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This essay will focus on discussing the importance of effective parent/ teacher partnerships with a diverse range of parents/family/whanau in New Zealand early childhood settings. Firstly, it will identify and analyze one challenge that a family may face, which is family in separation and divorce. I will describe some strategies that early childhood teachers can utilize to support children and their families. Then I will discuss how parent/teacher partnerships and related community networks and agencies assist children and their families in coping with this challenge.

As early childhood teachers, we need to understand the meaning of parent/teacher partnership, because it help the teachers effectively understand children’s culture, tradition and family values and then understand the child’s individual needs. Duncan defines that parent/teacher partnership is collaboration with parents'(Duncan., 2006). Te WhA?riki states that “children’s learning and development are fostered if the well-being of their family and community is supported.”(Ministry of Education [MoE],1996,P42). Quintilian states that parents and teacher can set examples for youngsters. It would help children develop their positive character and speech patterns (Krogh& Slentz,2001). In my opinion, effective parent/teacher partnership is the teachers and the parents can work as a team to improve the children’s holistic development, because teachers do not exactly know children’s behaviors at home and parents also have no idea about what their children did in the early childhood settings. So the reciprocal relationships between teachers and parents are necessary for fostering children’s learning and development.For instance, if the parents can share the teacher the information about what their children interested in at home, the teacher would plan some activities to the children to follow their interests. In this way, it supports the children’s learning effectively.

It is important that parents and teachers support each other and work as partners in children’s early childhood education. For children, their learning and development will be fostered if the parent are willing to provide some information to help teachers understand their children’s past experiences and believes/values about their own culture. From this knowledge teachers can know better about their children and ensure the experiences that we provide are responsive to the individual children and families (Tabors,1998).For parents, Pogoloff and Lock believe that parents play a vital role in children’s life. They will be involved with their child long after the teacher has moved on (Pogoloff & Lock, 2004). Effective parent/teacher partnerships will help the parents understand the reasons underpin their children’s growth and behaviors. It will help them get better understandings about their children and know how to deal with their children’s problem behaviors. For teachers, building good relationships with parents could support teachers to interact with parents better. It will promote children’s holistic development and teachers’ professionalism effectively.

Therefore, as the role of teachers we should learn some strategies to make a parent/teacher partnership effective. Firstly, teachers could provide some suggestions to parents, like how to extend children’s learning through activities and resources. Because giving some suggestions or advices rather than teaching parents how to do this. It could help to build trust, respect and reciprocity for both teachers and parents (Keesing Styles, 2000). Moreover, teachers and parents should also work collaboratively. The teachers need to let families know how they can be helpful and can ask for their assistance with specific activities. For example, teachers can invite the parents to participate to some activities or write down some feedbacks about activities. In this way, it will make a parent/teacher partnership effective and help the parents get a better understanding about early childhood curriculum and their children(Duncan, 2006).

Family in separation and divorce is one of the common challenges that family members might face. It is trends in our current society that fewer people are getting married and more people are separating in New Zealand. According to the statistics from Families Commission, almost one third of children were raised by only one parent in the household (Families Commission, 2006). There are lots of reasons that a couple may consider a divorce, such as poor communication, financial problem, cheating and abuse (2010 Divorce Guide,2010). All those reasons cause the divorce rate had a gradual increase in New Zealand from 1992 to 2006 (NZTC,2009).

Families in separation and divorce have a determining influence on children, and parents. For children, they might feel the stress and confusion of separation and divorce. Moreover, many kids might feel angry, sad and worry about what life will be like after divorce. They might lose confidence and self-esteem, lack of parents’ care and interaction, feel helpless and even angry behaviors (Brodkin, 2008). In addition, the factors that come with divorce might also have a determining influence on the children, such as financial problem, family conflict, mental stress and parenting practices(Pryor & Rodgers, 2001). For the families, separation and divorce are often cause lots of emotional and psychological upheaval for parents. It will changes their relationship and interactions their children’s growth and behaviors ( Smith,1998). However, an unhappy partnership is thought more harmful for the parents and children than separation and divorce (NZTC,2009). In addition, separation or divorce also will be an opportunity for children to learn and grow throughout the challenges. It will help children to learn new skills to manage stress and to cope with situations over which they have no control.

Early childhood centers and teachers play an important role in terms of supporting parents, families and children when separation or divorce happens, because early childhood centers are places where New Zealand families have regular to access. There is some legislation which teachers can use as guidance when they get involved in this issue. Code of ethics advocates that in relation to parent/family/whanau, teachers should strive to establish an equal, mutually respectful, healthy and collaborative relationship, develop a warm and supportive attitude, involve them in decision-making about the education of their children and respect their privacy and rights (Early childhood Code of Ethics National Work Group, 1995). United Nation Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCROC) (1990) article 19 also shows that child shall be protected by all legislative, social and other measures from all forms of physical and mental violence, abuse or neglect. In this way, the role of the centre and staff in addressing the issue about families in separation/divorce is to build an effective parent/ teacher partnerships in early child education and support parents to protect children from the harms that divorce cause.

In early childhood centers, teachers could apply some strategies to support children and their families. First of all, early childhood teachers should have positive attitudes and treat all the children equally. As teachers we need to respect parts and children’s privacy and do not discuss their family problem in front of children or others (NZTC,2009). We also need to avoid stereotype the children who experience divorce must have problems. Label a child “from broken home” will affect his/her self-esteem and it will influence his/her life later on. Moreover, teachers should be fully aware of the effects that divorce might bring for children and the family’s needs for support (NZTC,2009). It will help teachers to be sensitive to the difficulties the family might meet and support them to deal with those problems. For example, a child may feel be neglected when his/her parents break up, so the teacher can offer the child a hand to hold that can mitigate the child’s sense of loss and helpless. In addition, teacher plays an important role in helping children make a positive adjustment to their parents’ divorce. Most young children could not clarify the complex reasons why parents’ divorce so that they are likely to feel responsible for their parents’ marital discord and blame themselves(Brodkin, 2008). In this way, teachers need to suggest their parents to be honest and tell them what happened within the family and explain why it happens to their children. Furthermore, teacher should help the children who are suffering from parents’ divorce to express their feeling. Teacher need to give extra attention to the children to help the children adjust this situation(Brodkin, 2008). Teachers also need to encourage the children to share their feelings and really listen to them. For example, if a teacher noticed a child was in a bad mood. She could encourage he/she to talk and said:”I see that you are upset – do you know what is making you sad/angry/frustrated?” It would help the children find the words for their feelings. The last but not the least, teachers and centre need to maintain an open communication with parents (NZTC,2009). Centre can provide group opportunities for both parents to discuss family problems what they are currently facing with, so that teachers can have enough knowledge about what happened within their family and take next steps to help the family get out of those negative influences caused by separation/divorce.

If the family can’t cope with the problems which the divorce brought, the centre and teachers need to help them seek the community support networks to assist. Work and Income is one of the agencies which can help the parents to deal with their financial difficulties. It provides financial assistance and employment services throughout New Zealand(Work and Income,N.D). Therefore, if separation or divorce brings any financial problem, the teachers can advice the parents go to work and income and ask for support. Moreover, as a single parent, it is quite hard for him/her to tack care of the children by him/herself. The Plunket Fanlily Centre can offer lots of supports and information for the parents, such as breastfeeding, infant nutrition, sleeping, child behaviour and parent/family needs(Plunket,N.D).We also can introduce kindergarten association to the parents to help their children cope with the emotional problems which brought with their parents’ divorce, because kindergarten association provides information, advice and strategies to parents about their children’s education(Duncan,2006). As teachers, we need to know those community support networks/agencies and familiar with their functions, so if the parents have any problem which the family and early childhood centre could not cope with it, staffs could suggest parents to have a chat with those agencies to solve the related problems which caused by separation

In this essay, it has discussed the significance of effective partnerships between parents and teachers in early childhood settings. It also has identified a challenge that families may face in Aotearoa/New Zealand, which is family in divorce and separation. Some effective strategies that early childhood teachers could use to support children and families have been illustrated. Meanwhile, it has also included how parent/teacher partnerships, relevant community and agencies would assist when families face this challenge, which could definitely support families and minimize the risk for children.

Reference lists:

2010 Divorce Guide. (2010) .The Most Common Reasons for Divorce and Separation. Retrieved on January 19, 2010, from http://www.divorceguide.com/free-divorce-advice/marriage-and-separation-advice/the-most-common-reasons-for-divorce-and-separation.html

Brodkin, A. (2008). Dealing with Divorce. Scholastic Parent & Child, 16(2), 44-46.

Duncan, J. (2006). Collaboration between New Zealand early childhood centres and community resources. Childrenz issues, 10(2), 14-19.

Early Childhood Code of Ethics National Working Group, (1995). Early childhood education code of ethics for Aotearoa/New Zealand. Wellington: Early Childhood Code of Ethics National Working Group

Families Commission (2006). Beyond demography: History, ritual and families in the twenty-first century. Wellington: Families Commission.

Keesing Styles, L. (2000). Possibilities for partnership: Empowering parents to participate. Early Education, 24, 5-9

Ministry of Education (1996). Te WhA?riki: He whA?riki mA?tauranga mo ngA?

mokopuna o Aotearoa / early childhood curriculum.

Wellington, New Zealand: Learning Media.

New Zealand Tertiary College. (2009). The family study guide. Auckland, New Zealand: New Zealand Tertiary College.

Office of the Commissioner for children. (1990). The United Nations Convention on the Rights of The Child. New York: UNCIEF

Plunket.(n.d). Family centres. Retrieved on January 19, 2010, from http://www.plunket.org.nz/plunket-you/what-we-offer/family-centres/

Pryor, J. & Rodgers, B. (2001). Children in changing families: Life after parental separation. Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell.

Pogoloff, S., & Lock, R. (2004, November). Facilitate Positive Relationships Between Parents and Professionals. Intervention in School & Clinic, 40(2), 116-119. Retrieved August 9, 2009, from Education Research Complete database

Smith,A.B.,(1998). Understanding children’s development:A new Zealand perspective(4th ed.). Wellingtom: Bridget Williams Books.

Tabors, P.O.(1998).What early childhood educators need to know:Developing effective programs for linguistically and culturally diverse children and families. Young children, 53(6), 20-26.

Work and Income,(n.d). Supporting children and families. Retrieved on January 19, 2010, from http://www.workandincome.govt.nz/individuals/supporting-children-and-families.html

John W. Gardner, former United States Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare stated: “Much education today is monumentally ineffective. All too often we are giving young people cut flowers when we should be teaching them to grow their own plants” (http://thinkexist.com/quotes/john_w._gardner/). Gardner’s statement expresses the necessity to educate children thoroughly by providing them with skills to harvest their own self-improvement. These skills include leadership, teamwork, confidence and responsibility. Many worldwide organizations focus on youth development through education. Children are the generation most capable of carrying out positive changes such as peace, development, and equity, due to time and materials being in their favor. When youth are given the means to educate themselves and acquire leadership skills, they are provided with an opportunity to make a positive contribution to their global society.

Programs that focus on youth education and development through organized activity are popular in developed and developing countries. Organizations range from summer camps to after school programs to international teaching initiatives. I work for an organization called Youth Leadership Camps Canada that specializes in working with children ages 5-18 in an outdoor recreational environment to aid in their leadership development. Our staff is trained in various recreation techniques including games facilitation, high ropes and waterfront activities, teamwork initiative tasks, and reflection in order to effectively convey important leadership and self-improvement techniques to children and teens. Through working at YLCC,

I have discovered that play is an effective way to teach leadership skills in a practical and engaging manner. Children absorb concepts quickly through experience, and active learning helps them gain the confidence to lead among their peers when given the opportunity. I have seen positive results and growth in children and teens that are vision impaired, children with mental development issues, children who are labeled “at risk” and children who are labeled average and above average in their development.

