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Karl Marx and Max Weber are two of the most influential thinkers in terms of modern social thought that there are. Both Marx’s and Weber’s contribution to the development of social thought is in my opinion second to none. Marx and Weber wrote about modernity before it was in full swing, yet there works including such classics such as Marx’s Communist Manifesto which is a familiar name to most, not only attempted to explain something near impossible to explain in such a way that most modern thinkers base their works on a criticism or celebration of their work. These two writers are of particular interest to because of how prolific they are and because they have both written so much on the subject, some of which is comparable and some of which is contrastable. Both Marx and Weber looked at similar themes including the reasons for modernity occurring, though their conclusions differ. Karl Marx leans towards the economic side of modernity whereas Max Weber, who writes after Marx with his findings to improve on, believes that the impact of science, arts, and religion is a better explanation of modernity.

Firstly, I will be looking at Karl Marx’s contribution to modern social thought through his book The Communist Manifesto in which he looks at class struggle. In The Communist Manifesto, Marx explains how the friction between classes has always existed, as he remarks ”In ancient Rome we have patricians, knights, plebeians, slaves; in the Middle Ages, feudal lords, vassals, guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices, serfs; in almost all of these classes, again, subordinate gradations” [2] . Marx goes on to put forward the idea that the bourgeoisie have always existed and do indeed exist today. He puts class struggle down to society itself which through its nature will have classes, an order. Marx explains today’s class struggle as ”Society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes, directly facing each other: Bourgeoisie and Proletariat.” [3] Marx’s understanding of class divide in the Communist Manifesto is clearly true and therefore key in understanding society today. Marx’s take on class divide can be summarised as being that class divide has always existed and will exist today, as he predicted, rather than the classes changing, he believes that characteristics of the classes change. Where as in history, the bourgeoisie would have owned farm, they will own businesses today and whereas the proletariats would have worked in farms, today they work for businesses owned by the bourgeoisie. Marx’s understanding of there being two main classes, those in power and those in not, is important in modern social thought as all Marxists will use it to argue that there is a lack of equality and too large a divide between the two classes. Marx does not distinguish between individual situations, rather is a big supporter of the belief that there is no real equality for the proletariat and his voice is therefore used today by anyone voicing such an opinion.

It can be argued that Marx’s prediction of an uprising by the working class has come true in modern times. The working class has never had as many rights as it does today, with measures such as minimum pay and benefits ensuring that an unreasonable amount of power is not held by the ruling class, and that the working class have enough rights and voice to be ensured a decent standard of life. There were plenty of revolutions between the 18thC and 19thC, which are evidence of Marx’s prediction of an uprising against the ruling class. Marx believes that the” proletariat alone is a really revolutionary class” [4] . This can be seen as a contribution to the understanding of modern society as it is true today, no other classes are seen to be revolting nearly as much as the working class who have been working on their rights for the last few centuries. As Marx also states, the ruling class have all the power and it is in their nature to ensure power is kept for future generations. Marx says that the working class only achieve things such as a minimum wage law because the ruling class allow them to do so, in order to keep them happy and therefore deter them from revolting more.

A significant manner in which Marx contributed to the understanding of modern society is through his explanation of market expansion. Marx’s argument was that for the bourgouise to remain in power, they must constantly work at creating links between themselves to ensure a global rule [5] . Marx argued in the Communist Manifesto that the future would see a capitalist market grow to operate on a global scale through the increase of technology and communication. This idea has perhaps been the most significant contribution to understanding modern society by Marx. It is clear that what Marx predicted has become reality, with a global economy that we have today, with transnational cooperation operating worldwide. The behaviour of the ruling class in modern society reflects Marx’s theory on keeping wealth within the minority of the population. Businesses still work in a hierarchical structure whereby a few at the top benefit from many at the bottom of the hierarchy who do not benefit from increase in profit, rather receive a fixed low wage.

Finally, i have chosen Marx’s contribution to the understanding of modern society through his literature on technology. In the Communist Manifesto, Marx looks at the effects of an introduction of technology and how it effects the labour market. The introduction of technology such as machinery ultimately means that a human’s job is done by a machine. Robert J.Antonio describes machines as something that ultimately does jobs that ” were formerly done by the workman with similar tools” [6] . This will decrease the need for human labour, which will ultimately mean there are more people for fewer jobs. An increase in availability of market labour and a decrease in need for market labour results in the ruling class being at liberty to alter the wages of the workforce. This sees as the workforce become a commodity [7] . Linked with a need for fewer labourers, the type of work changed to less laborious, jobs were suddenly possible to carry out through the pushing of a button. This meant that a new work force was available for the ruling class to be exploited, women and children. This availability of a new workforce meant that the ruling class were more powerful than ever, as the family of a working man had now become the work force of the ruling. An introduction of a new labour force means that the ruling class suddenly controlled everything that matters to a working man, i.e. increasing the divide but more importantly cementing the existing control. The reduction in labour intensity of jobs due to technological and mechanical improvements meant that working hours could be increased. This brought with it an increase in productivity and if anything a reduced cost.

Max Weber was similar to Karl Marx in that he too looked at ancient Rome and the structure of the ancient economy which he, like Marx found to have certain similarities with the structure of modern capitalism. Marx believed that modern society was more of a result of the economic changes that were seen in the 18thC and 19thC due to technological improvements. However, Weber believed that the change seen after medieval times i.e. modernity, were more so a result in a change of attitude of the world’s population. Weber noticed that if we lived in a capitalist economy before and ended up in medieval times, a change in society could not solely be due to economic change. Thus Weber looked at Eastern German agriculture in 1892. Weber’s finding in this research supported his belief that it was through the genuine will power of the proletariat that a change resulted. The findings of this research can be summarised as the work force having a true desire to work for them in order to retain more of the profit created by their work. Weber’s believe that the working class chose to want to do better is a key feature of modern society, the constant struggle for workers to better their situation.

Weber’s understanding of capitalism, a key foundation of modernity is drastically different to that of Marx. Marx saw capitalism as a materialist economy based upon the will to acquire economic wealth. In contrast, Weber argues that the will to further one’s economic standing is based on religious beliefs such as the Protestant and in particular Calvinist teachings [8] . The Protestant teachings are that everything that one does must be done in honour of God. Weber argues that it is this belief that is the cause people striving to do their best, be as productive as possible and generate as much wealth as possible. This dedication to giving everything cannot, according to Weber be ”explained by ownership relations, technology and advances in learning alone” [9] . This attitude which Weber believes is a part cause for modernity itself is essential to the further existence of capitalism. In order for capitalism to survive, the working class must continue to have reason to work hard and be productive, or the ruling class would not be able to live of them. This need for the work force to try their hardest true today and therefore another way in which Weber has contributed to the understanding of modern society. Weber goes on to suggest that the view point of Marx whereby capitalism is a result of solely economic change is ”Naive” [10] and should be ”abandoned once and for all” [11] this contribution to modern social thought is of interest because it offers an explanation as to why people work hard and how capitalism works i.e. capitalism depends and runs on the quality of input of the labour force.

Max Weber believed that the increase in scientific knowledge was a key factor in creating modernity and modern social thought. Weber described the level of science that we have reached as ”valid” [12] but noted that it only existed in the western world [13] . This idea was based upon Weber’s belief that such a structured theology was only present in Christianity, though he recognised that most fundamental knowledge did come from eastern faiths. This structured theology could be argued to have been left integrated in the religion from roman times when a form of capitalism coincided with Christianity. This structured way of thinking brought with it rationality which was in turn branded upon the foundations of western life. It is this rationalism that Weber offers as an alternative cause for modern social thought rather than Marx’s suggestion of economics.

To conclude, both Karl Marx and Max Weber have made vast contribution to modern social thought. Their works have been agreed and disagreed with since their creation, adapted and used to both prove and disprove arguments and theories. Their work is still relevant today as their contribution to understanding modern society such as key issues including class and employment have changed the course of history. Their contribution to modern social thought will continue to influence thinkers on modern social thought for centuries to come.

After the accession of His majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al Said in 1970 Oman transformed from a rudimentary single economy that lacked all sorts of public amenities and modern infrastructure to a modern and diversified economy aided by the wise leadership of his Majesty. The availability of oil revenues and the importance given to education in the post 1970 period accelerated the development process.

For women in Oman, the new era started when His Majesty Sultan Qaboos Bin Said began the process of Renaissance. The result seen today is because of his firm belief in the future of Oman and its men and women. Women are encouraged to work shoulder to shoulder with their male counter parts.

Omani women today are seen in different professions such as, medical doctors, lawyers, engineers, business leaders, and teachers. Omani women are found in the army and police, private and public sectors, and most importantly, in senior government positions. While there are no official figures available, it is said that Oman has the highest number of working women among the AGCC states. (Source: Oman Tribune, 30 September 2007)

Purpose of the study

This conceptual paper addresses the following issues

factors that encourage women to pursue various careers

role and contributions of Omani women in the Sultanate

obstacles hindering women’s progress

Recommendations

Factors that encourage women to pursue various careers:

Factors which encourage women to work and achieve economic independence and leave a significant mark on the society are mainly: support of women from the Islam religion and the Holy Quran, the wise leadership of his majesty under which thrust has been given to education and Omanization, setting up of Women’s Association and favorable labour laws.

Rights of women as stated in Islam

Islam accords equals rights to men and women. Female education in the Islamic world was inspired by Prophet MuhammadHYPERLINK “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad’s_wives”‘HYPERLINK “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad’s_wives”s ( PBUH) wives: Khadijah, a successful businesswoman, and Aisha, a renowned hadith scholar and military leader. According to a Hadith attributed to Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), he praised the women of Medina because of their desire for religious knowledge:[18]

An indicator of the attitude of the Quran to women in the workplace is indicated by the quotes used to justify women working. Khadijah (Prophet Muhammad’s(PBUH) wife), who was an eminent business woman.Sitna Khadijah is called up as a role model for women.

Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) encouraged Muslims, men and women alike, to seek and pursue knowledge. The Holy Quranic verses and Hadiths can be cited to demonstrate this fundamental right to knowledge. “Say: My Lord, increase my knowledge” (Holy Koran xx: 1,14). “God will exalt to high ranks those who believe among you, and those who have knowledge” (Holy Koranlv11: 11). “Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave” (Hadith).”The search for knowledge is a duty of every Muslim, male and female”(Hadith).

Role of His Majesty

His Majesty in His speech: “The education of girls is never absent from our mind, since women form half of our society.” Rapid strides in educational development were taken after Sultan Qaboos assumed power in 1970. In the year 1970 there were only three schools and no colleges or universities. By the year 1985 the number increased to 588 schools and by 2006 – 07, there were 1053 schools enrolling a total of 5,63,602 students and employing a teaching staff of 44,514.

To support the role of women, the Omani government has set a number of programs such as a network of modern health services and social services throughout the country aimed at improving the advancement of women. Undoubtedly, Omani women have been liberated and accorded their respect as equal partners in Omani society under the leadership of His Majesty, Sultan Qaboos.

Omanization

Omanization Policy was introduced in 1988 as a long-term process of committed vision and mission. This is a key development policy influencing the employment scenario of the country. Omanization plan is seen as a national objective in order to stop the continuation of the country’s dependence on the expatriate manpower by substituting Omani nationals for foreign labor.

To this effect, legislation concerning employment contained in the Omani Labor Law states that preference should be given to Omani nationals. This mandate is enforced by the Government’s Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor by specifying the ratio of Omanization to be achieved in the private sector taking into account the number of Omani graduates graduating annually from the various educational institutes

Education

Education in Oman is a fundamental right for each and every Omani citizen. The importance of educating and developing the country’s national human resources has been one of the main aims and policies of His Majesty’s government .In accordance with His Majesty’s directives, a network of modern primary and secondary education establishments for girls and boys has been extended across the whole country, catering to even remote villages. Educational progress has been phenomenal. Women have an equal access to educational opportunities. For the academic year 2008 – 2009 275,229 males and 265,103 females are enrolled in Government schools for general education. For the academic year 2008 – 2009 7,298 and 4,033 female students are enrolled in Sultan Qaboos University and Colleges of Applied Sciences respectively which is very close to the number of enrollments of the opposite gender.

Role of Support Services

The aims of the Directorate is to set up programs for the care of mothers and children, the eradication of illiteracy, education, the development of traditional and modern handicraft skills, the promotion of healthy and hygienic environment, the teaching of survival skills, and the cultivation of women’s minds and roles as citizens of a modern developing society.

Omani Women’s Association, the first of its kind in the country was founded in 1971 and is managed as a not for-profit organization. The Omani Women’s Association acts in collaboration with the efforts and support of the government to carry out a great number of activities such as literacy classes, provision of handicrafts skills and family care programmes.. It is envisaged that the Women’s Association could be instrumental in providing a network for Omani women in management, and to offer the much needed support for their development in the workplace. These programmes enhance the role of Omani women in Sultanate.

Women’s Leadership

41.9% women (Omanis and Expatriates) are employed in civil services out which the major share is of the Omani women. One and two Omani women are employed in the Special and Ambassador grade respectively with no expatriate females in this grade. Omani (16,389) and expatriate (1,749) women are primarily employed in Grade 6 of Civil Services in 2008 .

Economic growth and diversification

The availability of oil revenues has made it possible for Oman to develop its economy, educate its people and offer a relatively comfortable standard of living. This however, has not rendered a total reliance and dependence on oil revenues, rather the government of Oman has been pursuing economic diversification and privatization programs as a measure of maintaining available and sustainable economy for its people.

Labor Laws pertaining women

Labor laws are favorable Omani women .They ensures equality in the workplace and employment in Oman does not discriminate on gender and exercises a sound policy of equal employment opportunity and equal pay act. An entire section in the Oman Labor Law is dedicated to the employment of women. For example, Articles 80 to 82 in the Oman Labor Law clearly safe guard the rights and working conditions of Omani women (Oman Labor Law). Women can avail special leaves such as maternity leave and leave upon death of husband, and a special provision that allows working women to request leave of absence (up to four years) without pay to accompany a spouse who is posted abroad. Working mothers who return to work while continuing to breast feed are allowed to leave work an hour early each day for six months to feed their babies.

The working hours in the government (public) sector are conducive to working women. Government employees work from 7:30 a.m. – 2:30 p.m. Saturday through Wednesday, and Thursday and Friday are days off from work. Such working hours allow parents, particularly working mothers, to spend time with their children.

With all the above factors Omani women have occupied different professions and have contributed to the progress of society.

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Role and contributions of Omani women in the Sultanate

Today Omani women are in key positions starting at the Ministerial posts. Dr Rawiyah bint Saud Al Busaidiyah, Minister of Higher Education, Dr Rajiha Bint Abdulamir bin Ali Minster of Tourism, Dr Shariffa bint Khalfan Al Yahya Minister of Social development, Sheikha Aisha bint Khalfan Al Siyabiya, Chairperson of Public Authority for Craft Industry, all hold crucial portfolios.

At all levels women are found to hold responsible positions today. Health, Education, banks are the leading sectors. Omani women are active voters as well as candidates who have served terms in the Majlis A’shura. The Majlis A’shuras members represent the Sultanates wilayats. Omani women exercising their voting rights prove their equal status.Omani womens membership of the Majlis A’Shura dates from 1994.

Omani women are also represented at Diplomatic circle as His Majesty appointed the first woman ambassador by appointing her as ambassador to the Netherlands in September 1999.

In the Legal area also a growing presence of women is seen. In April 2009 First Omani women was appointed as Director of public prosecution Directorate in the Wilayat of Barkha.

Women have served in the ROP for over 35 years and their contribution is growing with new development and experience. Women Police traffic patrols are introduced which is in its first phase now that is limited to the Governorate of Muscat.

