. Most modern scholars would relate to Alter’s style of defining nationalism.

In conclusion, the definition of nationalism is not easily defined and scholars that have tried to define it differ, in some amount of detail, from each other. Each scholar seems to have his own uniqueness and input to the definition, however, these definitions tend to pertain to one certain area of nationalism. According to the eight previous scholars, there are a myriad of styles of nationalism including: political, cultural, ethnic, civic, eastern, and western. Many aspirations are desired because of nationalism, including establishment of homeland, separation, expansion, etc. Although the definition of nationalism is essentially particularistic, scholars have been able to identify a few common ideologies. Some common ground includes; most scholars agree that nationalism started after the French Revolution. They also agree that nationalism occurs because of a desire for national independence. Scholars are always doing research and finding new things which will result in new definitions. Most of the most protrusive definitions of nationalism have come about in the last fifty or so years, so no telling what scholars might come up with in future years.

Education is just as an important factor in a persons’ life now as it was in the past. Only, the difference between now and the past are the people that are able to receive a complete education. Education was gender segregated for hundreds of years. Men and women went to different schools or were physically and academically separated into coeducational schools. Both had separate academic subjects, separate classrooms, and separate expectations. Women were only taught the social graces and morals, and teaching women academic subjects was considered a waste of time. Men had the choice to receive a full education after high school, while women had the household choices ranging from what to wear to what to cook. By being educated for the sake of family and society which needed educated mothers to produce knowledgeable and responsible male citizens, it was expected by men and society that women were to have children, raise those children, and to be the best homemaker. Although today, everyone is entitled to the right to peruse an education, sexism is still maintained in obvious and subtle ways. Ways in which show that gender inequalities are and have been shifting into a more female advantaged educational system.

The inequalities between girls and boys are apparent even before a child begins elementary school. Girls are first introduced to the idea that they are unequal to boys, with girls being dressed in pink and given dolls for toys, while boys are dressed in blue and given toy cars and trucks to play with. Even different behaviors are acceptable for boys than for girls. For example, every time teachers seat or line-up students by gender, they are confirming that girls

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and boys should be treated differently. While girls are praised for being neat, calm, and quiet; boys are urged to think independently, be active, and voice opinions. Girls are socialized in schools to believe popularity is most important and that educational performance and ability are of lesser importance. “Girls in grades six and seven rate being popular and well-liked as more important than being perceived as competent or independent. Boys, on the other hand, are more likely to rank independence and competence as more important” (Bailey, 1992).

According to Dr. Sax, author of the book Why Gender Matters, what parents and teachers should really know about, is that the brain develops differently and is wired differently in each sex. In girls, the language area of the brain develops before the areas for open relations and for geometry. Emotion is processed in the same area of the brain that processes language making it is easier for most girls to talk about their emotions. But for boys, the area involving talking and the areas involving feelings are completely separate. Girls and boys also respond differently when it comes to stress. While stress increases the learning ability in males, the same exact stress actually makes learning more difficult for girls. Ignoring these differences between the male and female mind can increase the chance of misunderstanding among the youth and thus lead to dissocialized outcomes.

Research shows that one is born with either a male or female brain and that nothing can change your brain from male to female. The lay-out of a young boy’s brain is so different compared to that of a young girl that it is easily visible with the naked eye. An example of how a male brain functions differently than that of a female can be seen through a task as simple as

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giving directions. While the male tends to use distances and directions such as east, west, north, and south to map out the path, it is easier for women to use simple reminders such as landmarks.

Knowing how the brain works has a lot to do with knowing how someone learns; it is where everything is stored. When it comes to learning, boys and girls do not learn the same way at all. Psychologists have found that girls set higher standards for themselves when it comes to school, and they look over what they have accomplished more critically than guys do. Recent evidence even shows girls becoming more academically successful than boys, despite reviews showing that girls and boys continue to be socialized in ways working against gender equality.

“Because classrooms are microcosms of society, mirroring its strengths and ills alike, it follows that the normal socialization patterns of young children that often lead to distorted perceptions of gender roles are reflected in the classrooms” (Marshall, 334). Gender bias in education is reinforced through lessons, textbooks, and teacher interactions with students; as well as, through the resources teachers choose for classroom use. For example, textbooks that leave out contributions of women or those that stereotype gender roles. Teachers should be aware of the gender bias hidden within such materials and texts and discontinue their usage.

“We need to look at the stories we are telling our students and children. Far too many of our classroom examples, storybooks, and texts describe a world in which boys and men are bright, brave, curious, and powerful, but girls and women are passive, silent, and invisible (McCormick pg. 41).”

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Girls enter school in the first grade with the same skills and ambitions as boys, but due to biased conditioning in the classroom, they suffer lower self-confidence and aspirations by the time they graduate from high school. Even though, two out of every three teachers may be women, they are usually for sexual stereotypes, favoring the assertive male students and the non-assertive female students. Typically, teachers call on boys more often, give them more detailed criticism, and compliment the quality of their work more than girls’ work, while more likely complimenting girls for their neatness. Such bias and stereotypes sparked ideas into many people about the immorality of these outcomes and because of this, equal education was a major theme to write about among many authors.

Mary Wollstonecraft, a female writer in the late 1700s, took a firm position toward the empowerment of women. In 1792 she wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women, which revolves around the idea that women should share equal rights with men as it relates to education. At the time, women were basically still invisible and secluded from outside activity and they had little to no contact with the world outside their own homes. In order for women to raise well-rounded intelligent children, Wollstonecraft suggested that mothers needed to be educated so that they could successfully raise their children to become contributing members of society (Wollstonecraft Para. 11). She pleaded that women should reject submissive behavior and educate themselves, building up their own self- esteem and respect, which would turn women into “more affectionate sisters, more faithful wives, more reasonable mothers-in a word, better citizens” (Para. 16). The education of women would have these positive effects because women would be free from restriction, allowing them to find happiness in sharing common interests with

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their husbands and allowing mothers to assist in the teaching of their children (Para. 14). Wollstonecraft felt that if women had independence in providing support for their own needs that they would be closer to their entitled freedoms and equality, as well as marry for love instead of support.

Daniel Defoe, also a famous writer, expresses how women were taught to do housework and nothing else throughout his essay The Education of Women. “Their youth is spent to teach them to stitch and sew or make baubles. They are taught to read, indeed, and perhaps to write their names, or so; and that is the height of a woman’s education” (Defoe Para. 2). Defoe thought that if women were taught more than housework, then they may gain more wit. He talks about the possible reasons that men had to not educate women and expresses that if men were to give women the same education, women could possibly be smarter than men as “the capacities of women are supposed to be greater, and their senses quicker than those of men” (Defoe Para. 4). Thus, Defoe believes, men fear women battling for superiority resulting in his views of still restricting women’s education. He limits their education to just learning music, dancing, learning the French and Italian languages, teaching women to hold an intellectual conversation, and learning history. Obviously, these are not the only things that men were educated in.