My experience working at YLCC has fueled my curiosity to discover similar programs and research their methods and levels of success. This research paper will explore factors influencing the need for development among third-world youth; recreational education as a proven method of equipping youth with essential skills; programs that educate youth through activity, and criticisms of such programs.

Factors Influencing the Need for Youth Development

When discussing the importance of rehabilitating and teaching youth, it is necessary to evaluate their living conditions and the factors that influence their need for development. Many children in developing countries live in undesirable conditions, suffering poverty and starvation, low success in school, and negligence from parents. Michael Justesen and Dorte Verner’s book titled “Factors Impacting Youth Development in Haiti” discusses the state of matters among Haitian youth: “A series of factors predisposes a large proportion of youth to poverty, school dropout,

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unemployment, early sexual initiation, teen pregnancy, HIV/AIDS, sexual and physical abuse, crime and violence, substance abuse and drug dealing, and social exclusion” (Justesen, M; Verner, D. 2007:3). Determining the factors that propel youth to unhealthy and unfulfilling conditions allows one to begin to develop a solution to the problem. According to Justesen and Verner, the sources of youth development hindrances are rooted in several aspects: “In many households absence of the father or both parents, drug abuse, pressure for female adolescents to bear children, and domestic violence contribute to the challenges young people face on a daily basis” (2007:3). Addressing and understanding these factors and their sources is necessary if one has the intention to work with youth and help them to work toward self-improvement.

The World Bank’s Country Study titled “Caribbean Youth Development” discusses three factors contributing to the need for youth development: individual characteristics, microenvironment, and macro environment. (The World Bank. 2003: 28-42) Individual characteristics refer to the character and qualities of the person in question. For example, the study refers to the levels of self-esteem and feelings of rage among youth in the Caribbean (2003: 28). Youth who experience rage are more likely to engage in crime and violence, or use drugs, alcohol and tobacco. (2003: 28) More than half of children who display rage-like behavior in the Caribbean have been either sexually or physically abused (2003: 29). Microenvironment and macro environment refer to factors such as parental and

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community influence, and economic situations and position in society, respectively. (2003: 30, 37) Institutions and individuals with whom youth make contact are “very powerful influences in their lives” (2003: 35). Direct connection with members of their microenvironment can play a role in a youth’s development, and the individual demeanor they will adopt. Macro environment concerns itself with factors that determine a person’s circumstance, such as gender or economic situation (2003: 37). The three aforementioned factors cover varying aspects of a youth’s life, addressing elements both within and beyond an individual’s control.

Despite records that certain factors lead to disagreeable living conditions, hope remains that Haitian youth, and others to follow, will rise above their troubles and work as leaders, if given the proper direction: “Haiti’s history, combined with the country’s social and poverty indicators, show that youth should be seen not as a problem, but as a product of the family and community environment and therefore should be treated as a potential solution to Haiti’s development challenges” (2007: 3), This statement advocates the idea of developing youth through education and leadership, allowing them to be agents of change in their own lives and in their communities.

Recreation and Youth: Connections and Results

People have participated in sport and recreation for hundreds of years, from simple game play in the schoolyard, to worldwide Olympic events. According to Martha Ewing’s article, “The Role of Sports in Youth Development”, “Children learn

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moral behaviour from engaging with others, watching the behaviour of others, and/or being taught ethical behaviour” (Ewing, M.E et al. 2002:37). In this sense, ethical behaviour can be acquired through active learning in an interactive team environment. Ewing’s article suggests that youth can learn moral behaviour and build character through participation in sport. Specifically, Ewing mentions that in studying children and their participation in physical education, it has been proposed that children “(a) develop physical skillsaˆ¦(b) improve fitness; (c) learn social and emotional skills; (d) develop moral values; and (e) acquire a better sense of self through increased perceived competence, self-esteem and self-confidence” (2002: 31). The essential skills gained from participation in sport work as an agent toward youth development and provide a solution from troublesome conditions. Through sports and team activities, children learn self-sufficiency, co-operation, and begin to believe that they are capable of being leaders.

Recreational programs are sometimes government funded and provided within schools, while others are non-governmental and extra-curricular, such as summer camp. Camp is often presented in the media as simply a place for children to have fun in the outdoors. However, summer camp provides youth with an opportunity to extend their personal boundaries, be active, make connections, and gain confidence through learning new skills and interacting with others. Christopher Thurber’s study “Youth Development Outcomes of the Camp Experience: Evidence for

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Multidimensional Growth” discusses the technique for youth development used by summer camps:

Promoting the healthy development of young people adheres to two complementary theoretical orientations. Prevention Science (e.g., Greenberg et al., 2003; Nation et al., 2003) aims to identify at-risk populations and alter individual characteristics that are precursors to unhealthy behaviors, such as school failure, drug use, and violence. Positive Youth Development (e.g., Catalano, Berglund, Ryan, Lonczak, and Hawkins, 2002; Larson, 2000) also seeks to reduce unhealthy behaviors, but by fostering the individual, social, and environmental characteristics-such as positive identity, social competence, and independence-that promote healthy development. Viewing young people as assets rather than liabilities also reflects the trend toward studying positive psychology and resiliency (e.g., Seligman, 2003; Werner and Smith, 2001), rather than focusing narrowly on pathology and risk (Thurber, C.A, et al. 2006: 241).

According to this study, summer camps break their education methods down into two categories. They evaluate not only the factors contributing to the need for development, but focus on methods of fostering healthy development in a positive manner. The harmony of discovering the origins of the problem with the process of intently working toward improvement and learning has proven to be successful:

(Researchers have) focused on children with identified problems, including emotional disturbances (Byers, 1979; Durkin, 1988, 1993), learning disabilities and social skills deficits

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(see Mishna, Michalski, and Cummings, 2001, for a review), family dysfunction (Lewicki, Goyett, and Marr, 1996), chronic medical conditions (e.g., Zimmerman, Carter, Sears, and Lawson, 1987), delinquency (e.g., Castellano and Soderstrom, 1992), and gang involvement (Harris, Fried, and Arana, 1995). Results of these studies all support the conclusion that camp promotes children’s health and development and reduces the recurrence of referral problems.

Summer camps and physical education are proven methods of guidance for youth in an active environment. The techniques used to increase a child’s mental and physical health through activity can be used effectively to aid youth in developing countries to gain confidence and leadership skills.

Programs Specializing in Recreational Education in Developing Countries

Many organizations have taken notice of the positive results that come from youth participation in organized activity. Programs such a Right to Play and OA Projects focus on providing children with essential skills through engagement in team sports such as soccer. UNICEF’s Peace Education program facilitates various workshops for school-aged youth, intending to teach qualities such as empathy, tolerance, communication, and co-operation (Fountain, S. 1999: 17). Susan Fountain’s article discussing training methods by UNICEF describes peace education among the “knowledge, skills, attitudes and values required to live and work in dignity” (1999:1). Specifically, “sport and physical education have been used in Rwandan schools as a vehicle for developing skills and attitudes of peace”

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(1999:17). Training youth to work together as members of a team is a common goal among activity based NGOs like Right to Play and OA Projects. Right to Play is based on the guiding principle of inclusion, hoping to promote the involvement and acceptance of youth who are marginalized for various reasons, including gender, disability, and background (At a Glance, 2009: 1). Right to Play also focuses on reintegrating youth affected by conflict into society; health promotion and disease prevention education; basic cognitive development and partnership with local community leaders and coaches to ensure individual as well as community development (At a Glance, 2009: 1) Similarly, OA Projects partners with local programs focused on promoting peace and rebuilding communities (www.oaprojects.org. About.) Interaction with the project country contributes to the organization’s authenticity.

The Outcome: Results and Critiques

Nearly every effort to aid in developing countries provokes critiques questioning its integrity and authenticity. One might question whether a child can actually grow and receive essential skills from play. While leadership skills are important, do these programs provide youth with the opportunities to exercise them fully, and enough to make changes in their lives and in their communities? Cora Burnett’s “Sports-for-Development Approaches in the South African Context: A Case Study Analysis” looks at sports in the school, community clubs, and South Africa’s “Youth Development through Football” (YDF) program. In her conclusion she suggests, “the emphasis of

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traditional male sports such as rugby, cricket and football, inevitably limited the opportunities for equitable gender participation” (YEAR: 38). While Burnett’s critique states that inclusion of members of the community created “mass participation at the school level and afforded many rural learners the opportunity to participate in a variety of sports” (year: 39), focus lacked in addressing contextual priorities and appropriate needs-based education and training toaˆ¦ creat(e) career pathways or enhanc(e) the employability status (with reference to the school sport assistants and contract workers) of vulnerable populations” (year: 39). Burnett’s critiques address concerns that many inevitably share, questioning whether the outcome of activity-based programs is worth the means to present them.

Conclusion

It goes without saying that every child deserves to enjoy life and feel the joy that comes with playing and being active. Programs that offer children an opportunity to grow through activity not only intend to expose war-affected youth to an experience of fun, but through the fun experience, show children how to work together, lead and take initiative. Whether in Canada or in the third-world, physical activity is proven to increase fitness, confidence, and teamwork and communication skills. It is questionable whether sports and activity-based programs have a consistently favorable outcome as providers of better opportunities for youth. However, it is undeniable that the end result of joy and confidence for a child is worthwhile. Children in developing countries deserve a childhood just as much as children in

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developed countries do. Through organized activity and sport, children are given the opportunity to play and laugh, while learning valuable team and leadership skills. Sports-based programs are not designed to pave the pathway of a better future for third-world youth, but rather to provide them with the confidence and skills to consider their pathways, and equip themselves to think critically about the pathways they are on.

The ecological systems theory of human development is proposed by Urie Brofenbrenner, a Russian American psychologist. In this theory, he stated that everything in a child and also the surrounding environment can affect the child development (Oswalt, 2008). He also developed this theory to comprehend the relationship between the child, the family, teachers, and the society (Growth and Development Theory, 2013). This ecological systems theory is divided into few different levels which are micro system, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem. The first level is micro system which is the small immediate environment that is directly connected to the child (Sincero, 2012). As an example, a child has the closest relationship with his parents and family which also can influence the child’s development mentally or physically. The relationship between the child and the teachers, friends or also neighbours is also considered to be in the micro system.

Next, mesosystem includes the interaction between two microsystems such as the relation between the child’s home and the school (Growth and Development Theory, 2013). Exosystem is the level which includes other people and also places that may have no direct interaction with the child but still affects the child’s development like his parents’ workplace, the neighbourhood or even the extended family members (Oswalt, 2008). Macrosystem is a larger level consists of the cultural contexts like ethnicity or other influences such as economic influences and cultural influences (Sincero, 2012). Every environmental event and transitions occur in an individual’s life is included in the chronosystem (Sincero, 2012). The events such as marriage, divorce or others that can affect someone’s life are the examples of this system.