In the field of fine arts Omani women have been reaching out to international audience. Works of Omani female artists, artisans, sculptress, photographers have been around to other countries for exhibitions. Omani actresses have won accolades for their performance on stage and screen.

The Royale Oman Symphony Orchestra has harnessed the talent of some wonderful female musicians. During 2007-2008 the Royal Oman Symphony Orchestra and Syria’s Mari orchestra with Maestro Raad Khalaf performed a joint concert featuring 50 female musicians the first time an event of this kind has been staged in the Gulf.

Dr Mariam Al Waili is a Senior Specialist in Nutritional Medicine. She feels that Health sector is a suitable place for women to play their essential role in society. There are more opportunities available than even before and a high demand for qualified and skilled practitioners. Due to the dramatic rise of several diets related chronic diseases, she dreams to see specialized Nutritional Medicine and education centers in the country that can provide adequate treatment and cost effective supplements.

Her Highness Sayyida Zeyana Ali Al said is an Air Traffic Controller for the last 14 years. She was selected to study in UK and underwent all the 4 stages of training in Air Traffic Control. According to her the 2 qualities in an ATC would require is Multi tasking and quick thinking.She needed to work in shift, needed a lot of focus to talk to pilots at the same time, keep abreast of information of all aircrafts and work harder to make Air raffic less congested.She thanks His Majest Sultan Qaboos to have given women a chance to prove their capabilities in all of these careers.

Barka Al Barky studied Social Science and after her Post graduation moved to Oman in 1976. She took up employment with UN Development Programme and worked till 1993. She helped in development and coordinating UN Agencies contribution to Omani development efforts in all fields of economy from fisheries, agriculture, tourism and industrial planning, civil aviation and meteorology systems. She was the Director of Administration and Personnel at Al Shatti Hospital. In the last 3 years she is mainly supporting the blind community across Oman.

Ahlam Al Jahdhami is an Engineer who is today Sales and Client support Manager

At Falcon Oilfield Services (National Wireline Logging Company). She provides hi-tech exploration and production services to oil companies in the region. After a degree in Biomedical Engineering she wanted a career as a real engineer. Opportunities in the region were limited. There was a lack of other female engineers from the AGCC and she was one of the first Omani women to survive in this environment. The sharp end of the oil industry is never described as woman friendly or even just friendly. It is still a very male dominated and conservative business. She was working and sometimes living in remote camps or on offshore rigs kilometers away from the comforts of home. The work was very physical and set in some of the harshest environments on earth. However she wants to continue to share her passion for science and engineering and encourage more young women to get involved and contribute in a real and practical way.

Dr. Wafaa Al Harasy is a consultant and director of the ROP Forensic Laboratory. She did her Bsc in Egypt and completed her MSc and Phd in United Kingdom. Practically Forensic work is mostly a mans world. There are times when the Forensic team is required to attend crime scenes at unsocial hours of the day and at isolated locations.

But she enjoys her job because of these daily challenges and considers herself lucky not only to be part of this specialized skilled team but also one of the founders of this profession in Oman. She wants to be able to contribute to Oman and have a State of art Forensic laboratory and achieve an international recognition for its services.

Maliha Al Kharoussi is an E business entrepreneur and CEO of Arabian booking.net a new resource for business, leisure and family travelers.She wishes to add value to the core industries that all use i.e. hospitality, travel and tourism. By bringing these 3 major sectors in one easy to access and use website she will help those who want value for money in quickest possible way. She wishes to help and strengthen Oman as leading tourism destination in areas of regular tourism, medical tourism, cultural tourism and adventure tourism.

Ghada Al Harthy is the proprietor of cafe G Patisserie & Cafe G Catering.From aviation to catering she wanted a career not just a job. She strongly feels that business has no gender. As long as the business is legal and ethical there is nothing to stop us from achieving the goals. She believes that under the wise leadership of His Majesty whohas a strong advocate for women in business, we are amongst the most fortunate in the Gulf as far as equal opportunities are concerned.

The opportunities are endless. But there is more to be achieved and that is why His Majesty has initiated yet another step toward the advancement of women in Oman.

There are various factors that have hindered the progress of Omani women.

Obstacles hindering women’s progress
Traditional Mind set of Arab men

The Arab traditional attitude asserts that women are inferior to men and incapable of pursuing a professional career. Such conservative attitudes negate the concept of professional working women in traditional Arab societies, the idea of women working is degrading and a disgrace to some Arab men who consider that it is their responsibility to provide for their wives and family.

The above attitude tends to have a spillover effect at work, whereby male employers regard women as being less capable then men and unfit for responsible positions, claiming that their family obligations take priority; and hence, subjects them to lower productivity and absenteeism (Beck, 1994;Hammoud, 1993). This negative attitude and traditional stereotype towards women in Arab/Islamic societies has been, and still is, a major resisting force to progress for professional working women.

Portrayed Self-image of Women

The inferior self-image of women becomes difficult to overcome considering that it is ingrained and conditioned in their upbringing and social development(Hunsaker & Hunsaker, 1991; Hennig & Jardim, 1977). In traditional Arab-Islamic patriarchal societies, the feminine gender is subordinate, while the masculine is superior and dominant (Magharabi et.al., 1994; Bech,1994; Hammoud, 1993; Allaghi & Almana, 1984; Gerner, 1984; Al-Hatimy1983). Generally, men are held responsible for providing the necessities of life, thus to work outside the home. On the other hand, women are expected to serve their husbands and children at home, especially since women are not required by the Islamic law (Shari’a) to financially support the family. In this subordinate position, women become victims of their own gender (Mernissi,1985, Rassam, 1984). Hammoud’s (1993) dynamic study on the role of women in higher education management in the Arab region confers that the most fatal obstacle which prevents women from realizing their utmost professional achievement is the self-image of a woman portrayed as inferior to men, incapable of being socially and financially independent, and hence depends on them an to care for and protect them.

Human Resource Policies and Strategies

The lack of proper human resource policies and strategies addressing women workers has proven to be a major obstacle to women’s progress and development. The majority of these workers are concentrated in the lower echelons of the organizational hierarchy with a small percentage in decision making positions12,072 out of 51,229 Omani employees in the wage group of 120 Rials were Omani women, followed by the 200 – 300 bracket in which 3349 Omani women are employed out of a total of 15,665 local workers in that bracket. Only 25 Omani Women fall in the wage group of 2000 + in the private sector out of a total of 589.

. In Oman, the absence of human resource policies and strategies to promote the recruitment and development of female managers at work is a deterrent to gender diversity. The work environment and culture are not conducive to promoting women in management. This acts as a ‘glass ceiling” preventing women’s accessibility to top management positions. For example, there are no programs to facilitate the advancement of women as role models, absence of mentoring programs, lack of management training programs, and shunning of affirmative action.

Lack of Professional a Women’s Network

The lack of a professional women’s network in Oman creates a major void for women aspiring to professional managerial positions. The absence of female mentor-protege relationship makes it difficult for women to develop the requisite attitude, skills and abilities for leadership and management positions. This results in a disparate situation and a state of confusion; because after all, women are entering a male dominated domain coupled with a traditional value system and a culture that tends to shun women from pursuing management careers.

Work Family Conflict

There is an interdependence of work and family life which is especially problematic for women as a result of their greater family responsibilities. Traditionally, women have had the primary responsibility for housekeeping and childcare which do not diminish when they are employed outside the home. Furthermore, the responsibilities they carry are simultaneous while men’s are more typically sequential. i.e. a woman may be called in at work regarding a sick child whereas typically a father may fulfill role obligations after work hours.

Recommendations

The hindrances should be tackled efficiently from all angles like Government, organization and the individual. In Oman the availability and accessibility to all levels of education along with equal opportunities in the job market is more so in the urban area. In the rural interiors the importance given to education takes a back seat and therefore the opportunities in the job market is relatively less? Thus it is important to ensure that rural areas should be focused for literacy campaigns. It is urged that educational opportunities to Omani women should never be compromised, but rather be improved. Meanwhile, special measures should be undertaken to encourage and promote women’s access to scientific, managerial, technical, and vocational disciplines in order to develop the requisite skills and extend their opportunities for employment in non-traditional occupations.

. It is necessary to institute awareness programs of employment opportunities and benefits to Omani women in all the different regions of Oman so that their participation in work force will further increase. This can be achieved through the utilization of the local and international media as a means for promoting the role of working women in the workplace and the values of Arab women in changing society and their integration in the development process. Other measures include setting up quota systems to ensure the employment and representation of women in the workforce.

Since the Omani society is based on strong family ties the centrality of the family accompanied by close relationship makes it the responsibility for parents and parents in law of working women to help with child care. However it is recommended that the Organizations and Government also take the responsibility of family support and Child care services and special attention is directed to the provision of a social infrastructure that will enable women to work, such as professional day care centers onsite, kindergartens, and adequate maternity leave. The availability of such support services is a tangible expression of organizational recognition of the needs of professional women. Consequently, it undoubtedly can make a great difference to the capacity of women to manage multiple roles

It is very important that Omani women should think positive about them first and convince others that they are empowered and deserve to be trust worthy.

Ghada Al Harthy proprietor of cafe G Patisserie and Cafe G Catering says” I hope to one day fund and support my own training facilities for younger generation of Omanis so that they may also have a brighter future ahead of them. I also want to start new business ventures that will allow me to create career opportunities for the blind and disabled members of our society. We can all make a positive change starting with our thoughts which lead to our actions.”

His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said has always emphasized the importance of the woman’s role in the country’s growth: “Many years ago, I said that if the energy, capability and enthusiasm of women were excluded from a country’s active life, then that country would be depriving itself of 50 per cent of its genius. I have taken very good care that this should not happen to Oman, and I look forward to the further progress of women in my country with the greatest pleasure and confidence.”

Durkheim (1858-1917) who devoted himself to the scientific study of sociology is widely regarded as a pioneer in French sociology. It is known that Emile Durkheim inherits some of Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer’s ideas and developed a systematic sociology both in theory and methodology (Monivas, 2007, p. 18). However, some of his works have been questioned and criticized. In order to examine the contribution of Emile Durkheim to the scientific study of society critically, one should consider Durkheim’s groundbreaking works including: The Division of Labour (1893), Rules of Sociological Method (1895), and Suicide (1897), all of which reflect a popular topic about individualism and a new social regulation in modern industrial society (Barnes, 1920, p. 4).This essay will first describe Durkheim’s notion of social facts which run through as a principle concept in his sociology. It will discuss its characteristics as well as importance, and then introduce Durkheim’s methodological approach to study social facts. The essay will move on to explore Durkheim’s contribution to the social sciences through the use of examples which include his study of The Division of Labour and Suicide. In addition, limitations will be mentioned when examine his works. This essay will argue that in spite of some criticism both in theories and methods. The overall contribution of Durkheim remains one of the peaks in modern sociology.

Second, social facts are external from individuals. Durkheim rejects Comte’s opinion to unify social science with other scientific disciplines and try to treat it independently. He argues that social facts are different from those assumptions in people’s mind and regular acting such as drinking or sleeping in everyday life. As a result, one could distinguish a kind of conduct and thought out of biology and psychology and classifies it into the particular category of sociology (Allan, 2005, p. 102). Casteel (2009) considered this as ‘an important issue to Durkheim’ that ‘complete Comte’s project and establish sociology as its own academic discipline’. Besides, such externality also reflects on continuum and social facts are kind of objectivities that ‘prior to individuals, but individuals are born into them and enact them’, thus social facts could be observed and measured by statistics (McCormack, 1996). However, Lukes (1973, p. 11) argues that Durkheim’s concepts about ‘externality’ is ambiguous. For example, ‘collective consciousnesses’, which defined as a kind of similar and general perspectives and emotions such as religion that could react on people in an indirectly way that without crystallized forms. As is regarded as a social fact, it should be outside and independent from individuals. Nevertheless, Durkheim explained that collective consciousnesses are derived from most individuals in a society as a ‘group mind’ thus failed to support his notion about externality.

Thirdly, social facts have external coercions on individuals. It limits the choices of individuals and if individuals try to go against them, they may likely to get resistance by certain external constraint power such as public laws. Additionally, those coercive powers are not only administered by social organization but also potential moral awareness which called ‘social currents’ (Harrington, 2005, p.28). However, Durkheim failed to distinguish the power of coercion and prestige. For examples, the power of public law which administered by institutions composed on individuals not only by means of the ‘acceptance of legitimacy’, but also fear of sanction. On the other hand, beliefs may probably constraint individuals through prestige or moral obligation (Lukes 1973, p. 13). Moreover, it is argued that Durkheim neglects the reaction from individuals on social facts. Some critics who challenged Durkheim’s theory believe that individuals could have the capability of creation on social facts (Casteel, 2009).

In his book ‘The rules of Sociological Method’, Durkheim highlights the importance of study social facts as well as the methods to study them. He accepts Comte’s idea that every social phenomenon should be studied as a thing within the context of society. Due to its objectivity, one could use positive approaches to observe, experiment, compare and analysis social phenomenon in favour of finding the sociological laws, demonstrating the normal and pathological as well as speculating the future development of society (Craib, 1997, p.30). In Durkheim methodology of social science, he stresses the importance of looking at society scientifically and discovering the formations (collective consciousnesses etc.) as well as functions (social cohesion, change etc.) of social facts and how they have effects on individuals within the scope of society (Brown, 2008). Emirbayer (1996) point out that Durkheim has rejected metaphysics and uses ‘statistical methodology’ and ‘comparative strategy’ (p. 264) to explore the correlations and casual relations among a number of systematic and connected variables by collecting and interpreting evidences.

Durkheim has exercised his theory and methodology in two of his major works: ‘The Division of Labor’ and ‘Suicide’. In ‘The Division of Labor’, Durkheim argues that there have other approaches to integrate the society beside religion. One of them is the division of labor, which he regarded as a powerful evidence of how social bonds transit from collective consciousness to division of labor (Brown, 2008). Durkheim highlights the functional interdependence of different individuals or units of the society which could be explained by the term of ‘solidarity’ (Allan, 2005, p. 122). In the division of labor, he illustrates two kinds of solidarity: mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity. He compared primitive society and modern society using the organismic approach to explore how individuals maintain solidarity. In primitive society where there is low productivity, individuals are automatically bond together by the ‘collective consciousnesses’, an external uniform beliefs imposed on individuals. On the other hand, organic solidarity exists in modern society. Spencer enormously influenced Durkheim’s Division of Labor. Spencer believes that society was stimulated by the fundamental force of population growth, which changes the way of society to distribute production and wealth (Jones, 205, p. 345). Durkheim developed his evolutionary and organism doctrine. According to Barnes (1920, p. 240), for Durkheim, ‘social evolution is characterized by a decrease in this repressive and mechanical type of social cohesion or solidarity and by a corresponding increase in the development of individual consciousness and personality’. That is, with a dense growth of population as the determinant cause of raised intensive division of labor, individuals are more interdependent on diverse contribution of others to perform a cooperatively function instead of the dominance of collective conscience (Sirianni, 1984). Brown (2008) points out that ‘individualism becomes more important than the collective’ to maintain social solidarity and represents the characteristic of modern society.

