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October 25, 2018October 4, 2018

History of Catherine II of Russia

Catherine II of Russia

Catherine II of Russia who is commonly referred as Catherine the Great was the Russian Empress from 1762 until her death in 1796. Catherine’s real names were “Yekaterina II Velikaya”. She was in the category of the “Enlightened despots” who were rulers influenced by the enlightened principles that embraced religious tolerance, freedom of speech, press and property.

Catherine was born as Sophie Augusta Fredirica to her father Christian August., the Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst and her mother Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein Gottorp. She thus was from a noble family. She received her education from a French governess and included other tutors. Catherine’s parents were devout Lutherans.

In 1745 she was to married to Tsar Peter of Holstein Gottorp becoming the Princess. Because of her ambition to get married and become a princess, she abandoned her father’s religion and instead converted to Orthodox Church. The eminent marriage also forced her to learn French, which she did with so much effort to an extent that she got a severe pneumonia attack, because of walking barefoot in her bedroom repeating the Russian lessons.

Her and her husband Peter settled in the Palace of Oranienbaum. Unfortunately her husband was immature and impotent and became unfaithful to her. This eventually led to the breakup of their marriage.

Catherine read widely on and befriended many powerful political groups that opposed her husband. Empress Elizabeth died on 1762 and Peter succeeded her to become Peter III of Russia. This made them move to the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg. Automatically Catherine became the Empress. By then they had a son named Paul who was the heir-apparent in case of the father’s death.

In July of that year, there was a bloodless coup where Peter was dethroned by the Leib Guard who were the military personal guards of the Emperor of Russia. The throne was bequeathed to Catherine; she reigned till she died in 1796. After six months as a Prince and three days after disposition, Peter III died at Ropsha.

Catherine the great was very intelligent, hardworking and had a very strong will. Her ambition to become the Empress of Russia saw her strike sharply at those who seemed to try and replace her with the rightful heir of the throne, Paul her eldest son. In her reign Catherine broadened Russian Empires’ boarders both to the south and the north absorbing new Russia, Crimea, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus and Courland.

Catherine was eventually able to expand the Russian territory to 518,000 kilometer squared. This was not an easy task bearing in mind that the expansion was at the expense of the Ottoman Empire and the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth. She was able to achieve all this through a very shrewd statesman named Nikita Panin.

In her initial years of her reign, Catherine directed most of her efforts towards making her position in the throne more stable. This was to enable her have an extended period of peace in order for her to be effective in other domestic affairs and foreign affairs. She understood the essence of a cautious foreign policy, which Panin did on her behalf. Panin fell out with her after his plans to counter the power of the Bourbon and Habsburg who had formed a league failed.

It was not until 1764 that she felt secure and stable enough to start working on reformation towards improving social conditions in Russia. For such expansive reformation Catherine utilized the ideas of the enlightenment. It was through such ideas that she undertook to change Russia’s old legal system that was inefficient because it was based on the code of laws that dated from 1649.

Towards this end she came up with a proposal she called “The instructions” which was circulated through out Europe and turned out to be a sensation. This is because it provided for a very advanced level of legal system. The legal system was to be enshrined on the principles of equal protection and prevention of criminal acts. This was as opposed to the previous method of meting out harsh punishment.

In 1767 Catherine formed a legislative commission to revise the old laws using “The instruction” as the basis. The commission failed the set purpose leading to the suspension of the review. After Panin fell out with Catherine in 1781, she replaced him with Alexander Bezborodko who was a Ukrainian born councilor.

Because of her ideas from the Enlightment, Catherine commissioned the Court betskoy whose sole purpose was to draw up plans to ensure the provision of education for all boys and girls through out Russia. The type of education she advocated for was the European style. As a result of her efforts schools and universities were established throughout Russia. This led to the foundation, for the first time of special girls’ schools in Russia. This also led to the establishment of a medical college whose sole purpose was to provide adequate health care for all the citizens. One good example is the Smolny Institute for girls, which was founded in St. Petersburg.

Catherine rarely used violence to consolidate power and strengthen her grip on Russia. However, she resorted to other methods that usually proved very effective. For example during her time the church had become quite powerful, to weaken it she seized the church’s wealth and then employed the clergy as state employees.

Foreign affairs demanded much of her attention between 1768 and1774. Catherine made Russia as the most powerful empire during this time. This came about after the first Russo-Turkish war against the Ottoman Empire. This war included the Battle of Chesma (1770) and the battle of Kagul (1770).

This war began after Catherine sent Russian troops to support her former lover Stanislaw Poniatowski, who she wanted to suppress a revolt that had come about because of Russia’s influence in Poland. The revolution got support from Turkey and Austria. However, after two years lengthy negotiations with Turkey led to ceasefire. Catherine was very persuasive which came in handy at this time.

This enabled Russia gain a foothold on the Black Sea. Acquisition of the right to the Black Sea was an important milestone. This was because Russian merchant ships acquired the right of sea whereby they could sail and passing through the Dardanelles which was an important European waterway.

Also from the negotiations the vast steppes of modern South Ukraine were incorporated in the Russia Empire. In 1783 Catherine, in her quest for expansion annexed the Crimea, this led to the second Russo- Turkish war (1787-1792) where the Ottoman Empire sort to regain the lands it had lost to Russia during the first Russo Turkish war (1768-1774).

The Ottoman troops lost miserably which led to the signing of the Treaty of Jassy. The treaty led to the end of the Second war and led to the confirmation of Russia’s dominance in the Black Sea. This was because from this treaty Russia’s claim to the Crimea was legitimatized.

In 1773 in the Volga River Basin a peasant revolt led by Cossack started but was crushed by the Imperial forces when Cossack was captured in 1774, this was the only time that peace was realized for some time which enabled Catherine concentrate on domestic affairs, especially affairs that concerned the functioning of the government. It was during this time that the education standards were raised.

Catherine played a very important role in shaping the role of Russia in the field of diplomacy. In the European foreign issues, Russia under Catherine played a very instrumental role in mediating on disputes that sometimes led to war. She mediated in the War of the Bavarian succession (1778-1779), between Prussia and Austria. It was through Catherine also that Russia witnessed the partitioning of Poland, where all the commonwealth territory with Prussia and Austria were divided.

After all these expansion Russia turned into a vast empire that was in position to compete with other European neighbors.

On the art and sciences scene, Catherine played a critical role. She viewed art and science as a means through which Russia could be recognized as a civilization centre.

St Petersburg was turned into a great and dazzling capital. Through her patronage, theatre, music, painting and other form of art improved tremendously. She developed a manual for the education of children which she borrowed from the ideas of John Locke a famous English Philosopher.

She established the famous Smolny Institute. It was established for the purpose of educating ladies from noble families and rich merchants. This institute became one of the best institutes not only in Russia, but the whole of Europe as well.

Catherine was a prolific writer and exchanged ideas and correspondence leading philosophers and writers like Voltaire and Diderot. She wrote plays, fables Satires and memoirs.

The Russian age of ‘age of Imitation’ happened during her reign where the Russians imported and studied the classical works from Europe.

She spent millions of Rubles to build the Hermitage art collection. Today, Hermitage Museums that occupies the whole of the Winter Palace is one of the largest Museums in the world with one of the largest art collections totaling to over three million.

Despite her great support of art, during her reign there was censorship of the press and publications and sometimes writers were exiled. For example Radishcev after publishing The Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow which addressed the poor leaving standards of the peasant serfs, he was exiled to Siberia.

After converting from Lutheran to Orthodoxy, Catherine became indifferent to religion. Thus she never hesitated to suppress any religious dissent and never allowed dissenters to build chapels. However she exploited the Christian faith by promoting the protection of Christians under the Turkish rule. This was to ensure the weakening of the Ottoman Empire.

After the partitioning of Poland she sort to control the Roman Catholics. On the other hand, Russia became a safe haven for The Society of Jesus whose members were running away from the persecution of Jesuits across Europe.

Catherine the Great personal life was characterized by multiple lovers. She had a total of around 13 lovers in her reign that included Alexander Potemkin. Potemkin was a former lover who she had fallen off with but he continued to select future lovers for her.

Catherine was kind to her lovers even after breaking up with them. She had a reputation of rewarding them handsomely.

Works Cited
Alexander, John.T “Catherine II, Bubonic Plague, and the Problem of Industry in Moscow” The American Historical Review, Vol. 79, No.3. (Jun, 1974), pp.637-671.
Cruse, Mark. The memoirs of Catherine the Great. New York: Modern Library, 2005.
Dukes, Paul. Catherine the Great and the Russian Nobility: A Study Based of the Legislative Commission of 1767.Cambridge at the University Press, 1967
Haslip, Joan. Catherine the Great: A Biography .New York: G.P Putnam’s, 1977
Rasmussen, Karen “Catherine II and the Image of Peter I” Slavic Review, Vol. 37, No. 1. (Mar., 1978), pp.51-69.
Thomas, Gladys Scott. Catherine the Great and the Expansion of Russia. London: The English Universities Press, 1947
Waters, Brenda Meehan-“Catherine the Great and the Problem of Female Rule” Russian Review, Vol. 34, No. 3. (Jul., 1975), pp.293-307.

October 25, 2018October 4, 2018

Caste and Sri Lankan marriage

In the modern day Sri Lankan society, the concept of caste with its pre-historic background plays different roles is human life, and its role becomes dominant at the juncture of the typical Sri Lankan marriage.

The research will open up doors to show the typical Sri Lankan community being traditional and outdated, the concept of caste is still one of the major determinisms of leading a happy and successful marriage life.

The society we live today is complex and all of us have to live with different ideas and attitudes. These diverse ideas and attitudes come into light in different occasions and stages in our lives. The concept of “Caste” is a phenomenon unique to the countries in the Indian Sub Continent and it is fossilized in the society. Gender, age, caste, ethnicity and class play major roles in the establishment of the Sri Lankan society. While gender, age, caste and ethnicity are decided by one’s birth, class is decided by one’s ability.

In the present Sri Lanka society, caste does not play a significant role. Caste, which is decided by birth comes into action in different occasions and stages in one’s life in different ways and caste becomes a dominant figure in the Sri Lanka context when it comes to marriages. According to Robert Knox, [1] “Sri Lankans are very selective and careful about marriages. It is a tradition not to get married to a person from a lower caste. Sinhalese would never sacrifice their dignity for an unsuitable marriage even it brings out wealth.”

A person from Colombo might hear that caste is not as important as it was in the past and that it is subjected to deterioration. Nevertheless, the following extract suggests that it is not so. [2] “Sinhalese are highly concerned about the concept of caste and boundaries around it and that at least in the dry zone the concept of caste and boundaries around it are significant’ The above description indicates though caste is not highlighted in the surface level, it becomes a very important concept for the Sinhalese in practical situations.

According to E.R. Leach, [3] ‘The deterioration of the caste system leads to the deterioration of an establishment. Marriages between different ethnicities can still be seen in the society ‘. E.R. Leach helps one to identify the modern nature of the caste system. The notice on marriage proposals on week-end Sri Lankan newspapers highlight caste consciousness still plays a major role in the contemporary Sri Lankan society.

Careful studies show the concept of caste which hails from the colonial period has undergone slight changes after the independence in 1948. As job opportunities are allocated based on academic qualifications, the caste system faces its deterioration. After the changes brought up to the constitution in 1997 and the society being exposed to the open economy made the modern society look into matters based on money. It is evident that the nature of caste has changed, but it does not indicate that the identity one gains through caste has totally been rejected. It clearly depicts the caste consciousness of the traditional Sri Lankans comes to the surface in marriages.

CHAPTER 2
METHODOLOGY

AIM

The aim of the research is to study the role played by the Sri Lankan caste system in determining a marriage and the importance of a caste to lead a happy and successful marriage life.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Although caste seems on old fashioned and unscientific basis for determining whether two people are compatible for marriage, historic evidence shows that it is a predictor of maintaining success.

THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

Caste system is a reliable determinism of successful marriages.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The sample is a randomly selected set of twenty married soldiers from the Sri Lanka Army representing different areas around the island and different castes.

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

10. The collection of data and information for this research will be highly based on the following.

Interviews done with the twenty soldiers.

Questionnaires given to the twenty soldiers.

Books related to the research topic.

The Internet.

11. The books related to the research topic and the information gathered through the Internet opened avenues to identify the caste system in Sri Lanka and it led to write a review of literature on the nature of the Sinhala marriage in chapter three. While the fourth chapter describes the impact of caste in determining the marriage of the selected sample, the fourth chapter deals with impact of social, economic and family conditions on deciding a caste. The conclusion is done at the fifth chapter.

CHAPTER 3
BACKGROUND
CASTE SYSTEM AND THE NATURE OF THE SINHALA MARRIAGE
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CASTE

12. The caste system is perhaps the world’s longest surviving social hierarchy .A person is considered a member of the caste to which he or she is born and remains within that caste until death, although the particular ranking of that caste may vary among regions and over time.

13. The caste system in Sri Lanka is a division of society into strata. Ancient Sri Lankan texts such as the Pujawaliya, Sadharmarathnavaliya and Yogarathakaraya and inscriptional evidence show that the hierarchy prevailed throughout the feudal period. Caste as we know it today appears to have been introduced to Sri Lankans by Prakrit language speakers from North India. The introduction of Buddhism in the third century BC blunted the edge of the system to a certain extend. However, there is a reference to king Abhaya’s son, Saliya choosing to lose caste by marrying Ashokamala, a Candala or outcaste woman, in the second century BC, indicating that caste taboos remained in place.