1.2 How does Urie Brofenbrenner’s ecological systems theory affect the child development?

As I have already explained before about this ecological systems theory by Brofenbrenner in the previous page, this theory can actually affect the child development. According to Doll-Yogerst (2011), this model of the ecological systems recognizes that a child’s development is affected by the settings and also affects the surrounding in which he spends his time every day. The relationship of the child and the microsystem can also give impact in both directions which is being called as bi-directional influences (Doll-Yogerst, 2011). For example, a child’s parents may affect his behaviour or belief but he can also affect his parents’ behaviour or belief. Particularly, his family is the most essential setting because he spends his time mainly with the family and it has the most influence on him especially the emotion (Doll-Yogerst, 2011). This situation shows that a child’s development is influenced the most by his family, if one of his parents is working as a doctor and he understands it as doctors are good people since they help others, it may gives him the idea to be just like his parent in the future.

There are also other important settings that may influence the child’s development such as his extended family, teachers, peers, child care centre, school, and preschool or kindergarten (Doll-Yogerst, 2011). These settings are directly interacting with the child because he will encounter his teachers when he is at the school, or playing with his peers in the neighbourhood. The child’s development is based on how he experiences while spending time in all these settings (Doll-Yogerst, 2011). It is can be seen in the situation where the child may have stumbled upon a bad experience while playing at the playground that will probably make him to avoid playing at the playground anymore or even good experiences he has that will affect his development.

Other than that, a child involves in many microsystems (Bronfenbrenner’s Microsystems, n.d.). Each of the microsystem interacts with each other which also can be called as mesosystem. The number of quality interactions between settings also has important implications for a child’s development (Doll-Yogerst, 2011). For instance, the parents and the teachers at school are both considered as microsystem from the child’s point of view. These two microsystems will interact with each other in such situation like parents-teachers conference that usually being held in school. The child probably acts differently in school than at home since he is surrounded by his peers. If the child is having any difficulties or problems at school, the teacher will tell the problems to his parents so that they will acknowledge how their child is doing at school. This interaction between both parties is important that will reflect on the child’s development.

The other external environments that may have indirect connection with the child but still give huge impacts on him are included in the exosystem level (Doll-Yogerst, 2011). This exosystem level is when the settings that may be unknown to the child for example the parents’ workplace or colleagues will affect his growth. It can be exemplified in the situation when the parents coming back home with the stress that they get at their workplaces that will influence the child’s thoughts (Doll-Yogerst, 2011). Besides that, the government, the economical factors, the mass media can also affect the child’s development. For instance, the child is influenced by the animation series on television that leads him to follow what the characters are doing. The largest system in this theory is the macrosystem which consists of the most remote of people and things to a child nevertheless still has a great influence for the child (Oswalt, 2008). This includes cultural values, customs and laws (Ecological Systems Theory, n.d.). As an example, the child has been raised by following the national laws that drugs are illegal or murder is a crime that will make him obey and acknowledge which is wrong and which is right. The events that happen during the transitions over a lifetime are called chronosytem, which means everything happens in a child’s life while he is growing up that may changes his perception.

1.3 How does Urie Brofenbrenner’s ecological systems theory apply children in preschool and early primary levels.

The ecological systems theory is somehow applied to the children in preschool and early primary levels. Horowitz-Degan claims that the child’s behaviour can be analyzed by using the environmental influences, as well as the cognitive factors (as cited in Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological, n.d.). This situation can be seen in preschool or primary school, where the class acts as the microsystem that will give influences to the child. As an example, if a teacher walks into a classroom brightly, it will automatically sets up the mood of the classroom to be warm and friendly which will positively affect the child’s cognitive sphere of influence then next encourage the process of learning (Van-Petegem, Creemers, Rossel, and Aelterman, 2005). For instance, a teacher teaches the students excitedly and happily in the classroom, the students will have more interest to listen to the teacher because they have been influenced by the positive vibes from their teacher. In addition, Van-Petegem defines that the teacher’s behaviour can also affect the students and can be a model for the consideration of the feelings of others and the value of interactions (as cited in Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological, n.d.). This shows that this ecological systems theory gives effect on the child’s social development in mircosystem which also can be increased through the encouragement given by the teacher.

Furthermore, in the preschool centres or primary schools, there will be a playtime provided that will develop the motor skills development in the children (Brofenbrenner’s Ecological, n.d.). Activities such as creating craft, indoor arts like drawing, colouring or painting can also help in the growth of the students’ motor skills. While in the classroom, the students will be given the opportunity to speak up their opinions that may give influence to the other students who are listening to the opinions and it will help them in the intellectual development. This is because the students will start thinking about the opinions and try to relate to the knowledge that they already have. If there is an argument happen in the class, the students will try to convey their thoughts to the teacher that will also give a huge impact to them intellectually since they use their minds to counter the argument. Besides, the issues associated with the adults who are involved in the effect of the child’s microsystem despite of the child have no direct connection to the exosystem (Brofenbrenner’s Ecological, n.d.). If the parents are having problems at the workplace, it will influence the child at home. Parents may be spend more time on solving their work issues that probably make the child feels that he is being ignored which affects his emotional development. The development of children will also be affected in the macrosystem even though it is the largest layer of ecological systems theory (Brofenbrenner’s Ecological, n.d.). In this level, the child is influenced by the cultural values that give impact on the social development.

1.4 Summary of Urie Brofenbrenner’s ecological systems theory.

To sum up, the ecological systems theory by Urie Brofenbrenner does apply to child development including the children in preschool and early primary levels. This theory helps the children in intellectual development, emotional development and especially, the social development. Each of the levels in the ecological systems model, microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem, interact with each other to help the child’s development. As adults, we need to observe how the child is growing and we need to bear in mind that everything in a child’s surrounding has the probability to influence their growth. Parents should be more concern about their child’s microsystem in school and spare more time communication with them and not only focusing on work or career.

Children are the most vulnerable people who have innate potentials yearning to be unleashed. It is in their early childhood when they begin to manifest such potentials and since they have yet to develop physically, cognitively and socio-emotionally, they would need supportive adults to guide them towards the right path in optimizing their potentials.

The Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) is a resource for early childhood care and education practitioners to support the needs of young children under their care. It sets standards for learning, development and care for children up to five years of age. EYFS provides a wide variety of information on child development to help practitioners understand how children grow and what they need to help them optimize their potentials (Tickell, 2011). The use of this resource will effectively enable early childhood settings to meet the key outcomes outlined in Every Child Matters and to ensure that high quality service is provided to the children.

Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS)

In early childhood, caring for all children involves many considerations. One is to see each child at his or her own developmental level and create activities and opportunities appropriate to their particular levels. The child needs to develop holistically, meaning each developmental area is given attention to so growth and development as a whole person ensues. The crucial areas of development that need to be emphasized in early learning are Personal, social and emotional development; Communication and language Physical development (Department of Education, 2012). Aside from these major areas, the children also need to develop skills in literacy, mathematics, understanding the world and expressive arts and design (Department of Education, 2012) These are all linked together, as in development in one area affects the others. The practitioner needs careful planning and implementation of activities so that children under their care grow in all areas.

The EFYS works around four essential themes namely: A unique child; positive relationships; enabling environments and learning and development (Department of Education, 2012). These themes are briefly explained as follows.

Each child is born with his or her own set of talents and potentials, and these are meant to be developed all throughout his life. The practitioner is to help the child develop his or her potentials to the fullest by providing him with activities and experiences to hone his skills. If the child shows propensity for the arts, the practitioner allows him or her to indulge in creative activities of interest to the child (Tickell, 2011).

EYFS’s theme of positive relationships enables children to grow up in environments that make them feel love and security from their homes or learning environments, making them grow up to be self-confident, self-propelling people. Supportive adults help children understand the emotions they undergo, especially if these feelings are negative and confusing to the child (anger, disappointment, jealousy, etc.). In being understood, the children themselves learn to be sensitive to others’ feelings and provide the same support and understanding to them, creating a circle The key of positive relationships. The outcomes specified in Every Child Matters are met in such positive environments (Department of Education, 2012).

The theme of provision of enabling environments for children play a key role in helping and guiding children in growing to be capable individuals. This entails a practitioner’s keen observation of each child, as to his or her interests, skills, personality traits, etc. and get cues from the children themselves as to how they would like their learning to be structured. Careful planning of activities for children should consider important concepts and skills they should be learning at their developmental level. Again, this agrees with the constructivists’ view of children’s learning that they are capable of treading their own learning paths they themselves construct of course with the able guidance of a sensitive adult (Tickell, 2011).

Lastly, EYFS’s theme of learning and development helps practitioners understand that children develop and learn in different ways and at their own time. Each area of learning and development specified by EYFS is equally important and inter-connect with the others, so practitioners must make sure that they do not concentrate on only one area of learning at a time (Department of Education, 2012).

Role and Value of Play

EYFS recognizes the importance of play in childhood, as it provides many benefits. Wood (2004) contends that in maximizing the potentials of play as a teaching tool, adults have a great role to play in planning challenging environments, engaging children in learning from play activities, facilitating children’s language development, observing and evaluating children’s learning through play and encouraging its continuity and progress.

Infants, toddlers and pre-schoolers derive much benefit from a play-based curriculum, and under the supervision of knowledgeable and caring adults, it is a powerful method in facilitating the development of children’s identities. During play, “children demonstrate improved verbal communications, high levels of social and interaction skills, creative use of play materials, imaginative and divergent thinking skills and problem-solving capabilities” (Wood, 2004, p. 21).

Free exploration is considered Heuristic play by Holland (2003). It is encouraged without adult intervention. Adults simply provide simple materials and allow the child to just be and let his imagination take off . “The child learns from observing directly what these objects will ‘do’ or ‘not do’, in sharp contrast to much of the ‘educational’ equipment which has a result predetermined by the design which has been devised by the adult maker (Holland, 2003, p. 142). Heuristic play will not only stimulate a child’s thinking, but it also develops his creativity as he will see in his mind endless possibilities in imaginatively transforming ordinary objects into various things with various functions.

Early childhood curriculum should incorporate play in its design. Play is essential to children’s learning, as it is one effective approach to captivate their interest. Teachers should take advantage of this and plan challenging learning environments to support their students’ learning through planned play activity. Aside from this, the teacher also needs to know how to support their spontaneous play and help them develop their language, communication skills and other developmental skills through interesting and fun play-like activities. Moyles et al (2001) claim that ironically, a learning environment that relies much on play leads to more mature forms of knowledge, skills and understanding. There is evidence to suggest that through play children develop high levels of verbal skill and creative problem solving capabilities

EYFS and Other Early Years Programmes

Several early childhood programmes share the same philosophy as those espoused by EYFS (Tickell, 2011). These programs have curriculums designed with the child at the center and all else caters to him to support his growth and development and the realization of his potentials. One is the Te Whaariki early childhood curriculum of New Zealand and the other is Reggio Emilia based in Italy.

The Te Whaariki curriculum values play as an effective tool in facilitating children’s learning and development. Pedagogical models with strong sociocultural features such as Te Whariki do not leave play to chance but sustains it through complex reciprocal and responsive relationships as well as provision of activities which are socially constructed and mediated (Wood, 2004). Not only do activities promote self-awareness but also incorporate cultural awareness which strengthens children’s cultural identities. Webber (n.d.) summarizes what research has found out to maximize children’s learning as “incorporating cultural content; reflecting cultural values, attitudes and practices; utilizing culturally preferred ways of learning, including culturally appropriate support; and affirming cultural identity” (p. 9). This means they should be exposed to the songs, stories, games, etc. inherent in their family and cultural backgrounds. Much of these can be incorporated in play situations.