The passage of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 banned single-sex education in American public schools, marking a huge landmark in the fight for gender equal education. It states, “No person in the U.S. shall, on the basis of sex be excluded from participation in, or denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving federal aid” (Hansot pg. 19). Before Title IX, women

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were not allowed to be admitted into certain colleges because of state laws prohibiting all women, married or single, from being accepted into their college. Only eighteen percent of women had completed four or more years of college compared to twenty-six percent of young men. Women were also less likely to be in high math or science classes and tended to drop out of school more than males.

After the passing of Title IX, the effects on women became immediately clear within the educational system. The dropout rate of females as well as the number of females who became pregnant declined. There was a significant increase in the completion of bachelor, graduate and professional degrees. By 2004, women were earning 58 percent of all bachelor’s degrees in the United States and according to the Department of Education, the gender gap will only widen in the upcoming decade. “It certainly seems clear that when women are provided with certain important resources and with opportunities to learn and practice specific skills, their academic achievement improves” (Pollard pg. 104). These significant increases in statistics show how Title IX has opened many new opportunities for females.

Title IX was originally enacted to impact high school and collegiate sports; although, it does not specify due to the statute covering all educational activities and complaints alleging discrimination. The statute shows how women can be just as successful as men by allowing both to have equal opportunities. It has made a large impact on the lives of many Americans today, by allowing them to make decisions and choosing any school they would like to attend. It applies to almost everyone, whether you go to an elementary school, or a university or college.

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From all of this, it is clear that women have fought hard for the educational freedoms they are destined to have, but is it possible that women are changing the educational system more to their advantage? Researchers Thomas DiPrete and Claudia Buchmann seek to answer this question and discover the reasons for the growing gender gap. They explained how greater chances of getting and staying married, higher wage earnings, and a better standard of living resulted in the growing number of women achieving success in higher education.

According to data from the General Social Surveys (DiPrete & Buchmann pg. 522) which provides information on educational accomplishment and family background, in individuals born prior to the 1960s, daughters were only equal to sons in families where both parents were college educated. Whereas, in less educated families and female headed households, parents favored sons over daughters. Surprisingly, the female disadvantage was even greater in households where mothers had more college experience than fathers.

For those born after the 1960s, the male advantage began to decline. DiPrete and Buchmann note, “A shift appears to have taken place between these two periods such that the mothers’ level of education has become more important for daughters and the fathers’ level of education has become more important for sons”(pg. 523). Their research shows that after 1966, the status of fathers within the family became a main influence in forming the educational outcomes of girls and boys. In families where the father was absent or only high school educated, a continual shift has occured, changing from a male advantage to a female advantage. Boys growing up in such households had, and continue to have, difficulties in obtaining a college degree, despite the fact that prior to 1966, a father’s education did not affect his son’s educational achievement. On the contrary, daughters growing up under the same conditions demonstrated the highest increases in college enrollment and graduation, further influencing future generations of women.

Throughout hundreds of years, the educational system has been an absolute patriarchal system in which the male is in control. But recently over the past few decades we have seen a shift in this control; a change in the educational system that we as a society are so well adapted to. More women are becoming more academically successful then men and are graduating with honor at higher and higher levels. This can be attributed to many the factors mentioned previously; structure changes within the educational system, women’s increase in labor participation, higher wages, the difference in each person’s learning habits and brain make-up, and the effect of background on education. Each factor influences the academic outcomes of each sex. In a society where man once ruled academia and stood as the working figure, women have progressed throughout history to weaken the male role within education among other feats. They have taken gender bias in education and weakened it for the good of the people to give themselves the overall advantage.

Throughout history, people who are born as “men are granted access to power, position and resources” (“Masculinities”). Cultural norms of gender roles are taught to children by their “family, peer group, and community” (“Masculinities”). Based on sufficient research, this review of literature will first focus on the historical facts about how women’s status is undermined by inequality and persecution because they were deemed as inferior biological beings (“Inferiority”). Subsequently, the review will also answer the question of whether women in the present have successfully achieved their rights and gender roles in society completely. At a surface level, “women’s rights have largely been won” (Gaag 146), because “more women are working, more girls are being educated” (Gaag 146). However, this paper will also investigate how women today continue to experience discriminations and inequality as “more than half a million die unnecessarily each year from the complications of pregnancy and childbirth” (Gaag 146). Lastly, the final part of this literature review will examine how women have broken free from the gender stereotypes to achieve power in terms of work and family and its effects on men and society (Marshall).

A. Historical facts about the Male and Female roles

“Beyond the physical differences between men and women and their different reproductive functions are separate sets of socially-determined behavioral norms and performance standards attached to each gender” (Thomas). However, during the era of Greek Philosopher Aristotle, “Women’s status was very low” (“inferiority”). According to Aristotle, the primary function of women was to carrying on the family tree, and “tending the family hearth” (“inferiority”). “The reproduction of children, especially sons” (“inferiority”), was the main purpose of women, and all of the men’s social activities were “off-limits to her” (“inferiority”). In Aristotle’s theory of genetics, he proposed “that children were made by something he called ‘the substance’, which was found in women, and the ‘form’, which came from men” (“Genetics”). According to his theory, Aristotle suggested that “the form and the substance did not mix together but the form had a magical influence on the substance” (“Genetics”) In other words, “the man supplies the substance of a human being, and the women is only the nourishment” (“Inferiority”). From Aristotle’s point of view, “it is only men who are complete human beings and can hope for ultimate fulfillment; the best a women can hope for is to become a man” (“Inferiority”) However, Aristotle’s teacher, Plato, “thought differently about women” (“Plato”). Plato believed that women had a significant role to play in society, and he thought “women were necessary for society to run smoothly” (“Plato”). According to Plato, even though he believed that females were required to function in a working society, he continue to hold the position that women were no where close to equal to men (“Plato”) On the other hand, Plato realized that “men may have been stronger then women physically but women had strengths that were far superior in other areas” (“Plato”) For example, he believed that “women are naturally maternal and these maternal skills made them better care takers for children” (“Plato”). Similarly to Aristotle’s radical view on women, French military leader Napoleon Bonaparte thought, “women were made for men, and men for country, family, glory, and honor” (“Napoleon”). In the 1800s, “the idea of female equality received a setback in a series of laws known as the Napoleonic Code” (“Napoleonic”). According to the Napoleonic Code, “married women in particular owed their husband obedience, and were forbidden from selling, giving, mortgaging or buying property” (“Napoleonic”).