14. Studies based on caste have allowed the society to come up with different definitions on caste, and these definitions have allowed people to identify the impact of caste on marriage. The concept of caste, the nature of its expansion and the definitions put forward under different areas pave a pathway to understand this concept.

15. According to Peiris Reif, [4] “The cruel nature of our ancestors led to the origin of a caste system. Thirst for power and land made them fight with each other. As a result, a need arose to appoint a leader who is physically and intellectually balanced to resolve the conflicts.”

16. The sources indicate that Aryans from India during their visit in the fifth century have brought down their caste system to Sri Lanka. The legend shows that the ancient Sri Lankan society had different castes such as Raja, Bamunu, Welanda and Govi and the base for these was provided by the different castes like Brahmans, Shathriya, Vaishya and Sudra in ancient India.

THE CONCEPT OF CASTE AND DEFINITIONS OF CASTE.

17. Caste is a phenomenon in the society and culture. According to Edmancy Leach, “A caste cannot stand on its own. It has a close bond with its members through a network.”

18. Mr: Amarasekara Daya in his book titled, The Sri Lankan Society elaborates L.L.Kroeber’s (an anthropologist) ideas. “Caste is a unit. It consists of indigenous sub units. Such a unit enjoys the privileges of the society. Based on that, we can differentiate one sub unit form another sub unit.”

19. Mr: Amarasekara further elaborates on caste by bringing forward measuring instruments introduced by Hutton, an anthropologist. They are, [5]

Caste is an indigenous concept.

There are specific boundaries between different castes.

A caste is a collection of situations which depicts bureaucracy.

It is accepted that through food, physical relationships, customs and by touching a member of a privileged caste by a member of a discriminated caste will corrupt the privileged caste.

Caste is related to traditional occupations.

Caste is decided by birth.

Caste in totality, is a system based on prestige.

20. W.M. Waister, an anthropologist bringing out his views on caste says that keeping laundry, making gold and silver jewellery were the duties of the discriminated castes and these services were rendered only to a privileged segment of the society.

21. Though a man from a privileged caste can keep a woman from a discriminated caste as his mistress, he is not allowed to take meals with her. As Mr: Bryce Rayan elaborated people were allowed to share the same well for drinking water and eat together with farmers from different castes in the paddy field, but at a wedding, people from Govi caste were never allowed to sit with people from other castes at the table. This clearly indicates the effect of caste on marriage.

MARRIAGE

22. The concept of marriage differs from country to country, society to society and culture to culture. Marriage simply means the joining of the two sexes who maintain a socially approved or accepted sexual relationship for reproduction. Since marriage is given so many definitions it is believed that studying all these definitions will help one to understand the concept of marriage.

23. According to Mr: Tuder Silva [6] “Marriage is the union of two or more people of both sexes for a socially accepted sexual relationship for the purpose of reproduction. Marriages are of two types, monogamy and polygamy.” The above definition gives an idea of a marriage. According to a statement by the British Anthropology Society, “Marriage is a unit which authorizes the children the rights of their biological parents.”

24. According to Mr Kumara Hemantha [7] “Marriage is a special bond between two elders of both sexes based on norms, ethics, rules and regulations. Both the elders maintain a sexual relationship for reproduction. Further, marriage is a unit made up of a husband, wife and their children.”

25. The society and time are the deciding factors of rules and regulations of a marriage.

26. The ancient traditions of marriage and the caste have a dinosaur effect on the relationship between the Sinhala marriage and the caste. The Sinhala society by Mr: Ralph Peiris is a suitable example for it. Through his book he talks about the different types of marriages, different methods of getting married, reasons for a marriage and the openness of marriages in ancient Sri Lanka. [8] “Marriage to a person out of the caste was strictly prohibited. The ancestors did not want their sons and daughters to marry a person with a lower status though that person is from the same caste.”

27. The above description shows that the ancient society considered caste an important factor in the marriages, and it also indicates that the Sinhala marriage is a lose bond.

28. According to Robert Knox, in 1600’s caste had a prominent place in the Sinhala marriage. Further, he elaborates that caste was given priority than wealth in ancient Sinhala marriage.

29. [9] “Caste discrimination is there because of the system of family. The need for a family arose to provide security and satisfy different needs of people. Therefore people began to think about their castes in marriages.”

TYPES OF CASTES IN SRI LANKA

30. According to Bryce Rayan in his book, Caste Discrimination in Sri Lanka, “Relationships between different castes began due to the nature of occupations and breaking up of the society into small units.” Jana Wanshaya which is the oldest text on caste discrimination shows that there are twenty six different castes in Sri Lanka. [10] They are,

a. Govigama

b. Salagama

c. Kamburu

d. Waduwo

e. Hannala

f. Rada

g. Ambettayo

h. Sommarayo

i. Durawo

j. Kumbhakarnayo

k. Karawo

l. Weddo

m. Berawayo

n. Hakuro

p. Hunno

q. Pannayo

r. Samanno

s. Welwaduwo

t. Gahalayo

u. Paduwo

v. Malakarayo

w. Kinnarayo

x. Rodee

y. Olee

z. Indrapalanagayo

aa. Chandalayo

31. According to Mr. Kalinga T. Silva’s research on castes, [11] there are fifteen castes in Sri Lanka. Though there is a compromise about the top and the lower levels of the caste system in Sri Lanka, there are several arguments about the middle level. According to Mr. Silva, Sri Lanka is divided into two parts as up country and low country. While people from Patti and Gahala castes live in the up country, people from Karawa, Salagama, Durawa and Hunnu live in the low country.

Order ( This is not yet been finalized )

Name of the Caste

Traditional Occupation

Percentage of Sinhala population

Level

Govigama

Radala

Land Owners

0.001

Govi

Farmers

Patti

Herdsmen

0.001

Karava

Fishermen

Salagama

Cinnamon Peelers

Durava

Toddy Tappers

Hunu

Quicklime Industry

0.002

Achari / Galladu / Navanandana

Traditional Artisans

0.0005

Hena / Rada

Traditional Washmen

Wahumpura / Hakuru

Traditional Makers of Jaggery

12.5

Kumbal / Badahela

Traditional Makers of Pots

2.5

Dura/ Wellandura/ Bodhi pannadura

Safeguard Srimaha Bodhi

0.001

Nakathi / Berawva

Traditional Dancers and Astrologers

Bathgama / Padu

Servants and Porters

Gahala

Traditional Drum Beaters

0.001

Kinthara

Weaving Mats

0.3

Rodi/ Hulawali

Traditional Beggars / Traditional Makers of Ekel Brooms

0.001

Other*

1.493

* Castes which belong to the other category are Porava, Kara, Olee, Palee, Barber and Ganthara and the number is very low.

33. Mr. Kalinga Silva in his analysis says, [12] ‘Though caste is subjected to deterioration, that in the Asian community it becomes dominant at three occasions. Marriage is one of them. A survey conducted with estate workers who have an Indian origin indicates that caste is a major determinism for 90% of their marriages.” Climbing up the economic and social hierarchy is the second occasion the caste becomes important. The concept of caste is highlighted at this occasion.

34. Usage of the concept of caste as a weapon in the political battle field is the third occasion where this concept becomes prominent. The following extract taken from Jamnis Tiggin’s studies about Sri Lanka shows the way, the concept of caste dominated the Sri Lankan political arena.

“W!;a l=md?h uq;a l=md?h

.fa l=md?hg ckaoh fouq’”

35 This was taken from a leaflet distributed during an election campaign and “Gama” here means a caste.

CHAPTER 4
DATA
REGIONAL REPRESENTATION AND CONCEPT OF CASTE

36. The following table shows the randomly selected set of twenty soldiers from the Sri Lanka Army representing different regions around the island and different castes to conduct a research on the role played by the Sri Lankan caste system in determining a marriage and the importance of a caste to lead a happy and successful marriage life.

Husband’s caste

Wife’s caste

Number of families

Govigama

Karawa

Bathgama

Hakuru

Govigama

Hena

Govigama

Salagama

Govigama

Padu

Govigama

Karava

Salagama

Achari

Govigama

Total

37. The sample represents 45% of Govigama, 10% of Karava, 5% of Bathgama, 5% of Hakuru and 35% of mixed castes.

Chart 4.1 – Cast of sample

38. The regional representation of the sample is as follows.

Srl no

Husband’s caste

Wife’s caste

Region

Govigama

Mahiyanganaya

Govigama

Bibile

Govigama

Badulla

Govigama

Padaviya

Govigama

Welioya

Govigama

Hakmana

Govigama

Kanthale

Govigama

Horana

Govigama

Puswellawa

Karawa

Bathgama

Puttalam

Hakuru

Kegalle

Govigama

Salagama

Kamburupitiya

Govigama

Hena

Veyangoda

Govigama

Padu

Kurunagala

Padu

Govigama

Matale

Achari

Govigama

Ambanpola

Karava

Salagama

Elpitiya

Karava

Salagama

.Galle

SRI LANKAN MARRIAGE AND THE IMPACT OF RACE AND RELIGION ON IT

39. Eighteen soldiers of the sample emphasize the importance the importance of equality between races 90%in marriage. The nature of family and demands of the society have made them think that way. As the majority of the sample represents the rural areas of the island, they think that if they do mix marriages they would be neglected by their parents and relatives, and thereby end up in unsuccessful and unhappy marriages.

Chart 4.2 Marriage and races

40. Eighteen (90%) soldiers representing the sample think equality between religions is very important to have successful marriages. According to them, the Sri Lankan village is based on temple, and when the husband and wife are from two different religions it is impractical to go to two different religious places simultaneously. Further, they believe that it is hard to practise diverse observances under one roof.

Chart 4.3 Marriage and religions
SRI LANKAN MARRIAGE AND CASTE

41. Sinhalese believe that race and religion are important factors in marriage. Typical Sinhalese confide in equality between castes in their marriages. While thirteen (65%) soldiers of the sample believe their partners should be from the same caste, seven (35%) soldiers do not believe so.

Chart 4.4 Marriage and caste

42. Arranged marriage is still commonly practised in Sri Lanka, but an increasing number of young people today refuse arranged marriage. In arranged marriage caste becomes an important consideration. In love marriages the couple thinks only about matching their races, religions, ideas, views and interests. For them, caste is a minor matter and the survey shows that most of the couples have received the blessings of their parents.

43. The marriage proposals on weekend newspapers highlight the fact that caste is a major determinism in arranged marriages. The following table is taken from a survey conducted by Mr. Daya Amarasekara on marriage proposals in newspapers.

Caste Male Female Total Percentage

Govi 31 48 79 67’5 ]

Karawa 06 07 13 11’0 ]

Durawa 03 02 05 4’3 ]

Salagama 02 02 04 3’5 ]

Deva – 02 02 1’7 ]

Rajaka 02 02 04 3’4 ]

Wellala 01 02 03 2’5 ]

Hetti – 01 01 0’9 ]

Other 01 03 04 3’4 ]

Total 46 69 115 100’0 ]

44. According to the table, the majority is Govigama and the minority is Hetti. Mr. Amarasekara tells that this table depicts the spread of castes all around the island.

45. When asked from Sri Lankan women about their views on marriage and caste it is evident that women from higher castes do not want to get married to men from lower castes. These women do not want their children to be treated differently by the society because of their fathers’ surnames.

OTHER FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE MARRIAGE

46. Another factor which influences modern marriage is the economy of each individual. The research shows that people are interested in getting married to people from the same economic level or above. People expect to lead simple and comfortable marriage lives by getting married to a person from the same economic level or above.

47. Most of the women in the modern society prefer to get married to men who are more educated than them.

CHAPTER 5
DATA ANALYSIS
MATCHING CASTE AND ITS INFLUENCE TO A SUCCESSFUL MARRIAGE LIFE

48. While thirteen soldiers out of the sample have married women from the same caste seven soldiers have married from different castes. The following table depicts the present status of the marriage lives of the thirteen soldiers whose spouses are from the same caste.

Srl no

Husband’s caste

Wife’s caste

Region

Present status of marriage life

Govigama

Mahiyanganaya

Unsuccessful

Govigama

Bibile

Successful

Govigama

Badulla

Divorced

Govigama

Padaviya

Planning to get divorced

Govigama

Welioya

Unsuccessful

Govigama

Hakmana

Govigama

Kanthale

Govigama

Horana

Govigama

Puswellawa

Karawa

Bathgama

Puttalam

Unsuccessful

Hakuru

49. According to the table, the marriage lives of the two families representing Govi caste (Row 1 and 5) and the family representing Bathgama (Row 12 ) are unsuccessful.

50. The following reasons have made their marriage lives unsuccessful.

a. According to the soldiers from rows 1 and 5, their marriages are a failure because of their wives’ illegal affairs. Since these soldiers come home once in every two or three months, there is enough freedom and opportunities for their wives to have illegal affairs and this has ended their marriages in divorces.

b. According to the soldier from row 12, the reason for his marriage being unsuccessful is the mismatch of ideas between himself and his spouse. He says that his wife never agrees with his suggestions and works according to her own plans and ideas. They have decided to get divorced after being married for eight years because of mismatch of ideas.