Malaguzzi, founder of Reggio Emilia philosophy (1993) concludes that teachers should be researchers that think and produce a true curriculum centered on children’s needs. Teachers develop a curriculum from observing the children and noting down their developmental skills, interests and other possibilities they can discover on their own within the parameters of safety. This curriculum envisions implementation in an environment organized by teachers to be rich in possibilities and provocations that challenge children to explore, problem-solve, usually in small groups while the teachers act as keen observers or recorders of the children’s learning. Teachers get to balance their role by sometimes joining the circle of children and sometimes objectively remaining outside the loop (Pope Edwards, 2002). Teachers are on hand to provide assistance or further challenge children’s thinking to push them to optimize their potentials. They also observe children’s behaviors to see which of their needs need to be met (Lambert & Clyde, 2000) and design opportunities to address such needs either through the curriculum or through their social interactions.

Reggio Emilia schools provide an ideal learning environment for children. Since the approach was conceived in the context of shared learning with the families and other adults in the community contributing to the education of the young, it has the support it needs to implement a curriculum that best suits the needs of the growing child. It is commendable that the families and community members value their children’s education seriously that they take time to collaborate with the teachers in projects children do (Early Education Support, 2006).

Knowing that children at the early childhood stage are concrete learners, much emphasis is given to the creative arts that the presence of an atelierista or Art consultant is vital in the program. Children are given several opportunities to explore their artistic side as they are provided with all the materials and conducive learning environment in the “atelier” or art studio within the school. Children’s 100 languages are given vent in various forms of art and other developmentally-appropriate activities.

Not to be forgotten are learnings in literacy and numeracy which are likewise essential to children’s development. However, since it is the process which is given priority over the product, academics are learned in less structured ways. Learning is evidenced in highly documented portfolios which contain actual works of children, photographs of their projects and even transcripts of their language while working on some activities. Teachers’ observations are important since they need to document each child’s episode of learning. Each portfolio is vastly different. Teachers and parents discuss children’s portfolios at parent teacher conferences to see evidences of progress. Teachers are also using digital portfolios. They may use these to complement the original portfolio of the child or alone. The portfolio assessment gives a clearer and more accurate picture of what children learn in school rather than a report card that serves to summarize learning in a particular period of time.

Inclusion and Diversity in EYFS

Practitioners with a genuine heart for caring for children are not prejudiced in selecting who to care for. According to EYFS principles, “Children should be treated fairly regardless of race, religion or abilities. This applies no matter what they think or say; what type of family they come from; what language(s) they speak; what their parents do; whether they are girls or boys; whether they have a disability or whether they are rich or poor. All children have an equal right to be listened to and valued in the setting.” (EYFS, 2007). Diversity is embraced so everyone is welcome to be part of the class.

Inclusion of children with disabilities or special education needs is likewise advocated by EYFS. Inclusion settings should design the environment to accommodate such children like providing ramps for children in wheelchairs. At the same time, they should seek the support of the children’s parents and other agencies involved with children with special needs. Professionals from a wide variety of fields and disciplines devote much time and energy in helping these children live comfortable and fulfilling lives with the end view of mainstreaming them into society and the real world. Educators, therapists, psychologists, speech pathologists, physicians, social workers and even government officials join hands in the care and education of these children to ensure their optimum growth and development.

The children may be part of the social care team. They have the ability to help each other in their interactions. Children, both normal and with special needs are subsequently paired in natural settings for social activities.

“The most direct outcome of these procedures has been an increase in positive social responses and peer acceptance. Strategies for peers to use include, soliciting the student’s attention, providing choices, modeling appropriate social behavior, reinforcing attempts at functional play, encouraging/ extending conversation, turn taking, narrating play and teaching responsiveness to multiple cues.” (Benito & Ramirez, 2000, p. 43).

Conclusion

Such information provided herein helps the practitioner plan a good program for children. Bearing in mind that each child’s individual need should be met, a practitioner may group children with similar ages or ability levels together and manage the different groups in accordance to their developmental and individual needs. Practitioners should have enough flexibility in planning activities for children. Following their lead in terms of interests shared by the majority of children is one effective way of capturing their attention and motivating them to develop skills.

To ensure that each individual in the group is provided with the necessary attention and care, the practitioner should be keen in observing their needs and interests so she is mindful of these when planning activities for them. Collaborating with parents is another way of gaining information on each child’s interest, abilities and personal qualities.

In the matter of addressing the key outcomes identified by Every Child Matters, EYFS is likewise very much concerned in the well-being of children and attempt to pursue its goals of keeping children healthy, safe, happy and capable, and being healthy, staying safe, enjoying and achieving, making a positive contribution and achieve economic well-being by not going hungry, unclothed or unsheltered. That is why its advocacy is to uphold the best interests of children. These five outcomes go for all children regardless of their background or circumstances. The outcomes are mutually reinforcing, as when one outcome is met, the others are more likely to follow. For instance, young people learn better when they are healthy and safe. Also, education is the best route out of poverty.

With all the support from EYFS, the government and agencies involved with children, early childhood practitioners have no reason not to provide high quality service to their clients. Theirs is the most vulnerable lot and deserve the utmost care, since they hold the keys to the future. Understanding the needs and developmental growth of very young children enables the practitioner to plan very well for appropriate activities that would optimize their potentials.

Luquet was one of the first to start researching into the development of drawing using a cognitive development theory and releasing a book in French during 1927. He described differing stages of drawing development which a child will pass through; this became known as the stage account. Luquet thought that after a period of scribbling that children go through, there were four stages of realism which children will also go through. These were thought to be fortuitous realism, failed realism, intellectual realism and visual realism.

Fortuitous realism shows the child’s drawing as mostly scribbles but the child can see real life objects within the marks. The child will do this again and again and notice these ‘accidental’ representations, until they reach the point where they will set out intending to draw something representational from real life.

The child will be entering the second stage which is failed realism when they consistently set out with the intent to draw something resembling real life. During this stage an adult can see an adult can see what the child has set out to draw although it can look like there are many mistakes with important features missed out and objects not always where they should be, (such as a child’s drawing of a parent, where the parent has a face but no body, with its legs and arms extending out from the head).

Intellectual realism occurs when improvements of the child’s concentration and attention occurs, meaning the drawing will depict prominent important features of the object. This is the stage where the child will feel it is important that the defining features in the shape are drawn. To achieve this, the child will use transparency, draw certain features as if like a plan, and draw certain things broken down. However this prospective is different to how the object is seen in real life and the child notices this and will start to become concerned about drawing this way.

This leads to the child wanting to draw life like representations of an object and this takes the child into the fourth stage, visual realism, which means that the child will draw on object from one perspective and will only draw the objects features from the same perspective.

In 1956 Piaget took the work of Luquet’s (1927) stages of drawing to use to develop his framework, which too was using a cognitive development theory, Piaget didn’t see drawing as a special part of development, but rather a window into the general cognitive development of a child. For him, a drawing showed the cognitive competence of a child rather than what stage of development they were at. For the most part, Piaget agreed with Luquet’s theory and both of there frameworks has similar stages of development for children’s drawing. There are certain strengths for their theory which include that they seem to explain ‘seeming’ stages of acquisition, supporting evidence for this was shown by Clark (1897) who studied children aged 6 to 16, they were asked to draw an apple with a hatpin passing through it, the younger children were found to draw a continuous line while the older children tended to only draw the visible parts of the pin, and Freeman & Janikoun (1972) who studied cups that were drawn by children. The cups had a flower pattern and were positioned so that handle or flower pattern was either visible for the child or not visible for the child, they found that they younger children drew the handle even when it was not visible where as the older children only drew what they could see. However, the weaknesses for Luquet/Piaget’s stage theory are that the roles of culture and environment had not been taken into consideration. Evidence against their stage theory has been shown by Selfe (1977, 1995) who studied artwork of gifted children and autistic savants. She studied a young girl with autism who could draw remarkable pictures, the drawings she studied were produced by the child between the ages of 3 and 9, and said that the girls pictures were remarkable because they were done while she was so young and because Nadia (the young girl) did not show that she had any type of ability to see conceptually. This goes towards showing that not all children will go through the stages that Luquet and Piaget suggest, but whether this is just for children with conditions such as autism is not currently known. Barret, Beaumont & Jennett (1985) also provide evidence against Luquet and Piaget’s stage theory by talking about the instructions which the children received, for instance, did the children receive standard instructions (with the instructor saying “draw exactly what you see from where you are sat”) or whether the child received explicit instructions (with the instructor saying “draw exactly what you see from where you are sat, look at it very carefully so you can draw it just as you see it”). They found that when children received the standard instructions 11% of the children got the drawing correct, and when the children received the explicit instructions 65% of the children got the drawing correct.

According to Luquet (1927), children move gradually from one stage to the next and that they can still draw from pervious stages in when they are in that last stage, this is because they may still want to represent something in a different way. He suggests that the reason children will draw the same things over again without them varying much is not due to habit but that they prefer to draw it in that way. Luquet’s theory should not be considered as just a stage theory as he had many other points to add to it, including the two above, for this reason children’s drawing ability should be seen as more of a fluid motion, since a child will progress through the stages but can easily slip back if they want to, allowing them to represent not only the part of the object that they see but the whole of the object.

Kellogg (1970) used a generalist theory and took a different approach by suggesting that drawings of children are just patterns as children only draw things that show what they perceive as ‘good form’. She found that usually when a child reaches 5 or 6 years old, that most children will be able to draw a fairly accurate and complete person; this is because by this age most children will have formed a drawing formula which allows them too continuously and consistently draw an accurate picture of a person. She thought that some shapes can be seen in children’s scribbles and that it is these shapes that can then be used to form a picture. Kellogg did agree that drawing made use of the base of representational experience but says that the use of the lines would differ. Kellogg did come up with a descriptive classification that had the appearance of developmental progression by looking at thousands of children’s drawings and examining them closely. These drawing showed that the development passed from basic scribbles then diagrams, then shapes finally moving to combining shapes, she suggests that when a child reaches that stage the child is functioning as an artist.

Willats (1977) used a perceptual theory but agreed that drawings can be seen as representations but thought that children could possibly experience perceptual problems when they try to draw a 3D image on paper (a 2D space). He also suggested that children can change the solutions to these problems as they grow older and develop. Willats (1977) took children aged from 5 to 17, and showed then a real scene, the children were asked to draw what they saw from a fixed view point. When the children had finished their drawing Willats chose to classify the drawings using a drawing system which gave a certain score to a picture. The score was given based on the number of correct representations of occlusion by overlap. There are many drawing systems and during this investigation six were found, and it was shown that it was the older children who used the more complex systems. Willats found that there were discrete stages at which the development took place which was found to cover all the ages of the children tested, this also showed that the ability to use overlap appears continuous, with few children using overlap at under 9 years old with children learning fast between the ages of 10 and 12 years old.

Arnheim (1974) used a generalist theory and had suggested that a child will draw an object which will show the defining features (as the child see’s them) in the simplest way for the child to be able to draw them within a piece of paper (2D space). One example that was given of this is that a child will most likely draw an animal from the side so that the relationship between its legs, tail, and any other defining features are visible allowing people to clearly see what animal it is, while a child will draw a person from the front, allowing the facial features to be depicted and also showing the symmetry of these features making it clear that it is a person. This was supported by Ives & Rovet (1979) who consistently found that children of any age who had passed the scribble stage, and were asked to draw an object that was familiar but without seeing the object, all used those specific ways of drawing.