As time progress from the Ancient Greeks to the early stages of the last century, men continued to be “regarded as the persons in charge of their families” (Thomas). According to census, males were considered to be the ‘head of the household’ by family members, and the power within the household was completely dominated by the male figure (Thomas) and “other family members were defined by their relationship to the household head” (Thomas). According to experts, women’s responsibility of bearing children continued until the early part of the last century (Thomas). “In 1941, over 83% of 15 years old or over had birthed a child and one in five had given birth to six or more” (Thomas). Women’s fertility continued to be disregarded by the society, and their “prominent roles” (Thomas) “of giving birth and raise children within a male-headed family” (Thomas) was unchanged.

B. Present women’s success and failure at achieving the rights and power

According to experts, “women’s rights, in theory at least, are well established” (Gaag 11) and women themselves are more aware of their rights” (Gaag 11). However, even though the matter of gender equality between male and females has firmly been placed on the global agenda, we “cannot hide the fact that for millions of women life is still very grim” (Gaag 11).

Although women are having fewer children, that is “50 per cent of women now have access to modern contraceptives” (Gaag 11), “over half a million women continue to die each year from pregnancy and childbirth related causes” (“rights”). Researcher found that ” accounted for 41 percent of all births nationwide between 1993 and 2006? (Pittman), there are “62 percent of pregnancy-related deaths” (Pittman). Despite the international agreement on women’s rights, “the denial of women’s basic human rights is persistent and widespread” (“Rights”). Like mentioned above, “becoming a mother is still a dangerous business” (Gaag 26).

On the economic scheme of things, “during the 20th century, the proportion of married women working for pay increased more than tenfold from less than 5 percent in 1890 to more than 60 percent in 1990” (Mundy 33). “The proportion of women ages 25 to 54 who are working or looking for work stands at 75 percent, up from 35 percent in 1950s” (Muddy 38) Even though “women have expanded their work hours, battled discrimination, and improved their credentials at precisely the time when the rewards for these are greater than ever (Muddy 38), “Poverty rates are higher for women than men” (Cawthorne). “In 2007,13.8 percent of females were poor compared to 11.1 percent of men” (Cawthorne). It was also proven by experts that women are poorer than men in all ethic groups (Cawthorne). According to collected data, the trend that men are wealthier than women is very apparent (Cawthorne). This again ties to the fact that, “despite some progress in women’s wages in the 1990s, women still earn less than men, even for similar kinds of work” (“rights”).

Lastly, there is no doubt that “more girls are being educated – the gap between boys’ and girls’ enrollments has narrowed” (Gaag 11). “Women have improved their credentials precisely the time when the economy craves their skills and schooling” (Muddy 53). “By becoming well educated, women have raised the chances that they will be employed, and they qualify for much better job than they could have expected 30 or 40 years ago” (Muddy 51). According to experts, “education is a key reason why women’s earnings have risen and why in recent recessions, the unemployment rate for women has been lower than the rate for men” (Muddy 51). Through women’s persistency, “women have improved their prospects more than they realize” (Muddy 51).

C. The drastic change in gender roles and its effects on both genders

“While the stereotype of the male breadwinner is still alive in many people’s minds, experts say the reality is that a growing number of women are earning as much, if not more than, their husbands” (Linn). In a matter of decades, “the traditional male breadwinner model has given way to one where women routinely support households and outearn the men they are married to” (Muddy 5). “Not that long ago, in 1970, percentage of wives who outearned their husbands was in the low single digits” (Mundy 6). The dramatic increases of women earners have altered the way male and female see each other (Mundy 7). Ironically, experts “estimate that there are currently about 2 million working women whose husbands are unemployed and looking for work” (Linn). The effect of the gender roles shift is most apparent in the male than the female (Muddy 14). In “journalism and feminist literature of the 1980s and 1990s” (Muddy14), experts found that men tend to “resist women’s rising economic power, even retaliate against it” (Muddy 14). Similarly, one of the other reactions of men towards women’s earnings is that “men can quit, give up and stop trying” (Muddy 14). For all the arguments about ” women “opting-out” when they have children, today’s mothers- particularly educated ones- are overwhelmingly likely to be employed” (Muddy 38). The roles of men and women seems to have shifted, and ” the earning power of wives compared to husbands has risen, steadily and strongly” (Muddy 39).

On the other hand, the rate of participation in housework labor increased steadily for men, while the rate for women remained the same (Marshall). “Among married men with children, the participation rate rose from 54% to 71%. Furthermore, while the presence of a wife lessened men’s involvement in housework in 1986 (single men had a participation rate of 61%, and married men 53%), 2005 saw roughly 7 in 10 married men, both with and without children, participating in housework” (Marshall). According to data on men and women rate of participation in housework, “married men with children spending significantly more time on housework, and married women spending significantly less” (Marshall). Whereas women, “The number of hours worked has risen” (Muddy 39), “and women are much more likely to be working full-time, year-round, than they were 40 years ago” (Muddy 39). Experts predict, “in the coming years, many women will feel pleased being the family’s high earner. They husband will like it too” (Muddy 140). Series of surveys shown that, “men and women are both less likely to say that men should earn the money and women should take care of the children” in today’s society (Muddy 63). According to the gradual shift in gender roles responsibilities, it’s safe to say that “women’s earning power and the vitality and success signals” (Muddy 15), “will lead to a genuine breakthrough in the relationship between the sexes” (Muddy 15).

Conclusion:

In conclusion, women came a long way in achieving their rights and ideal roles in society. Based on historical facts about male and female roles, females “are the majority of humanity but are everywhere victims of systematic discrimination, oppression and sexual abuse” (“Oppression”). Through their tenacity, women thrived as powerful individuals and economically and socially bypass men. However, according to data, women’s “gains have been made under threat” (Gaag 11), and many continued to suffer from unfavorable conditions such as poverty, childbirth complications, and workplace discrimination. Despite these persistent disadvantages of the female sex, “within a generation, more households will be supported by women than by men” (Muddy 78). “A revolution is under way” (Muddy 65).