51. The above study shows that though the castes match, these people have decided to get divorced because of external forces. This is a very common phenomenon in the present day Sri Lankan society.

52. The following table shows the present status of the marriage lives of seven soldiers of the sample who have married out of their castes.

Srl no

Husband’s caste

Wife’s caste

Region

Present status of marriage life

Govigama

Salagama

Kamburupitiya

Unsuccessful

Govigama

Hena

Veyangoda

Unsuccessful

Govigama

Padu

Kurunagala

Unsuccessful

Padu

Govigama

Matale

Unsuccessful

Achari

Govigama

Ambanpola

Successful

Karava

Salagama

Elpitiya

Successful

Karava

Salagama

.Galle

Successful

53. Though the families from rows 1,2,3 and 4 have done their best to lead a happy and successful marriage lives, the insults by the parents and relatives of the party which represents Govi caste have made their marriages scatter. In family gatherings, the partners who represent the lower caste have been subjected to inferiority. Two females who represent Govi caste in rows 4 and 5 have been outcasted by their families because of their marriages to males from lower castes.

54. Parents and relatives of the soldiers in rows 1 and 2 totally ignore the presence of their daughters in law at family gatherings and even invitations to special occasions are sent only to the male partner. This indicates how embarrassed the wife becomes in front of her husband’s parents and relatives.

55. The couples from rows 5, 6 and 7 lead happy and successful marriage lives though they are from two different castes. Parents and relatives of both the parties have mutual understanding and they respect each others ideas, views, attitudes and interests.

56. The research unveils that people from Govi caste are interested in dominating the society, and the interest on the concept of caste by the other castes are very low when compared with Govi caste.

57. However, the caste consciousness of the Sinhalese in arranged marriage is at a higher level.

CHAPTER 6
SUMMARY

58. The objective of this sociological research is to study the role played by the Sri Lankan caste system in determining a marriage and the importance of a caste to lead a happy and successful marriage life. The ancient traditional Sinhala marriage and its relationship with caste and the role played by caste in present Sinhala marriage were studied in depth to come to a conclusion.

59. The sample of randomly selected twenty soldiers from the Sri Lankan Army representing different regions and castes help to discuss in detail a sensitive topic which people very rarely speak in public. Interviews with the sample assisted to reveal the following facts.

a. Race and religion have played a dominant role in deciding the marriages of the

sample.

Sinhala and Buddhist back grounds of the sample have motivated the sample to avoid marriages with different ethnicities.

60. Caste plays a major role in Sinhala marriage. People from Govi caste want to maintain their authority while other castes make less efforts to maintain authority. It is evident that Govi caste is considered as the top caste but no conclusion has been made about the positions of the other castes. It is evident that people from higher castes reject people from lower castes and people from lower castes always try to select partners from higher castes in marriages.

61. In the past, most of the marriages were arranged ones , but today many are love marriages. In the modern society, people are interested in finding their own partners according to their level of education, interests, economic status, regional differences and attitudes. Though it seems that caste is not considered as a major determinism in marriage, it becomes prominent when one look at the reactions of parents and relatives of a higher caste partner who has selected a lower caste person. Though the system of caste is subjected to decay it has a dinosaur effect in marriages, and leading a happy and successful marriage life.

62. The research also reveals that when compared with men, women are more interested in marrying a person from the same caste or a higher caste. As the surname of the father automatically goes to the children, women make sure that they do not marry men make from lower castes. The women also do not like to live with the parents and the relatives of their husbands’ because they are scared of the insults of the husbands’ parents and relatives.

63. The above facts depict that caste plays a major role in the Sri Lankan marriage, and the attitudes of parents and relatives of the two partners are important in deciding a marriage.

CHAPTER 7
RECCOMANDATION

63. The study shows that in marriages, the concept of caste is dominant. As the citizens of a democratic society, people have been given the rights through the constitution to live freely within the accepted rules and regulations of the government. Caste is not a barrier to a person to get proper education and move up the social hierarchy. Further, a person has the legal authority to change one’s surname which is a determinism of his or her caste.

64. Though caste is considered in marriage, it is not a barrier to have love affairs and sexual relationships. A person from a lower caste who is at the top level in the

October 25, 2018October 4, 2018

Case study of single parent families

Single-parent families can be defined as families where a parent lives with dependent children, either alone or in a larger household, without a spouse or partner. Single-parent is a parent who cares for one or more children without physical assistance of another parent in home. “Single parenthood” may vary according to the local laws of different nations or regions. Single-parent families which are families with children under age 18 headed by a parent who is divorced, widowed, adoption, artificial insemination, surrogate motherhood or not married. But mostly single-parent families came about because of the death of spouse. Besides that, most of the single-parent families face common problem and special challenge, the most common problem is their children. Children who live with single father or mother, they have to take care themselves and get less care from parent because of busy working. According to social scientists, children who growing up in single-parent families are disadvantages in other ways when compared to a two-biological-parent families. Many of these problems are directly related to the poor economic condition of single-parent families, not just to parenting style.

Factors of Single-Parent Families

The effect on children

In single-parent families, children tend to experience short-and long-term economic and psychological disadvantages, higher absentee rates at school, lower levels of education, and higher dropout rates (with boys more negatively affected than girls) (Demo & Acock, 2011). Besides that, they will more on criminal activity, including alcohol and drug addiction. Teenagers, on the other hand, are more negatively affected by parental discord prior to divorce than by living in single-parent families and actually gain in responsibility as a result of altered family routines. In addition, children in single-parent families more likely to suffer emotional problem, due to mother and father split up or any other reason. In future, children who from single-parent families become adults, they are more likely to marry early, have children early, and divorce. Girls are at greater risk of becoming single mothers as a result of noncapital childbearing or divorce (McLanahan & Karen, 2011).

Economics of single-parent families

The main problem of single-parent families is economic, in single-father families, there will be no any problem, because father have particular job, have no worry. But in single-mother families, there might have problem, for example, when single-mother divorced or widowed, she have no any job or any income to maintain the families. Single-mother has to face economic problem, such as lack of money paid for children studies.

Lower level of educational achievement

Children or teenagers who live under single-parent families will face lower level of education problem, this is because the families facing finance problem, having poor economic condition, so the parent have no enough money send the children to tuition, or any learning centre to have extra learning, children just only go to the government school study. Besides that, parent who have finance problem, he or she don’t have enough money to buy the reference books for their child, they just study the text book, can’t get extra learning material or knowledge.

Children / Teenagers having conflict with their parent

Children or teenagers who lives in single-parent families will have conflict with the parent, this is because the parent are busy working outside and spend less time with their children, or even can’t have a good communicate with them, lack communication between parent and their children, then the conflict occur. Parent who busy working outside, they can’t spend more time on them, that’s why the parent don’t even know what their child need or wants. Besides that, children or teenagers with argue with their parent because the parent can’t understand them, can’t have a good communicate with them.

Less supervised by parent

In a single-parent families, single father or mother are busy working at outside, they don’t have much more time supervised their children. This will cause the children turn to bad side, because the parent can’t spend time on supervise them. When parent busy working not at home, or parent don’t have much time with the children, so when the children will feel alone or boring, they will hanging out with friends, truancy with friends, smoking with friends, or taking drugs. In this situation, the parent doesn’t know at all, they don’t know what their children doing outside, making good or bad friends.

No discipline

Children who lives in single-parent families, most of them don’t have discipline, this is because single father or mother didn’t spend time on family education, they just busy with their job. Family education is important for children, for example, children who don’t have discipline, he or she is just a rude boy or girl, they don’t know what is respect and how to respect other people. Besides that, when the children study in school without discipline, he or she don’t know how to respect the teacher and not following the instruction, for example, when teacher teaching the lesson, he or she playing with other friends and disturbing other students, he or she will be punish by the teacher or headmaster due to don’t have any discipline.

Divorce parent/single parent finds new partner who treats the children of the previous partner badly

When a divorce parent or single parent live single for few years, he or she might find a new partner for accompany his or her. But here is the problem, if the parent find the new partner is bad, the new partner will treats the children of the precious partner badly. For example, if the new partner of the parent doesn’t like the children, he or she will keep making trouble on them, such as beating them, threaten the children, and any other worst things on them.

Casa Study of Single-parent families

Children in single-parent families more likely to suffer emotional problems, report finds

Children from broken homes are almost five times more likely to develop emotional problems than those living with both parents, a report has found

By Martin Beckford, Social Affairs Correspondent 5:59PM BST 21 Oct 2008

Young people whose mother and father split up are also three times as likely to become aggressive or badly behaved, according to the comprehensive survey carried out by the Office for National Statistics.

Living in a “reconstituted” family containing step-children or step-parents increased the risk of developing behavioral problems still further, it found.

The stark findings of the study, commissioned by the Department for Health and the Scottish Government, fly in the face of the Government’s repeated failure to extol the benefits on children of growing up in a traditional family home.

Under Labor, the number of couples getting married has fallen to the lowest level for more than a century while almost half of newlyweds are now expected to end up divorcing.

Yet Harriet Harman, the party’s deputy leader, insisted recently that “there is no ‘ideal’ parenting scenario” and “marriage has little relevance to public policy”.

The ONS report involved interviewing parents, teacher and children themselves to find out how many suffered emotional problems such as anxiety or depression, how many “conduct disorders” such as aggression had, and what the possible reasons behind them were.

After interviewing 5,364 children aged between five and 16 in 2004 and again last year, the researchers found that 3 per cent had developed problems over that time. In addition, 30 per cent who had emotional problems at the first survey, and 43 per cent who had behavioral issues, still had them three years later.

The researchers stressed they had not discovered any direct causes of emotional and behavioral problems developing or persisting in children, but agreed there was a link to living in a broken home.

Children whose parents had split up over the three years were 4.53 times more likely to develop emotional problems than those whose mothers and fathers stayed together, and were 2.87 times more likely to show the onset of behavioral disorders.

The report said: “The odds of developing an emotional disorder were increased for children where there had been a change in the number of parents between surveys, from two parents to one parent compared with children and young people in families that had two parents at both times.”

It went on: “Children and young people in households of ‘reconstituted’ families, particularly where there were step-children, were more likely to develop conduct disorder as were those in families which had two parents at Time 1 and one parent at Time 2.”

In addition, children whose mothers were mentally ill were found to be more likely to develop conduct disorders, as were those whose mothers were poorly educated.

Children who endured three stressful events such as seeing one’s parents’ divorce or appear in court, or suffering a serious disease or being badly injured, were three times as likely to develop emotional problems.

However those who were happy where they lived, had lots of friends or enjoyed activities outside school were less likely to become unhappy.

The report’s author, Nina Parry-Langdon, said: “If children belong to more clubs, it may offer some protection against getting a disorder in the future.”

One-parent families on the rise

Two-parent households are becoming less common

Britons are increasingly likely to live in single-parent families, stay at home for longer, marry later and struggle to afford a house, official figures show.Family

The Office for National Statistics said children in the UK were three times more likely to live in one-parent households than they were in 1972.

Last year almost 60% of men and 40% of women aged between 20 and 24 in England still lived with their parents.

The department’s annual Social Trends report studies patterns in UK society.

Among the findings this year was that wages rose on average by 92% from 1995 to 2005, but house prices rocketed by 204%.

Stephen Evans, chief economist with the Social Market Foundation, said problems getting on the property ladder were partly to blame for young people leaving home later, but insisted there was an element of choice involved too.

“They’re making a choice to extend their education because they know that they’re going to get higher earnings in the long run.”

Changing families

Since 1971 the proportion of all people living in “traditional” family households of married couples with dependent children has fallen from 52% to 37%.

Children by family type

Over the same period, the proportion of people living in couples with no children rose from 19% to 25%.

Nearly a quarter of children lived with only one parent last year and nine out of 10 of those households were headed by lone mothers.

David Green, director of the Institute for the Study of Civil Society, told BBC Radio 4’s Today programmed: “If you take almost any measure – how well children do in school, whether they turn to crime, whether they commit suicide, etc – it’s better to have two parents.

“It’s also the biggest disadvantage of lone parenthood that you’re much more likely to be poor.”

But Jane Ahrends, from One Parent Families, said while single parents might face poverty, the image of them as “young, feckless women who deliberately get pregnant” was wrong.

“The vast majority of lone parents are ordinary working mums and dads in their 30s and 40s, who are just trying to do their best in circumstances they didn’t choose,” she said.

“And remember, families are constantly changing – lone parenthood is not a permanent state for most people. It’s a phase, usually lasting about five and a half years.”

Lone living

More children are born in Britain today outside of marriage than in most other European countries, the report also said.

The average figure is 44%, compared with just 3% in Cyprus, and just 12% in Britain in the early 1970s.

BBC home editor Mark Easton said that in Wales and the north east of England the numbers of children born to unmarried parents were even higher, at 52% and 55% respectively.

More than seven million people in Britain also live alone now, compared with three million in 1971.

This, the report said, had left societies more fragmented and led to much less trust and co-operation between neighbours.

Other findings included:

· Second marriages made up two-fifths of all marriages in 2005.

· In the same year, the average age at first marriage in England and Wales was 32 for men and 29 for women – up from 25 and 23 respectively in 1971.

· Divorces in 2005 fell to 155,000 from a 1993 peak of 180,000.