It is apparently Durkheim provide a sociological platform which benefits to interpret social process. However limitations could probably exist in his theories as well as methodology such as the cause of the division of labor and the interpretation of its effects. Tarde (citied in Lukes, 1973, p. 304) suggests that Durkheim’s opinion on the division of labor only concern the social internal problem without international relationship. Meanwhile, the division of labor could also result from variety of creation instead of population density. Moreover, Merton (1994, p. 22) argues that in Durkheim’s presentation of social evolution, he diminished the effectiveness of civil law in primitive society and common interest in the modern society in order to give prominence to main power of cohesion : collective consciousnesses and the division of labour, in mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity respectively. As a result, a precise relationship between solidarity and law may not be obtained. Finally, in the conclusion of his work, he personally regard the society as pathological due to the lack of social regulations that do no match the level of the division of labor and excessive individualism during transition, it is likely to push the society into anomie as well as increase the suicide rate (Mutchnick et al., 2009).

In another significant book ‘Suicide’ Durkheim explained a popular moral phenomenon in the 19th society. Suicide can be defined as ‘every case of death which results directly or indirectly from a positive or negative act, accomplished by the victim himself which he knows must produce this result’ (Lukes, 1973, p. 202). Durkheim first considered suicide is a private action but also as a matter of a social fact that exists external to each individual in the society. Thus, the statistics of suicide could reflect diverse outside forces through which one could access to the origins of the weakness of the society as well as solution to those problem. Then he theoretically categorizes different but general social causes of individual suicide and draws its effect by deduction approach. There are four forms of suicide respect to two levels of imbalanced social forces: integration and moral rule (Thompson, 1982). Firstly, it is regarded that egoistic suicide is the consequence of excessive individualism. In a deteriorated society, individual who integrate less with others and act on their own interest is likely to act egoistic suicide. By contrast, altruistic suicide is result from excessive conformity, Durkheim stats that suicide becomes one’s obligation. It often happens in modern societies among civilized people who sacrifice themselves in order to save others such as military (Durkheim, 1979). The other two kinds of suicide are classified into the group of moral regulation. Durkheim again divided the situation that people tends to conduct anomic suicide into four aspects of crisis: decline in the capability of social organizations to instruct people’s lives; rapid social transformation; wealth no longer satisfied people and unbalanced marriage. Finally, Durkheim view fatalistic as the product of rigid but strong moral norm which often committed by slaves (Jones, 1986).

It is suggested that if examine Durkheim’s work critically, one may noticed flaws in his notion of Suicide (Gane, 1988, p. 152). First, one may question whether such phenomenon causes by external force such as society but shared awareness from individuals. However, Durkheim defends it by the term of conscience collective which is also a kind of a social fact and points out the strength of linking morality to discover social laws (Craib, 1997, p. 32). Secondly, Lukes (1973, p. 202-206) argues that his classification of suicide form has limited the causes and types. Moreover, Durkheim concerned the causes of suicide only with social facts and rejected the relationship between suicide and personality in terms of psychology, physic as well as alcoholism. Additionally, the subject of suicide is more like to exist in disordered societies thus lead to an unbalanced research which prone to the theory of pathology. As a result, the contribution of suicide to sociology is actually restricted.

However, Thompson (1982) states that regardless the shortages, Durkheim’ work of suicide is an essential contribution because they effectively combine sociological theory with empiricism to explain social phenomenon. Durkheim suggests that the study of suicide could reveal the connection between social members which closely go with the original subject of social bond in sociology. Moreover, by examining suicide could help one to discover the law of sociology and thus give a direction of the development of society (Lukes, 1973, p. 193). In the research, he related series of common characteristics of the society as social facts to suicide rate statistics and draw a general conclusion that particular social environment and current could lead to a growth of suicide rate. For example, insufficient economy growth and social mode changes generate a remarkable suicide rate in the 19th century of European. Aimed at solving this problem, Durkheim also proposed to strengthen the backbone of economy and support individuals with the sense of belonging (Lukes, 1973, p. 220).

In conclusion, this essay explored Durkheim’s main works in sociology. As one of the founder of professional sociology, Durkheim identified social facts thus built the dimension as well as the skeleton of sociology. Based on previous work, he formulates a systematic methodology to discover the social laws by observing and comparing the relationships between different variables. Durkheim further applied his methodology and theory into his work of ‘The Division of Labor’ and ‘Suicide’. He discovered the procedure by which individuals socially integrate into society, and provide different types to explain the relationship between people and society. Although there are certain indistinct interpretation in terms of concepts and correlations, Durkheim’s work is considered to have significant to the scientific study of society.

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There has been a marked change for the better in our overall approach towards the women in Mauritius. Gone are the days when their place was considered to be behind the four walls of the house and their only job was confined to looking after the household affairs. But now they can be seen working shoulder to shoulder with men in every sphere of life. This is undoubtedly a good sign and an indication of their emancipation. It is a known fact that women have played an active role in the economic development of Mauritius since its independence in 1968.

In the period 1983-2001 the number of women in full-time employment rose by 81 per cent, from 93,000 to 168,700. Women now represent 51 per cent of the population (608,458 out of a total population of 1,205,665) and 35 per cent of the labour force (186,400 out of 538,500). The share of women in total employment stands at 34 per cent in 2001, up from 23 per cent in 1972. As in most developing countries, women’s increased economic importance has been the result of a gradual process of change and not an explicit policy focus. But it is important to stress that since ratifying the UN Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women in 1984, the Mauritian Government has undertaken a number of significant legal reforms to remove all instances of discrimination against women in Mauritian law. However, while the economic empowerment of women has known significant progress over the decades, there is still a long way to go to raise their standard of living to be at par with that of their male counterparts in the work sector.

Women in the Mauritian’s public and private sector

Women still have to strive to be at the same level of their male counterparts in the Mauritian public and private work sector. According to Central Statistical Office, employment in the General Government Sector decreased by about 500 from 74 300 (52,100 males, 22,200 females) in March 2006 to about 73 800 (51 200 males, 22 600 females) in March 2007. Three out of four persons employed in General Government were males. Male workers were predominant in all activity groups, except in “Real estate, renting and business services” where the female employees accounted for 66 percent of the total employment in the activity. It is to be noted that female employment in “Public administration and defence; compulsory social security”, “Education” and “Health and social work” together accounted for around 96 percent of total female employment in General Government.

Employment by Ministry/Department and gender in the
General Government, March 2007
Government Services
Male
Female
Total

Budgetary Central Government

37 367

16 975

54 342

Office of the President, Judicial and National Assembly

503

245

748

Prime Minister’s Office

12 465

1,033

13 498

Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade

157

169

326

Ministry of Agro Industry and Fisheries

220

242

462

Ministry of Education, Culture and Human Resources

5765

5811

11576

Ministry of Labour, Industrial Relations and Employment

276

233

509

This table show that the majority of public jobs are being allocated to males rather than their females counterparts, hence, perpetuating the notion of gender inequality in the public work sector.

In the private arena too, the scene is more or less the same. Men are the more preferred employees and dominate almost all the spheres of work. Occupation-wise, women are largely confined to low level, low paid jobs, such as machine operators in the EPZ enterprises, clerk, typists and shop assistants. Nearly 60 per cent of women work in the manufacturing sector, of whom 91 per cent in the textile factories. 75,000 employees in the private sector earn less than Rs 5000. 75 per cent of them are women. Only 14 per cent (or one in seven) of women in full-time paid employment in the private sector hold senior management or professional posts.

Despite the positive developments that had taken place in Mauritius in this modern era with respect to the increase in women’s employment, the promotion of their human rights and their economic independence, this inequality between man and woman in the labour force still insists although we are all now talking about combating gender inequality. For example women are more likely to be employed in jobs like sales girls, clerks, assistant, speakers, whereas on the other hand, jobs with big positions and which require leadership skills such as ministers, managers, engineers, doctors, lawyers are mostly reserved for men. Why is it so? The statistics are showing us that girls are outperforming boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education. How come they are not allocated the big post public or private jobs in the country. This is the question that renders us perplexed. Women continue to aspire for leadership positions in all spheres of governance in both the public and private sector. However it has not been easy we can say.

Historically, leadership has carried the notion of masculinity and the belief that men make better leaders than women is still common today. Although the number of female leaders has increased, they are often named as an afterthought. This belief that men lead and women follow is so impregnated in the Mauritian mind that the second sex though intelligent are being deprived of many facilities in the workforce. They are not treated fairly as their male counterparts in the work setting. Despite efforts made to ensure that female representation is achieved at all levels of governance, women are still underrepresented in many government and non-government organizations particularly in positions of power and leadership (de la Rey, 2005).

From statistics presented by Sadie (2005) on the Southern African Development Community (SADC) parliamentary structures, it is evident that the target of 30% representation by women in political and decision-making structures of member states was not met, except in South Africa and Mozambique. For instance, by 2004 the proportion of women in parliament was 15.4% in Angola, 15.9% in Botswana, 12% in Lesotho, 14.4% in Malawi, 17.14% in Mauritius, 25% in Namibia, and while South Africa and Mozambique had 32.8% and 37.2% respectively. Great strides have been made in the political realm, and women’s participation in both the freedom struggles and democratic processes of many African countries including Mauritius have been notable. However, this participation has not always translated into equal representation in political leadership positions. Once elections are conducted, and positions are assigned, one realizes that women are no longer visible, thus, we can notice that in politics, women have been marginalized because men monopolize the decision making structures and are in the majority.

Moreover, in education and academic circles too, the picture is more distressing especially if one looks at higher education. One would expect that things would change faster in this environment. After all, as Carleene Dei (2006) observed, universities are traditionally viewed as centres of free thought, change and human development. But leadership in higher education is still a man’s world and universities are male dominated institutions. Men also dominated positions at professorial and senior lecturer positions. It is therefore quite evident that men dominate the governance and management levels of higher education institutions. Consequently, men have the decision-making power and authority regarding strategic direction, and allocation of resources.

Various factors are at work in limiting women’s potential to aspire to positions of leadership both in the public and private sector. Sadie (2005) advanced the argument that women face the patriarchal system where decision making powers are in the hands of males. Despite women’s education and entry into the job market, the woman’s role is typically one of homemaker. The man, on the other hand, is bread winner, head of household and has a right to public life .Confining women’s identity to the domestic sphere is one of the barriers to women’s entry into politics. The media too has a major part in influencing and perpetuating the second sex as being inferior. For example, they always portray women to be sensitive, calm, caring, looking after children and men as being assertive, courageous, and valiant. Thus, it is not surprising to see men dominating the work arena. The table below shows that all types of public and private jobs are mostly suited to men rather than female. Women dominate in the clerical sector only.

Employment by occupational group and sex, 2009

However, despite inequality prevailing, there are some women who were able to transcend cultural barriers, stereotypes and rise to positions of leadership (whether in politics or elsewhere), such as Margaret Thatcher, Sonia Gandhi, Julia Gillard. But these are exceptions and exceptions do not make the rule! In fact, it has been argued that women themselves are often reluctant to run for public positions and this is partly attributed to cultural prohibitions on women speaking in public or going to public places. Political campaigning for instance, requires that one travel extensively, spend nights away from home, go into bars, and for women it means meeting men. Women who struggle for public office have to consider the risk of being labelled ‘loose’ or ‘unfit’ as mothers and wives, and being socially stigmatized. Such considerations make many women shy away from politics, and positions that put them in the public eye.

Furthermore, in other public and private arenas also, women’s access to leadership positions has been hindered by discrimination and stereotyping. Women are more or less persecuted for seeking an executive position. This is largely due to society’s attitude toward appropriate male and female roles. Women have to face the sticky floor, preventing them to get access to the high position jobs. In fact, the recruitment processing itself is discriminating women. For instance, in the private sector, the manager will choose a married man employer rather than a married woman in the recruitment process. Since they all have the prejudices that women can fall pregnant at anytime, they will have to take maternity leaves, thus, hampering the productivity of the company during their absences. Therefore, with a male worker, there is no such problem. Hence, men are more favoured and are more likely to be recruited.

Comparison of salary in the public v/s private sector

If the public service, decrying those at the top of the wage scale are worse off compared to the private sector, in the private sector, it insists that the preservation of jobs is more important than salary increases that might putting the company at risk. In the private sector, employees whether men or women are better paid than in the public sphere. The table below shows this evidence. Its source is from MEF.

Types of jobs
Public sector
Private sector

Receptionist / Telephonist

Between Rs 8400 and Rs 16000

Between Rs 5,000 and Rs 28,210

Human Resource Officer

Between Rs 17,200 and Rs 26,400

Between Rs 15,358 and Rs 41,420

Secretary

Between Rs 9600 and Rs 21400

Between Rs 10,167 and Rs 29,434

Human resource manager

Between Rs31,250 and Rs 45,000

Between Rs 35,000 and Rs 94,600

Civil Engineering

Between Rs 22,000 and Rs 45,000

Between Rs 20,375 and Rs 65,300

General worker

Between Rs 6,425 and Rs 10,200

Between Rs 6,205 and Rs 18,300

Conclusion and Recommendation

Women continue to enter the workplace in increasing numbers in all developed countries. Several factors account for this trend. An increasing number of economies have become industrialized, the service sector has grown opening up positions for women, and growth in public and not-for profit sectors have created new opportunities for women. However, the pace of advancement for women in the top position jobs continues to be slow and uneven in different countries and cultures. Women still cannot crack the marble ceiling and are thus at a disadvantage despite they possess lots of skills and aptitudes. Educational institutions can help by teaching the equality of the sexes through lessons. Further, the family too should not be biased and give the same kind of upbringing to the sons and daughters. Boys should be made to help in the domestic chores as much as the girls. The mass media should also project the picture of the women as an equal with the same desires, ambitions and intelligence. True liberation of women is possible only when our overall attitude is changed!

This paper examines the concept of ‘standpoint epistemology’ in the field of social science and discusses whether this remains a viable radical perspective on knowledge. The focus is placed upon the perspective from the feminist viewpoint and the application to sociology. The historical content is examined as a foundation to knowledge and this is placed into context in the relationship to knowledge. It is argued as to whether there continues to be a viable radical perspective on knowledge, both the pro’s and con’s are examined. Conclusions summarize these points highlighting the key issues of the argument.

The concept of ‘standpoint epistemology’ is based upon the philosophy of knowledge that enables a holistic world-view of the challenges of oppressed women and the vision of how knowledge provides a platform for social activism, transformation and change. It combines the concept of both a body of knowledge and a method of conducting research. The feminist standpoint provides a call for political action and a reformation agenda. Dorothy Smith [1] was one of the original feminine theorists who developed standpoint epistemology. Smith focused heavily on gender studies and talked about ‘ruling texts’ which examined the power relations in society and the dominance of men in social societies. Smith made the point that the knowledge we have of women, together with ‘ruling texts’ that define the relationships are completely opposite to the experiences of how women are treated in society. Smith focused in on racism and stated that a common bond existed between black women of all nations as they had experience of oppression, slavery and discrimination. (Johnson 2010)

Sandra Harding, [2] within the context of feminine standpoint epistemology puts forward two important claims: (i) Those social positions within the under privileged classes has less distortion than those embodied within other classes and (ii) All scientific knowledge is socially situated. She in essence puts forward the argument that the diversity amongst inquirers creates an epistemic advantage. (Rolin 2006).

The standpoint epistemology has maintained interest from sociologists over the last thirty years. Despite the criticism involved it has continued to evolve into a wide array of different perspectives and viewpoints. The research is considered to be closely aligned to the materialist perspective (the Marxist feminism view). This provides the research in a more balanced and realistic stance. Marxist feminism argued a standpoint epistemology that embraced concepts of both knowledge and power; as such having emphasis more on process than that of the materialistic viewpoint. A standpoint as such may be defined as the action that we accomplish from a social status perspective. Standpoint research theorists claim that their research is a more complete and rigorous set of results than that of their male counterparts. They believe that feminist research suffers from less distortion than male research and as such stands up to better scrutiny. (Pamela Abbott 2005). Standpoint is considered to be an epistemology of transition and as such seeks to find change that aligns with knowledge transfer. It has been widely held that the feminist standpoint theory, as of today, seeks to find ‘epistemic privilege’ that supports the female point of view. Harding has condemned the feminist standpoint theorists “for attempting to express a single women’s perspective” (Harding 2004). The condemnation is based upon the fact that theorists fail to consider the complete diversity of the female opinion. In 1991 Harding [3] stated that there needs to be a reformation of a standpoint that portrays more post modernist standpoints.