Education is just as an important factor in a persons’ life now as it was in the past. Only, the difference between now and the past are the people that are able to receive a complete education. Education was gender segregated for hundreds of years. Men and women went to different schools or were physically and academically separated into coeducational schools. Both had separate academic subjects, separate classrooms, and separate expectations. Women were only taught the social graces and morals, and teaching women academic subjects was considered a waste of time. Men had the choice of continuing education after high school, while women had the household choices ranging from what to wear to what to cook. By being educated for the sake of family and society which needed educated mothers to produce knowledgeable and responsible male citizens, it was expected by men and society that women were to have children, raise those children, and to be the best homemaker. Although today, everyone is entitled to the right to peruse an education, sexism is still maintained in obvious and subtle ways. Ways in which show that gender inequalities are and have been shifting into a more female advantaged educational system.

The inequalities between girls and boys are apparent even before a child begins elementary school. Girls are first introduced to the idea that they are unequal to boys, with girls being dressed in pink and given dolls for toys, while boys are dressed in blue and given toy cars and trucks to play with. Even different behaviors are acceptable for boys than for girls. For example, every time teachers seat or line-up students by gender, they are confirming that girls

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and boys should be treated differently. While girls are distinguished for being neat, calm, and quiet; boys are urged to think independently, be active, and voice opinions. Girls are socialized in schools to believe popularity is most important and that educational performance and ability are of lesser importance. “Girls in grades six and seven rate being popular and well-liked as more important than being perceived as competent or independent. Boys, on the other hand, are more likely to rank independence and competence as more important” (Bailey, 1992).

According to Dr. Sax, author of the book Why Gender Matters, what parents and teachers should really know about, is that the brain develops differently and is wired differently in each sex. In girls, the language area of the brain develops before the areas for open relations and for geometry. Emotion is processed in the same area of the brain that processes language making it is easier for most girls to talk about their emotions. But for boys, the area involving talking and the areas involving feelings are completely separate. Girls and boys also respond differently when it comes to stress. While stress increases the learning ability in males, the same exact stress actually makes learning more difficult for girls. Ignoring these differences between the male and female mind can increase the chance of misunderstanding among the youth and thus lead to dissocialized outcomes.

Research shows that one is born with either a male or female brain and that nothing can change your brain from male to female. The lay-out of a young boy’s brain is so different compared to that of a young girl that it is easily visible with the naked eye. An example of how a male brain functions differently than that of a female can be seen through a task as simple as

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giving directions. While the male tends to use distances and directions such as east, west, north, and south to map out the path, it is easier for women to use simple reminders such as landmarks.

Knowing how the brain works has a lot to do with knowing how someone learns; it is where everything is stored. When it comes to learning, boys and girls do not learn the same way at all. Psychologists have found that girls set higher standards for themselves when it comes to school, and they look over what they have accomplished more critically than guys do. Recent evidence even shows girls becoming more academically successful than boys, despite reviews showing how boys and girls are still socialized in ways that work against gender equality.

“Because classrooms are microcosms of society, mirroring its strengths and ills alike, it follows that the normal socialization patterns of young children that often lead to distorted perceptions of gender roles are reflected in the classrooms” (Marshall, 334). Gender bias in education is reinforced through lessons, textbooks, and teacher interactions with students; as well as, through the resources teachers choose for classroom use. For example, textbooks that leave out contributions of women or those that stereotype gender roles. Teachers should be aware of the gender bias hidden within such materials and texts and discontinue their usage.

“We need to look at the stories we are telling our students and children. Far too many of our classroom examples, storybooks, and texts describe a world in which boys and men are bright, brave, curious, and powerful, but girls and women are passive, silent, and invisible (McCormick pg. 41).”

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Girls enter school in the first grade with the same skills and ambitions as boys, but due to biased conditioning in the classroom, they suffer lower self-confidence and aspirations by the time they graduate from high school. Even though, two out of every three teachers may be women, they are usually for sexual stereotypes, favoring the assertive male students and the non-assertive female students. Typically, teachers call on boys more often, give them more detailed criticism, and compliment the quality of their work more than girls’ work, while more likely complimenting girls for their neatness. Such bias and stereotypes sparked ideas into many people over the injustice of these outcomes and because of this, equal education was a major theme to write about among many authors.

Mary Wollstonecraft, a female writer in the late 1700s, took a firm position toward the empowerment of women. In 1792 she wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women, which revolves around the idea that women should share equal rights with men relating to education. At the time, women were basically still invisible and secluded from outside activity and they had little to no contact with the world outside their own homes. In order for women to raise well-rounded intelligent children, Wollstonecraft suggested that mothers needed to be educated so that they could successfully raise their children to become contributing members of society (Wollstonecraft Para. 11). She pleaded that women should reject submissive behavior and educate themselves, building up their own self- esteem and respect, which would turn women into “more affectionate sisters, more faithful wives, more reasonable mothers-in a word, better citizens” (Para. 16). The education of women would have these positive effects because women would be free from restriction, allowing them to find happiness in sharing common interests with

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their husbands and allowing mothers to assist in the teaching of their children (Para. 14). Wollstonecraft felt that if women had independence in providing support for their own needs that they would be closer to their entitled freedoms and equality, as well as marry for love instead of support.

Daniel Defoe, also a famous writer, expresses how women were taught to do housework and nothing else throughout his essay The Education of Women. “Their youth is spent to teach them to stitch and sew or make baubles. They are taught to read, indeed, and perhaps to write their names, or so; and that is the height of a woman’s education” (Defoe Para. 2). Defoe thought that if women were taught more than housework, then they may gain more wit. He talks about the possible reasons that men had to not educate women and expresses that if men were to give women the same education, women could possibly be smarter than men as “the capacities of women are supposed to be greater, and their senses quicker than those of men” (Defoe Para. 4). Thus, Defoe believes, men fear women battling for superiority resulting in his views of still restricting women’s education. He limits their education to just learning music, dancing, learning the French and Italian languages, teaching women to hold an intellectual conversation, and learning history. Obviously, these are not the only things that men were educated in.

The passage of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 banned single-sex education in American public schools, marking a huge landmark in the fight for gender equal education. It states, “No person in the U.S. shall, on the basis of sex be excluded from participation in, or denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving federal aid” (Hansot pg. 19). Before Title IX, women

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were not allowed to be admitted into certain colleges because of state laws prohibiting all women, married or single, from being accepted into their college. Only eighteen percent of women had completed four or more years of college compared to twenty-six percent of young men. Women were also less likely to be in high math or science classes and tended to drop out of school more than males.