· In 2005, 66% of single-parent families lived in rented housing compared with 22% of couples with dependent children.

October 25, 2018October 4, 2018

Care in the Community

United Kingdom has many legislations in place, these legislations are in place to protect and give appropriate help to all residents of the country. Four of these legislations/acts will be discussed in this writing. The acts are, Mental Health Act 2007, Direct payments Act 2007, Mental Health Capacity Act 2007 and also Independence,Well being and choice green paper. In addition to this, it will also look at Community Care Act 1990. In each of these 4 main legislations , it will underline the advantages and disadvantages and then it will indentify the moral, financial, political and social policy,which will all be relevant to the legislations. Community Care Act 1990 will indentify and explain why it has been put in to place and what is Community Care Act 1990 all about.

Community Care Act is a piece of legislation which governs health and social care in the United Kingdom. It sets out how the National Health Service should assess and provide for patients based on their needs, requirements and circumstances. This legislation gives measures for Social Services Departments to provide care and support services in the community, rather than in institutions. Covers duties for each local authority to produce a community care plan and to carry out assessments of those who may be in need. According to many researches it has shown that the Community Care Act has been put into place as a cost cutting measure and the Conservatives have been accused of failing to adequately fund the NHS.( http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/442807.stm)

Since the Mental Health Act 2007 has been amended from the 1983 Mental Health Act it has shown many positive factors such as the changes in professionals roles. The role of Approved Mental Health Professional was introduced as a result of the Mental Health Act 2007 which amended the Mental Health Act 1983. This type of role is opened to anyone with a nursing background such as: registered social workers ,first level nurses whose field of practice is mental health or learning disabilities, registered occupational therapists; and Chartered psychologist (http://209.85.229.132/search?q=cache:ko7D0JWfI30J:www.basw.co.uk/Portals/0/Chris%2520Southworth.ppt+amhp+role&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=uk).

With relevant and sufficient training all these professionals listed above could become an Approved Mental Health Professional, and will be approved for the next 5 years and if they wish to continue in this role they will have additional training to atend. These professional bodies have to be approved by their local authority. Once the professional worker becomes an Approved Mental Health Professional they have the right to make decisions about people well being and give people with any health or social needs appropriate help. It would be also good to point out that the Approved Mental Health Professional has a lot of power in their role and will have to give correct and proffesional treatment and help t those who need certain care. This may be a very positive factor however what we have to look at and examine is this, ‘is it morally right to become AMPH from being an ASW’. Into some extend we can say that this is not morally correct as this does not have enough training. And also in many situations we could say that this is a cost cutting measure, as the NHS is in need of Approved Mental Health Professionals.

Another advantages and disadvantages were brought in by the Direct Payments Act 1996, this brought in a lot of positives factors to many people lives. The Direct Payments Act 1996 advantages concentrates on giving people mainly back their social life, it gives them more control of their life which is very important to everyone. Direct Payments gives patients more independent and more control of their lives , therefore they will feel more relaxed and happier and mainly be less overwhelmed by financial demands. They will have the freedom to pick their own care staff and be in control. This will give them moral empowerment. However Direct Payments Act 1996 has brought in lot of disadvantages such the care managers are reluctant to use direct payments and do not have enough knowledge about this. And also it brings in a lot of responsibilities such as paperwork and hiring new staff. Which then opens a whole new responsibility and lot of people don’t want to get involved in that as this means more work for a lot of people. However this is not the correct way to be responding as a proffesional person and all care managers and care staff should be fully knowledgeable about this legislations, as this means that many service users will be missing out on something that could make a large positive impact on their lives.

Direct Payments Act 1996 has brought in positives and negatives. But does this suit everyone. After researching the Direct Payments Act and what do direct payments users think we can say that this suit the majority of its users.

Next legislation that this piece of writing will concentrate on is Mental Health Capacity Act 2007 this act states that everyone should be treated as able to make their own decisions until it is shown that they are not. It also aims to enable people to make their own decisions for as long as they are capableof doing so.

A person’s capacity to make a decision will be established at the time that a decision needs to be made. A lack of capacity could be because of a severe learning disability, dementia, mental health problems, a brain injury, a stroke or unconsciousness due to an anesthetic or a sudden accident. (http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/DisabledPeople/HealthAndSupport/YourRightsInHealth/DG_10016888)

The positives of this act are that a person will be able to make their own decisions unless it is proven that they no longer can, once the cant make their own decisions, the decisions will be made for them. This is very positive as mainly this will protect vulnerable adults who can’t no longer make decisions for them self’s. This act will give them power and freedom unless proven that the person is no longer able to make decisions. The negative outcome of this act would be that people will not feel free and for some it won’t be morally right for someone to make decisions on their behalf. Into some cases some people may feel as if their dignity has gone due to the lack of power, once they can’t make decisions.( http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/SocialCare/Deliveringadultsocialcare/MentalCapacity/MentalCapacityAct2005/index.htm) This Act will also help people make financial decisions once they can’t make that decisions themselves. From November 9 2009 direct payments will be available to people who lack capacity who meet the criteria laid out in regulations and guidance issued earlier this month. (http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/SocialCare/Deliveringadultsocialcare/MentalCapacity/MentalCapacityAct2005/index.htm)

Once Direct Payments are available to people who lack capacity this will make things more smoother for people and will give them more freedom and more control of their lives.

Last legislation in this writing will talk about is the Independence, Weill being and Choice Green Paper. This Green Paper gives a clear picture for adult social care for the next 10 to 15 years and how this may work. It gives all people the chance to everyone to give their ideas,views and opinion and lets them have their own sa on the matter and then it will be considered. They way that this should work is that if people give their opinions and views this should make smoother and easier legislations for the future. However this is a very long process as this is first open to the public that is what is called the green paper, once the government has decided it wants to go ahead with a specific area it then becomes a white paper. The white paper then, is presented to the parliament to be voted on, once it has the majority of votes it then becomes an Act. So this will be a very long process. However if this will be done it will give people more control of their finances and their morals.

The last part of this writing will evaluate the main provisions of community legislation and their implications.

As writen about in the previous paragraphs, four legislation were discussed along with positives and negatives of each one. It can be said that all four legislations ome with advantages and disadvantages. Positive factors are the ones that mainly all service users are interested in. However the negatives are something that needs more interest put to it. For example the Direct Payments Act, and the fact that Care managers do not want to get involved with because their aren’t so knowledgeable about it. In the research that have been carried out during this writing, it can be acknowledged that mainly all legislations do concentrate on changing service users lifes for a better future. It also highlights that the legislations are in place so that service users get control of their lives back and making sure that service users have the freedom and do not loose ther dignity and morals.

References:

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/442807.stm [Assessed 9th November 2009]

http://209.85.229.132/search?q=cache:ko7D0JWfI30J:www.basw.co.uk/Portals/0/Chris%2520Southworth.ppt+amhp+role&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=uk [Assesed 11th November 2009]

http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/DisabledPeople/HealthAndSupport/YourRightsInHealth/DG_10016888 [Assessed 12th November 2009]

http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/SocialCare/Deliveringadultsocialcare/MentalCapacity/MentalCapacityAct2005/index.htm [Assessed 14th November 2009]

http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/publicationsandstatistics/publications/publicationspolicyandguidance/dh_4106477 [Assessed 15th November 2009]

http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/SocialCare/Deliveringadultsocialcare/MentalCapacity/MentalCapacityAct2005/index.htm [Assessed 17th November 2009]

October 25, 2018October 4, 2018

Career and family priorities of college students

This study was designed to observe the career and family priorities of college students. It was studied to determine whether men and women differ in feelings towards career and family. It was hypothesized that there would be an inverse relationship between career values and the importance of family life between men and women furthermore; female students would value the family life role, whereas male would prefer the occupational life role. It was tested with the help of Life Role Salience Scale (Amatea, Cross, Clark, & Bobby, 1986). Thirty female and thirty male college students rated the scale. Statistical analysis demonstrated that women valued family more than career and men valued career more than family.

INTRODUCTION:

Everyday decision can be related to the essence of human. In today’s society, individuals are trying to ”do it all”-to find life satisfaction through a combination of multiple roles (e.g., career, marriage, parenting, homecare). Super (1990) theorized that one’s life career is made up of many different roles occupied over the life span, including the roles of career person, home and family person, community member, student, and leisurite. However, if they are not spending their time in ways that are congruent with their values, they are unlikely to find the happiness they seek. Greehaus and Beutell (1985) theorized that the more important a role is to an individual, the more time and energy that person will invest in it, which will allow less time and energy for other roles. Super discussed participation, commitment and value expectations in relation to life roles. Participation is the amount of time spent in a role, whereas commitment and values expectations reflect the importance of the role to the individual, and the degree to which the individual can meet their needs through that role (Super & Neville, 1986). Satisfaction in life is related to role congruence, which is the amount of congruence between the level of participation in each life role and the level of commitment to and valuing of that role. For example, if an individual highly values and is highly committed to the family role, but only participates in this role 5% of the time, that individual will be less satisfied with life than an individual with greater congruence between valuing/commitment and participation. Research has demonstrated that inconsistency between role participation and role commitment may cause increased psychological distress and decreased marital quality (Voydanoff & Donnelly, 1999).Graduating senior women on the Berkeley campus overwhelmingly reported that they expected to be married, to have children and to have a career. Nearly nine-tenths are planning to earn graduate degrees in law, medicine, science, or business, and half expect to earn as much if not more, than their future husbands. Simultaneously, they hope to raise two or three children each and to interrupt their careers for extended amounts of time, (Six months to twelve years) in order to care for their children. Some researchers say that women place family before career and like to spend large amount of time at home, especially when their children are young. And women with children earn significantly less than either men or women without children. College women and men are quite similar in one respect they both want partners or spouses and they both want children. Ninety percent of the women and men in one of the research say that women hope to marry and have children. But one asks these students how they plan to combine their careers, marriages, and children, striking differences appear. They wanted their husbands to work continuously. It would be strange,” said one, echoing the sentiments of many,” if I was at work and he was at home”. But many of the men were tentative about their future wives employment. Several men stated they wanted there wives to stay home after she had children. Clearly, both women and men see the husband’s job as essential to the economic well-being and survival of their future families and the wife’s job as optional-a luxury they can choose to add on or take off at will. Most of the students come from fairly traditional homes-their mothers were responsible for cooking, doing the dishes, and cleaning the house while their fathers made money and fixed things around the house. Students say that mother took care of the kids and the house while father went out to work and earn money. Extensive research indicates that college men and women endorse both achievements goals such as career development and marital goals. Many researchers have found that college men and women are increasingly similar in their goals and value orientations. Scant information is available about how women and men with similarly strong and equal motivations toward the achievement of goals and the maintenance of affiliative relationships will prioritize, make decisions, and interact when achievement demands and personal relationships conflict. Students reveal ignorance of the career hazards of interruptions in employment, and lack of awareness of the family sacrifices and stresses attendant to career commitment (Catalyst, 1987; Phillips & Johnston, 1985; Zuckerman, 1980).

As men and women in college today think about their future and plan for work and family, they are exposed to a variety of mixed messages relating to gender. Gender socialization continues to influence young people’s identities and stereotypes from the past frame choices (e.g., Angrist & Almquist, 1975; Komarovsky, 1985; Machung, 1989) for students as they move into a society which, at least theoretically, permits equality of opportunities regardless of gender. Yet, participation of women in the work force has increased significantly and attitude surveys indicate that we are much more accepting of women taking active roles in our society (e.g. Mason & Lu, 1988). Nevertheless, women still face considerable occupational segregation (Blau & Ferber, 1985). Research suggests that women continue to oversee management of home, children and social activities of the family, while men “help” with household tasks (Hochschild et al., 1989) since discrimination results in women earning less money for equal time at work, men can justify their non-involvement in household chores because they must “provide” for the family. Thus, despite many changes, today’s college students have grown up in traditional families where women have had to assume the majority of household tasks, whether they worked outside of the home or not. Consequently, many traditional gender expectations are maintained by the structural inequality in our society. According to Eccles, women’s career choices will differ from men’s because they place more value on family and relationships. Machung’s (1989) interviews with 30 graduating Berkeley seniors, illustrates the contradictions which occur between the changing role of women in society and the traditional roles we still hold for women and men in the family. The women whom Machung interviewed wanted careers, but recognized that their career paths would be interrupted by family and children. The men researcher spoke to, on the other hand, planned their career with the expectation of having a support system (wives) to care for their homes and families. The women in other studies (e.g., Komarovsky, 1985; Maines & Hardesty, 1987; Angrist & Almquist, 1975) also express tentativeness of plans for their work life, in which career planning becomes contingency planning or planning around husbands and children. Women in these studies expect to be working most of their adult life, but also expect that their family will take priority over work as needed. Sociological functionalists saw employment and family in an earlier and family life in an earlier historical period as well-integrated (Parsons and Smelser 1956; Goode 1960). Only one person, the male breadwinner, participated in the labour force; the wife/mother met childcare, house-hold upkeep, and other pattern maintenance needs. Husbands and wives were thus “specialists” in their roles. Societal restrictions on employment for women of childbearing age reduced work/family conflict and stress. Today in our society there is almost universal support in principle for equal opportunity however; traditional attitudes regarding women’s family roles persist. Employed women thus experience conflict between work outside the home and family responsibilities (Mortimer and London, 1984; Mortimer and Sorensen, 1984). Pleck (1984) finds that traditional norms promote “asymmetrically permeable boundaries” in the roles of men and women. For men, the work role dominates; the family is expected to accommodate to its requirements. To support their work involvement, men spend relatively little time on family work. Because the male family role inextricably entails being a good breadwinner (Bernard, 1984), male workplace success simultaneously fulfills both work and family role responsibilities. On the other hand, women are expected to stress family obligations over activities related to employment. Women’s work roles often “give” to accommodate the family (e.g., women with young children often work part-time or intermittently). Thus, employment doesn’t radically disrupt the traditional core wife/ mother responsibilities. In essence, employed married women have two jobs, one in the workplace, the second in the family; this normative pattern has negative implications for their socio economic attainment (Marini, 1989). Therefore what normative controls used to accomplish (i.e., a women was expected to quit work when she married or had children).