CONTENTIONS OF STANDPOINT EPISTEMOLOGY

In the context of feminist standpoint epistemology it is necessary to compare traditional standpoints with that of modern perspectives. Traditionally it was held that “science holds that objective, political neutral inquiry that maximises the power in order to achieve scientific aims.” (Cassandra L. Pinnick 2003). Harding argues against this viewpoint stating that objectivity in scientific research is a delusion and as such a contradiction; it is far too rigorous to be objective. (Cassandra L. Pinnick 2003).

Abortion is a subject area that contains contentions within the context of ‘standpoint epistemology’. The feminist standpoint provides linkages between that of experience and knowledge. In order to achieve a feminist standpoint you need to identify and experience both the struggle and intellectual challenges first-hand. Hence those women who accomplish this have a far sounder perspective than the male researcher. In the contemptuous subject of abortion, those women who have actually experienced the problem will have a profound understanding of the issues, trauma and prejudice of the process than that of a passive observer. It is the difference between that of specific experience and that of pure perspective.

MariAnna [4] underlines the importance of ‘concrete experience’ as an important source of information towards a body of knowledge. Sandra Harding stated that ‘feminist epistemology’ is characterised by the recognition that women are ‘agents of knowledge’ (MariAnna 2002). Women in general are seen to be more flexible with a fluidity that enables them to multi-task and accomplish multiple events at the same time. MariAnna stated that it is important to distinguish between that of methods and methodology, it is the latter which has deep roots in the epistemology approach to research. Feminist methodology within the approach to inquiry is deeply rooted in those feminist beliefs and theories that provide a more holistic and wider range of thinking to the subject matter under review.

It has been pointed out by Pamela Abbot et al that there are conflicting areas of knowledge within feminism i.e. that of standpoint epistemology and the concept of post modernization. They have become problematic because they aspire to contain a degree of unity. Abbot argued that “an element of relativism remains in the multiple standpoint approaches” (Pamela Abbott 2005). That is to say the question remains unanswered as to who is exactly “the final arbiter of truth” (Pamela Abbott 2005).

Abbott et al conclude by saying that within the overall research carried out in her book “mainstream sociology becomes inadequate owing to the systematic bias and distortion in male stream knowledge” (Pamela Abbott 2005). They argue that a total re-thinking is required in sociological knowledge that embraces the feminist contribution. The transformation is required because historically women have not just been ignored but their input has been both marginalised and distorted within the overall science. As such advances and contributions made by female researchers and sociologists need to be examined for integration within the overall body of knowledge and process of sociological thinking. It is a transformational step process that requires reformation in order that both concepts and questions become more centric to the issues of the discipline.

Shawn Best [5] looked at research from the standpoint epistemology that examined the power of white feminists and the attempt to subjugate the knowledge of black women; the latter of which has been historically regarded as invalid intellectual knowledge. Interestingly he examined white women in the role of oppression. In addition to the concept of racism and power, in the 1990’s attention was drawn towards the gay and lesbian communities and as such the post-modernist ‘Queer Theory’ emerged. This put forward the argument that ‘biological sex’ in addition to gender was part of the social construct. As such the possession of certain organs was the ‘type’ that defined the binary reality of women or man. (Best 2005).

Sirmondo [6] stated that the central argument of standpoint theory is that it is based upon a theory of privilege and not merely another different perspective. It examines sexual discrimination from the viewpoint of the female and as such provides a platform in order to become more informed and understand gender issues. As such women are in an improved position to see discrimination from a perspective that eludes males. This becomes more apparent when female activists take political actions to overturn male discrimination. He concludes that those people who see social constraints as oppressive can more easily comprehend those constraints than those who cannot see them. (Sismondo 2010)

In recent years sociologists have been somewhat detached in the mainstream philosophy of science. It was David Bloor [7] who commented that social science remains impartial to truth, falsity, rationality, irrationality, success or failure. The desire for detachment has not only been confined to that of relativism. Others have commented that standpoint epistemology may be more of an escape from “the intellectual quicksand of relativism and indefensible territory of neutrality and detachment” (Iorio 2009). As such the standpoint requires a new examination of objectivity and a movement away from what is considered to be subjective perspectives.

It is considered that most of the contentions that surround standpoint feminism and postmodern feminism are centered on power and agency. The post structural feminists continue to question the transparency upon the experiences put forward by women. They state that they rely upon the same expressive state of language that under pins liberal feminism. Many of these standpoint theories operate from the premise of fixed truth about the insights made. It is automatically assumed that experience represents both valid and reliable sources of information. These individuals with already fixed identities have limited experience of oppression. These experiences are articulated in conventional power relations. These power relations have a tendency to fix women to a specific category. (Carole Ruth McCann 2003).

By way of comparison it is useful to examine the international perspectives of contention in standpoint epistemology. The political activism that is currently taking place in modern day Chile provides a direct response that has been based upon gender experience. Historically Chilean women have been branded and placed in a specific position in Chilean society, this being termed ‘marianismo’ (Tetreault 2000). There have been certain criticisms of postmodernism and the movement towards relativism. This in turn has seen many females hybridize the epistemologies in order to deflect the criticism. The approach has moved towards examining different voices and standpoints of feminism. In Chilean society the women are deemed to be very cultured and have different views on a range of varying subject matter. It is considered that the postmodern feminist perspective has broadened the voice of the Latin American woman and allowed true feminist views to be openly expressed. (Tetreault 2000).

It is over the last two decades that there have been significant advances in sociological theory and in particular the many changes in feminist theory. The emphasis being placed upon the areas of gender, identity and subjectivity. Dietz stated that within the many debates that have took place it has been contested what is the true meaning of feminine citizenship (Dietz 2003)

FEMENIST EPSISTEMOLOGY

Epistemology essentially refers to the science of knowing and the acquisition of knowledge. It relates to how people understand what they know and draws its source from the disciplines like sociology and psychology. The research fields within this area have given rise to feminist epistemology and the knowledge that specifically applies to women. As such it becomes an approach that summarises the experience of women and integrating both knowledge and experiences into the female voice. More recent manipulations of the term epistemology illustrate the term has been widened or redefined to include new areas that were previously omitted by traditional research concepts (Alcoff 1993). The historical implications of female epistemology have been based around clashes that involve female liberalism and the oppression of women in society. The need to have their contribution recognized and included within the context of the social sciences.

Feminist standpoint theories generally put forward the view that gender creates the social differences in epistemology. The aim being to obtain a closer comprehension of how authoritative knowledge is obtained and how female constructive uses can be put forward from marginal standpoints. Historically it has been considered that feminist standpoint theory has remained subordinate to the traditional mainstream philosophy of science. This has caused feminists to feel uncomfortable with both their role and contribution in the field of sciences. (Hirschmann 1997)

In the journal Hypatia, numerous feminist empiricists have argued that scientific knowledge is socially situated and as such there is increasing levels of convergence between feminist empiricism and standpoint feminism. The latter has become much more subtle in terms of interpreting standpoint claims distinguished from that of views held by feminine empiricists. Sociologists have stated that feminine empiricism is more a way of how scientific claims may be proven as opposed to standpoint feminism which is more related to the study of science as a phenomenon. Both views are similar in that they strive towards a greater degree of diversity. (Intemann 2010).

Jane Flax argues that psycho analysis, feminist theories and postmodern philosophies are all independent methods of thought, with each being understood in a different way. Each of these has its own perspective on social issues and transitional way of thinking. Flax describes feminist theory as “a delimited area of intellectual discourse where general consensus occurs amongst its practitioners” (Flax 2010). Regardless of this there remains a lively debate on those who are identified as feminist theorists. Within this is the importance of analysing gender and the distinction of female issues to that of the male domain. The aim of feminist theories is that of a recovery vehicle in order to reclaim those aspects in society that have been suppressed or denied by male dominated viewpoints. As such feminist values call for transformative thinking about such items as values, sense of self-worth and the dealing of stereotypes by the compartmentalization of women into specific categories and thereby denying freedom of expression.

One of the central points in feminist standpoint theory is derived from that of Karl Marx’s views on materialism. Feminists have adopted from this philosophy that the concept of power is the main way towards understanding social society. As such there exists a social identity between that of power and gender. The feminist engagement with epistemology tends to represent itself in one of two ways i.e. it is either very closely aligned with postmodernism or aligned with that of epistemology; the term ‘female epistemology’ generally tends to imply that it is lined to the latter term. This in itself creates a degree of tension and conflict between the two forces.

Miranda Fricker stated that we can credit feminist postmodernism with making a number of important contributions to social science. Amongst this is the contribution to the intellectual knowledge base and making the general populace more aware of the complexity of social identity. In this sense it is more accurate than that of an onthology that relates purely to class. (Fricker 2000).

In current terms it is important to recognise that a large number of women are employed in science, engineering and academic positions. As such they offer a diverse range of opinions on a wide range of subject matter. The female positions tend to have two distinct types of focus (i) that engaged with the sciences and (ii) that focused upon society. Researchers have emerged from former marginalised groups and as such have had a profound way of changing the pattern of inquiry and thought process. There are still those however that holds the opinion that feminism is a threat to the objectivity of science. Sandra Harding pointed out that if all knowledge is socially constructed it will pose a major threat and challenge to science. For example with most scientists “the notion that their views of the natural world are subjective is counter to their professional training”. (Wyer 2008)

Holland et al believe that the notion of a feminist standpoint tends to be more theoretical and political. The reason being the inability to separate politics and the epistemology. They have cited particular differences appropriate to realism and those influenced by empiricism. In addition they believe that standpoint feminists are far too influenced by concepts of gender. In making specific judgements or opinions on subject matter, the feminist needs to have a superior knowledge that the theoretical epistemological position if the research is to be formally accepted. (Caroline RamazanoClu 2002)

Sandra Harding’s [8] views on Standpoint Epistemology focused more on the concepts of objectivity. Harding advocated a new concept of ‘strong objectivity’, as opposed to that of the weak concept which she referred to as ‘objectivism’. She stated that objectivity must contain all social values and interests from the research that is carried out. She was aware that certain social values could adversely impact the research and cause potential distortions. As such Harding viewed traditional research concepts and objectivity as the denial of cultures best beliefs (knowledge), whereas the new version fully embraces both political and historical origins.

Harding believed that her new theory holds validity, particularly from the feminist standpoint i.e. women are part of an oppressed group and as such they approach research problems in a less arbitrary way. They are more likely to evaluate theories that might otherwise be overlooked or denied by more traditional concepts or viewpoints. Harding states that that the standpoint has a substantial foundation in the empirical experiences of women and although this may not constitute a foundation of knowledge, nevertheless it does create a more diverse contribution leading towards increased objectivity. As such it might be regarded as a hybrid approach, between that of objectivity and relativism. Critics have argued that this is bound to fail because concepts of hybridisation cannot adequately deal with issues of generalisation and as such it will fail to distinguish from that of weak objectivity. (Sandra 2001)

One of the most influential people in the field of standpoint epistemology was that of Dorothy E Smith. [9] Smith is famous throughout the world as a developer of theories and as such she has advanced the academic position from a feminist standpoint. Smith developed theories and concepts around the subject matter of gender and particularly that of the ‘ruling texts’ of man. She advocated that many texts were compiled from the male perspective and as such were responsible for defining gender. She further advocated that such rules written by men determined the rules of society and defined the way in which we live and conduct our lives. Amongst the books that Smith referenced were the US Constitution, The Holy Bible and the Communist Manifesto. Smith stated that the rulings defined in many of these books were completely opposite to the manner in which women conducted their lives today. Such obsolescence creates the way for transformation of thinking and revision in these areas. – Ryan B Johnson [10] (Johnson, Standpoint Epistemology Summary 2010)

The ASA [11] President Patricia Collins [12] has also been extremely influential in her works on standpoint epistemology. Collins has excelled as a distinguished black professor rising through the ranks dealing with oppression that includes race, class and gender. She emphasises this point in her research and talks about white privilege in feminist society. She has broadened the discussion of gender to include that of racial factors as black women shared a common bond in terms of almost universal oppression. Most black women could recount from their history a record of oppression, slavery and discrimination. This created an even stronger standpoint than that experienced by white women and had a wider impact than other discriminated groups like gays, lesbians and Jews. (Johnson, Standpoint Epistemology Summary 2010).

CONCLUSIONS

Alison Wylie [13] maintained that Standpoint theory is grounded in social and political thought. As such the notion of knowledge and epistemology is nothing new. Wylie states the most significant contributions in the area have been made by Sandra Harding and Nancy Harsock. Standpoint theory continues to have a profound impact on social and political thinking to this very day. (Grebowicz 2007). The arguments put forward by the female epistemology practitioners focus upon potential bias and exclusion by their male counterparts. The practice has seriously disadvantaged women by : (i) excluding them from inquiry (ii) denial of access to epistemic authority (iii)denigrating female cognitive styles and types of knowledge (iv) male dominance that is self-serving and denigrates female contributions as being inferior or insignificant (v) theories of social phenomenon that render women’s interests invisible (vi)the production of knowledge that creates class divisions, creates hierarchies or relegates women to that of subordinate roles. (Andersen 2010). Whilst considerable strides have been made towards the resolution of contentions in standpoint epistemology, particularly in what we refer to as the Western or first world environment; on the global scene there still remains a lot of work to accomplish. Females still suffer oppression in such areas as the Middle East, Africa, Asia, Latin America and many Muslim speaking countries. The internet has helped in the creation of a global forum for women to communicate world-wide and talk about experiences, lifestyle, social interaction, oppression etc. Nevertheless despite open access communication we are even seeing examples of where this is being subverted for political power and exclusion of feminine authority. Examples being that of China and certain Middle Eastern countries. Feminist groups have also advocated for the recognition of women’s rights on a global scale. However, when this has been approached as a ‘human rights issue’ it has met with opposition from cultural relativists and liberal human rights activists. It has been viewed as an attempt by western women to expand western cultural philosophy. The relativist’s argument being that recognition of women’s rights as human rights is linked to that of western imperialism. This view is very misguided because by nature the concept of oppression, racial discrimination, gender issues etc. are universal ones and as such not confined to the west but are global issues for resolution. (Kim 2010)

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DEFINING THE FAMILY: A family is a social unit made up of father, mother brothers and sisters. All these members play a very important role while living together, sharing problems with one another at the time of help. Love is the most important element in a family among these members without love and happiness these pillars of family has not the ability to stay longer and be with one another for a longer period of time.

THE CENTRAL POSITION OF THE FAMILY IN SOCIETY:

In order for the family to meet a child’s psychological needs, its members must be nurturing, convey mutual respect, provide for intimacy, and engage in bonding and attachment. The family also socializes the child, guiding the child to be members of the society beyond the family. The family conveys religious and cultural beliefs and traditions to the next generation. The family is the child’s source of economic resources, which meet the child’s various physical needs for food, shelter, and clothing. Then, too, the family sees to it that the child receives health and dental care. The family also teaches morals and values to a child.

WHY THE FAMILY IS THEORETICALLY SIGNIFICANT:

Family is the most important unit of society and plays an essential role in fulfilling the emotional and physical needs of individuals, which is required for achieving economic and social development”. But for a family to succeed it doesn’t necessarily need to be a “nuclear” family, it needs support in caring for its family. If a society is at war, is suffering severe weather such as droughts, is made up of people living primarily in poverty, is a society with a high illiteracy rate, or is experiencing overwhelming negative health conditions such as AIDS, of course any family will be negatively affected.