After the passing of Title IX, the effects on women became immediately clear within the educational system. The dropout rate of females as well as the number of females who became pregnant declined. There was a significant increase in the completion of bachelor, graduate and professional degrees. By 2004, women were earning 58 percent of all bachelor’s degrees in the United States and according to the Department of Education, the gender gap will only widen in the upcoming decade. “It certainly seems clear that when women are provided with certain important resources and with opportunities to learn and practice specific skills, their academic achievement improves” (Pollard pg. 104). These significant increases in statistics show how Title IX has opened many new opportunities for females.

Title IX was originally enacted to impact high school and collegiate sports; although, it does not specify due to the statute covering all educational activities and complaints alleging discrimination. The statute shows how women can be just as successful as men by allowing both to have equal opportunities. It has made a large impact on the lives of many Americans today, by allowing them to make decisions and choosing any school they would like to attend. It applies to almost everyone, whether you go to an elementary school, or a university or college.

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From all of this, it is clear that women have fought hard for the educational freedoms they are destined to have, but is it possible that women are changing the educational system more to their advantage? Researchers Thomas DiPrete and Claudia Buchmann seek to answer this question and discover the reasons for the growing gender gap. They explained how greater chances of getting and staying married, higher wage earnings, and a better standard of living resulted in the growing number of women achieving success in higher education.

According to data from the General Social Surveys (DiPrete & Buchmann pg. 522) which provides information on educational accomplishment and family background, in individuals born prior to the 1960s, daughters were only equal to sons in families where both parents were college educated. Whereas, in less educated families and female headed households, parents favored sons over daughters. Surprisingly, the female disadvantage was even greater in households where mothers had more college experience than fathers.

For those born after the 1960s, the male advantage began to decline. DiPrete and Buchmann note, “A shift appears to have taken place between these two periods such that the mothers’ level of education has become more important for daughters and the fathers’ level of education has become more important for sons”(pg. 523). Their research shows that after 1966, the status of fathers within the family became a main influence in forming the educational outcomes of girls and boys. In families where the father was absent or only high school educated, a continual shift has occured, changing from a male advantage to a female advantage. Boys growing up in such households had, and continue to have, difficulties in obtaining a college degree, despite the fact that prior to 1966, a father’s education did not affect his son’s educational achievement. On the contrary, daughters growing up under the same conditions demonstrated the highest increases in college enrollment and graduation, further influencing future generations of women.

Throughout hundreds of years, the educational system has been an absolute patriarchal system in which the male is in control. But recently over the past few decades we have seen a shift in this control; a change in the educational system that we as a society are so well adapted to. More women are becoming more academically successful then men and are graduating with honor at higher and higher levels. This can be attributed to many the factors mentioned previously; structure changes within the educational system, women’s increase in labor participation, higher wages, the difference in each person’s learning habits and brain make-up, and the effect of background on education. Each factor influences the academic outcomes of each sex. In a society where man once ruled academia and stood as the working figure, women have progressed throughout history to weaken the male role within education among other feats. They have taken gender bias in education and weakened it for the good of the people to give themselves the overall advantage.

The word gender refers to the socio-cultural definition of man and woman, it is a way through which society distinguish men and woman. The distinction between sex and gender was introduced to deal with the general tendency to attribute women’s subordination to their anatomy. There are multiple reasons to understand the current increase in the proportion of male versus female in population across Asia. Firstly sex ratios in India have been recorded since the early 1980.the Indian scenario of female discrimination is extremely complex in view of India’s social and economic diversity: the interplay of cultural and economic factors, along with the impact of policy initiative has produced a heterogeneous situation .This complexity offers ways to better understand the mechanisms at work and to inform the policy debate on the struggle against gender discrimination.

In our society it is seen that characteristics, roles and status accorded to women and men in society are determined by sex, that they are natural and therefore not changeable. Gender is seen closely related to the roles and behaviour assigned to women and men based on their sexual differences. When a child is born our families and society starts the process of gendering. If son is taken birth than it is celebrated and the birth of a daughter filled with pain; sons are showered with love, respect, better food and proper health care. Boys are encouraged to be tough and outgoing; girls are encouraged to be homebound and shy. All these differences are gender differences and they are created by society.

Gender inequality is therefore a form of inequality which is distinct from other forms of economic and social inequalities. It dwells not only outside the household but also centrally within it. It stems not only from pre-existing differences in economic endowments between women and men but also from pre-existing gendered social norms and social perceptions. Gender inequality affects the development goals which reduce the economic growth. It hampers the overall well being because blocking women from participation in social, political and economic activities can adversely affect the whole society.

THE Indian experience

IN India it represents a clear picture about education and employment opportunities for girls. Our culture, social factor still prevents girls from getting education and employment.

In rural area the girls’ child is made to perform household and

Agriculture, cleaning the house, preparing food, and they have to perform many tasks like that. In village physical safety of girls especially when they travel a long distance to school and fear of sexual harassment are the reason s that impedes girls` education.

In the urban area, girls have some opportunities in comparison to rural area but there is also some difference in the opportunities that girls get for education and employment .Through the figure for girls would still be low as compared to boys.

In employment opportunities too, women in India today have stormed all male bastions. Be it piloting aircraft, heading multi-national corporations, holding top bureaucratic positions, leading industrial houses, making a mark as photographers, filmmakers, chefs, engineers and even as train and lorry drivers, women have made it to all hitherto considered male bastions in India.

However, this is not reason enough for cheer. For the number of girls and women who have been left out of education and employment opportunities, still far outweighs those who have got them.

Gender segration in employment

This term refer to the occupational unequal distribution of men and woman in the occupational structure sometime also called occupational segration by sex. These are two type vertical segration; describe the clustering of man at the top of occupation hierarchies and of woman at the bottom, horizontal segregation.

Many developing countries including India have displayed gender inequality in education, employment and health. It is common to find girls and women suffering from high mortality rates. There are vast differences in education level of two sexes. India has witnessed gender inequality from its early history due to its socio-economic and religious practices that resulted in a wide gap between the position of men and women in the society.

Woman’s salary in India, less than a third of men

According to the survey done by world Economic Forum (WEF) it show that a big gender gap in corporate India in the employment of women from the entry level to the top management of companies. As reported by Financial Chronicle the survey which is based on the response of 60 of the 100 best employers in India, showed that women employees held only 10 percent of the senior management positions in two-thirds of the surveyed companies. None of the companies had women chief executive officers (CEOs) and almost 40 percent of the respondents had only 10 percent women work force.

The survey show that only 4% of the companies surveyed monitor salary gab. Nevertheless 84% of the companies don’t believe that there is a wage gap while the remaining 12% do not track wage gap at all.