Luquet and Piaget are the two big names when it comes to looking at the development of drawing in children, but much more research has been done since Luquet’s initial research in 1927 which was popularised in 1956 by Piaget. They both took the cognitive development approach to drawing development which may have been why they both agreed on the stage theory, with research by others looking into different approaches to drawing development. There is a lot of support for Luquet and Piaget’s theory of stages of drawing development, and although it has a few criticisms, the main one being that it does not account for any cultural differences, most psychologists will agree that there is some form of stages of development that a child will go through when it comes to drawing development. Another criticism of Luquet and Piaget is that it does not think about the children with such developmental conditions as autism and asperger syndrome. These conditions can involve delays and impairments in the development of the child’s communicative and social skills, which may delay the child in some area’s of development, while other children with these types of disorders have been shown to be good at certain things which including drawing, with some children showing remarkable advancement in drawing. It also depends on the instructions that the children are given as to whether they get the drawing correct or not, and so the instructors have to be careful how they ask the children to draw the object otherwise it may influence how they draw the object.

The idea of a child is contested throughout the world. It is first important to distinguish the difference between the terms child and childhood. The dictionary defines a child as ‘a boy or girl from the time of birth until he or she is an adult, or a son or daughter of any age’ which is a very vague generalization (Cambridge dictionary, 2009) Defining the word childhood presents similar problems, as again the dictionary is of very little assistance merely stating that childhood is ‘the time when someone is a child’ (Cambridge dictionary, 2009). It is therefore essential to find a more valid definition of a child. Many factors affect the way a childhood is defined, such as the period of history in which the characterization was developed as well as the culture it has transpired from. The thesis of what a child and what childhood is will not be the same globally, although there may be similar themes around which the definition is based. These similarities often include the use of age as a boundary for childhood, the exploration of psychological and biological aspects to childhood and the concept of independence. Mills (2003: 8) also outlines the cultural, geographical, historical and gender based theories on what childhood is. A child in a third world country will have experiences that are a polar opposite to that of a typical child from a western country. This difference in experiences therefore has an effect on the definition given by that particular culture as to what childhood is. Ergo, an important question that arises is whether childhood is shortened by experience or enriched. The UK defines a child as any person, regardless of gender, under the age of eighteen, in accordance with UN policy based upon the ‘Rights of the Child’ (UNCRC) (NSPCC, 2009).This is a basic biological definition of a child that is accepted by the majority of UN countries. Gamage (1992) however argues that childhood end around the age of ten. Clearly, defining childhood is not a clear cut task.

There are different angles to look at when defining childhood from a socio-economic perspective. Cultural differences are a massive factor that needs to be taken into account when attempting to define childhood. Culture affects the way a child is seen which in turn affects the individual child and how they perceive their early role in society. It is the variety in culture globally which leads to ethical complications in cross-cultural adoption, as the UNCRC outlines that a child has the right to know and practice its cultures traditions, however if a child is uprooted from its original setting, does that mean that it should disregard the surrounding it began life in favour of adopting new traditions and languages? We often act in an ethnocentric style which is “the opinion that one’s own way of life is natural, correct, indeed the only true of being human” (Schultz and Lavenda 1990: 32) Ethnocentrism can even be seen in the UNCRC. Whilst it complies with human rights, it can be seen to clash with individual societies for example; some tribes have entirely different traditions and regimes for the treatment of children compared to that outlined in the UN legislation. It is unfair to say that a tribe’s way of doing things is incorrect yet some of their traditions can be seen as cruel and as infringing the articles of the UNCRC. The ignorance between cultures can create an atmosphere of fear. The lack of understanding we have for unknown societies makes it difficult for us to understand their traditions and how they affect their societies definition of childhood. New problems arise however if we become all consumed with legislation and political correctness for example in Britain schools have begun to replace their nativity plays with a more generalised holiday themed performance. The attempts to be politically correct are preventing British children from learning about their own culture. Nutbrown (1996 ) refers to seeing children “as passive recipients of knowledge … as ‘adults in waiting’ ” which is interesting as it leans towards the idea that children are perhaps not people in their own rights, merely half filled vessels. This is obviously a very odd perspective, as it is taking away the idea of childhood being a key stage in its own right, and focusing on the concept of it just being part of the development to becoming an adult. Nutbrown points out the difficulties in this view, as it infers that the world created for children is not based on their contemporary needs. She writes

Perspectives on childhood that include the concept of children as ‘adults in waiting’ do not value children as learners and therefore create systems of educating and designing curricula, that can be narrow minded rather than open minded and which transmit to children rather than challenge children to use their powers as thinkers and nurture their humanity.

Kakar (1981: 18) points out that this is not a global view, and as always, culture is critical to defining childhood. Kakar claims that the word childhood is a “fully meaningful word-in-itself” in certain areas in countries such as India and China. This emphasis on the word means that the period of life known as childhood is to these cultures an individually important part of life, not just a prerequisite to adulthood. It is particularly interesting to compare different experts’ key social constructions of childhood. Richard Mills (2003: 9) looks at the ideas of children as ‘innocent’, ‘apprentices’, and ‘vulnerable’ whereas in a rather different approach Chris Jenks (1990: 36) explores children as ‘savage’, ‘Dionysian’ and ‘Apollonian’. Mills’ concept of an apprentice being a construction of childhood links to Nutbrown as it refers to the idea that children are merely adults in training. This is a persistent theme throughout defining childhood. Mills, when referring to children as innocent, claims that they are in need of protection, and are representative of good and purity. He talks about the child developing through the ‘gradual acquiring of secret knowledge’.

For Postman these secrets are to do with sexual relations, money, violence, illness, death and language (Mills )

If Postman is correct in saying that obtaining such information equates to the end of childhood, then by that understanding, it is fair to say that a child who has suffered sexual abuse or the death of a loved one is no longer a child. Postman’s ideas can be linked to the ideas of class defining childhood. It is generally fair to say that children from more financially stable backgrounds appear to have in general a more idyllic childhood than those less fortunate. However this doesn’t necessarily increase the time that they are a child if Postman is to be believed, as class has little impact on how or when a child discovers the ‘adult secrets’. Obviously they are less likely to encounter child labour, however they are not automatically protected from death or sexual knowledge. In a broader sense, parallels to this can be seen internationally, for example, the chances of a child being in labour instead of education are far higher in India than they are in France. The economic standing of a country has a knock on effect on how children are viewed socio-economically. In poorer countries childhood is cut short due to a need for additional income, whereas in most Western countries, children enjoy a full education whilst earning a living is down to the parents. Gender is also a socio-economic aspect of defining childhood, as it is generally believed that girls mature sooner than boys. Does this therefore mean that if you are female, your childhood has been cut short in comparison to your male peers? If the answer is yes, then this should perhaps impact upon laws and legislation. For example, it could be possible that girls could have a younger age of employment to that currently enforced for both genders. This is not necessarily fair on either boys or girls, but it could be a possible way to further define childhood. It is clear that children are defined differently depending on the socio-economic background they come from, whilst this makes it difficult to pinpoint a precise definition of childhood, it is critical to appreciate all different views and ideas, whether or not they comply with our own views.

Historically, the constructions of childhood span a range of different phases. Perhaps most importantly is the work of Aries’ (Palaiologou 2009) who claims that childhood as a concept wasn’t even around until the sixteenth century at which point in England, the Christian church began to get involved in educating children with very basic Sunday schools. The ideas out forth by Aries are a source of much debate as they raise a lot of questions and there are theorists who disagree with the idea’s put forth by Aries and who claim that childhood has always been present throughout history. If Mills is to be believed when talking about children being in need of both physical and emotional protection, then surely Aries cannot be correct. The parental urge to protect must have been somewhat present throughout all of history, almost like an animal instinct. A key argument against Aries is that in Ancient Greece there was a development of the idea of education in a more formal style. However, this doesn’t necessarily mean that childhood was seen as a particularly separate stage, and it still only existed very loosely. Prominent aspects of British childhoods such as fairytales did not exist purely for children in Ancient Greece, but as entertainment for the whole family. In his book Centuries of Childhood Aries highlights the fact that as soon as children were able to exist without needing constant care then they became seen in the same way as adults. Yet, there is still a stage where it is recognized that the infant needs care and attention from an adult, so this can be seen as recognition of childhood. One explanation for this limitation on recognizing childhood as a key phase has groundings in the economic needs throughout history. Children were often required to work from a young age – as is still often the case – and so this had the effect of often calling a halt to their time as a child. The rise in popularity of Christianity led to the beginning of childhood as we know it today. The concepts of children as innocent as mentioned previously began to materialize, and with it a stronger sense of the need to protect the younger generation. The church stepped in at the helm of education and began to mould the youth. There was a focus on removing the devilish side from children, and it can be seen that the church was leaning towards indoctrination rather than education. Evangelicals took it upon themselves to fight against the possibility of children committing sins. Along with the idea of children as innocent, had come the idea that they as the future, needed to be washed of sins – the implication being that they had already sinned. Obviously families were quite enthusiastic about this need to remove the devil and keep their children pure. It wasn’t until 1876 that education became compulsory for all children aged ten and under. However, childhood was still seen as just a prerequisite to adulthood, rather than a defined period of life in its own right. It was not just education and work that came early to children throughout history either. Marriage and children were on the agenda at the same time we would be moving into junior schools. The laws for children were no different to that of adults and so children enjoyed no rights of their own. This is not dissimilar to criminal law in America, where children are tried in a similar way to adults. It wasn’t until 1889 when children began to be recognized legally, and some pinpoint this as the beginning of childhood as we know it. Throughout history the definition of childhood has been vague and insipid until more recently, however it is key to look back at how childhood was viewed to understand how to define it in a more contemporary fashion.

The specific needs and rights of children help us to define them further. The UNCRC (United Nations Convention on the Rights of Children) is a piece of UN legislation aimed to protect children globally, as well as outline a cohesive set of guidelines for the rights of the child. As previously stated, the UN outlines the age of a child as being up to eighteen years of age for the majority of UN countries. The articles found in the UNCRC are not massively dissimilar to those based around general human rights. The main difference between the legal rights of a child and adult is, as articles five and eighteen outline, stating that “the primary responsibility for the upbringing and development of the child [is with the parent]” (UNCRC, Children’s Rights Alliance) This can be seen as a limitation to the child’s rights, as they are somewhat dependant on an adult to ensure the rights outlined are provided for them. The legislation came about due to political pressure from various UN countries, which led to a domino effect as countries fell to pressure from more major players in the UN collaboration. The overall aim was seen as a way of making children equals in the world and redefine the way adults view them as completely separate from culture and society. It is also important in outlining the role of parents in a child’s life with article eighteen focusing on ‘parental responsibilities’ outlining that the “[parents] have the primary responsibility for the upbringing and development of the child” . Often the blame for a failure on behalf of parents is laid at the door of the government and various departments designed to ensure the safety of children. Whilst it is valid to say that in cases, such as the recent ‘Baby P’, some responsibility for such tragedies does need to be dealt to official bodies, it is also key to note that the parents or carers are, according to legislation, the people mainly responsible for the protection of their child and as such should not be able to entirely pass of their wrong doings as the fault of the government for not monitoring them sufficiently. It is interesting to note that the UNCRC is has the highest rate of ratification compared to all other conventions, with only Somalia and the USA rejecting the convention. It has also been seen to directly affect the policies of the countries involved, for example, in Britain the introduction of Every Child Matters. It can also be said that the legislation has assisted in changing traditional views of childhood. Children traditionally were often seen as half-formed adults rather than as individuals. In some ways, by defining children’s rights, and then being so similar to those of adults, its enabled people to stop seeing children as ‘yet to be’ and instead focus on them as they are. Issues with the UNCRC legislation however, are the differences in the range of cultures it is applied to sometimes clash with the outlined rights of the child. This raises the problem of what is more important, culture or the fulfilment of a child’s needs and the protection of their rights. The UNCRC itself outlines the importance of keeping children connected to their own heritage and culture with article thirty in particular focusing on the rights of children to “enjoy his or her own culture….[and] to participate fully in cultural and artistic life”. However it is sometimes difficult to comply with this without limiting the effectiveness of other aspects of the legislation. Also, whilst the UNCRC is an official agreement, it is not a law. There are no real penalties for not complying with the various parts of the legislation, and it is incredibly difficult to monitor. Countries make reports every five years on development, which gives a rather stinted, separated view of how countries are implementing different schemes to corroborate with the legislation put forth. Unfortunately the UNCRC also raises some rather big political issues, such as the idea that the modern, western world is perhaps enforcing unattainable and unrealistic goals upon poorer countries. Not only does this lead to their underperformance, but also to conflict between their cultures and the legislation they are being presented with. Also, do people want to see children differently, and do children want their roles to change? All these are major issues raised by the implementation on this global legislation upon unequal and incredibly different countries. However, it isn’t all negative. Overall, the positives of the UNCRC far outweigh the negatives as the need to protect and provide for the needs of children is crucial, and this legislation goes a long way in ensuring that children are protected in a suitable manner, even if its effectiveness doesn’t span the whole globe in an efficient manner.