MEDIA ARTICLE 1:

Work, Family, and Religion in Contemporary Society.

By: Nason-Clark, Nancy

Publication: Sociology of Religion

Date: Sunday, September 22 1996

In the opening essay to Work, family, and religion in contemporary society, authors Ammerman and Roof claim that “the days when business could ignore families and churches could take them for granted are over.” Each of the contributors to this volume grapple with some facet of the dilemma facing

Religion and religious organizations as they attempt to minister effectively to diversified and changing family forms. The book is organized into two sections: assessing the links among religion, family, and work, and exploring emerging patterns for responding to the contemporary needs of individuals and family units.

Essays by Penny Long Marler, and Wade Clark Roof and Lyn Gesch, examine the link between traditional family forms and religious institutions. Marler demonstrates how mainline churches have been able to keep their “market share” of both husband-wife-plus-children families and the elderly, but have lost ground with younger singles and those in nontraditional households. Interestingly, she examines the process by which church programs for children and the youth are “staffed” and supported by older church members who remember with fondness their own participation in the life of the church as a family unit. Roof and Gesch note that attitudes in support of families participating in religion together occur most strongly amongst those who have the traditional family structure to match.

Several essays examine the relationships among religion, gender, and paid employment: both Lyn Gesch and Charles Hall explore the inter- and intra-personal dynamics impacting upon women’s employment status. Each of these chapters draws attention to the importance of gender images and gender expectation as women determine their role in the modern world. Using NORC data from 1972-1990, Bradley Hertel offers a detailed examination of religiosity and labor force participation among men and women. He concludes that by far the most significant challenge to organized religion lies in the work-related declines in membership and attendance attributable to the full-time employment of married women.

Part Il of this collection invites the reader to consider some of the implications of changing family constellations for religious groups. Chapters by Don Browning and Joseph Reiff consider the more particular religious or ethical ramifications of the trends documented in the earlier data-based chapters. In an especially insightful essay by Cheryl Townsend Gilkes, the relationship between church and family is examined within the African-American experience. Claiming that it is possible to interpret the history of the African-American experience as a “succession of dislocations affecting the relationship between work and family,” she argues that it is in the construction of alternatives for survival and growth that the current mission of black churches is best understood.

Choosing innovation at the personal level can involve substantial cost, but it also offers opportunities for immense rewards. Mary Johnson details the difficult choices some defense workers face as they struggle to reconcile their work experiences with their faith perspectives, and eventually decide role-exit is their option of choice. On the other hand, William and Sylvia Johnson Everett explore patterns of work and family among couples who decide to merge their familial and employment lives and “work together.”

Small groups, or the home cell ministry, are an innovation that Stuart Wright believes has the potential to bring vitality and renewal to both mainstream and conservative churches alike. Bill D’Antonio traces the growth and development of Intentional Eucharistic Communities (IECs) that have emerged within and kept rather close links with the Roman Catholic tradition while Mary Jo Neitz looks at the construction of women’s rituals within “Limina,” a group loosely linked with Roman Catholic women, but clearly outside the boundaries of mainstream Catholicism.

This collection of essays has something to offer just about any scholar interested in the issues raised by work, family, and religion in modern society. For the empirically sophisticated, there are chapters that tease apart the nuances of religious participation, employment status, gender, and parenthood. For those preferring narratives of the linkages between work and family, or case studies documenting the choices ordinary men and women make, there are several rich accounts of the process by which one’s religious ideology intertwines with one’s familial and work settings. Moreover, other chapters offer a more passioned plea for a return to the strong bond between family and faith.

Without a religious institutions have been called upon to respond to the changes impacting families across the nation. The editors have pulled together a wide array of scholars to document the dilemmas facing churches and families of faith as we move towards the 21st century. For the most part, the chapters are clear and concise and though there is some unevenness in quality and scope, readers will not be disappointed. There is much in this volume to satisfy both the seasoned scholar and the undergraduate student.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS:

The concept of work family and religion is linked with one another in a sense that a person work for his/her life to live, move in society to improve his/her life style in life only because of work, a person can earn can live a better life of his/her own choice in society.

In case of family it also plays a very important role in society because a person in this world wishes to succeed his/her family in society to get fame in society. Means that both work and family have very close relationship with one another.

In case of religion, it has a much broader view from each person or family point of perspective because every one wants to give importance to God to prayers or to church to get through the line of success in life. Letaa‚¬a„?s take the example of a Muslim point of view about their religion Islam. They have a strong belief that asking from God by fulfilling the needs of prayers in order to get success in life because they believed that God come first then the idea of work and family all these things are based on God, if God will be happy we can easily achieve all these things in life. Same is the case with Christianity and Christianaa‚¬a„?s point of view about Jesus that by going to the church regularly saying their prayers share the good and bad things such as ideas/sins with a priest in order to change their bad deeds into good ones they have to ask from Jesus in order to get success. I am not referring towards the idea that hard working is not important and justly saying prayers either in the mosques or in the church for earning or success in life for all there things it is necessary to have some ability to be educated and work hard in life not just by wasting their time in rubbish things. So here in the idea to be educated a baby is not born with idea of education from his/her childhood he/she learn a lot from society people in their surroundings from parents so his/ her foundation is based on family and that family is then linked up with society.

The media raised the above specified issue in article 1, because they actually want to show a comparison of the importance of work, religion and family in the past and in the present. In the past people used to gave a lot of importance to work, daily business in their lives, religion i.e. the role played by religion in the lives of people but in all this process they ignored the importance of family that why family is important , or why it is important to give more importance to family in life. But now according to the present time churches want to gave more importance to family as well as work and religion because according to their point of views family is also very important because the preaching of religion and churches are only for society, and what constitutes a society the people who are living in that society , the role played by families in a society and in families the role played by elders, so according to some churches that it is important to give more importance to the role played by elders in a society because they fulfill all the criteriaaa‚¬a„?s of family in life, but this view is contradicted by some churches that it is important that elders play a very important role in a family but along with elders the younger ones i.e. the siblings in a family means that the young minds in a family are also of great importance because the whole generation depends on the young minds in a family so if the young minds will not be fresh and have the complete opportunities in life for the exploration of new ideas and concepts then in that case such type of family will not be considered as the good family in society.

MEDIA ARTICLE 2:

Address (URL):

http://www.lib.mq.edu.au/e-access/document.php?save=1HYPERLINK “http://www.lib.mq.edu.au/e-access/document.php?save=1&eid=52052?&HYPERLINK “http://www.lib.mq.edu.au/e-access/document.php?save=1&eid=52052?eid=52052

CRITICAL ANALYSIS:

In the past aboriginal family life style was very simple. They gave more importance to family. In their families they have father, mother brother and sister. They were all linked with one another because of love. They have great sympathy and heart full of emotions for one another. They were badly discriminated by the white people, because of their dark skin they were not respected in a society among the white people. The white people were used to rape their woman their woman was not respected like the white people woman.

When the children were born they were brutally snatched from their parents. Children were also not comfortable in the field of education. They were not provided as much educational facilities like the white people. They were not provided of basic things in life like the white people.

When ever a baby was born in their families not of dark skin so they were snatched by the white people so before they were carried away by them their families used to hide them from their cruel hands.

This is true that the dark skin people have strong family views. They have their own family values, rules and regulation for spending their lives, but their ideas were not fully developed about the idea of success in life. They were not completely aware about the true meaning of life that to work hard in order to improve their standard of living in life. They used to live in caves and like to prefer the forests for their places of living. When the white people came at that time they have not strong and clear views about the idea of family, they were completely unaware of this thing the used to live together without getting married having children without any sort of strong relationship. They were more concerned with the idea of drugs and alcohol as compared to dark people, who in the beginning were completely unaware of using drugs in their lives. The white people induce this habit in them.

This article is written to highlight the positive aspects of aboriginal families, that the concept of family is very strong among them in a sense that they give more importance to the members in their families such as more respect to their elders, respect their decisions, great love for their younger ones. According to this article the writer trying to convince that it is true that there are some negative aspects among the family lives of aboriginal people but along with some negative aspects they have some positive aspects too.

For fulfilling the needs of negative aspects of aboriginal families government has to play a very important role such that the school curriculum must be designed in a way that children from aboriginal families must also take some advantage in the field of education because the community must be best identified through the importance of education in that particular community that either the ratio of people regarding education is raising in that particular community or not and if raised then get to know that up to which extent it has been raised. Through this process aboriginal families can be considered as the respectable families in society as compared to other communities.

REFRENCES:

Clark, Nason. & Nancy. (1996). Work, Family, and Religion in Contemporary Society. Sociology of Religion

Walker, Y. (1993). “Aboriginal family issues”. Family Matters, 35, 51-53.

Skolnick, Arlene S., & Skolnick, Jerome H. (2009). Family in Transition. New York: Pearson Education

This report covers many areas in health care and the responsibility of meadia.This focuses on the aspect that media plays a major role in Health and social care. Also individual responsibility too should be adhered too. Thus when divulging and printing or putting any thing on the mass media, each person ahs to be knowledgably taking in the responsibility of such issues because greater damage can be caused to society. So intellectuality is the most important factor in this plus each and every one should be responsible.

Explain how information relating to social and health care gives to raise to issues of concern to the public

How information related in health and social care

There are more ways to presenting information in the word. But relating to the peasant information is like health care, social, Adult, War related wise can be categorized .because all the information public focus is on some sectors. In the society, social and health care information is important. Because it’s direct effects are on the publicly in society. Ex: Some information coming to “To be care of some diseases. “This is directly effect in the public society. Need to be consider the peasant it in very secure and accurate way and also need to has consider as below attribute if the new or information.

Trust of data (Ex: data in the based on the news need to be true. before publishing have to check that sauce )/ Quality

Truly information sauces as its coming

Security of the information

Effectiveness can be categorized its Danger information, General advice..etc

Related society like adult, child, related workers..wise

Current situation in country (Ex: consider the country weather some disease is growing need to be inform in publicly its carefulness)

Consider the approval and the validation from related professionals

Emergency to be publish

Different technique for presenting information in media

In the media of presenting information is using several ways. Television, internet, radio, newspapers, Public advertisement, posters, banner and cutouts..Etc. based on these methods to be used some have a Audio and visualization some methods have only visualization or audio technique.tecghniq should be depend on the using media type. At the information presenting wise can be used as fallowing technique.

(Figure 1.0 Media and technique can used to peasant information)

Media
Methods
Technique can be used

TV

Advertisement Using Visual and Sounds ,News

Colors ,Graphics, Videos

Radio

Only Audio news or advertisement, News

With sounds, Time of peasant

Newspapers

Newspaper Article, Newspaper Advertisement

Headings can used, fonts style and Graphics, photos

Banners and cutouts and posters

Visual images with information

Graphics, words

Using Team member

Organized the caimans, Publicly do advised

Video, Sounds, using posters

Internet

Google Adds, Emails, use community sites

Video, Words, images, sounds

Different ways of presenting information

Can be present information in different ways as above showing media and methods as presenting and technique can be used in the perform it. Finally analysis thy way of peasant as information on related social and health care sector,

Friendly TV advertisement

News wise

Warning (Ex: some diseases spread in such area don’t do it)

Video ( using small TV program)

Put an large Banners and cutout in the Public places

Presentation wise in the seminars

Through the Email chasm pain

Using cinemas and Drama and entertainment way

Using newspapers article

Public health care reports

How to influence attitude and Behavior of people

In the people behaviors and attitude are different put we are going to present in the health and social care related information we can manage their attitude and behavior in one direction. But need to be maintaining on the Media type, presentation format, and style of presentation, content on the presentation, Understandability Visual aspects and sounds. Because people attitude and behaviors can be change using visualization and sounds. It’s directly effective in the human sense. Finally update their knowledge in the related topics using presentation we can improve the attitude and behavior.

Analyze how issues of concern in health and social care are presented in the media

When analyzing how issues concerning health and social care are presented in the media the good and the bad are presented in media today .People have got engrossed to media today due to the improvement of mass media and technology.

Reliability and validity of Media information on health and social care

Health care and social care are systems built around the society, combining mechanism for health financing and service provision.

Media can play a strong advocacy role by transferring the focus of health issues from indivuals to policy makers and executives whose decisions influence health policy programmers and budgets.

Thus with media spreading rapidly over the world, the global village concept has taken over the world and people are more interconnected than before.

The mass media, particularly the new media have collectively a wide reach. Generally, they also have a high level of creditability, and the information they carry is generally accepted by their audience. In the health area too, the media have a strong influence on people’s knowledge, attitudes and practicers.However while news about health issues should be of interest to everyone, we must remember that journalism has its own needs and parameters. The reader should keep in mind the fact that journalist look for interesting stories, stories that make headlines, that convey the different and the usual. But this might not coincide with the ingredients of sound public policy, or be in accordance with the actual substance of health issues.

The health sectors and social care units have information to impart to the society, information which is important and relevant to the health of the population. But government spokespersons that interact with the media are at a disadvantage. If the spokesperson gives good news, most of the time it is disbelieved by the people. Thus the communication with the media has to be accurate and clear. So the spokesperson should be a trained person, rather than a novice who cannot handle the media.

The fact is that both sides need each other. The health ministry needs the journalist to spread the news, which is often very vital to the public.

The most important factor here is that both parties; ‘the health ministry and the journalist,’ have to be professional, and the most important two factors are that their relationship are trust and transparent.

The media have been used to market health behavior, which targets the indivuals and also it informs about health risks to the masses. But most know about it, that the major determines of health are both in the social and physical environment. And the power of the media can be used very effectively to make environmental healthier.

For example the successful public litigation against the tobacco industry. Today, as a result of years of lobbying and informing the public about it, about the tobacco hazard, its consumption world wide is declining. The reason n is that the mass media together with authorities have carried on the campaign very effectively with accurate information.

Thus new media technology as stated above constantly evolves around providing better health care. But studies have revealed that excessive use of new media technology, best exemplified by computers, contains a possible risk of gaining various negative impacts on health.

Type of information influence Attitude and behavior of people health and social care

For this particular section I wish to take examples from the sex education area, as it has a great impact on the attitude and behavior of young people. The targeted audience is the younger generation of our world.

Young people can be exposed to a wide range of attitudes, behaviors and beliefs in relation to sex and sexuality. These sometimes appear contradictory and confusing.

For example, some health messages emphasis the risk and danger associated with sexual activities and media coverage promotes the idea that being sexually active makes a person more attractive and matire.Beause sex and sexuality are very sensitive subjects, young people and sex educators can have strong views on what attitudes people should hold, and what moral frame work should govern peoples behavior- these too can sometimes be at odds.

Thus young people get information about sex and sexuality from a wide range of sources including each other, through the media including advertising, television and magazines, as well as leaflets, books and web sites which are intended to be a source of information. It is important to provide information which correct mistaken beliefs. With out correct information young people can put themselves at greater risks.

When taking the above scenario into consideration, this involves people’s thoughts, feelings and behaviors which are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others. At this point the media plays a major role. It is a must to keep in mind that people are prone to social influence even when no other person is present, in such case watching television or reading effects.

So when writing articles or doing television documentaries related to health and social care, the authorities that put these forward should be well knowledgeable. As they deal with the masses.

Analysis what builds the attitude and Behavior of people, for health care and social care

There are few factors that contributes to this factor of attitude and behavior which reflects on the way that people look at these issues.