Adolescence is widely recognized as a critical life stage for vocational development (Erickson 1963) and crystallization of future plans. Adolescent work and family orientations are therefore expected both to reflect changing work/ family linkages and to contribute to them in the future. Public opinion trends (McLaughlin, 1988) show that widespread behavioral change (e. g., wives’ employment) often precedes attitudinal change (e.g., approval of wives working). Moreover, status attainment researchers have demonstrated that educational and occupational aspirations influence attainments (Sewell and Hauser, 1975). Given these reciprocal relations of work – and family structures, it is important to continually monitor trends in young peoples work attitudes and behaviors. Recent research shows that future work (Farmer, 1983; Shapiro and Crowley, 1982) and family (Affleck, Morgan, and Hays, 1989; Machung 1989; Joss Elson, Greenberger and McConchie, 1977a, 1977b; Maines and Hardest, 1987) continue to be central life interests for adolescent boys and girls, with both planning to spend significant portions of their lives in the labor force and in families. A major gender difference persists in that girls more often plan to work part-time and intermittently rather than full-time to accommodate competing work and family role demands (Machung, 1989; O’Connell, Betz, and Kurth, 1989).Young women often anticipate that career and family life will be problematic if perused simultaneously (Machung 1989; Ward and Rubin1989; Archer1985; Crowley and shapiro1982). Tangri and Jenkins’s (1986)1980 survey of 1967 college female graduates showed a dramatic increase in reported conflict between career and marriage in the post graduate years. Adolescent males ,in contrast ,see their adult work and family roles as more congruent; they see few problems in wanting both careers and families(archer1985).This is to be expected since families do not impede adult men’s career(Mortimer and Sorensen 1984 ).Maines and Hardesy (1987)conclude, “young men and women anticipate participating in basically the same categories of activity(education, work, family),butaˆ¦differ in their assumptions about the nature and extent of that participation.” Men expect ability and labour market opportunities to determine their futures, while women face the problem of how to integrate these various dimensions of their lives (Maines and Hardesty, 1987). Regan and Roland (1982) investigated marginal shifts in university seniors’ life goals and vocational aspirations, finding that they had changed over the decade of the 1970’s. Women graduating in1979 expected careers to be the primary source of future satisfaction but also indicated that family relationships were still very important. Van Maanem and associates (1977) argue that an understanding of careers should focus on the interaction among individual aspirations, family concerns, and work demands. We therefore, build a measure of lifestyle commitment, constructed from individuals ordering of life goals, to investigate relationships.

Gender differences in work and family experiences have been a consistently important theme in work-family research (Lewis & Cooper, 1999). On the basis of Greenhaus and Beutell’s argument about the importance of role salience to the work-family conflict (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985), many scholars have hypothesized that women experience more work-family conflict than men because of their typically greater home responsibilities and their allocation of more importance to family roles. However, more recent researchers have discovered that men and women do not differ on their level of work- family conflict (Blanchard-Fields, 1997). In those studies where gender differences were found. The unanticipated results regarding gender and the work-family conflict raise the possibility that researchers’ emphasis on between-gender differences may mask important within-gender variation in work- family conflict. Within-gender variation may be as critical as between-gender differences in explaining work-family conflict. Gender identity does not stand separate from other identity issues. Rather, it is part of a complex psychological and social process whereby men and women adopt varying degrees of traditionally masculine and feminine roles and responsibilities (Anderson & Leslie, 1991). Social and cultural factors, as well as the individual’s abilities and personality characteristics, mediate the relationship between gender and work-family conflict (Farmer, 1985). Thus, individual variation within gender can provide valuable information beyond the mere knowledge of gender in order to explain differences among persons regarding work-family conflict. The range of findings in the literature highlights the need to attend to the variation in men’s and women’s beliefs about the importance of work and family roles, rather than to generalize to all men and to all women (Kerpelman & Schvaneveldt, 1999). Understanding this variation may contribute to a more coherent and comprehensive explanation of work-family conflict.

The aim of this study is to explore gender differences in work-family conflict while attending to both between- and within-gender variation in perceptions of importance of work and family life roles. In the study we considered the importance attributed simultaneously to both work and family roles by both men and women. This approach should facilitate more precise understandings and may clarify some of the mixed findings of previous research concerning gender differences in work-family conflict. Role salience was typically determined by examining commitment and values regarding work or family roles (Neville & Super, 1986). It is important to note that these researchers investigated work salience or home salience without simultaneously considering the relative importance of both roles in an individual’s life. Much of the research on career and family orientation has disregarded the perceived relative importance of both work and family roles. As a result, these studies do not reflect the growing recognition that work and family are interdependent spheres of life (Rapport & Rapport, 1971; Westman & Piotrkowski, 1999). Despite the increase in women’s involvement in demanding occupations and the substantial rise of women’s vocational aspirations over recent decades (Gerstein, Lichtman, & Barokas,1988), men’s occupational goals and aspirations frequently exceed those of women. For example, Leung, Conoley, and Schell (1994) found that women generally have lower career aspirations than do comparably talented men. During socialization to work and family roles, men are traditionally raised to pursue the “provider role” and women the marital/ family role (Major, 1989). Many women in the West continue to be socialized to believe that being a wife and raising a family is the first priority in life and that financial independence and career advancement is secondary (Gilbert, 1993) by this findings we can anticipate that more women than men will fit the Family profile that comprises individuals who assign high importance to the family and relatively low importance to work. Similarly, if young men are raised to adopt the provider role more than young women, it is likely that more men than women fit the Work profile, and assign high levels of importance to the work role and relatively low importance to family roles. By this we can say that women will be represented most often in the Family profile and least in the Work profile. Men were expected to most frequently fit the Work profile and least frequently the Family profile. In research we assumed that women’s values and commitment regarding parent and spouse roles would be higher than men’s. In addition, following most research findings (Major, 1993; Schwartzberg & Dytell, 1996), we anticipated that men’s values and commitment to the work role would be higher than that of women. Many women are expected to feel primary obligation to the family role (Schwartzberg & Dytell, 1996; Tompson & Walker, 1989). Many researchers have found that college men and women are increasingly similar in their goals and value orientations. Scant information is available about how women and men with similarly strong and equal motivations toward the achievement of goals and the maintenance of affiliative relationships will prioritize, make decisions, and interact when achievement demands and personal relationships conflict. Students reveal ignorance of the career hazards of interruptions in employment, and lack of awareness of the family sacrifices and stresses attendant to career commitment (Catalyst, 1987; Phillips & Johnston, 1985; Zuckerman, 1980).

Methods

Participants

In the present study there were two groups consisting of total 60 subjects of which there were thirty female students and thirty male students in the age group 17-22 years. The samples were selected randomly from different colleges.

Material

The instrument used for the study was life role salience scale. The scale had four different sub-scales dealing with occupational, parental, martial and homecare. Life role salience scale was assed on five point Likert scale ranging from a score of (disagree-1, somewhatdisagree-2, neitheragreenordisagree-3, somewhatagree-4, and agree-5). The purpose of this research was to find reliable information. The first section of the survey consisted of a small section of demographics, including age, gender, major, ethnicity, and academic classification. The second part of the survey contained the Life Role Salience Scales (LRSS), which measured variables of gender, career goals, and family priorities (Amatea, Cross, Clark, & Bobby, 1986). The LRSS contained forty value statements regarding feelings about work and family roles. In addition, the LRSS was assessed on a five point Likert scale, ranging from a score of one (disagree) to five (agree). The scale is geared toward role reward value and role commitment level (Amatea et. al., 1986). It also identifies four major life roles as occupational, marital, parental, and homecare. The purpose of this scale is to obtain reliable information pertaining to future career and family expectations of male and female college students (Amatea et. al., 1986).

Design:

The present study was quasi-experimental design. The subject variable was the gender of the participant, and the dependent variable was whether or not the participant rated his or her career role or family role as more important. This is determined by the participant’s score on the two Occupational subsets of the LRSS and the participant’s score on the Parental, Marital, and Homecare subsets. The age group of 20-25 was taken for the study. This particular age group was taken so as to see where this age is where people take decisions regarding career and family.

Procedure:

The students who volunteered where given consent form and the instructions were read aloud and were also mentioned in the questionnaire. The participants were debriefed on the true nature of the study. Specifically, they were told that the experiment was not about the social opinions about men and women, but on the priorities of male and female career and family values. Once again, all the questions were addressed and students received contact information for any further questions that they may have.

Results

The data analyzed for this experiment was based on the LRSS which measured family as a combination of homecare, parental and marital roles and assessed career values through occupational role expectations (Amatea al., 1986). Means and standard deviation for all the scales, by gender are shown in Table1. The data displayed variability between males and females in regard to parental role expectations. Overall, the means between genders exhibited significance, and were detected in levels of an independent samples t-test shown in Table 1.According to the data, their was large difference between both men and women in terms of parental role scale. (t=2.45*). As a result the difference between the results of both genders on LRSS reveals that females assessed a higher value towards the parental role than males. Furthermore, the differences between gender in relation to homecare expectation was significant (t=3.17*) which suggests that female preferred homecare role more than males. These results support our hypothesis, which stated that there is an inverse relationship between gender, career and family values. Table 2 presents the paired samples t-test; comparisons of the means between the occupational and parental roles were significant. (t=2.63*).table3 shows the paired samples statistics of life role expectation between males. By comparing the means, their was a significant difference (t=2.15*) between male occupational and marital views.

Table 1- Gender Life Role Descriptive and Independent Samples Statistics

Male

Female

mean

Occupational

39.93

3.28

37.93

3.43

2.30

Parental

37.97

4.01

40.77

4.80

2.45

Martial

34.63

4.00

40.75

4.76

5.39

Homecare

37.63

2.16

40.47

4.39

3.17

P<0.05

Table 2- Female Life Role Paired Samples Statistics

mean

Occupational

Parental

37.93

3.43

2.67

40.77

4.80

Occupational

Martial

37.93

3.43

2.63

40.75

4.29

Occupational

Homecare

37.93

3.43

2.49

40.47

4.39

P<0.05

Table 3- Male Life Role Paired Samples Statistics

mean

Occupational

Parental

39.93

3.28

2.0722

37.97

4.01

Occupational

Martial

39.93

3.28

5.6119

34.63

4.00

Occupational

Homecare

39.93

3.28

3.2077

37.63

2.16

P<0.05

Discussion

This study investigated career and family values of college students. The first purpose of this study was to identify whether or not males and females had different priorities concerning family life and occupational roles. In the present sample of thirty males and thirty females, significant differences were observed between family and career expectations. According to our analysis, females appeared to value the parental role greater than males. This finding suggests that women assess a larger significance towards family priorities than men who value career. These findings supported our hypothesis, which said that there would be a difference in career and family priorities between genders. As hypothesized, females appeared to value the parental role greater than the occupational role. Thus, females held higher expectations for having a family, rather than a career. Likewise, males showed a preference for occupation, as opposed to marriage. Consequently, males viewed having a career as a greater importance than having a family. Overall, the results of this study highlight the tendency for females to value family priorities, as opposed to males who value career. This finding is also different from gender-role traditionalism research, which suggests that both male and female attitudes change correspondingly during college (Bryant, 2003). Furthermore, results of the present study also indicated that among females, women were more likely to value family, as opposed to career. Past research, such as the Valedictorian Project, obtained results congruent with our findings. Arnold (1993) attributed these outcomes to lowered career aspirations possibly due to female beliefs regarding family-work conflict. In other words, women lowered their career goals to avoid future work conflict and experience fewer family life demands (Arnold, 1993). This finding suggested that external factors (such as occupational stress) tend to lower women’s desire to achieve career goals. On the other hand, additional research indicated that universal work expectations were common between genders, in that both males and females contained aspirations in regard to high education, work, and family values (Maines & Hardesty, 1987). Similar studies also suggested that women, who pursued “high-level” careers and contained greater occupational aspirations, appeared to value high quality career roles over family roles (Faver, 1982). These findings, although they were incongruent with our results, suggested that women and men valued career equally. Many studies have emphasized that women’s career and domestic choices are situational and change over time, that women negotiate their positions and form ideologies in accordance with various circumstances encountered over their life courses (Gerson 1985; Hochschild with Machung 1989; Jacobs 1989). While not denying the validity of this position, the study suggests that many women students, even before they have had any experience with marriage, motherhood and extra domestic work are incompatible and that husbands are reliable lifelong providers -that help to shape their core identities we suggest that these ideologies influence the choices and decisions, students make as they go through college and enter the world of work, which in turn condition and limit other choices they may wish to make as the circumstances of their lives change. Ultimately, an individual’s priorities navigate that person throughout life. A person’s values guide him or her in attaining future goals. The very nature of human beings is dependent on critical decisions based on their priorities, which result in life roles. Thus, value lies in identifying gender priorities, in which future human behavior may be predicted. Consequently, future research on the career and family values of college undergraduates is needed to investigate how males and females of different ethnic backgrounds value career and family role expectations, whether or not an increased sample size would affect the results of the present study, and the influence of college environmental factors (size, religious affiliation, and location) on gender values. Finally, eliminating media tactics geared toward unrealistic gender stereotypes would decrease the gender-role social pressures exerted on males and females. By projecting realistic and non-traditional attitudes, both men and women would expand their life role opportunities.