India stand 114th among 134 countries in the WEF’s India gender gap review 2009. It has closed 93 percent of its health gender gap, ranking 134th out of as many economies. It stands at 121st position in education gap with 84 percent and is at 127th place with 41 percent of economic participation gap. Besides, it is ranked 24th with 27 percent of the political empowerment gender gap, according to the study.

Causes of gender discrimination

1. Religion

One of the main causes of gender discrimination is gender. In many organisation woman below man only due to the different religion.

2.

LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Pandey Prahlad Kumar (2007) in his study on gender discrimination studied the Gender equity is giving boys and girls ,woman and men equal opportunities in the utilisation personal capabilities to realize full human right .according to him a country cannot realize its dream of becoming super power by doing gender discrimination. Researcher has proved that a country where there are more employment opportunities for woman tends to provide better and honest governance.

2. Pollard, Taylor and Daher (2007) said that discrimination is not only the problem of India but it also exists in a developed country like USA .the finding clearly indicate woman discrimination. In USA woman earned $45,258/year while men earned $50,250/ year, having a median wage gap of $4,965.

3. Joanne Healy and Zucca J. Linda Mid-American Journal of Business; Spring(2004) study that only 3 percent of the most highly compensated executives are female, that the position are held by disproportionately by men, and that female executive are likely to clustered in particular industry group.

4. Simon Appleton (1977) suggested that expanding female education will improve gender equity which was the outcome of the study done in Uganda. The study focused on the involvement of women in politics in South Africa and Uganda. He also found a relationship between the importance of gender equity to economic growth and traced women’s civil society in Uganda was given importance.

5. Song, Appleton and Knight, 2006 study that boys are more attend school in China than girls, is the work of scholars who worked to find the causes of the same. Boys are more likely than girls to attend school in rural China. There is evidence that gender equity is a “luxury good”; the demand for female schooling is more income elastic than that for male schooling.

6. Another study by Shellenbarger to find out the nature of work undertaken or assigned also differs on the gender ground. Boys tend to be given more physical tasks like lawn mowing and fixing things, `while girls are stuck with housecleaning and doing the dishes. Even parents who fight for gender equity in their own marriages find themselves splitting their children’s tasks along traditional gender lines.

7. The chairman and the CEO of PepsiCo, Indra Nooyi said that there was a need to educate the male population about women empowerment, besides educating the female population. “If you do not treat the women well, society will not progress.

8.

THE METHODOLOGY OF GENDER AND EMPLOYMENT
OBJECTIVES:-

1. For low income women seeking employment, one of the most critical problems is a lack of adequate skills. Therefore, the provision of skill training can meet an important practical gender need. In contrast to this, skill training in such areas as primary school teaching, nursing and dressmaking can and do meet the practical gender needs of women to generate an income and this will automatically reduce the gender discriminating.

Data collection

Secondary data – In this study I use only secondary data for literature review, situation of gender and employment in our economy.

Explain the differences between Macro and Micro sociology. Identify some of the key sociological approaches in both areas. Which do you think is more useful for studying society and why?

Giddens (1989) defines sociology in the following way: “Sociology is the study of human social life, groups and societies. It is a dazzling and compelling enterprise, having as its subject matter our own behaviour as social beings. The scope of sociology is extremely wide, ranging from the analysis of passing encounters between individuals in the street up to the investigation of world-wide social processes”. Sociology is a significant subject so it is almost impossible to know all its aspect, it is only possible to learn how to apply “sociological imagination” , that is why all the sociological theories may be broadly divided into macro and micro approaches, which will be deeper discussed and considered from each angle in this essay.

Macro sociology studies social structures, communities, big social groups, layers, systems and processes that occur in them. The social community such as civilization is the main objective of macro sociology. It is not focused on detailed analysis of certain problems and situations; its target is a complex understanding of the issue. Macro sociological approach to phenomena is associated with the social world systems and its interaction with different types of culture, social institutions (complex social forms), social structures and global processes. Mainly macro sociology concentrates on the models of behavior that help to understand society as a whole. The main concepts of macro sociology are: society, culture, social institutions, social system, structure and also global social processes. Macro sociologists argue that society is in a more priority than individual as his behavior is formed by society he was born and brought up in. Macro sociology includes several important sociological perspectives such as: functionalism that focuses on relationship between the parts of society and how aspects of society are functional and Conflict Theory which main focus is competition for scarce resources and how the elite control the poor and weak.

Micro sociology is one of the main branches of sociology, examining the nature of everyday human social interactions and agency on a small scale. Micro sociology is based on interpretative analysis rather than statistical or empirical observation. It includes a theory of Symbolic interactionism that focuses on the use of symbols and face-to-face interactions. Micro sociology appeared in the late 30s of this century and had another name – sociometry. This term is associated with Jacob L. Moreno, who was a Jewish Romanian-born Austrian-American leading psychiatrist, sociologist, thinker and educator. During his lifetime, he was recognized as one of the leading social scientists. Sociometry has got very original research methods, which are widely used as a general scientific tool in various social studies. For Moreno three the most important concepts of the sociometry were: “socius” – companion, “metrum” – measurement and “drama” – action. Moreno (1948) defines sociometry as “the inquiry into the evolution and organization of groups and the position of individuals within them.” For Moreno and other representatives of sociometry the main object of research is an existing small social groups and the most important, what characterizes these social groups is the people’s emotional relationship with each other that is forming an atomistic structure of society. Simple observations are not able to capture these relationships, but they can be identified by using specific measurement methods, particularly survey techniques and processing of data. For example: sociometric tests, sociomatrices and sociograms. This technique allows detecting the actual situations of conflict and efforts to eliminate them. The creation of sociometry has importantly contributed to the sociology and is considered to be one of the most significant achievements of sociology as a science for the entire period of its existence. The introduction of quantitative methods in sociology considerably transformed it and allowed to study with unprecedented accuracy. One of the most significant consequences of creation of the micro sociology has become the increase of interest and opportunities for social research in the study of various problems of human existence with the use of quantative methods and modern computer technologies.

Functionalists mainly focus on the “macrostructures” of society, but representatives of symbolic interactionism are usually more concerned about “micro aspects’ of social life. Also they argue that micro sociology is more useful for studying society. For instance John H.Mead and H. Blumer studied the social interaction of individuals and speculated how they manage to coordinate their actions with each other.

The Representatives of symbolic interactionism emphasize the fact that people are social beings. However, in comparison with ants, bees, termites and other insects, that are leading a social life, people almost do not have any inherent models of behavior that connect us with each other. Consequently, if people have essentially no inherent nature of the mechanisms of social behaviuor it is not clear how society can be created. Representatives of symbolic interactionism find the answer in the ability of people to communicate through the symbols. Geogre Herbert Meed (1863-1931) and other representatives of symbolic interactionism state that we perform an act by conforming to the meaning we put in it. Generally Blumer states that the meaning is not something initially related to the things, on the contrary, it is characteristic which emerges from the interaction between people in their everyday life. In other words, social reality is created by people when they act in this world and interpret events occurring in it.