The physiological needs:

Safety and security need;

The people in elderly homes, childrens’ home or under health risk need and highly require safety and security. So adverse media publications can hinder their security plus fear may arise in them.

the love a belonging need

At this point the elders at social care units long for a sense of belonging as loneliness over comes them. This issue arises to many problems within the service person and the elder. They have the strong need to be belonged to a community.

Esteem need.

Thus people in elders homes or in children’s’ homes can have an inferiority complex and some such articles or media publications can increase this as responsible citizens its in the hands of society to make these people they are needed in our society.

So when we take the above facts into consideration we can see that cultures of certain countries along with social norms play a major effect. A culture provides individuals with a set of embedded common understandings that they employ in fashioning their actions, and makes society possible by providing a common frame work of thinking. Thus along with this goes the norms of social rules that specify appropriate and inappropriate behavior in a given situation. So thus these contribute a lot and play a major effect in health and social care.

Research and analyze range of different perspectives on one specific issues relating to social and health care

Major issues in health and social care Scope

The major issues that encompass health and social care issues are the cultural, social and psychological issues. This can be considered highly intricate. Thus diversity is seen as a very broad concept, embracing for example culture, beliefs, disability, gender and race and ethnicity as well as undeserved and marginalized population. Diversity also extends to the wide Varity of settings in which care takes place and the multidisciplinary nature of professional practice.

Summary of different perspective

Western health care faces a number of challenges, including an aging population and rise in chronically diseases, in which in turn causes a burden on the sector and the rising health care expenditures.

Attitude relating to the specific issues in local area

Attitudes mean the positive or negative approach towards a view of a person, place, thing or event. Thus people posses an objective towards the introduced thing and a question arises within them whether to acquire or not.

Thus in the case of local areas or villages, there are many clans and beliefs and ideas that each of these groups posses. Thus they too have their own views and ideas on their health conditions. In many rural areas the conditions of health and sanitation lies at a very poor standard, and there are people who don’t want to change their views.

Most people living in rural areas don’t want to change their ways of medication and though the world is moving forward with new techniques and information, there is a set of people who wants to be in the olden times. Who has a strong belief, on orals and witch crafty. So with this the effect, the spreading of sicknesses and diseases are more. How much NGOS and many organizations integrate towards the rural village, the in habitants don’t want to change their ways of thinking. It is not with all but a few who want to live within their idea frame.

This is all due to the illiterates people. Thus to over come this scenario the people have to be liberated on the ways of taking medicine and facing situations.

Also the social care units are seen as something bad. They don’t believe in the benefits of these units. Also they believe that it is a social come down to keep an aged person in a social care unit, thus little noticing the care there is sometimes much better what they provide at home.

Evaluate current thinking on the chosen issues and its likely influence on the development of health and social care

How the local attitude reflect on the national level

As discussed above many local issues are the reasons of many international issues. When people are unable to solve or eradicate or minimize the spreading of an epidemic it reflects globally. Thus causing a major damage to health, physical, economic and international aspects. Thus then the revenues of NGOS,a countries economy and WHO have to spend a vast amount on eradicating these sickness when it could have been able to be plucked from grass root level.

So in order to eradicate and make the nations free and bring good health practice each and every soul should and must contribute towards this factor.

The best example that I can quote from the reason past is dengue which is a high risk health issue. But the people still have not recognized the individual responsibility towards the spreading of it. They bestow the blame on health organizations and thus each year the death toll increases. The saddest part in this is many young lives victims of this.

We have to concentrate on the fact that the national and world productivity decreases very badly when disease start to spread. So the social responsibility too should pay a vast role in this factor.

Evaluate the validity of public attitudes and behaviors related in to specific issues

Healthcare is the area of educating people about health .This encompasses a vast area when related to health such as environmental health, physical health, social health, emotional health, intellectual and spiritual health. This is the principal by whom individuals and groups of people learn to behave in a manner conducive to the promotion, maintenance or restoration of health. As there are many health definitions, there are multiple definitions of health education.

Thus the joint committee of health education and promotion terminology of 2001 defined health education as nay combination of planned education based on sound theories that provides individuals ,groups and communities the opportunity to acquire information and skills needed to make quality health care and social care.

Conclusion

In conclusion this is an over view and an insight to global health issues and how media can reflect or take it in to the masses. Thus the responsibility of the masses too is important in this issue. Each and every one should be responsible plus the attitudes count a lot. The local health issues and attitudes contribute to the international arena. Thus globally major issues do occur due to attitudes of local people. So authorities should know to educate the people, in health care and thus in media publication. What I strongly believe is that the young should be educated on media, and not to always consider the validity and reliability of media publications.

Discuss what a consumer society is and an insight to its beginnings. Divisions suggested by theorist Zygmunt Bauman. Discuss supermarket power and whether they offer choice to consumers discuss the winners and losers in a consumer society, conclude on choice to consumers.

Main Body
Paragraph 1

Explain consumer society, discuss who is involved and ways it describes society using evidence from making social lives introduction p3-8, making social lives, 2009, Chapter 1, p20-21.

Paragraph 2

Explain Industrial society, and class divisions within. Making social lives, 2009, chapter 1, p25.

Paragraph 3

The uprising of department stores, what changes it bought to consumption. Making social lives chapter 1, p37.

Paragraph 4

Theorist Bauman (1988). Divisions made in consumer society from economic growth, how society took part and their abilities to do so, the choices for those within the seduced. Concept – The seduced. Taken from making social lives, 2009, chapter1 p25-27.

Paragraph 5

Theorist Bauman (1988). Theory of ‘the repressed’, discuss who are the repressed in society and their choices. Concept – The Repressed. Claims taken from making social lives, 2009, chapter 129-31.

Paragraph 6

Supermarket chains the four largest groups, Protester groups against Tesco in Glasgow, reasons why against. Claims taken from making social lives (2009), chapter 2 p57-62.

Paragraph 7

Supermarket pro group, reasons why they are welcome supermarket uprising, claims taken from making social lives (2009) p62-65.

Paragraph8

Anti and pro supermarket claims. Anti-Supermarket power how it is used, damage from power made to small retailers. Pro-supermarket consumer choice claims. Evidence taken from, evidence in social sciences, 2009, track1.

Paragraph 9

Define zero sum game within supermarkets, suppliers to supermarkets, working conditions abroad; those who have the power in consumer supplies, who has choice. Evidence taken from making social lives (2009) p83-91

Paragraph 10

Define Positive sum game, the winners and losers how supermarkets take part in Zero sum power. Claims taken from making social lives (2009), p 90-93.

Conclusion

Sum up choice in consumer society and how it is an unequal choice

Consumerism today means more than shopping for essentials, the way we take part in consuming gives an insight to whom we are and what we are about, our personality and the promise of a freedom to choose our lifestyle. There is no doubt that essentials shopping will always be necessary in life but there is also strong connections to socialization though the activity of consumption seen in contemporary UK today. This socialization is dependent on many factors like advertising and family and friend’s pressures and our incomes, this is known as a consumer society. The ways we actively consume give us an identity in society.

Thirty years ago society was based around industry and people where defined by their jobs and class divisions known as industrial society, but due to a declining of many industrial manufacturers like mining, arrival of a more working or middle class society evolved this society introduced the idea of consumer society defined by the social activities of consumption thus reshaping society.

The appearance of department stores first appeared around the 1860’s they primarily sold the ideas of luxury to the wealthy by way of displaying plentiful goods with an immediate availability and offering to let people actively touch and connect items to create their lifestyles. Department stores began to sell the idea of luxury though seduction by the large Varity and stocks they could hold at any one time here began the uprising of consumption as a social activity.

Social scientist Zygmunt Bauman (1988) saw two divisions in contemporary day culture a society which he claims are the ‘seduced and repressed'(Hetherington,2009,p25). The seduced of 30 years earlier were those who were land owners, lawyers or high paid bankers. But as consumption grew for economic growth in the late nineteenth century a wider class of people, those with job security, or a disposable income were able to enjoy the social freedom of buying into a luxury lifestyle, the ideas of consuming to build self expression and individuality became important role in identifying who we were and depending on how people took part told of class, success and wealth. The seduced society therefore are those who can take part effectively in consumption, not only because they can afford to but because they are seen as a positive members in society, a membership, the included those with wider options of choice.

There is different side to consumer society, Bauman suggests these are the repressed (Hetherington, 2009, p28) these are considered the excluded in society, often without means to take part in consumption effectively, characteristically those on a low wage, unemployed or with disability. Their opportunity to self express or take part in the social connection and effective consumption will be limited by factors like not having a car or having funds to buy the latest fashion or gadgets to fit in with an ‘in crowd’ these people are more choice restricted labelled as unsuccessful members in society. And so what’s noticeable is that income predominantly gives a freedom of choice, it dictates the level at which society can take part.

Twenty first century shopping has taken a great step from department stores which although are still seen have declined, for out of town retail outlets, shopping malls and supermarket chains namely four large contenders Tesco, Sainsbury’s, Morrison’s and Asda. These reside in large spaces dedicated solely to consumption seen as safe place to shop a family environment within a modern setting. The ability to take part in out of town shopping is largely dependent on having transport this could lead to some of society being excluded if they didn’t have access to cars or were less able to take part financially. One protester group, STOP (Stop Tesco owning Patrick) in the Glasgow town of Patrick has taken a stand against a proposed Tesco store being built on urban ground as they claim the development would caused damage to local retailers mainly family run by their power to dominate the market with the prices and choices they offer.(Allen,2009,p62).

There is also another group in a town close by to Patrick who have also had proposals from Tesco to build a superstore, but they welcome the development as they feel it will bring restoration to the area after closure of a large car industry left many unemployed, the development will attract other retailers into the area creating jobs and skills (Allen, 2009, p62).

There is growing concern regarding the ways supermarkets use their power within the grocery market, whether they use their size and influence to control consumer choice, and whether this has caused damage to the town centres and high streets, Helene Rimmer of friends of the earth suggests that approximately fifty small shops a week are closing directly from supermarket growth (Evidence in the social sciences, 2009, track1), limiting our choices to shop elsewhere. Richard Dodd from the British Retail Consortium suggests that consumers cannot be coerced to shop at the superstores more that they make the choice to do so as they are attracted to products and services offered and should they not like that they would make the choice not to shop there anymore he suggests that power and choice lays with consumer (Evidence in the social sciences, 2009, track 1).

Anti supermarket lobbies argue that supermarkets are restricting and dominating in other ways beyond just the end consumer, bulk buying from suppliers gives buying power offering good position to demand bigger discounts for goods, but often these discounts are passed down to workforces often in countries abroad and migrant workers via below standard minimal wages, long hours and unhealthy working conditions where what

It seems the only people gaining are the supermarkets who hold the profits and choice to source the lowest prices supplies, In all a Zero-sum market(Dennis Wrong, 1997,p70) where only one side gains.

The pro supermarket lobbies see the suppliers and factory owners to be at fault of the poverty to their workers from not pushing to get a better price for their supplies. The risks here though are that should they demand to high a price for goods the supermarkets will source an alternative supplier elsewhere with widespread loss falling back greatest on the dependant workforce. By keeping the workforces in jobs may seem like exploitation at its worse but this can be seen as a positive-sum game (Dennis Wrong, 1997, p70) where all parties involved will benefit as although these jobs are still at poverty level they are better than no job or the alternatives available often with a much poorer wage.

In sum there is consumer choice but it is a restricted choice for those of society who cannot take part effectively, but for persons within society with the affluence, power and the ideals to create a lifestyle choice is not governed so strictly, there is much freedom in choice. Large supermarket retailers play key roles in influencing our contemporary day to day choices in groceries as they hold such power within the market, here our choices are limited by their choices.

1173 words

‘What is the place of Consumerism in the lifestyle of emergent new middle classes in Ireland?’ Basically an application of a Bourdieu/ Featherstone argument about new middle classes to the Irish case.

Chapter One: Introduction

In order to examine the place of Consumerism in the lifestyle of emergent new middle classes in Ireland, the ideas of ‘Consumerism’, ‘lifestyle’ and ‘emergent new middle classes’ must first be defined. Accordingly these definitions will occupy the preliminary discussions of this thesis in the relevant sections. The thesis will examine the role of emergent middle classes, and will attempt to tie this discussion to analysis of how and why demographic trends such as the emergence of new middle classes have evolved, and what place Consumerism has in the lifestyles of those individuals within these new demographic cleavages.

Economic events and socio-economic developments (both historical and contemporary) linked to these events have been the main precipitative forces responsible for these emergent sociological contours^[i]. The economic and socio-economic climate in Ireland and how this has developed will therefore be a centre point in examining the role of emergent new middle classes and how Consumerism has impacted the role and lifestyle of these sectors.

These ideas will be introduced in the literature review and they will be fleshed out throughout the thesis in order to gain a holistic and comprehensive insight into the place of Consumerism in the lifestyle of emergent new middle classes in Ireland. This analysis will be contextualised with reference to the theories of Bourdieu (1979) and Featherstone (1992) whose cultural perspectives on society have mainly rationalised Consumerism in terms of subjectivity and individual perceptions; therefore repudiating the idea that Consumerism is simply an objective, independent market force which operates within neo-classical^[ii] and laissez-faire^[iii] boundaries. Images of Irish society will be very important in this thesis and the images/themes which will be examined throughout the thesis to facilitate this discussion of Consumerism are images of secularisation, images of Class Dealignment, images connected with the Celtic Tiger and the process of diversification.

The next section will examine the methodology of the thesis. This will link the above mentioned theoretical definitions, arguments and analysis into the wider empirical and qualitative aims of the thesis. The chosen methodology is discourse analysis, and turning to a discussion of the definition of what exactly this is, is a natural progression. Accordingly, this discussion of definition will follow in the next section. The next section will also introduce the methodological framework of the thesis. It will define the various applications and forms of discourse analysis and it will explain how these will be considered throughout the thesis.

Chapter Two
Methodology: Discourse Analysis

This thesis will rely primarily upon empirical evidence gathered through discourse analysis. The writer has selected a number of cultural themes from selected publications and these will be examined empirically and through discourse analysis. These are diversification^[iv] (both political and cultural), images of Class Dealignment, images of secularised society and the imputations which arise from the phrase ‘Celtic Tiger^[v]’. These will be looked at in depth as the thesis progresses, and will be placed within the context of wider themes of economic, political and socio-economic factors which the writer will also examine in terms of broad and contextual discourse analysis.

Discourse analysis is an interdisciplinary^[vi] method of analysing sociological trends^[vii] through the analysis of language^[viii] and speech^[ix], and how political ideas are disseminated through language^[x]. This method will be used throughout the dissertation as a means of analysing the place of Consumerism in the lifestyle of emergent middle classes.

Discourse analysis has been differentiated and divided into niche areas in terms of its application. For example, discourse analysis may be used on a micro scale which would involve minute analysis of grammatical structure^[xi], language and the composition^[xii] of language^[xiii]. This is not a method which will be concentrated upon in this thesis, as the more expansive niches within discourse analysis, which concentrates upon context^[xiv] and cultural, political and other sociological forces are more appropriate ways to analyse the question title. This is because the concentration of discourse analysis in terms of wider context^[xv] and a focus on specifically identified themes rather than minute form^[xvi] and constructions^[xvii] gives the writer a lot more room to analyse political, cultural, sociological, demographic and economic trends, which is the ultimate goal of this thesis enquiry.

Chimombo, M. and Roseberry, R. (1998) give us the following in depth definition of discourse analysis:

‘Discourse is a process resulting in a communicative act. The communicative act itself takes the form of a text. A text is commonly thought of as consisting of written or printed words on a page; but a text may also consist of sign language or spoken words, or it may comprise only the thoughts of a writer, or speaker, on the one hand, or a reader or listener, on the other. In addition to words, a text may consist of other symbols, sounds, gestures, or silences, in any combination that is intended to communicate information such as ideas, emotional states, and attitudes. It may fail to communicate, but if the intention to communicate is clearly there, it must be regarded as a text…..^[xviii]’.