Women’s achievement orientations are clearly not less than males. But women do not feel they must sacrifice their family roles to achieve the arenas of education and work. They anticipate that future family roles will be more important to them than males. Males see their future educational and work as more important than family. Although women expect to earn less than men, they have similarly high expectations for income as their male peers. However, we also find many differences between males and females which imply that traditional gender roles may be influencing plans for their futures. Of particular interest is the gender difference in self-perception. Although females perform well in academics than male they are likely to see themselves as less able than their male.

The difference in self-perception is particularly perplexing. These findings support a traditional gender socialization model in which males and all things masculine are valued and females and all things feminine are devalued. Women may be socialized to devalue their own achievements whereas males, despite lower abilities would be pressured to overestimate their abilities. Therefore, responses such as these may be appropriate for both young men and women of marriageable age if they live in a world where men are expected to be superior (Eccles, 1987). We also find that men and women have very different expectations form roles in the home and work place. Although both sexes feel that a good marriage and family are important, men do not feel it is important for them to maintain household activities. Furthermore, males hold more traditional values about women combining work and family, and are more likely to wan their wives to remain at home. Likewise, women place more importance on household roles, expect to be employed for fewer hours, and are more likely than male

October 25, 2018October 4, 2018

Capitalist society

What are the defining characteristics of a capitalist society? Which characteristics have held constant, and which been transformed, in the period since the 1970s?

In this essay I am going to examine the six main characteristics of capitalism, as outlined by Adam Smith in his book An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). To aid me in this I shall include references from a broad range of Sociologists in order to elaborate on Smith’s points and provide elucidated examples. I then plan to discuss how these characteristics have been transformed since the end of the rapid economic growth post World War Two in the 1970’s and the catalysts for these transformations. Prior to this I am going to give an overview of the definition and inception of capitalism.

Edmund Burke (1795) defines a capitalist society as one in which even labour is seen as a commodity; the means of production are privately owned by the bourgeoisie whom pay the proletariat a wage in exchange for their labour. Good are produced in accordance with what will make the greatest profit for the bourgeoisie rather than to comply with the needs of the consumer base. The history of capitalism can be traced back as early as the 8th century, in his book Capitalism in Medieval Islam, The Journal of Economic History Sabhi Labib refers to this as, ‘Islamic Capitalism’; the stability and relatively high value of the dinar currency led to the establishment of one of the first economies were money was traded in exchange for goods or services. However capitalism didn’t become dominant in the ‘West’ until the 18th century, the catalyst for this was the French revolution of 1789.

During this time social stress built due partially to an excessive population, which led to food shortages and disease epidemics. Despite the recent growth of capitalism due to increases in overseas trade and thus the continued growth of the economy the majority of French citizens (especially in rural areas) continued to live at or below the poverty level. Furthermore the stratification system of dividing the population into a hierarchy of social orders at birth caused social unrest. People wanted social change but were unwilling to act, until the fall of Bastille. The storming of the French prison by a group of middle class demonstrators protesting the dismissal of Jacques Necker effectively acted as a catalyst for the revolution; people began to realise that drastic action could bring about social change.

Violence dominated the French Revolution; King Louis XVI was dethroned and beheaded and in 1793/1794 thousands more also met this fate, executed because they were thought to be anti-revolution. The French Revolutionary government, who had seized power during the political instability that followed the abolishment of the monarchy, entered war with most of the major powers in Europe, a war that outlasted the revolution. Throughout the bloodshed a number of important changes took place, the most radical of these being the abolition of feudalism and the establishment of a new order. A massive shifting of power from the Roman Catholic Church to the state took place; property was taken from the Church and members of the clergy were forced to sign an oath swearing loyalty to the state.

The French revolution was swiftly followed by the Industrial Revolution in Britain, which in turn led to the spread of revolution across Europe. The Industrial Revolution brought an end to feudal society in Britain and a capitalist economic system began to develop through the growth of free labour which liberated industries such as the textile industry. E.A Wrigley wrote that industrialisation was the product of a steady increase in per capita income (1972). Though it should be noted that the economic changes were not the only factors to contribute to the rise in capitalism, the process also involves a wider set of social changes (Kumar 1978) for example Max Weber believed the Protestant ethic was a driving force in the development of capitalism.

Now I have given an overview in to the development of capitalist societies I am going to discuss the characteristics associated with them. As previously stated Adam Smith outlined six characteristics of the capitalist society, the foundation of these characteristics was the notion of freedom; Smith believed that capitalism was characterised by individuals having both freedom of enterprise, that is the freedom and right to own property and/or a business and the freedom to dictate their own labour and consumer habits (freedom of economic choice). This freedom is however restricted by human need for sustenance and the means of production,

‘He is not forced to live according to the plan of a planning authority enforcing its unique plan by the police, i.e., the social apparatus of compulsion and coercion. What restricts the individual’s freedom is not other people’s violence or threat of violence, but the physiological structure of his body and the inescapable nature-given scarcity of the factors of production.’ (Mises, L. The Anti-capitalistic Mentality, 1956 CH.1)

A further characteristic put forward by Smith was the division of labour; for humans to carry out this production of materials they have to form what are known as, ‘relations of production,’ and divisions of labour must be made which are determined by the means of production at the time and whom owns them. According to Geoff Pilling (1980) for these relations of production take on the form of classes, as they have done present day, the productive forces must reach a certain level of growth (he further noted that if productive forces continued to increase to a higher level society may return to being class-less). .

To illustrate Adam Smith’s theory that within in a capitalist society there are high levels of self interest it is useful to look at the work of Marx. Marx used the model of a modern capitalist society as an example of how we can look at how the unequal distribution of the means of production leads to class development and thus class conflict. The bourgeoisie (ruling class) own the means of production, which means that for the proletariat (working class) to gain the materials they need to sustain life they must exchange their labour for a wage. According to Marx, capitalism is driven by an innate greed, especially within the ruling class; capitalists try to find ways to increase workers efficiency and force them to work longer hours. Caporaso and Levine (1992) noted, .

‘As a result profit increases, real wage (subsistence) remains the same the worker works harder, and longer whilst his share of the product declines.’ .

This sets the interests of the two classes in opposition each acting in accordance with their own desires, as the working class are trying to limit the amount of exploitation they suffer.

In order to control excesses of both individual and collective self interest capitalist societies require a competitive market,

‘As it is the power of exchanging that gives occasion to the division of labour, so the extent of this division must always be limited by the extent of that power, or, in other words, by the extent of the market.’ (Smith, A The Wealth of Nations, Book I, Chapter III, 1845)

To ensure this competitive market there must be a large population of buyers and sellers, this is to ensure that no one person or group of peoples can dictate the price of a good or service by manipulating the supply or demand. One recent example of a company attempting to manipulate the supply/demand chain is that of Apple. The corporation is one of the main buyers of NAND flash memory chips, they are accused of indicating to their suppliers that they require larger volumes of stock than they actually intend to purchase. In order to meet this demand the suppliers increase production and as a result are left with a surplus amount of stock which they are forced to sell at a reduced rate. Moreover a competitive market must allow everyone free entrance and exit from the marketplace and must not restrict knowledge; both buyers and sellers must be aware of the markets that exist and the range of prices.

The final characteristic of a capitalist society given by Adam Smith is that of limited government or laissez-faire, however it is a theory that only works if the aforementioned five characteristics are fulfilling their role. Smith believed that the government should not intervene in the marketplace as that would ruin its chances of operating efficiently and to its full potential. He saw it as the government’s role to police the marketplace by creating and enforcing laws to ensure fair practice as well as helping to settle disputes.

Now I have provided insight in to the characteristics of a capitalist society I am going to discuss how economic events, including two global recessions, over the past forty years have affected the characteristics and policies of the capitalist system.

World War Two was the catalyst for the beginning of mass production of goods, this was known as Fordism. The process was named after Henry Ford, whom helped develop the first car that was economically viable for the working class through the use of assembly lines. Not only did this method of mass production lower the price of the end product, it also enabled Ford to hire unskilled workers which helped reduce unemployment at the time. Wages in his factory were high, at five dollars a day which enabled his employees to become consumers – through this Ford managed to boost the economy. The practice of Fordism helped overcome the economic depression that occurred during the 1930’s as it decreased the numbers of unemployed and increased the efficiency of workers meaning that profits rose. However the Fordist work structure was abandoned in the 1970’s when economic crisis put an end to the post-war boom. The causes of this economic downturn were the oil crisis of 1973, the 1973-74 stock market crash, a period of slow economic growth (stagnation) and inflation. Gamble and Walton (1976) used statistics to show that it was no longer realistic for ‘Western’ societies to practice Fordism; they found that by 1975 3.5% of the UK was unemployed (which went against the Fordist ideal of full employment) and that inflation had increased by 27%. The aforementioned factors combined led to a massive decrease in consumerism.

This economic crisis caused dramatic changes within the capitalist system and the development of a new system of economic production post-1970 that is often called Post-Fordism. It should however be noted that although the economic downturn was the main driving force for the introduction of Post-Fordism, globalisation and advances in technology also aided the transformation. Flexible production defines Post-Fordism; producers began to look more closely at the individual needs of their consumer base and produce small amounts of specialised goods rather than mass producing standardised products. One example of this is that of ‘Third Italy,’ this was the name given to regions of Italy such as Tuscany and Veneto that were encouraged by the Italian government to produce small quantities of high quality products. The goods were produced in small workshops with a workforce of fewer than fifty people and workshops from different regions often pooled their resources in order to purchase machinery.

Despite the fact that these unique products were highly desirable to consumers and thus enabled these small companies to charge more advances in technology during the 1990’s led to many corporations once again succumbing to mass production. Writing of Benetton, whom started as a small family business in Veneto (Third Italy) before becoming a large corporation, Castells stated,

‘New technologies allow for the transformation of assembly lines characteristic of the large corporation into easy-to-program production units that can be sensitive to variations in the market (product flexibility) and in the changes of technological inputs (process flexibility).’ (2000: 167)

This product and process flexibility has enabled Benetton to maintain their individuality and the exclusive feel of their products regardless of their current status as a global fashion brand with over 6,000 retail outlets.

Another such change is the deregulation of markets. Reich (2007) wrote that post Second World War capitalist society was dominated by ogliopolies whom controlled the industry; they were aided by government regulation that allowed them to keep out competition. Changes in the seventies however reduced the power of these large conglomerates as the government simplified laws regarding the market place, this led to a massive increase in competition as it became easier to start up businesses. Competition was further increased by the globalisation of the capitalist economy as corporations began increasing their consumer base by seeking larger international markets.

The deregulation of markets is a product of the theory of Neoliberalism, which aims to increase the efficiency of governments and improve economies by transferring some economic control from the public sector to the private sector (Cohen 2007). This policy complies with Smith’s theory of laissez-faire as it reduces government intervention. Margret Thatcher, whom served as prime minister of the UK for eleven years was an advocate of this policy; between 1979 and 1990 she oversaw the privatisation most of the United Kingdom’s utilities including British Telecom, British Railways and bus services throughout London. And although the current government has yet to privatise any public services there does not appear to be any intention of reversing the work done by Thatcher in reforming the economy.

There is no doubt that the capitalist system has undergone many transformations over the last few decades; the changes to economic policy caused by the current global recession serve to reinforce this. However the foundation of capitalism and the core values of the system remain intact; the essence of capitalism is still profit. The proletariat are still exploited by the bourgeoisie and the rich-poor divide increases each passing year (particularly in less economically developed countries – for example in 2007 the amount of billionaires in India almost doubled). Adam Smith’s vision of a competitive market that could not be dictated by any one corporation now seems too idealistic; the ‘free’ market is controlled by those who own large conglomerates, their wealth ensuring that nothing stands in their way.

References
Books

Burke, E. Thoughts and Details on Scarcity, Edition 3, 1800, Oxford University: F. and C. Rivington and J. Hatchard.

Caporaso, J. A and Levine, D.P Theories of Political Economy; 1992, Cambridge University Press

Castells, M. The Rise of the Network Society, The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture Vol. I; 2000, Cambridge, MA; Oxford, UK: Blackwell

Cohen, Joseph Nathan The Impact of Neoliberalism, Political Institutions and Financial Autonomy on Economic Development, 1980-2003; 2007, Dissertation, Department of Sociology, Princeton University. Defended June 2007

Gamble, A and Walton, P. Capitalism in Crisis; 1976, Macmillan

Kumar, K. Prophecy and Progress The Sociology of Industrial and Post-Industrial Society; 1978, Viking

Labib, S. Capitalism in Medieval Islam, The Journal of Economic History; 1969 pp. 79-96

Mises, L. The Anti-capitalistic Mentality; 1956, Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2006.