Nietzsche’s 1880’s notebooks repeatedly state that “there are no facts, only interpretations.” We choose the facts from the universal context by the activity of our brain , and because of that all the “facts” are the creations of a man. Accordingly, representatives of symbolic interactionism believe that we perceive the world as constructed reality.

All this leads representatives of symbolic interactionism to the conclusion that if sociologists want to study the life of society, they must first understand the words and actions of members of this society, taking their point of view. This theory was largely influenced by Weberian concept of understanding (Verstehen) or ’empathetic understanding. This gives an opportunity to the sociologists to “mentally put themselves into “the other person’s shoes” and thus obtain an “interpretive understanding” of the meanings of individuals’ behaviours.”

To conclude, the advantage of this approach is that it introduces the “people” in the panorama of sociological research. It pays attention to the activities of individuals in their daily lives and sees that the people are not robots that mechanically carry out the orders of social rules and institutional norms but beings that are living their lives and have got and ability to think. Through interaction, they operate on symbols and meanings aˆ‹aˆ‹that enable them to interpret the situation, assess the advantages and disadvantages of certain actions and then choose one of them. Thus, representatives of symbolic interactionism suggest the image of a man as an individual, actively shaping his behavior, rather than passively reacting to external dictates of structural limitations.

Here are few differences between Actor Network Theory and Social construction of technology that I found from various analysts’ point of view.

To start with, I would like to jot down the basic difference between Actor network theory and the theory of social construction of technology. Actor network theory (ANT) considers both technical determinism and social determinism, i.e. it does not stick by the idea that technology shapes the society or the society shapes the technology (latour, Reassembling the social: an introduction to actor-network-theory, 2005). Social Construction of technology (SCOT) theory follows the ideas that technology is emerged from the social interaction of social group, which can be called social determinism. (Klein, H. K. & Kleinman, D. L., 2002)

Both of these theories involve participants in process of shaping the network or in shaping the outcome, known as ‘Actors’. Actors involved in ANT are humans and non-humans which are treated equally as separation between the two are difficult, as it cannot be said who played the major role. (latour,1997). The actors involved in SCOT are the ‘Relevant Social group’ which includes people sharing the same interest in shaping the technological artifact (Bijker, Hughes, & Pinch, 1989). Actors in ANT need to be performing constantly to keep the network flowing without any lag or hick up. SCOT does not follow a strict principle on the performance of the actors or the groups. If a certain relevant social group’s involvement or influence is less than the other group, in that case it only brings in a few changes in the outcome of the technological artifact. (Klein, H. K. & Kleinman, D. L., 2002) Talking about the aim of these theories, ANT is more about how the networks are formed rather than why they are formed. It does not predict the outcome of the socio-technical artifact at any point. These entities are known as mediators where the input by the actors cannot predict the outcome; rather it multiplies or deletes the input/object passing through network known as ‘tokens or quasi objects’. (Wikipedia) Whereas SCOT illustrates how the social surrounding which include RSG and other actors give rise to a particular artifact. Right from the beginning the outcome is predicted or decided. It acts more like an intermediate unlike ANT. It does not really matter if there are changes that come through in the social surrounding while building the artifact, the previously assumed idea of the outcome would still remain the same. (Klein, H. K. & Kleinman, D. L., 2002)

If we study ANT carefully, the actors involved in it are not just objects but an association of other elements which self constitutes a network. To look like a single point actor, these elements are simplified or ‘Black boxed’. That means the network actors are open to new ideas and their contents can be reconsidered (Gidding, 1999). The idea of reconsidering the content does not exist in SCOT. It limits the influence of the RSG once the interpretive flexibility starts to gradually diminish. This causes it to reach the rhetorical closure, thus the alternative idea of a new design is eliminated. (Klein, H. K. & Kleinman, D. L., 2002)

‘Following the actor’, this method in ANT suggest that the actors set their framework and the limits of the network by themselves. Actors in ANT are able to make their presence ‘individually felt’ by the other actors (Tatnall & Burgess, 2002). As discussed earlier, actors can be thought of as a ‘black box’, which has many actors hiding one behind other. So basically all the actors can be found at one place or it can be said that all the actors form a single point actor and this effect is known as Punctualisation (latour, Reassembling the social: an introduction to actor-network-theory, 2005). When the same method is compared to SCOT, actors are followed who are relevant to the technology and that may lead to another actor who is also relevant to that technology. The process is continued till no new actor’s pop-up. This causes the interpretation to come to a closure.

Both of these theories have a positive and a negative side of their own. The biggest drawback of SCOT is that it ignores the effect of the technology after it has come into existence by social determinism. The technological artifact might have been developed for a particular purpose. But it is hard to expect the end-users to use it the way it is suppose to be used. In that case, it means that the effect of the technology after is has come into existence from a social determinism method, is slowly shaping the society in its own way. That brings us back to technological determinism. (Klein, H. K. & Kleinman, D. L., 2002)

As we know RSG solves the technical problems, seeking solutions, etc. We do not know who decides the which group are relevant social group and with the same the social interest. It fails to include the groups that have no voice and also the groups that will be affected by the results of technological change and also the groups that have been stamped down and excluded (Prell, Christina, 2009).

It also fails to explain the circumstances where one of the relevant social groups seriously disagrees to either to the design or technological system or artifact, etc. There is no explanation on how the theory would handle the disagreements of the groups. Many critiques has pointed out on the same fault of theory that it portrays all the social groups on the same level or sharing equal authority or power. There is a slight fault with the interpretive flexibility once it reaches the closure. It does not look back for further interpretations in the future. (Hard, 1993)

Actor-network theory treats humans and non-humans equal. It has been argued by many critics that how can a non-human be assigned to be an agency. For example, a technology can only be identified because we differentiate it from human actors. Technologies do not speak for themselves nor do they exist outside of processes of human assumption. Analytically speaking there is no such non-human actor to be described by ANT. ANT assumes that all actors, which include both humans and non-humans, are equal within the network, and have the same power. This leaves no space for power instability is left. Thus the power struggles within the network. ANT case studies leads to a lot of useless descriptions that seem pointless. (Whittle & Spicer, 2005)