Chimombo, M. and Roseberry, R. (1998) then go on explain how this abstract definition applies within the context of methodology:

‘Analysis of discourse is a methodology for examining texts and the communicative process that gives rise to them. Its primary purpose is to enable discourse analysts to gain a deeper understanding and appreciation of texts. Because most texts are goal oriented, part of the purpose of discourse analysis is to enable people to recognize the intended goal of the writer or speaker and thus achieve some measure of control over the discourse…..The understanding that may be gained in this way helps to equalize the power relationship and enables an escape from the role of victim such that individuals may assume a greater degree of control over their lives. This book demonstrates that discourse is typically used to a greater or lesser degree for exploitation. Different types of discourse are intended to exploit consumers, voters, employees, children, women, minorities, and many other groups within society. An ability to analyze discourse offers such groups a means of protection….^[xix]’.

A discourse is therefore an amalgam of perspective. These perspectives are often political, economic or ideological in nature, since the articulation of a perspective through discourse is often underpinned by struggles for political power and influence^[xx]. This in turn imputes that a discourse has a special connection with politics and with economics and that cultural discourses have often been appended to these primary discourses. Chimombo, M. and Roseberry, R. (1998) make this point very strongly in the following passage:

‘….The term control implies a power relationship between those who produce texts and those for whom these texts are intended. For example, politicians, lawyers, doctors, advertisers, business executives, teachers, and many others exercise power over their clients through the discourse that is characteristic of these professionals. Analysis of professional discourse can reveal these power relationships and the goals that may be hidden in them. ….^[xxi]’.

Cultural discourses may also be seen as having evolved indirectly from political, economic and ideological discourses^[xxii]. A cultural discourse may therefore be rationalised as secondary in many ways to a political/ideological and to an economic discourse. However, it is important to understand that cultural discourses often exist within the framework of these arguably more primary discourses^[xxiii]. Also, one must remember that an analysis of cultural discourse, without an adequate analysis of the wider context of the discourse and its relationship with other discourses will not be a credible analysis. The writer’s regard for a cultural discourse as a secondary discourse is an explanation of how cultural discourse has evolved; it is not intended to demarcate cultural discourse as less relevant than political, economic or ideological discourse. Clearly, cultural discourses have qualified and enriched these wider, politically tuned discourses and this in itself is a unique and powerful mechanism of change.

This explains the central nature of wider political discourse analysis in this thesis and it also explains why Fairclough (1995) ^[xxiv] in particular has argued that discourse analysis centres on the interpretation of political and ideological discourses. It is important to remember however that cultural discourse analysis is intertwined with these primary discourses in a subtle but imperative way.

The following chapters will deal with definitions of lifestyle and consumerism. They will also introduce a general discourse analysis which will centre on the selected themes mentioned above and how they ultimately relate to politics, economics, and the demographic and sociological trends which have been emerging in Ireland over the last twenty years^[xxv]. The concept of emergent middle classes will be defined in the following chapters also and this definition will lead into a broad and contextual discourse analysis of how middle classes emerged in Ireland. The effects of this emergence will be discussed, but all of these threads of analysis will ultimately be drawn together to look at the place of Consumerism in the lifestyle of emergent new middle classes in Ireland, and the arguments that have been made in this area by Bourdieu (1979) and Featherstone (1992).

Chapter Three: Literature Review:
What is ‘Consumerism’?

Clarke (2003) gives us the following definition and explanation of Consumerism within the context of culture:

‘….Bauman (1992c, 24) reflects that the strange ‘dialectic of dependence and autonomy’ between consumer and consumer society is indeed ‘not unlike that of the grammar and vocabulary of language and formed sentences of speech: the latter are in no way “determined” by the former and move freely within the frame it provides’. The practice of consumption amounts, in other words, to an act of enunciation, which takes place in ‘a space filled with unattached signifiers … a space awaiting attribution of meaning’ (ibid.). The consumer is in no way manipulated, nor consumer behaviour ‘determined’, even though the consumer is formally deprived of autonomy in all forms but the duplicitous form of freedom of choice. The proliferation of relations of trust, the reliance on specialist knowledge and expertise, and the privatization of the task of constructing some form of continuity of life-experience are unavoidable features of life in a consumer society. But consumers are nonetheless in a position to make of their situation something other than what is intended. The problem, however, is that, as an ‘act through which the presence of the individual … can be confirmed and reasserted’ (ibid.), consumption and the relations of trust it entails provides an opportunistic means for the perpetuation – and dramatic expansion – of capitalism.….^[xxvi]’.

Therefore, as has been argued above, Consumerism is a term which describes the links between happiness, material goods/possessions and humans^[xxvii]. It can be argued that Consumerism refers to the idea that material goods and possessions induce feelings of happiness and accordingly all behaviours which may be linked to the endorsement of this rationale may also be described as Consumerism^[xxviii]. Consumerism is an idea which was considered by Karl Marx^[xxix], whose famous critique of Consumerism and capitalist ideology (Communism^[xxx]) interpreted ideas of Consumerism as immoral and subversive^[xxxi].

In modern terms Socialism rejects ideas related to Consumerism in a more moderate way, but the premise upon which Socialism is built mirrors Communism in its suspicion of Consumerism^[xxxii]. Consumerism may also be described in terms of economic behaviour and policy. If one considers Consumerism in an abstract manner, it is possible to argue that the freedom of individuals to choose how to spend money/dissipate resources manifests itself as Consumerism, since the marketing of goods to a consumer encourages them to exercise their freedom to choose what to purchase. Clarke (2003) has noted that this is an ongoing and repetitive process: ‘The act of consumption is destined to repeat itself, since the human subject is irresistibly compelled to seek a unity and coherence it can never know…^[xxxiii]’.

Ideas relating to Consumerism have traditionally been associated with Western societies and have also been particularly synonymous with neo-liberal capitalism. However, it may be argued that with the growing influence of globalisation and technological advancements, the impact of Consumerism is a global one as opposed to the more traditional interpretation of Consumerism as being tied particularly to certain cultures, more so than to others. Ultimately, however, Consumerism is connected to the ideas of human rationality, freedom and choice and has evolved as a means whereby human wants are satisfied. Accordingly, Consumerism may also be seen as a sociological force since, the recognition of social standings within society can be defined in many ways according to material wealth and the accumulation of material possessions.

Consumerism is a complex idea which may be interpreted objectively as well as subjectively. This characteristic of Consumerism has invited the levels of cultural, sociological and economic analysis which the theory of Consumerism seems to have attracted. Therefore, the evolution of Consumerism and the various interpretations of the current status of Consumerism will be relevant to this thesis. Consumerism; its construction and its manifestation can be seen to oscillate with cultural mores and the development of society. This is how Consumerism may also be seen as an evolving social construct.

Certainly Bourdieu (1979), Lash and Urry (1994) as well as Baudrillard (1993) consider Consumerism as a malleable social construct^[xxxiv], which has developed mostly as a result of the growing economic affluence^[xxxv] which may be seen in Ireland^[xxxvi]. Their views are that class is demarcated in terms of taste, culture and lifestyle^[xxxvii], whereas historically this demarcation was less obvious since economic limitations precluded individuals from expressing taste, culture and lifestyle in the diverse ways that are possible today. Their analysis goes on to argue that Consumerism is the vehicle through which this transition has taken effect, since diversities in taste, culture and lifestyle have largely been introduced through the marketing of Consumerism and consumerist values. Therefore the accessibility of diversity to individuals has increased as economic conditions and Consumerism have delivered more choice to the individual.

Emergent New Middle Classes

‘Middle classes’ is a somewhat overused term. It has historically been used to differentiate the economically disadvantaged within society from those whose incomes and resources provide them with enough money to live independently and relatively affluently within society, generally occupying the middle ground between rich and poor within society. The emergent new middle classes that are referred to in the scope of this thesis can be recognised as the product of an increasingly affluent society within Ireland^[xxxviii], emerging as more individuals benefit from the higher standards of living that may be seen as a result of what is colloquially known as the Celtic Tiger^[xxxix].

Cronin (2000) has an analysis of individual cultural consciousness which allows us to interpret the emergence of middle classes in a purely cultural and subjective context. He argues:

‘Diprose (1994) states that the Lockean model defines the individual as an entity which maintains the same consciousness over time and through corporeal changes, for example illness or pregnancy, thus giving primacy to the mind or consciousness over the body. Further more, the individual is defined as having identical self-presence in which, ‘an entity is identical with itself if it has the same origin in time and space’ (Diprose 1994:9). So the individuation necessary for the processes of mutual recognition to occur requires a temporally bounded entity. Simultaneously, the individual is spatially bounded through the distinction between self and not-self which is produced in that same process of recognition. Here arises the constitutive contradiction of contract, identical self-presence and exchange: in these political fictions, the individual is said to have a self-contained identity prior to contract or relations with others (Diprose 1994). Pateman’s (1988) analysis of the contradictory production of women’s and subordinate groups’ status in contract echoes this tension. For the processes of contractual exchange to occur, an individual must recognise another as an individual. The characteristics that this requires are rationality and the possession of property……^[xl]’.

Therefore, it is arguable that the emergence of new cleavages of middle classes in Ireland has arisen both through a combination of objective, market forces combined with the forces which drive individual self-perception and this in turn drives an individual to represent themselves and ultimately project this representation.

Chapter Four:
Discourse Analysis of Economic Growth in Ireland

The development of the economy in Ireland^[xli] has created unprecedented^[xlii] levels of wealth^[xliii] and affluence^[xliv] within Ireland^[1]. Accordingly this section will specifically examine the nature and underpinnings of economic progress in Ireland as this has largely given rise to^[xlv] and sustained^[xlvi] emergent new middle classes as the Consumerism which has evolved alongside these sectors.

Economic growth in Ireland may be explained in terms of ideological transition^[xlvii], the influence of the European Community^[xlviii] and the influence of political leaders^[xlix] throughout this period of economic transition^[l]. Macro economic convergence theories^[li] may also help explain the shifts in economic conditions seen in Ireland^[lii]. These factors are given more in depth analysis below.

The decline of state interventionism and state protectionism^[liii] in Ireland led to palpable ideological shifts within the country^[liv]. In an international setting, the ideological foundations of the welfare state^[lv] were being replaced with more modern neo-liberal^[2] conceptions of political philosophy^[lvi]. This trend was particularly notable in Britain with the election of Margaret Thatcher and her subsequent repudiation of Keynes’ economic^[lvii] theory^[lviii]. These ideological shifts, which influenced Ireland^[lix], (although not until many years later) partly laid the foundations for the economic revolution^[lx] which was to come about in the mid-nineties^[lxi].

Charles Haughey who had been in power periodically since 1979, was re-elected Taoiseach in 1987, during a deep economic recession^[lxii]. Haughey’s predecessor in 1987 was G. Fitzgerald. These two individuals are widely recognised as having laid the foundations for economic stability in the Republic of Ireland, with a recognition that taxation needed to be reorganised to stimulate economic enterprise and growth. Consequently, under Haughey public spending was decreased and spending on public sector employment and bureaucracy was also reduced^[lxiii]. This produced a dividend in the form of economic stability, lower levels of inflation and relatively rejuvenated economic growth. Again this affected employment conditions, reducing unemployment and creating the conditions for investment in enterprise. Tax cuts were then directed at the manufacturing industries^[lxiv], and later tax breaks for particular sectors of industry augmented these economic dividends in the form of a stimulated economy and greater levels of employment. These economic conditions led to a reduced reliance on agricultural enterprise^[lxv] and this is known as ‘economic diversification’^[lxvi].

The relationship between Ireland and the European Community and Ireland’s accession to the European Community in the early 1970s marked a high point politically^[lxvii], culturally and economically^[lxviii] for Ireland^[lxix]. However, the influence of the European Community on the situation of Ireland is a controversial area of debate at the moment^[lxx]. Some have argued that the influence of the European Union has been instrumental in the growth of Ireland’s economy^[lxxi], whereas conversely there are arguments which suggest that the role of the European Community has been over stated, misunderstood and even misrepresented^[lxxii]. Both propositions will be considered by the writer in following sections.

The theory that Ireland prospered due to entry to the European Community has been critiqued as a facile theory^[lxxiii] and this argument may be seen as even more cogent given that Powell (2003) has argued that if Ireland had prospered due to entry to the European Community, then the effects of EC investment would be identifiable and tangible. The reality is that European investment in Ireland produced some economic benefits, but the prosperity which Ireland enjoyed was precipitated by a plethora of events and shifts, which cumulatively produced the effects known as the Celtic Tiger^[lxxiv]. One such shift is known as the convergence theory and economic growth in Ireland has been rationalised in terms of the convergence theory in the following way.

This theory suggests that the ‘Celtic Tiger’ was not precipitated by circumstances, affiliations (in particular to the European Community) or events, but rather by the operation of a group of economic forces which argues that over time similar countries with similar institutions tend to perform economically in a congruous way. In this sense, the Celtic Tiger has been rationalised as a convergence as opposed to a phenomenon. Historically, this theory is plausible, as Ireland was dogged by recession in spite of entry into the EEC in 1973, under the tenure of Jack Lynch^[lxxv]. This recession continued until the advent of Charles Haughey, and G. Fitzgerald who addressed the failing tax system in the Republic of Ireland^[lxxvi].

The conception of taxation had been fundamentally challenged and revised in Ireland over the last twenty years^[lxxvii]. This shift led to the realisation of the above mentioned ideological ideas substantively and not just rhetorically. The mid eighties in Ireland was a period characterised by high taxation and low employment^[lxxviii]. Taxation was regarded as a method of bolstering the economy^[lxxix]… This had an adverse effect of investment, thwarted business and led to high levels of unemployment^[lxxx]. In many ways this is what thwarted the progress of the economy, forcing class alignment along economic lines. Powell (2003) has argued that just prior to the millennium GDP in Ireland was $25,500 per capita, whereas in Britain this figure was approximately $23,000 per capita. This can be contrasted with the fact that in the late 1980s GDP per capita in Ireland was only approximately 65%, that of the UK GDP per capita^[lxxxi]. This economic revolution has been referred to in colloquial and cultural terms as the growth of the ‘Celtic Tiger’.

The use of the term Celtic Tiger is of great significance and it may be rationalised in terms of cultural symbolism in the following way:

‘Human encounter with the world has always been a profoundly enigmatic affair. Traditionally, human societies attained a measure of ontological security from social arrangements that accepted the fundamental ambivalence of the world (Giddens 1990; 1994). Because traditional modes of existence were symbolically tied to the world of appearances, such societies were able to employ well established, ritualized ways and means of being-in-the-world…^[lxxxii]’.

The effects of cultural symbolism may be further delved into through examining this explanation of existence and illusions which are imparted through the ‘appearance of things’:

‘The continuity of such an existence was assured by the experience of tradition alone, and legitimated by forces beyond human powers. ‘Nature … in the infinite detail of its illusory manifestations … was conceived above all as the work of hidden wills’ (Bloch 1962, 83). This world of illusion amounted, in other words, to an acceptance of the illusion of the world (the term ‘illusion’ is apt ‘not in the sense of its power to fool you, but in its power to put something into play, to create something: scene, space, a game, a rule of the game – to invent, in fact, the mode of appearance of things’ (Baudrillard 1993b, 59-60)). Modernity, in stark contrast, was founded firmly on the disavowal of the fact that ambivalence is inevitable; that appearances are intrinsically deceptive. Modernity was founded on a commitment to the reality of the world (Bauman 1991). Modernity thus held out the dream of an attainable order. And order, as the promise of the removal of ambivalence and contingency from the world, necessarily cast contingency as a threat, and demonized ambivalence. This was, of course, a complex and multifaceted affair. It involved, for instance, a transformation of time, as time became ‘the property of man’ (Le Goff 1980, 51)…^[lxxxiii]’.