Children who are in labour rather than education are another construction of childhood to look at. Obviously the UNCRC has a clause aimed at preventing children from having full time jobs, especially that intrude with education but this cannot be successfully be implemented globally. Again, based on previously discussed concepts of childhood, it surely makes sense that if a child is at work then this is a blatant trespass upon their rights as outlined by the UNCRC and again, children are being thrust into a world of ‘adult secrets’. There is no glamorous side to child labour, the hours are often extreme, the pay laughable and the job itself more than often horrific for example young children forced into the sex trade. Their innocence robbed. Jobs such as this are in direct defiance of article thirty-two of the convention which states children are to be ‘”protected from economic exploitation and from performing any work which is hazardous”. It is from the convention that a minimum age was applied to all jobs in the UK and other countries, and hours workable limited also. However, there are still approximately three hundred and fifty-two million children in labour deemed “hazardous” globally. The problem is that child labour is often not a choice for the child or the family, as they are forced into jobs due to economic desperation. Poverty is often so crippling that people have no option other than to allow their child to work. Bonded labour is common is some countries, which is where the child is basically pawned off for a sum of money, in exchange for their labour. Again, the UNCRC is placed under strain in this situation, as whilst such activity is clearly in breach of the legislation, it is fair to say that the UNCRC cannot prevent a family earning a living through any means possible in order to avoid complete poverty. This obviously has an impact on defining childhood, as it is difficult to see a boy of seven who does a sixteen-hour shift in a sweat-shop as still being a child in the middle of childhood. Biologically and in accordance to law, he would be a child, but his obviously different lifestyle, compared to a typical British child, prevents him from being a true child.

In conclusion, it is incredibly difficult to define childhood. In the contemporary climate, it is fair to say that a basis around age, as is stated in the UNCRC and a majority of countries domestic policies. The age of eighteen is perhaps too high from a biological stance, as puberty has basically reached its conclusion by this time, however psychologically it can be seen as advantageous. As has been highlighted, children are not emotionally ready for what may be referred to as adult topics, such as death, sex and money. The frequent introduction of these topics into childhoods seems to have no benefit to the child, in fact it seems in most cases to be detrimental to children’s happiness. Child labour, in particular the sex trade, is horrific not just biologically as children are expected to work long hours in jobs their bodies are not yet prepared for, but also the emotional impact it has can be seen to devastate lives. So in this sense, the age barrier often used when defining childhood is incredibly important.

The legislation used to protect children is also key to defining them. The UNCRC, obviously outlines age as a specific part of the legislation, but also, looking at the rights themselves, and the emphasis on the need for protection and the focus on development is incredibly telling when trying to define childhood. As well as being an period of both biological and emotional fragility, usually defined by age, it is also a time during which individuals are dependent on adults, not just for material things, but also emotional support and love. Also, looking back through history highlights the importance of not underestimating the importance of childhood as a period of life in its own right, rather than ignoring it as just a build-up to adult life. Obviously in some ways, it is a developmental period, preparing individuals for the future, however it is still a distinct section of life in its own right and should be valued as such.

The implications of the different constructions of childhood are varied throughout the world. The historical aspects outline the importance of not ignoring childhood as a period in its own right. If we try to force an adult-centred curriculum on children rather than nurturing their abilities in the here and now it will lead to a generations of people confused about their identities, due to the lack of time they were given to develop themselves. In terms of schooling and policies for children, focusing on Britain, the major change so far has been the implementation of the ‘Every Child Matters’ (ECM) (Dcsf) scheme designed to prevent repeats of the tragedy of ‘Victoria Climbie’ , the young African girl who was tortured by her family until she died. It also stems from the UNCRC. The purpose of ECM is to unite the various agencies concerned with the wellbeing of children, such as social services, schools and health workers. From this, the ‘Common Assessment Framework’ was developed to enable children with additional needs to get the support they require. However, this scheme has its difficulties, particularly with from the ‘multi-agency’ angle, as all the various services have a different perspective of the child and the problems each individual is facing. It can even be fair to say that each body has its own perspective on what childhood is, and these often don’t match up. Even little things such as the style of observation each body undertakes on a child presents a problem, as often entirely different conclusions are drawn by each service. It is a positive though, that the government has recognized the need to unite different ways of perceiving children to create a more rounded, realistic analysis of children and their specific needs.

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In this paper, after a summary of explanations of why child psychotherapy is important in 0 to 3 years of age group, some different psychotherapy approaches will be introduced. The paper will be focus on psychoanalytic / psychodynamic models; however, other approaches will be described. Every approach will be examined in theoretical and practical aspects.

Introduction

The very beginning years of human life attracts the attention of researchers in recent years. Especially in the period of 0-3 years of age, brain development is very fast and also the basis of the characteristic features is discarded.

Through the psychotherapy practices with adult patients, the importance of early childhood times on mental health began to understand more. Today we know that early childhood experiences have power to affect rest of one’s life in physical, emotional, cognitive or social areas (Movder, Rubinson & Yasik, 2009). Therefore, in the early years of childhood, therapeutic interventions are quite valuable to minimize the risk factors of future problems.

The main goal of this paper is to make a summary about different approaches in early childhood psychotherapies. Although there are hundreds of different therapy techniques in the literature, this paper will only focus on some of the technique which use in 0- to 3-year-old-children.

Psychotherapy in 0- to 3-year-old-children: from past to present

The therapeutic work with children had begun with the case of Little Hans who had been analyzed by Freud (1909). Hans was five years old when Freud started to treat him. On the other hand, a two and three-quarters-year-old patient Rita, was treated by Klein (1960). This was the first case study in 0 to 3 years of age group.

At the beginning of the therapeutic work with children, it was known the effect of the psychoanalytic ideas. Later, child psychologists, who work with different schools, developed different approaches and different techniques. Some of them were non-directive and took the child to the center. Others were directive and focused on parent-child relationship. In this paper, I will focus to psychoanalytic / psychodynamic theory based approaches. And then, I will shortly mention some other approaches.

Psychoanalytic Play Therapy

This therapy approach is based on Freud’s classic psychoanalytic thoughts. Anna Freud (1946 as cited in Astramovich, 1999) and Melanie Klein (1960) established the framework of this therapy technique. They stayed loyal to the some of the basic concepts of psychoanalysis such as unconscious materials and defense mechanisms. But still there were some differences between them.

According to Klein (1960), children play purely symbolic games. In this regard, child’s play is similar to “free association” in adults and must be analyzed and interpreted by the therapist. Klein stated that even little children have insight capacity; therefore she found it important to interpreting the child. In her view, interpreting the unconscious symbols and metaphors will help the child to understand his or her real feelings. So that the anxiety level of the child will decrease. She also mentioned about the transference process in children. When she began to treat her two and three-quarters-year-old patient Rita, she was going her home and playing with her toys in her room. But then, she thought that this process may not let the transference occur, and consequently she proposed to analyze child in consulting room, not in the child’s house. (Klein, 1960)

Anna Freud (1946) thought different from Klein in some matters. She brings two main objections to Klein’s methodology. Firstly she mentioned about the issue of “free association”. According to Freud, child’s play cannot think as a version of free association in adults. She believed that a child’s play is not always symbolic; it could be a replaying of real events. She also thought different in transference process. In terms of her point of view, the child’s interest to the therapist can be seen as an affectionate attachment rather than transference (Freud, 1946).

According to Astramovich (1999) toys and child’s play are tools to get unconscious material. The therapist tries to make the unconscious processes conscious, and to gains insight into the child. Therefore, the therapist should be empathic and encourage the child to develop a transference relationship. The main goal of this technique is to foster the awareness of wishes and conflicts; and help to children to improve tolerance to their own feelings.

Child-Centered Play Therapy (CCPT)

CCPT was developed by Virginia Axline (1947) who was student of Carl Rogers. This approach based on Rogerian view. Axline gave place to some of the basic concepts of humanistic theory such as unconditional positive regard, genuineness and empathic understanding. Although Axline herself did not work with the 0 to 3 years of age group, CCPT is used for this period. In a study (Frick-Helms, 1997) 2.8 year old child was treated with this approach.

According to Axline (1947) this is a child-led, nondirective approach. It has two main purposes: to help for change and to increase the self-determination of the child. There are no diagnostic interviews before the treatment. Past is past and the child will tell his or her story when the time comes. Therefore, CCPT therapist does not focus to interpreting the child. In play room, the child is free to do what he or she want. The therapist follows the child; accommodates child’s steps and not try to lead to the child or not hurry up to solve the problems. The therapist must be vigilant and tender to the child’s requirements. Acceptance and understanding of the child is crucial. When the child realizes that he or she accepted by the therapist, it increases the self confidence of the child. (Axline, 1947)

CCPT also focuses the recognition of the child’s real self. Moustakas (1959 as cited in Astramovich, 1999) mentioned that the lack of recognition of the real self shows negative effect on children and thus, children can not reveal their potentials. The therapist’s task is to help the child for realization his or her own real self. This process will bring emotional insight to the child.

Jungian Analytic Play Therapy

This approach is based on Carl Gustav Jung’s theoretical view about human psychology. Jung (1954 as cited in Robson, 2010) believed that we all have two types of unconscious: personal and collective. And both of them have archetypes which contain ideas, images, voices and etc. In his point of view, the therapist should provide a reliable environment to the child for playing and revealing the unconscious material. Then the therapist interprets the play and that gives a chance to therapist to promote the child through a healing process (Robson, 2010).

There is not enough information about the practice of this approach with 0 to 3 years of age group. However, I can mention about a kind of Jungian sandtray therapy technique called as “sandplay therapy” which is suitable for every age period. I will touch on this subject later in “sandtray therapy” chapter.

Psychoanalytic Parent Infant Psychotherapy

The foundations of this approach come from psychoanalytic theory. It is a version of psychoanalytic play therapy for 0 to 2 years of age period. Therefore, some changes are made.