Pilling, G. Marx’s Capital, Philosophy and Political Economy; 1980, Routledge & Keagan Paul

Reich, R B. Supercapitalism. The Transformation of Business, Democracy, and Everyday Life; 2007 Knopf; illustrated edition

Smith, A. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, 1845, Nelson

Wrigley, E.A The Process of Modernization and the Industrial Revolution in England, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 3, No. 2, Economics, Society, and History 1972, pp. 225-259 1972, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the editors of The Journal of Interdisciplinary History.

Websites

http://www.marxists.org/archive/pilling/works/capital/index.htm

http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=1889&chapter=109993&layout=html&Itemid=27

http://arstechnica.com/apple/news/2009/11/apple-using-dodgy-tactics-to-get-better-nand-flash-prices.ars

October 25, 2018October 4, 2018

Capitalism, Modernism and Postmodernism

Eagelton’s essay, Capitalism, Modernism and Postmodernism, was first published in the New Left Review in 1983 in which his post Marxist analysis of literature is exposed. He accounts for capitalism influence on art and its role. The capitalist and late capitalist areas have seen two new forms of literature appear: modern and postmodern. The modern, Eagleton explains, “In bracketing off the real social world, establish[es] a critical, negating distance between itself and the ruling social order”^[1], while postmodern works accepts the fact that it is a commodity and thus conflicts between its material reality and its aesthetic structure. Capitalism has turned art into a commodity, and after analysing this claim, the characteristics of modern and postmodern genres will be analysed, so as to understand literature’s role.

Eagleton explains how “High modernity […] was born at a stroke with mass commodity culture.”^[2] Capitalism, as defined by Marx is the bourgeois doctrine by which they are in possession of the modes of production and manufacture goods, sold for a profit. According to most Marxist thinkers, including Eagleton, art became one of the goods that the bourgeoisie wants to monopolise, produce and sell. Art has become a commodity, dissolved into social life. Eagleton denounces the effects of late capitalism on art: “if the artefact is a commodity, the commodity can always be an artefact. “Art” and “life” indeed interbreed”^[3]. Eagleton points out that that the “performative principle”, which he redefines as the deliverance of goods, also applies to the capitalist conception of art. The use of “best seller” as criteria of advertisement for literature proves that literature has become a mass commodity good.

Art and literature have been influenced by some characteristics of late capitalism, such as virtual reality based on mass consumerism. Our society focuses on commodities sold to and ideologically integrated by the consumer: “The commodity is less an image in the sense of a “reflection” than an image of itself, its entire material being devoted to its own self-presentation”^[4]. Art has become centred on its own image, role and place within society, because it has somehow lost its utopian role of mirroring the world, as if capitalism has perverted its function: “If the unreality of the artistic image mirrors the unreality of its society as a whole, then it is to say that it mirrors nothing real and so does not really mirror at all.”^[5]

Modernism and postmodernism are genres that emerged in the capitalist and late capitalist stages. They seem to have a common point: to focus on their role and concentrate on self identity. Eagleton uses de Man’s deconstructivist theory to define modernism: “Literature defines and pre-empts its own cultural institutionalisation by textually introjecting it, hugging the very chains which bind it, discovering its own negative form of transcendence in its power of literally naming, and thus partially distancing, its own failure to engage in the real.”^[6] Modernism attempts at representing the real, but cannot do so and raises a paradox: it “resists commodification”^[7] but is nonetheless part of it, thus part of the social and cultural superstructure of society, which it denies. Denying being part of the capitalist mass commodity is the very core of modern failure to represent the real.

Postmodernism appears as a more cynical genre. Some of its features are the blurring of boundaries, pastiche and grotesque. It does not attempt to represent the world, since it is virtual, and would thus fail to describe it. Postmodernism seems to be very different from modernism on the ground that: “If the work of art really is a commodity, it might as well admit it”^[8] and “become aesthetically what it is economically”^[9]. Eagleton also suggests that postmodersism aims at parodying the commodity production, without adding any meaning in it; if meaning was added in the pastiche, making it parody, it would serve to alienate the self from reality, and according to postmodern thought, there is no reality it can be alienated from. All these features aim at empting the social content of art.

Eagleton assessed the features of literature genres characteristic of capitalist stages, in order to draw a critical and theoretical approach of literature. He seems to focus on its ideological role, which is, more than its representational value, its only role left. Modernism deconstructs the “unified subject of bourgeois humanism, draws upon key negative aspects of the actual experience of such subject in late bourgeois society, which often enough does not at all correspond to the official ideological version.”^[10] Indeed, literature acts as an ideology denouncing ideology. Capitalist ideology professes that mass consumption finally fulfils libidinal desires, when in fact, as modernism exposes, takes us away from our self and reality, from the “unified subject”—a harmonious society—that late bourgeoisie claims to have reached. Postmodernism, despite not embracing the reality of society, draws upon ideological inconsistencies of the bourgeois discourse, thus rendering itself ideological. It shows the incapacity of complying with the capitalist ideology: “the subject of late capitalism is neither simply the self-regulating synthetic agent posited by classical humanist ideology, nor merely a decentred network of desire, but a contrary amalgam of the two.”^[11] The impossibility for the self to comply with all its obligations—familial, consumering, working—in the late capitalist society is denounced by postmodernism. It seems that Eagleton places literature at the centre of ideology, as a resistance to bourgeois ideology. De man explains that “the bases for historical knowledge are not empirical facts but written texts, even if these texts masquerade in the guise of wars and revolution”^[12]; literature is at the heart of our knowledge, ideologically built, and seems to remain so, decades after the end of ideology was proclaimed.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Modern Criticism and Theory, a Reader. Ed. D. Lodge. Eagleton, “Capitalism, Modernism and Postmodernism”. Longman: London and New York, 1988.

October 25, 2018October 4, 2018

Can Sociology Help Us To Solve Problems Sociology Essay

Problems in society, often termed social problems/issues affect every type of community whether big, small, rich or poor. A social problem can be seen as a condition resulting in negative consequences for both an individual and their society as well as threatening our social institutions. However it does not need to be experienced by every individual. An issue considered as a social problem comes from the objective reality of realising that the problem is in fact a social condition that exists, for example you do not need to be poor to recognise that some people live in poverty. Sociology enables individuals to gain a sense of consciousness and awareness that structural or social forces are the causation of our own personal experiences. This enables us to have a systematic and objective approach to understanding cause of social problems and potential aid in finding solutions for these problems. It is vital that there is an understanding that sociology does not offer exact solutions for each problem, it can be used to define and discover problems, their trends and the potential driving forces behind these problems to aid institutions when creating solutions. A problem must be effectively defined before it can be effectively solved, sociology offers this vital definition. This essay will discuss what the discipline of sociology is, offer a sociological perspective on social problems and show two clear examples of completely different social problems and how sociology has given insight into these problems ?Y rubbish! And aided in the process of finding solutions.

Sociology is the systematic study of social structures and individuals. Many think of sociology as a continuous activity with a growing concern, constant adding to already developed knowledge and new experiences. The study of sociology adds to knowledge enabling us to think beyond the obvious and ask more questions. For example when asked to pass a phone we immediately know what the phone is due to the link between the word ( referring to objects) and the object however this answer does not give knowledge about the object. Sociology prompts us to ask more questions, where does this phone come from? How does it work? The study of sociology concentrates on current actions or on actions with qualities that do not change over time. Sociologists view humans actions as elements of wider figurations. Individuals are seen as actors locked together by a system of mutual dependency, that mutual dependency being the state. The central question to sociology is how and in what sense are people and actions dependant on other members/actors in society, therefore why exist in a society with cohesive communications, competition and coordination with other people. Sociology is “a way of thinking about the human world: which can be thought of in different ways”. In sociological studies the material for social findings is the experience of ordinary people living their daily life therefore in theory everyone has access to this and it has been lived by someone else previous to sociological study when actions were viewed as common sense. However, there are many different perspectives and a number of alternative ways of both collecting and analysing data. Each perspective will have a different assumption about society and will therefore as a result of this ask different questions about social problems. For example the Functional Marco level of analysis sees society as held together by social institutions which have specific functions in society and is mainly focused on order therefore one of the questions that will be asked is “How does this problem originate from the social structure?” In comparison to this, the Conflict/Feminist Macro level of analysis sees conflict as the main focus; therefore these sociologist will see society as held together by power and intimidation resulting in asking questions such as “how does the problem originate from the competition between groups and from the social structure itself?” C Wright Mills promoted the perspective that problems and their solutions are not just involving individual but social structures of society. In his essay “The Promise of the Sociological Imagination” 1959. Mills argued that the sociological imagination can help us differentiate between public issues and personal troubles, creating links with our personal lives and experiences and with our social world. Mills argued that personal troubles occur within an individual and their character and relationship with those around them, whereas public issues when values held by society are threatened. Mills does however recognise that personal issues can be transformed into public issues. For example unemployment is an individual’s own personal trouble but when there are high levels of unemployment in your society, a personal issue has become a public issue as unemployment threatens our sense of economic security. This leads to challenging the general belief that everyone can work hard to succeed. The Promise helps to detect the structural bases of social problems enabling us to be aware of the political, economic and social structures that may be influencing these problems.

The subjective reality of a social problem deals with how a problem becomes defined as a problem to begin with. This is driven from the concept of social construction of reality created by Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann (1996). This theory sees our world as a social creation, originating and evolving through society’s actions and thoughts on a daily basis. Our experiences do not just happen to us predetermined and out of our control, therefore our social problems are also not predetermined, they become problems when we view them as problems and acknowledge that they are there. Denise Loseke (2003) says ” conditions might exist, people might be hurt by them, but conditions are not social problems until humans categorize them, as troublesome and in need of repair”.Social Constructionist perspective focuses on how a problem is originally defined and how groups with power such as politicians and the media can influence our opinions of what a social problem is.

October 25, 2018October 4, 2018

Cannibalism: As sanctioned by a cultural norm

What would you choose, eat or be eaten? Will you save your life or save others? It’s a very hard decision, to cannibalize your fellow humans. It’s a matter of choice. Many of us are not convinced with this kind of matter, it’s very hard to accept that cannibalism sometimes use for survival. It’s because the practice of cannibalism can also be considered as a crime. (Adams, 2004)

“aˆ¦ Then Jesus said unto them, Verily, verily, I say unto you, except ye eat the flesh of the Son of man, and drink his blood, ye have no life in you. Whoso eateth my flesh, and drinketh my blood, hath eternal life; and I will raise him up at the last day. For my flesh is meat indeed, and my blood is drink indeed aˆ¦”

– New Testament, John 6:53-55

Cannibalism is also called anthropophagy, eating of human flesh by another human. There are some reasons for cannibalism, in some tribes; it is a part of their culture, so the act of cannibalism is being practiced. Another reason is that cannibalism is a form of survival. The hungry people for instance trapped in a wild place, the tendency of it is for them to find a food source, and if they can’t find any food it can lead to Cannibalism or what we called the survival cannibalism. And the most common reason for cannibalism is the insanity of people. (Adams, 2004)

“It was considered a great triumph among the Marquesans to eat the body of a dead man. They treated their captives with great cruelty. They broke their legs to prevent them from attempting to escape before being eaten, but kept them alive so that they could brood over their impending fate. … With this tribe, as with many others, the bodies of women were in great demand. … “

– Rubinstein, W. D. (2004)

The anthropologist Tim White suggests that cannibalism was common in human societies before the beginning of the upper Palaeolithic period. He based his theory on the “butchered human” bones that found in Neanderthal and another low/middle Palaeolithic sites. (White, 2006) Cannibalism lower and in middle Palaeolithic may have occurred because of food scarcity. (Owen, 2006)

In early history cannibalism is mentioned many times. In bible (2 kings 6:25-30) wherein two women decided to eat their children (aˆ¦) the same story that was told by Flavius Josephus during the invasion of Jerusalem by Rome, cannibalism is also documented during the starvation in Egypt that caused by the failure of Nile river to flood for eight years (1073-1064 BC). (Against Jovanius-Book II, 1893)

As in modern times, (modern era) there are many cases of cannibalism especially during World War II, the brutality of Japanese is spread, due to lack of food sources. Even soldiers probably killed and ate during and after the battle. During starvation, soldiers are forced to eat the diseased prisoner even though it is disgusting, but they have no choice because that is the only way for them to survive. It is an example of survival cannibalism. (Ang, 2005)

“Anthropologists have made no serious attempt to disabuse the public of the widespread notion of the ubiquity of anthropophagists. … in the deft hands and fertile imaginations of anthropologists, former or contemporary anthropophagists have multiplied with the advance of civilization and fieldwork in formerly unstudied culture areas. …The existence of man-eating peoples just beyond the pale of civilization is a common ethnographic suggestion.”

– Arens, 1981

“The manners of the Androphagi are more savage than those of any other race. They neither observe justice, nor are governed, by any laws. They are nomads, and their dress is Scythian; but the language which they speak is peculiar to themselves. Unlike any other nation in these parts, they are cannibals.”