Another major drawback of ANT it gets very difficult to ‘follow the actors’ as the researcher would have to get into the depth of the topic for investigating a particular case without knowing where they will lead. As the actors are ‘black-boxed’, the researcher is following only one actor and would not know if it would open up further possible investigation. One of other weakness about ANT is that the actors, ANT requires both the actors to be performing constantly to keep the network flowing. Even if one fails, the whole system fails. (learning-theories, 2008)

Talking about the strength of SCOT, one of the plus point of SCOT is how it overcomes one problem by finding a better way to adopt the technology. For example. Bicycle. There was a lot of debate on the safety and the way it was built or looked. But then, the eventually they adopted it because of the fact that they were fast when it came to speed. They overlooked the problem by relating it to another better plus point to the technology. To think about it, end of the day we (humans) are the once who are going to use the technology. So doesn’t it make more sense that we shape the technology the way we want it? Based on our application we can shape the technology, SCOT is something that does exactly the same. Unlike ANT even if one if the actors fail to perform, the outcome of the system or the technological artifact does not fail. In that case that particular actor or the group will have less influence in the process of making the artifact. (Bijker, Hughes, & Pinch, 1989)

Actor-network theories main strength would be how it overcomes both social and technical determinism. This makes sense in a way because in a particular invention, it is hard to say who played the major role, humans or non-humans. For instance, let us take the example of how the laptop came into existence. If we have a look into it, the invention results from human and technology. The technical aspect of the laptop is achieved by the technical team which in-turn is influenced by the social background. Therefore, what seems to be social is partly technical and what seems to be technical is partly social. (latour, Reassembling the social: an introduction to actor-network-theory, 2005)

‘Following the actors’ might have been criticized in the case of ANT but it has its own positive side too. When compared to SCOT, it does not have to approach each and every actor of the same revelant group. In ANT all the actors act as a single point actor which can be found in the ‘Black box’. (Gidding, 1999)

Sex is defined as the biological differences between men and women whereas gender is the fashion in which society highlights the sexual differences among both species (Siann, 1994). From the moment we are born, our lives are shaped by our biological identity, which in turn, is further influenced by an unlimited number of social, cultural, environmental and psychological forces. Even when we reach adulthood, these social and psychological forces are still prevalent. Determining what it means to be male or female involves more than a strictly biological definition. Often without our awareness; our behaviour, attitudes and aspirations have been strongly influenced by the gender role expectations of our particular culture. By the time we reached late childhood and adolescence our concept of gender identity and sexual orientation is firmly entrenched (Wood, 2010). This essay will relate sex in comparison to gender and eventually how the latter develops.

The term “sex” refers to the genetic makeup, internal reproductive organs and the organization of the brain of individuals that distinguish them as male or female. On the contrary, the social roles and behaviour associated with both males and females are due to their cultural awareness and the way they were brought up (Lippa, 2005). Thus one can claim that the gender of an individual is nurtured by social, environmental and cultural factors whereas sex is a biological trait and, while it can be altered in the course of advanced surgery, it is normally believed to be fixed and determined by natural forces.

Nature has made men and women different from the very outset in their inceptions when they became human beings. Scientists in the medical field have found that the determination of basic sexual behaviours are not conditioned by society and the process of socialisation, but are innate- inherent during the very making of the babies in the mother’s wombs. The way the brain of the girl is wired, and the quantities of male hormones (testosterone) that exist in the babies are responsible for influencing this sexual difference (Williams, 2011). On the other hand gender is an existing socio-cultural model that describes social outlooks of masculinity and femininity. The gender theory suggests how society typically expects men or women to do; how they behave and what kinds of personality attributes to associate with each gender (Hutson, Warne & Grover, 2012). Thus one can assert that sex refers to biological variables and that hormones play a chief role in sex differentiation. In contrast gender refers to the cultural, social and psychological orientation of feminine and masculine behaviour.

Playing with what is considered gender appropriate toys is one way children begin to form their gender identities. When a child is between the ages of two and three, they start to acquire gender role stereotypes by the kinds of toys and games they prefer along with similar preferences for clothing, household objects and work (Rathus, 2010). When does the idea of gender begin? There are two major theories: social learning theory and gender schema theory. According to the social learning theory, children learn appropriate behaviours for each gender through concepts such as reinforcement, punishment and modelling to shape their behaviour. The gender schema theory suggests that from an early age, children develop mental categories for each gender and that underlined awareness influences what they have learned and remembered and how they apply it to themselves and others. Gender identification starts when we are troubled and continues throughout childhood and adulthood (Devor, 1989). Therefore one can claim that the social learning theory lays emphasis on how people learn from behaviours and attitudes of others to model their own. Conversely, gender schema theory explains how an individual regulates his behaviour to society’s definition of gender vis-a-vis the internalised beliefs he acquired in childhood.

In order to understand how gender identity and roles develop, cognitive psychologists highlight the significance of critical reflection process. They are keen in how children collect and grasp information about gender and how their perceptive of gender modulates. Cognitive psychologists presume that gender differences in behaviour reveal changes in how children value and reflect about gender. Kohlberg’s theory suggests that a child understands gender as he matures with age. The child thinks in distinctive ways about gender at succeeding stages and as he transits from one stage to another; he develops a complex understanding of gender. The first stage is gender identity (at age of two years), is where the child is able to properly identify his own sex. The second stage is gender stability (at age of four years) is where the child realizes that gender is consistent and stable. However, a boy at this stage might say he would be a girl if he wore a dress. It is only in the third stage (at age of seven years), that the child is aware that gender is independent of external features (Cardwell & Flanagan, 2003).

Men and women are very similar in social, personality and cognitive aspects but still that there are some significant differences between the sexes. In the area of personality, research has proven that women do tend to be more nurtured than men. Nevertheless men tend to be more assertive than women and there are some limited differences in certain cognitive abilities. Men outscore women in some tests involving spatial skills and test slightly better in mathematical ability. In areas of verbal fluency however, women scored much higher than men. These skills include reading comprehension, spelling and basic writing manner. Men are assumed to be more rational and logical and think in a very linear way. Women are believed to reject logics and rely mostly on their feelings and intuitions. Scientific evidence suggests that there are differences in the way men and women process information but that doesn’t automatically mean that a woman is incapable of doing a job that a man might traditionally do or vice versa (Carter & Seifert, 2012). Hence one can affirm that social, personality and cognitive aspects determine the differences between masculine and feminine behaviour.

To conclude; sex refers to one’s physical anatomy and the sexual orientation of a person is determined by a combination of genetic and hormonal influences. In opposition, gender is shaped by culture, social expectations and behaviours assigned to being male or female (Giddens & Griffiths, 2006).