According to Baradon (2005) one of the changes is the position of parents in the therapy process. Unlike classical psychoanalytic view, parents have crucial position in this approach. The therapist tries to support parents to enable better relation with the infant, to enable emotional regulation of both themselves and their infants. Also this approach more focused on the infants to support their development. Positive attachment behaviors, baby’s coherent sense of self, potential developmental risks, separation and individuation process are worked with parents and infants together. (Baradon, 2005)

Baradon also mentioned that, in this approach, the relationship between parents and their infants is seen as patient. The therapist tries to establish a laborsaving environment for the therapy and leans on the relationship. Transference and counter-transference processes; defense mechanisms and resistance are taken into consideration by the therapist. The therapist also procures guidance to parents about the care of the baby. Other important features of this method are assessment and observation of the infant. Psychoanalytic Parent Infant Psychotherapy may use in group settings. It also should be noted that each session is videotaping in this approach. (Baradon, 2005)

Filial Therapy (FT)

This approach was developed by Drs. Bernard and Louise Guerney in the late 1950’s. According to Drewes (2009) FT is a kind of multi theoretical psychoeducational approach which exploits other approaches such as family therapy, play therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy. In this technique, the therapist teaches and guides parents as they learn how to play their children. FT is suitable for children 2-12 years of age. It is also useful in group settings. Individual parent sessions generally continue between 15 to 20 one-hour sessions. And group sessions meet for two hours between 10 to 20 weeks.

Drewes also mentioned that FT practice begins with an intake session. Then the therapist observes the family while they are playing together. This observation process takes about 20 minutes. Right after the observation, the therapist talks with parents about the play and tell them the FT method. Then the therapist plays with the child in a non-directive way in order to teach to parents how to play. Meanwhile, parents watch the therapist. Towards the end of the session the therapist and parents discuss about the child’s play. The therapist listens to parents empathically and answers their questions (Drewes, 2009).

When the training period starts, the therapist trains to parents about playing skills. Parents learn four basic skills: structuring the play, empathic listening, child-centered imaginary play and limit-setting skill. Later, the therapist acts like a child and parents play with the therapist. Parents are encouraged to show what they learn about the play. The therapist gives them feedbacks. After that, parents play with their own children with the supervision of the therapist. Finally, towards the end of the treatment, parents practice the play in the home settings. (Drewes, 2009).

Theraplay (Attachment-Enhancing Play Therapy)

Theraplay is a short-term therapy approach which is based on attachment theory (Booth & Jernberg, 2010). It is appropriate to children from eighteen months to twelve years. The core aim of this approach is to improve a safe, compatible, playful relationship between a child and his or her parents.

According to Booth & Jernberg (2010) the treatment plan of theraplay practice is generally for eighteen to twenty-four sessions. Every treatment plan includes; assessment, treatment and checkup phases. In assessment phase, the child’s behaviors and the parents’ attitudes are assessed by the therapist. In the first treatment phase there can be one or two therapists. If there are two therapists, while one of the therapists is playing with the child; the other one, the interpreting therapist, works with parents. In the beginning of the treatment parents do not join to play sessions. They watch their child from two-way viewing mirror with the interpreting therapist or they watch from videotape after the session (if there are not two therapists). The interpreting therapist talks about the rationale of the theraplay, the problem areas of the child, wishes, concerns and expectations with parents. In the second treatment phase, after observing process, parents play with the child in theraplay room. In this phase, four basic skills are taught to parents: structuring, challenging, intruding and/or nurturing. After a termination session, the checkups phase comes. Checkup sessions are made quarterly in first year and annual thereafter. (Booth & Jernberg, 2010)

Watch, Wait and Wonder (WWW) / Infant-Parent Psychotherapy (IPP)

I will introduce these two approaches as together because both of them were developed by same team at the Hincks-Dellcrest Children’s Mental Health Centre (Toronto, Canada). WWW and IPP are effective on infants and based on psychodynamic principles such as “unconscious”, “transference”, “countertransference” and “potential space” ( Tuters, Doulis & Yabsley, 2011). Also these concepts are considered in conjunction with the attachment theory.

One of these two approaches is WWW. First W tells to parents “watch” the play of the infant! What is the infant doing? Second W tells to parents “wait” the infant’s play. Don’t hurry! Let the infant take to lead in the play! And third W tells to parents “wonder” about the infant’s play. What is the infant trying to tell you? The infant’s play is seen as “potential space” between the infant and the parent ( Tuters et al., 2011). There are two basic principles of WWW. To accept the leadership of the infant in the play and to accept that the play has a symbolic meaning. Every WWW session has two parts. In first part, the infant plays and the parents are asked to play with the infant on the floor. In play, leadership must be in the infant and the parents should follow the child. In second part the play and the thoughts and feelings of parents are discussed with the therapist.

Infant-Parent Psychotherapy (IPP) approach is similar to WWW. Their basic principles are same, but there are some little differences between them. In IPP, in order to show the effect of parent’s unresolved past issues, the therapist is more active in play. And also countertransference process is more considered in IPP (Tuters et al., 2011).

The Developmental, Individual-Differences, Relationship-Based (DIR) Approach

This approach was developed by Stanley Greenspan and it provides a multi-dimensional system in order to assess and support of infants and children with different developmental characteristics (Greenspan & Wider, 2006). It is especially effective for children who have autism spectrum disorder, down syndrome, learning disorders and developmental disorders. However, DIR approach is suitable to define the child’s and family’s features.

According to Greenspan (2006) the “D” expresses developmental levels. It gives an idea about that question: “Where is the child in developmental continuum?” The “I” expresses individual differences. It emphasizes biologically based capacities such as auditory processing, motor planning and etc. And the “I” expresses relationship. It calls attention to the relationship between the child and the parents. DIR approach benefits from floortime, which is a kind of play technique, so as to practice the model. Floortime is performed with little children on the floor. Taking into account the children’s individual differences, floortime supports their developmental levels relationship skills. (Greenspan & Wider, 2006)

Interactional Guidance

This approach was developed by Dr. Susan McDonough so as to understand mother-infant relationship through the interactive play experience. It aims to consolidate the relationship between infant and the mother and to increase the mother’s enjoyment from interactions with the infant (Balbernie, 1998). Core concepts of this approach are “therapeutic alliance” and “strengths of the family”. According to Balbernie (1998) the model focuses on strength features of the family system and tries to consolidate them. The mother’s past is not analyzed. Transference dynamics are considered but there is no fully interpretation. Treatment phase contains 5-12 sessions. Videotape is used in this approach.

Ecosystemic Play Therapy (EPT)

This approach was developed by O’Connor who emphasizes the importance of the children’s whole ecosystem. According to O’Connor (1997) EPT is a multi theoretical approach. It is not based on only one perspective. The main aim of the EPT is to promote the child’s abilities in order to cope with their needs. The basic role of an EPT therapist is to replace the core beliefs of the child with a functioning way. And also, the therapist tries to make the system to be more responsive to the requirements of the child. (O’Connor, 1997)

Caregiver-Toddler Play Therapy

This approach deals with disturbed relationship between the caregiver and the toddler. According to Schaefer & Kelly-Zion (2008), the main goal is to improve this disturbed relationship with the play. There are three constituent in this approach. First, the therapist establishes a “simultaneous relationship” with the toddler and the caregiver. Second, the therapist is able to “speak for the child” and that supports the communication between the toddler and the caregiver. And third, the therapist guides to caregiver for teaching relational skills. In the beginning treatment, the therapist is very active, but then the caregiver is expected to be more active. (Schaefer & Kelly-Zion, 2008)

Sandplay Therapy

It is a Jungian version of “Sandtray Therapy” which is developed Dr. Margaret Lowenfield. A Jungian therapist, Dora Kaff, adapted Sandtray Therapy to a Jungian perspective and she called this new version as “Sandplay Therapy”. According to Zhou (2009) this is an expressive therapy which is appropriate for all ages. This approach helps to emerge nonverbalized emotions. In this technique, children play with sand, water and little miniatures. The symbols in the play reflect personal and collective unconscious and with the help of the therapist the ego of the child is restructured (Zhou, 2009).

Conclusion

If we consider human life such as a building; 0 to 3 years period correspond to foundation of it. And if this foundation is not strong enough; this building encounters with the risk of falling down. Today, although preventive approaches has already started to gain importance, in some cases, more serious interventions are needed. Child psychotherapies in 0 to 3 years of age group meet this need.

The main goal of this paper was to mention different psychotherapeutic approaches which use in 0 to 3 years of age group. It is impossible to mention all approaches therefore I have tried to describe most known and most effective approaches. However, psychotherapy world is not static, in time, different new approaches will emerge.

Different scholars have provided different ways of defining youth. Curtain, quoted in the U.N. World Youth Report 2003, and defines it as a phase when a person moves from a time of dependence (childhood) to independence (adulthood) and identifies four distinct aspects of this move:

Leaving the parental home and establishing new living arrangements;

Completing full-time education;

Forming close, stable personal relationships outside of the family, often resulting in marriage and children; and

Testing the labor market, finding work and possibly settling into a career, and achieving a more or less sustainable livelihood.

These transitions are interconnected, i.e. leaving home and setting up one’s own personal economy require an independent source of income, and to reach this stage a young person generally has to acquire qualifications and to have succeeded in demonstrating his or her skill in the labor market.

Young people, when faced with uncertain employment prospects and financial insecurity, are likely to avoid establishing stable personal relationships, postpone marriage, and/or put off having or accepting the responsibility for children. In the absence the prospects for a sustainable livelihood, more extreme social behavior may occur, e.g. engagement in illegal activities such as drug trafficking, violent crime or gang activities. Poor economic prospects may also contribute to antisocial behavior, including exposing others to HIV/AIDS through the practice of unsafe sex.

This transition model exposes the problems of moving from one developmental phase to another. The role of youth policy in this context is to create favorable conditions for success by preparing young people for the roles and responsibilities of adulthood. It also entails the idea that childhood and youth are in themselves valuable stages of life, more than just necessary stops on the way to adulthood. Youth policy, therefore, becomes not only a source of guidance towards adulthood, but a means of providing and ensuring the requirements for a safe and productive live for children and youth. This means viewing children and young people as subjects (not objects) in every respect – not only at the personal level, but in society as a whole, participating in decision-making and the debates that surround it.

Difference between Youth and Children

Below some qualitative characteristics that distinguish children from young people and young people from adults are displayed. The table is not a blueprint on what youth is and who the young people are, but it adds some nuances to the ruder age-definition of youth.