Therefore the concept of a tiger married to the concept of ‘Celtic’ and Celticness^[lxxxiv] conveys, in metaphorical terms the speed and the pervasiveness of the new found wealth which swept through Ireland in the mid nineties, changing and fuelling market forces such as Consumerism. This terminology^[lxxxv] is relevant in cultural terms since it conveys the prosperity which pervaded Ireland during this period, and continues to drive the Irish economy as one of the wealthiest countries in the European Union^[lxxxvi].

This led to a dramatic shift in cultural mores and led to a redefining of class boundaries. The term ‘Celtic Tiger’ also cast Ireland in an advantageous light internationally, advertising the economic growth and success which the country was experiencing. This attracted foreign investment interest and raised the profile of Ireland internationally, as well as serving to extricate Ireland from the damaging and often distorted image of a country dependent on EEC funding and support.

Demographically, the influence of economic forces was also dramatic and widespread. More people were in employment in Ireland and this led to a surge in industry, investment and enterprise^[lxxxvii]. The tourist and the service sector industries surged forward economically, changing the sociological and cultural contours of the Republic of Ireland. Small businesses expanded and more people built hotels, shops, restaurants and food outlets^[lxxxviii]. This impacted upon the tourist industry which thrived as more people were attracted to visiting locations within Ireland that were more accessible and inviting^[lxxxix]. This trend too had a knock on effect with more leisure facilities being built, and a general emphasis on regenerating services and facilities in the interests of attracting tourists

Prostitution or commercial sex work, the practice of providing sexual services in return for payment, is one of the oldest professions of the world. Every civilisation mentions the presence of prostitution in some form in their respective literature. Moreover, with the change of time, the face of prostitution has changed a lot with varied consequences. The commercial sex workers have moved out of a confined wall of brothels to streets so as to attract customers. Sex work as a profession is not a natural choice for the most sex workers but they are put into the profession either by force, human trafficking, or are victim of economical or social injustice. However, research advances in this field, though not new, has been very scant. The present study attempted to study the consequences of sex work in terms of perceived stress, loneliness and wellbeing. A total of 115 active female commercial sex workers from different cities of India were requested to participate in the present study. Measures of Perceived stress, loneliness and PGI wellbeing was used to get the responses from the respondents. Using a 2 (level of age) x 3 (levels of number of clients per day) factorial design results were achieved. The ANOVA results indicated a significant effect of number of clients on the measure wellbeing. However, only interaction of age and number of clients was found to be significant on the measure of perceived stress among the commercial sex workers. Furthermore, main effects were not found to be statistically on the measure of loneliness. In addition, correlation results indicated a negative relationship between number of clients per day and well being. Interestingly, a negative correlation between perceived stress and age of the respondents suggesting aging relives from stress arising out of the profession was observed. The measure of loneliness revealed no relationship between any of the measure under study. The results have been interpreted and implications have been discussed the light of available literature and contemporary theoretical approaches.

Introduction

Prostitution is widely described as the world’s oldest profession. Prostitution, the practice of selling sex for cash or other immediate compensation, has existed across cultures and times from the ancient Greeks, through religious servitude, to today’s sex scandals that have rocked several countries. Prostitution also crosses class lines, from the poor ‘streetwalkers’ with their stereotyped drug habits and abusive pimps to the high-class brothel and escort service workers with their designer clothes and stylish apartments.

While the prostitute technically sells a service, namely sexual intimacy, the ways in which prostitution is discussed suggest that, at least to modern sensibilities, she is selling far more than that. Common euphemisms for prostitution in English include ‘selling her body’ and ‘selling herself’, conflating the body and the self with sexual intimacy indicates that sexual intimacy both defines and controls the body and the self.

Buyers of sex are not restricted to any one class or clan; however, throughout the world mobile populations of men form a large proportion of sex consumers. Transport workers, seafarers, businessmen and men who are separated from their families and communities either by migration or by joining the armed forces are regular clients. Nevertheless, sex work remains criminalized in many countries and sex workers are subject to human rights violations in many more.

Most analyses of prostitution suggest that both men and women enter prostitution, either professionally or temporarily, as relative amateurs, for economic and monetary reasons or are forced to indulge in sex work profession. Certainly, through most of history there were few professions open for women, especially if they had little or no family support or they lacked the education or class status to aspire to the few professions that respectable women could participate in. Conversely, many people who advocate a departure from the shame culture surrounding sex in a variety of arenas, including sex work, argue that some prostitutes work in order to challenge repressive gender roles which restrict women’s sexuality to a romantic ideology and oppressive patriarchal marriages. As these activists are also working to change women’s opportunities and thus eliminate prostitution as a forced, last-ditch option for staying alive, they are not simply romanticizing prostitution but complicating it by forcing the world to consider the positive choices of sex workers.

More so, females in their early teens are more vulnerable and get lured into the profession not by choice but more due to immaturity. However, adult women may also be vulnerable to economic, social and psychological pressures leading to the choice of sex work profession. There is nothing magical about a girl’s eighteenth birthday that guarantees that she can make free and unpressured choices. What seems more important in the context of prostitution and the controversy over ‘choice’ is the individual’s ability to manage power hierarchies and to retain an element of control within them (WHO, 2001).

Nevertheless, very little is known about the demand for sex worker services. Sexuality is not a subject that is much discussed in India. Contrary to cultural ideals that stress chastity before marriage and fidelity within it, men commonly stray from this norm. While this behaviour is generally not as pronounced as in societies in East and Southeast Asia there is consistent, although largely anecdotal evidence to indicate that a large minority of men are clients of sex workers. Mobile groups of men: male migrants in the cities; truck drivers; those in the armed forces; and travelling businessmen are frequently cited as important client groups. Many young men are initiated into their sexual lives by prostitutes (UNFPA, 2001). Rapidly escalating prevalence rates for HIV indicate that monogamy is not necessarily practised (Lousie, 2000). This applies to men from all social classes.

Threats to physical and psychological wellbeing come from working conditions, as well as from clients, the public, and the police encountered in the working environment. Both the public and the police use harassment and violence to monitor sex workers’ behavior. Besides, street-based sex workers are subject to constant attention, scrutiny, and harassment. In contrast to street-based workers, sex workers who operate in other venues are relatively invisible but are still likely to be the subject of harassment and assault leading to depleted state of well being.

Regarding sexual and physical health, the sex workers are at a high risk of sexually transmitted disease (STD). Undeniably, the importance of the link between sexual abuse injuries and STIs has been recognized. Specially, in the context of the trafficked, they are often victims of repeated sexual abuse and coercion into involuntary sex acts, which may include vaginal rape, forced anal and oral sex, forced unprotected sex, gang rape, sex during menstruation, and sex accompanied by violent or degrading ritual, which not only have physical consequences but also affects the psychological state of the victims. Moreover, the dimensions of coercion and violence within the given situation also increase women’s risk of infection by limiting women’s ability to negotiate how sex takes place and whether condoms are used. Gynecological complications are the most common health problem faced by trafficked women as a result of the abuse context, which may be in terms of tearing of the vaginal tract and genitals, sexually transmitted infections, unwanted pregnancy, risks to reproductive and sexual health and above all HIV/AIDS.

Above all social stigma the sex workers face is more enduring and affects them more psychologically and is devastating for them. However, they still continue to indulge in the profession for various reasons. Stress and loneliness is one of the consequences accompanied with shattered wellbeing which may be observed among the sex workers.

In view of these beliefs, numerous authors have been interested in exploring sex workers’ sexual health. However, the psychological exploration in the lives of sex workers in Indian context could not be seen. Within this backdrop, present study attempted to explore the consequences of sex work in terms of perceived stress, loneliness and wellbeing.

METHOD

Sample: A total of 115 active female commercial sex workers from different Red light areas and prostitution belt, located in cities of India, were requested to participate in the present study. Looking at the extent of study and the difficulty in finding participants for the study, purposive sampling method was used to select the sample. Respondents were female sex worker in the age range of 14-45 years.

Tools: Apart from including demographic items in the interview schedule measures pertaining to perceived stress, loneliness and wellbeing was used to get appropriate responses, suitable to the objectives, from the respondents.

Perceived Stress Scale (PSS): Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983) was used to understand the stress pattern of the respondents.PSS included 14 items to be rated on a 5-point Likert type scale ranging from never (0) to very often (4).

UCLA Loneliness Scale: The UCLA Loneliness Scale (Russel, 1996) was included to assess subjective feelings of loneliness of the respondents (commercial sex workers). The items in the scale were to be rated on a four point scale ranging from “never’ to “often.”

PGI Wellbeing Scale: PGI Wellbeing scale developed by Verma, & Verma, (1989) included 20 items intended to measure the subjective wellbeing of the respondents. Forced type ‘yes/no’ response was to be put against the items and a high score on the scale indicated high degree of wellbeing.

The interview schedule was supplemented by actual observation of the situation.

Procedure: Initially, all the respondents were contacted at their workplace and objectives of the study were explained. With great difficulty the respondents agreed to participate in the study. Data was collected from different Red light areas and prostitution belt, located in various cities of India. All the respondents were assured of confidentiality of their location and responses and were thanked for their participation in the study.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Using a 2 (level of age) x 3 (levels of number of clients per day) factorial design results were achieved (Table 1).

The ANOVA results pertaining to perceived stress have been shown in table 2. No statistically significant effect of the main effects of age (F (1, 109)= 0.246; p>.05) and number of clients (F (2, 109)= 2.785; p>.05) on the perceived stress is observed. The mean results, however, revealed that the respondents of younger age (M= 29.61) perceived more stress than their upper age (M= 27.12) counterparts. With regard to number of clients per day, it was revealed that the respondents dealing with 5 or more clients (M= 28.41) were more stressed than their other counterparts dealing with 3 or less clients (M= 28) and with 4 clients (M= 27.29) per day.

Conversely, interaction of age and number of clients (F (2, 109) = 7.732; p<.01) was found to be significant on the measure of perceived stress among the commercial sex workers (Figure 1). The mean results depicted that the respondents belonging to the younger age group of below 20 years and having 5 or more clients (M= 29.61) were more stressed than their counterparts. On the other hand the respondents of same age group and having 3 or less clients per day (M= 22.00) were found to be least stressed in all groups under study. Further, in the higher age group respondents dealing with 3 or less clients (M= 29.50) were most stressed. The result seems to indicate interesting fact age the sex workers age they become more accustomed and adjusted with their profession and that less number of clients, for them, means less income and hence more stressed. Similarly for younger age sex worker 5 number clients on daily basis is not only difficult to manage but also stressful. The vast majority of women who become sex workers do so because of dire economic circumstances. Young aged getting into this sector of work dealing and with much number and tolerating them due to certain circumstances perceive stress more than any other age group. This result is also important since the situation is thought to be especially acute in this part of the world where a combination of poverty and the low status of females contribute to their exploitation in the sex industry (CCDT, 1999). Stress is one of the major experience as a consequence of this profession.

When 2?3 ANOVA was applied to the measure of Loneliness, neither did age (F (1, 109)= .329; p>.05) nor did the number of clients per day (F (2, 109)= .327; p>.05) reveal any significant effect. Similarly, the interaction effect (F (2, 109)= 2.784; p>.05) also was not significant. However, it was the younger respondents (M= 29.67) who perceived loneliness more than their counterparts (M= 28.77). Conversely, respondents dealing with 4 clients daily (M=29.18) experiences loneliness more than their counterparts dealing 5 or more (M= 28.80) and 3 or less (28.20) clients on daily basis. Ordinarily, loneliness exists because of the isolation people feel in them. The isolation can come as a result of loss of someone or something people are dearly attached with and when it is taken away experience of loneliness creeps in. It’s usually because of this separation that creates the feeling of loneliness. However the result seems to indicate that loneliness is experiences similarly across age group of the sex workers and that number of client is also not important.

A 2?3 ANOVA was applied to see the effect of age and number of client on wellbeing. The results indicated a significant effect of number of clients on the measure wellbeing (F (2, 109) = 3.55; p<.05). in addition, the mean results indicate that less the number better is the wellbeing, i.e., dealing with 3 or less clients (M= 8.00) instills less threat to wellbeing of the commercial sex workers than dealing with 4 clients (M= 7.88) and 5 or more (M= 7.12) clients per day. Dealing with high number of clients in sex work demand usually extra time and efforts in terms of mental and physical efforts, which may not be conducive for a woman's physical and psychological health. The results seem to indicate the same. Main effect of age and interaction effect were not found to be significant.

The correlation results (table 2) indicated a negative relationship between number of clients per day and well being. It suggests that number of client is a potent source of good or depleted wellbeing among the commercial sex workers. Interestingly, a negative correlation between perceived stress and age of the respondents. This result seems to suggest that with aging these sex workers are more adjusted to the daily demands of the work they do and consequently are more relieved and hence less stress. Furthermore, the measure of loneliness revealed no statistically significant relationship between any of the measure under study once again suggesting that the feeling of loneliness is not affected by either age or number of clients and also it is not statistically related to stress or wellbeing for the commercial sex workers.

Conclusion

Socio-economic factors such as financial handicap, trafficking, unemployment and peer influence are the major factors encouraging the growth of the sex industry in India. Stress as a function of age and number of client is an important factor was used in the present study but revealed no significant effects. However, client’s number was significant with wellbeing. Age and number of client was also not significant with the measure loneliness. Some of the other studies have documented an association between sex trading and multiple traumas and other characteristics associated with psychological distress (El-Bassel et al., 1997; Fullilove, Lown, & Fullilove, 1992; Kelly, et al., 1992).

This finding should be viewed in the light of two limitations. First, because of difficulty in finding the respondents random or systematic sampling procedure could not be used, thus, the conclusions may not be representative of all women in this trade. Second, the present study did not consider stressful life events, such as trafficking, socio-economic conditions prior to entering flesh trade, childhood abuse, and domestic violence, etc., that could confound the relationship between sex trading and perceived stress among this population. These associations notwithstanding, the question as to what extent psychological distress and loneliness is a consequence of commercial sex work and its possible relationship with various other psychological variables remains unanswered by this study. Future studies are needed to examine culturally relevant appraisals, coping style, psychological symptoms and their consequences on the commercial sex workers. Knowledge of psychological factors can be used to develop interventions for this population. Despite these limitations, this study has implications for assessing and possibly providing possible intervention for mental health problems of sex workers. The level of perceived psychological stress among sex workers highlights the need to assess their need for psychological interventions.

The feeling they have of being stigmatized because of the nature and status of their work likely contributes to their stress (Fullilove, Lown, & Fullilove, 1992) and shattered wellbeing because the wellbeing results were slightly at the lower side. More so, for the majority of commercial sex workers, commercial sex constitutes their major source of income and it was revealed that given a chance they would like to leave the profession. In this line, women who are ready to leave this profession should have some policy from the government addressing their rehabilitation and alternate source of income generation.

Gaining access to public assistance may enable some women to reduce their dependency on sex trading. Those who are not willing or able to leave sex trading need training to develop strategies to reduce the dangers of their work. By and large, high number of partners and inconsistent risky sex conditions among these sex worker, as reported, indicate that these women will continue to become infected with STDs, if not yet affected, and get into drug abuse as well. Thus, government and providers of public health must intensify their efforts to bring them into the mainstream of the country.