Rawlinson, 1858-1860

The Anthropophagi, whom we have previously mentioned as dwelling ten days’ journey beyond the Borysthenes, according to the account of Isigonus of Nic?a, were in the habit of drinking out of human skulls, and placing the scalps, with the hair attached, upon their breasts, like so many napkins.

– Bostock and Riley 1855

“I believe that when man evolves a civilization higher than the mechanized but still primitive one he has now, the eating of human flesh will be sanctioned. For then man will have thrown off all of his superstitions and irrational taboos.”

-Diego Rivera

When humans eat the flesh of other humans in able for them to survive this is what we called survival cannibalism. This is the only generally accepted form of cannibalism but still it is punishable by the law. Some people think that all people have the capacity to eat other people if you put them in right circumstances. As mentioned a while ago regarding the cannibalism during World War II, it is considered as survival cannibalism because of famine. (http://www.trutv.com/)

“… Eating someone who has died in order to survive is incorporating their substance, and it is quite possible to compare this with a graft. Flesh survives when assimilated by someone in extreme need, just as it does when an eye or heart of a dead man is grafted onto a living man…” (Auxiliary Bishop of Montevideo. Read, pp.1974. Alive. Avon, New York)

In early 1942 an Indian soldier Hatam Ali was a witness of

cannibalism during World War II. He tried to escape from the hand of the Japanese but before he leaves, he witnessed the brutality of Japanese among the prisoners as well as the soldiers because they are lack of food sources, they ate the diseased prisoner sometimes they draw lots. Whoever was picked was the one who will be killed and cooked. Could you imagine you are eating human flesh everyday? (Armando, 2005)

“Nothing more strongly arouses our disgust than cannibalism, yet we make the same impression on Buddhists and vegetarians, for we feed on babies, though not our own.” – Steevenson 1850

Ritualistic and Epicurean Cannibalism, the modern forms of this type of cannibalism is very similar and can be seen in some other tribes. The only difference is that this type of cannibalism is associated with satanic and cult group rituals. Epicurean and nutritional cannibalism is the rarer and is usually considered as a sub-motivation of other forms of cannibalism, such as the survival cannibalism and the sexual cannibalism.

(http://www.trutv.com/)

The ritual cannibalism is more complicated type of cannibalism compare to other types, because human flesh are sold as a medicine in various human diseases. This is something exotic, because the medicines are came from human flesh, some American food cultist studied about the use of human placenta as a remedy in any human diseases. (Janzen, 1980)

In Helsinki, Finland in 1999, there two men and a teen-aged girl arrested because of the torture, murder and cannibalism of a twenty-three year old man. They claimed that they are satanic and they perform a ritualistic killing. (http://www.trutv.com/)

The cannibalistic practice among criminals is increasing over the last century particularly in the western hemisphere. The law makers around the world are forced to establish or to update the law regarding cannibalism. Because many crime including criminal cannibalism has been reported and well documented. In some cultures the act of criminal cannibalism maybe an acceptable element for another culture.

(http://www.trutv.com/)

There are many people who refuse to believe that cannibalism is being practiced in this modern civilized age. Somehow there is much proof suggesting that it does occurred and with some frequency. There are so may documented cases of cannibalism particularly during the last 100 years.

(http://www.trutv.com/)

Self cannibalism is a practice of eating oneself. The other term for self cannibalism is auto cannibalism or auto sarcophagi. (http://meish.org) Some people are engaged in self cannibalism because of body modification for example eating your own skin because of body modification or by drinking your own blood. This practice is called auto vampirism. But sucking blood from wounds is not considered as cannibalism. (Anonymous) On January 13, 2007 the Chilean artist Marco Evaristti was a host in a dinner party for his friends. The main meal is agnolotti pasta which was topped with a meatball made from artist own fat. (http://www.news.com.au/ )

Self-cannibalism sometimes used in brutality as a torture method. Like Erzebet Bathor, she tortured her servants by forcing them to eat their own flesh. (Adams, 1986)

In 16th century, during the time of Spaniards, they forced the native people to eat their own testicles as a capital punishment. (De La Torre, 1986)

The Chijon family were a gang of cannibals in South Korea. This group of cannibals was founded by Kim Ki Hwan, a former convict and six other prisoners joined the gang. The Chijon family is composed of 7 criminals, the objective of this gang is to kidnap rich people and extort money from their families, Because of the anger of this gang to the rich people, forced them to kill the best customers in one of the most exclusive department store in Seoul, South Korea. After the crime the six members of chijon family were found guilty in murdering five people in 1994. After the crime, one member of chijon family confessed in front of many people that he ate the flesh of one of the victims and saying that he wanted to renounce his humanity. The gang realized that they need more tactical and more effective way to kidnap a wealthy old men. The gang was able to get the list from renegade personnel. The list contained the name of the big time customers. With the use of that list they choose who the next victim is. On November 1, 1994 the chijon family was sentenced to death because of the five people they killed. (http://www.imaeil.com/)

Another case of cannibalism has been reported in South Korea. A self-confessed cannibal named Yoo Young-chul that was born in 1970 in South Korea admitted that he killed 21 people; most of them are prostitutes and rich old men. The Seoul central district court accused him of 20 murders (one case dismissed on a technicality). He burned three of his victims and chopped the body of at least 11 of them and after that he confessed that he ate the livers of some of his victims. This crime was happened between September 2003 and July 2004. When Yoo was arrested, in front of media he explains his motive, Yoo said that: “aˆ¦ women shouldn’t be sluts and the rich should know what they’ve done aˆ¦” On July 19, 2005 he was sentenced by death by the Supreme Court. Because of that case, the South Koreans open their minds about the capital punishment in South Korea. (http://trutv.com)

Cannibalism exists because of the hungry people, due to lack of food sources, many people are forced to cannibalize their fellow human because that is the only thing that they can do in able for them to survive. There are many cases of cannibalism in different countries like in China, Korea and Japan. Some people are practicing the act of cannibalism because it’s a part of their culture, but some other people are practicing the act of cannibalism because of insanity. The most generally accepted form of cannibalism is the survival cannibalism but it’s still punishable by the law. If you put yourself in a situation wherein you’re going to choose, to eat or be eaten, it’s a very hard decision, as a matter of fact many people choose to eat human flesh rather than to die because of hunger. Based on my study, I found out that there are three things why cannibalism has been practiced in some other countries. First, the insanity of People, second, as sanctioned by a cultural norm and lastly, for survival.

October 25, 2018October 4, 2018

Butch and femme roles of lesbians

Butch and femme roles were extremely important to the community in the forties and fifties; it was the butch role that was the most visible, and therefore the most likely to cause public scorn (Weissman and Fernie). The two sources, The Reproduction of Butch – Femme Roles by Madeline Davis and Elizabeth Lapovsky Kennedy and Forbidden Love by Aerlyn Weisman and Lynne Fernie focus particularly on the function of the butch role among working class lesbians in Buffalo. These sources draw on articles, oral histories and interviews of lesbians from the early twentieth century. Both the resources state that, although “gender-appropriate” styles and behaviors were rigidly enforced in order to maintain a clear distinction between the sexes, butch women’s choice to not only reject traditional femininity but to also actively adopt masculinity was perceived as a threat to the very order of society and a prelude to social chaos. Despite the fear, and likelihood of harassment by police and other straight men, the courage of butches to claim their identities in many ways prepared the way for later generations of lesbians to break free from the narrow conventions of socially constructed womanhood and claim access to a kind of power traditionally held only by men (Weisman and Fernie). As a result, male representations of lesbian sexuality have had the most influence in shaping attitudes towards butch and femme identities throughout the twentieth century. Such representations have almost always assumed the lesbian role -playing is an imitation of heterosexuality.

The main theory underlying the feminist disregard of role – playing is that roles depend on sexual difference, which is naturally hierarchical, polarizing, and oppressive. Sexual difference is the grounds on which heterosexual roles are built, and thus contains within it an inherently unequal distribution of power. In the relationship of a butch and femme, since the identities of both are built on popular cultural stereotypes of male and female behavior, they tend to reinforce the inequality in power inherent in this dichotomy. In addition, in most cases one of the partners is active, strong, dominant, and initiating whereas the other partner is passive, weak, submissive, and enduring. The partner who is dominant in this equation mimics the role of a male in a heterosexual relationship, whereas the passive, weak and submissive characteristics belong to that of the female. Thus, because the butch- femme roles have the potential for being just as sexist as heterosexual roles, they imitate the latter, especially when talking about power relations between two partners. (Weisman and Fernie)

According to Judith Roof’s article, “The Match in the Crocus: Representations of Lesbian Sexuality,” the representations of lesbian sexuality in the dominant discourse often evoke the phallus by calling attention to its absence or substitution in sexual relations between women, so that it appears and seems necessary, at least symbolically, because of the inconceivability of sexuality without a phallus present. Therefore, lesbians are often depicted as having appropriated the penis, masquerading as though they really had it, and thereby assuming male privilege and acting upon it. This evokes the stereotypical image of the lesbians by phallocentric discourse and is seemingly embraced by the lesbian community in the form of butch roles. What Roof’s analysis makes possible is an understanding of the ways in which the dominant ideology has a vested interest in making the butch – femme role playing appear to be a mere replica of heterosexuality, as a way of calming male anxiety over the threat of female appropriation of male dominance. Thus, because the absence of the phallus requires them to achieve the balance through role playing, they merely are merely imitating the heterosexual norms.

Butch – femme roles were particularly prominent in the working-class lesbian bar culture of the 1940s, ’50s, and ’60s, where butch-femme relationships were the norm, while butch-butch and femme-femme were taboo (Kennedy and Davis 244/81). Most of the lesbian community existed primarily in bars, since these were the only places where people could gather publicly, break the isolation of lesbian life, and develop both friendships and lover relationships (Kennedy and Davis 243/80). Just as in straight bars, “picking up” another type in lesbian bars was often the reason for attending the party. Although there are a few exceptions (like Nairobi in Forbidden Love who sent a rose to her desired person), the butch was typically the one who made the first move towards the femme who just sat and looked pretty. This idea of the “male” butch having to make the first move, replicates the role of a heterosexual male who usually is the one to make the first move at a club.

The objective of a butch was to satisfy and keep his femme safe (Weisman and Fernie). This reiterates the notion of one of the partners being in control, strong, and dominant, whereas the other is weak, and needs the help of a “man” to keep her safe (Weisman and Fernie). This goes hand in hand with the notion of the society that perceives women to be inferior to men because they need a man to look after them. It was always the butch who put up with the discrimination, and bashing to keep their “woman” safe. Further, “the butch is never attracted to another like herself. Rather, she is always attracted to a more feminine type of person” (Kennedy and Davis 251/84). This can be paralleled to the idea that heterosexual males are not supposed to be attracted to the same type of person, but of the opposite sex. Therefore, though they are trying to show a discourse to heterosexual relationships, the fact that society is predominantly heterosexual subjected them to the widely known heterosexual structure.

The role playing in the bedroom does not strictly and always follow pleasure being received only by one partner. Just like the sex life of heterosexual couples butch and femme complement each other in an erotic system in which the butch was expected to be both the giver and the doer (Kennedy and Davis 244/81), however not always. In simpler terms, as shown in “Forbidden Love” it was always the butch on top, and the femme on the bottom. Though this earned them a destruction of taboo around the sexuality of lesbians, it can be taken further by the notion that in the sex life of heterosexual couples, the female is the one on the bottom, and the male is the one who is taking charge, and dominant, and therefore on top.

In contrast to a butch, a stone butch is a woman who is strongly masculine in character and dress, tops her partners sexually (and sometimes emotionally), and who does not wish to be touched genitally. Not all stone butches identify in female terms; some are known to identify with male pronouns, while many stone butches do not even identify themselves with lesbian or within the lesbian community. A common partner for a stone butch is a stone femme; a femme who bottoms sexually or who wishes not to touch the genitals of her stone butch partner. Moreover, the characteristics of stone butches can be found in many men, who wish to pleasure, but do not expect anything in return; that is – to be total givers. These men get their “zing” from pleasuring their woman, identical to the role of a stone butch. (Weisman and Fernie)

By wearing the attire of a man, the butches earn privileges that a heterosexual man would have. The femme, or the woman, who wears feminine clothes, does not have the same privileges of that of the males. Wearing “manly” clothes gives a lot more mobility and freedom to the butches, which parallels the liberation that heterosexual males get and their females do not. Moreover, the only way for women to achieve independence in work and travel and to escape passivity was to “pass” as men (Kennedy and Davis 245/81). Wearing “manly” clothes therefore also permitted these “men” to earn higher salaries and get better jobs (Weissman and Fernie); similar to how getting a job was known to be a man’s responsibility in the heterosexual structure.

Though there have been ongoing debates on the roles of butch and femmes, there is no doubt that their role – playing imitates the functions which are evident in a heterosexual constitution. There are many reasons that have compelled these lesbians into taking up these heterosexual identities; one being the identification and visibility of the role of females in a society dominated by heterosexual notions of relationships, and another being that taking up the “male” characteristics, was the only way to let the society view their homosexual relationships as somewhat heterosexual. Thus, butches and femmes took on the notion of the heterosexuals by imitating their masculine style of clothing, sex habits, stratified positions and social behaviours.