Children
Young People
Adults

acquire their basic values and norms during the first three years of life

are not fully developed physically (or mentally)

are in the process of developing their identity

are in a learning process

learn fast and are open to new ideas

are highly dependent on their parents or other adults

need protection

live with their parents

in most cases do not decide for themselves

are poorer that adults

often contribute to the income of the family through personal income

may not vote

cannot be charged for a crime and are not financially responsible

are at their prime physically subject to adequate nutrition and care

are in the process of developing their identity

are in a learning process

question ideas and perceptions of (adult) society

are flexible, open-minded and quick to adjust

are sexually active

most often still live with their parents, but are about to establish a family and find a place to live

compete with adults for learning opportunities and jobs

are often dependent on their parents or other adults

do in many cases decide for themselves, however not in all (e.g. economic, marriage)

are poorer than adults

often contribute to the income of the family

may have the right to vote

can be charged for a crime but are not always considered financially responsible

are fully developed physically – some (especially the elderly) are physically deteriorating

have developed their identity

are not in a formal learning process

often become more conservative as they grow older

are less flexible and quick to adjust

are in control of finances

have the opportunity to decide for themselves

are responsible for income of the family

have the right to vote

can be charged for a crim

Obesity

Our kids are fat and getting fatter. Recent numbers show that 20% of American children are obese. Not chubby -OBESE! Video games, TV, the internet and fast food are partly to blame. Kids are spending more time sitting in front of a TV/computer screen than running around outside. This sedentary lifestyle has consequences. Socially, it’s no secret that overweight kids are going to be subject to ridicule from their peers – it’s sad, but nevertheless true. This can result in such issues as low self-esteem, depression, etc. Then there are the health concerns. High blood pressure, diabetes and other maladies that is associated with obesity. Psychologically and physically, obesity is an issue that can be resolved with a simple increase in activity and awareness.

Cardio exercise such as walking is one solution. What you eat is another solution. Make better food choices; avoid or strictly limit refined (processed) carbohydrates and junk food. (If you are unsure what constitutes a refined processed carbohydrate, you can view a list further down this page under Related Questions.) Physically active and healthy food choices are the solutions to obesity.

Yoga can be tried as a complimentary approach in treating obesity. You can effectively practice various yoga techniques to help reduce weight and achieve normal health. Freewind poses help reduce the fats near abdomen, hips and other areas. The regular practice of pranayam also helps burning fats. The yoga cleansing techniques are used to shun excess fats and toxin. Yoga practice along with yoga diet is equally important. Eliminate refined/processed carbohydrates and eat more raw vegetables, fruits help in balancing the intake of the food. As per yoga diet recommendation, over ripe fruits, meats, tobacco etc. are not good for body and mind thus should be avoided.

Drinking less beer, or quitting drinking altogether, will help you lose weight. No matter who or how good looking the drinker is, beer is bad for a number of reasons. The most obvious reason is the caloric content of beer. The less obvious reasons are the inflammation of the pancreas and liver and the bloating that often accompany the over-consumption of alcoholic beverages. This includes alcohol mixed with sweet and sugary liquids like soda.

Energy balance is an essential solution to obesity. Consume only the amount of calories and carbohydrates that you need for a healthy weight and a healthy body.

In addition, get your calories from healthy foods and consume the right type of carbohydrate. Overall, the causes of obesity are an imbalanced of calories in relation to expenditure (activity, exercise), insulin resistance, and too many refined processed carbohydrates. Refined processed carbohydrates are a major cause of weight gain, obesity, insulin resistance (syndrome X) diabetes and many diet related diseases. For further information, see related questions, further down this page, listed under Related Questions.

Education Disparity

Education is important. Few people would dispute this well regarded fact. A good education (in comparison with a bad one) will provide a child with an increased chance of taking advantage of opportunities to be successful in life. Unfortunately, some people have it better than other. This is not an issue of just one school being better than another school. Rather we are talking about whole classes of American children being denied a proper education that will prepare them to compete in a job market with their peers and have the same access to the American Dream. Disparity in educational quality is delineated by race and financial status. If you live in a poor neighborhood or are a minority, there is a good chance that the schools you attend are lacking many necessities. While Asians and Whites enjoy high graduating rates, African American and Latinos continue to lag behind. Not surprisingly, because job opportunities are lessen for dropouts, these two groups have the highest incarceration rates.

Violence in Schools

A child’s education is the foundation from which he or she will be able to go forth out into the world and build a life. Schools play a major role in this endeavor, and therefore it is reasonable to expect that these places of learning would be safe havens for the children while they are preparing for adulthood. Unfortunately, this is not always the case. In many instances, especially in low income, urban settings, schools can be a war zone. We are not talking about minor bullying, but rather serious violence. Consider that in the last decade 284 kids were murdered due to school violence – these were shootings, stabbings, fighting and suicides. Growing up is tough enough without having to be worried about being killed while going to math class.

Drug/Alcohol Abuse

There was a time in cinematic history where virtually every actor/actress was portrayed on screen with a cigarette in hand. Smoking, it was implied, was cool. As a result everyone was doing it, including kids. Well, as awareness to the danger of smoking increased, “cool” images of smoking disappeared. Unfortunately, the same can’t be said about drugs and alcohol. These vices are staples in everyday media. Simply, drinking and using drugs is shown as being cool. The numbers bear the tale. 21% of high school seniors say they get high and 41% of the same group report drinking alcohol. Our kids are literally moving around in an intoxicated daze. Immature behavior is then amplified due to being under the influence. Drunk driving, poor grades and attendance, anti-social and violent behavior and the list goes on.

Single Parent Households

The problems begin at home. Since the 1950s, the number of single parent homes has consistently increased to the point of catastrophe. Today, 14 million single parents are responsible for 28 million children. Raising a child is difficult enough in a two parent home, especially in tough economic conditions. The situation is even direr when there is only one parent. Economically, a single parent is likely to bring less income home. This equates to fewer opportunities for such vital necessities as education. Trying to make ends meet also takes time – time that is spent away from children who need a parent’s guiding/influence. Absent a parent’s diligent guidance, children become subject to higher dropout rates, higher risk of dangerous sexual behaviors and pregnancies, higher chances of drug and alcohol abuse -etc. It truly takes a village to raise a child.

The Solution to the School Violence Problem

In these times we live in, parents lead busy lifestyles to the point of not taking much attention to the activities that their children involve themselves with in school. Most parents are content with enrolling their children in school for they know that school is a method of building their children’s future. However, cases where students harm each other occur at times and the reaction to such incidents is that they are wrong.

Drug Abuse Solutions

Drug abuse today is a major cause for concern and has a negative effect on society at large. Though students constitute a large segment of drug abusers, adults also succumb to drug abuse. There is a tendency amongst middle-aged people to abuse prescription drugs.

The first step towards combating drug addiction is to make the abuser aware of the damage it causes the body. Most addicts lack confidence and must be taught to become a master of the situation and not a slave to addiction.

There are many institutions and organizations that help drug abusers kick the habit. The support of friends and family is of prime importance. First and foremost, an abuser must be committed to giving up drugs. Doctors and counselors are a drug abusers greatest ally in the battle against addiction.

Advice for Parents and Children of Single-Parent Households

It is apparent that single-parent households, whether headed by a mother or father, have more to deal with than two-parent homes. Mothers and fathers in these homes are more stressed due to having even greater responsibilities put on their shoulders. Both children and parents in these circumstances need to be aware of the added stress that both are likely under. There are many resources and a great deal of information out there to assist struggling parents who don’t have that added support when they are without a parent or partner to share all of the important duties. There are organizations out there to help these families. Parents without Partners is an extremely well-known single-parenting support group. This organization provides single-parents and the children in these households with educational, family and recreational activities such as lectures, training seminars, picnics, and potluck suppers. Solo Parenting Alliance is another organization meant for single parents that offers access to programs that teach people to be better parents. There are numerous websites out there also meant to support single parents. One of these websites is that of Parentsplace. It hosts a number of varied sites where single mothers and fathers can get information as well as chat with other single parents. Single parents are not alone and should take the steps to better their situation given the resources out there.

The Ministry of Community Development, Youth and Sports (MCYS) licences childcare centres for children from 2 months to 6 years. Over the years, standards have been raised and quality of childcare centres has improved through higher level teacher training and a higher requirement for the academic qualification of early childhood educators.

In 2002, the Ministry of Education (MOE) launched Nurturing Early Learners (NEL): A Framework for a Kindergarten Curriculum. The Kindergarten Framework provides a broad set of principles and practices to guide early childhood educators plan and implement developmentally appropriate activities for children aged 4 to 6 years old in kindergartens and childcare centres.

As younger children in child care centres do not come under the Kindergarten Framework, MCYS initiated the Early Years Development Framework (EYDF) to enhance quality care for children aged 2 months to 3 years. The two frameworks, taken as a whole, provide early childhood educators with continuity for the care and development of children from 2 months through the kindergarten years until they enter primary school.

The EYDF sets the standard for quality of care, pedagogy and practices that are specific to the developmental needs of infants and toddlers. It defines outcomes for learning and development and provides educators with broad guidelines to plan and deliver culturally and developmentally appropriate experiences, strengthen home-centre partnerships, foster community networks and enhance professional development.

The Development of EYDF

The EYDF was developed with reference to different sources of information building on existing standards and training of infant and child care educators. First, the EYDF team reviewed research and literature from neuroscience, infant and child development, attachment theories, early childhood education, programmes for infant and toddlers and also literature on good practices.

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This exercise reinforced the importance of optimizing children’s development in the first three years of life. During this period the intensity in which neural connections are formed in the brain is unparalleled. What toddlers experience and acquire serve as the foundation for future learning and development.

Second, reference was made to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) with special attention to Articles 3, 6, and 121. The UNCRC Guiding Principles articulate children’s rights to holistic development and having their best interests at the heart of all decision-making process. Several countries2 have embarked on a journey to clearly define what is in the best interests of young children in centre-based settings. Frameworks from these countries served as useful references for the EYDF.

1 Singapore ratified the UNCRC in 1995

2 Countries like Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, New Zealand, the UK and the US have articulated frameworks which reflect how children learn and develop, the mediating importance of relationships, developmental experiences (strategies and activities), accountability in terms of goals and outcomes, and partnerships with families and the community.

3 Early Childhood and Special Needs Education Academic Group, National Institute of Education

Third, the development of the EYDF involved considerable input from the local academia and various stakeholders. Research findings from the MCYS/ NIE3 study using the Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale (ITERS), contributed to some of the contents in the EYDF. Contributions also came from extensive consultative sessions with the early childhood community, including operators, supervisors, educators, training agencies, as well as parents. Other inputs came from observation visits to infant/toddler settings and conferences in Singapore and abroad. CONFIDENTIAL DRAFT 3

ENVISIONING QUALITY FOR THE EARLY YEARS

The EYDF builds on foundations laid by the child care centre licensing standards and teacher training requirements. It expands on these and weaves a developmental theme into the care practices. The framework serves as a professional compass for early years educators working with infants and toddlers by describing guiding principles and practices to inform and support their pedagogical and curricular practices.

Early years educators can use the framework as a tool to make informed decisions and to plan developmentally appropriate experiences and environments for infants and toddlers. Strategies outlined in the framework will guide educators to focus on developing warm and nurturing relationships with the children in their care by responding appropriately to their physical, linguistic, cognitive, social and emotional needs.

The Framework articulates the indispensible role families play in the care and development of their children and therefore the need to strengthen home-centre partnerships. Linkages and collaborations within the community are included to both support families and children’s learning. In pursuing quality in care, key elements such as critical inquiry and reflection by educators ensure that young children’s experiences are developmentally and culturally appropriate. The Framework advocates a strong sense of professionalism and accountability among those caring for the young. CONFIDENTIAL DRAFT 4

FRAMING A VISION FOR QUALITY IN THE EARLY YEARS

This Framework embraces an image of centre-based quality for young children as one of:

?¶ˆ Children being Secure, Confident, Safe and Healthy

?¶ˆ Children being Involved, Engaged and Enquiring

?¶ˆ Centre, Families and the Community Connecting and Relating

Five key pillars uphold this image of quality:

?¶ˆ The Developing Child

We see the child as a whole being developing physically, intellectually, emotionally, socially and culturally. The child is wired for development and learning even before birth and enters the world resourceful and actively participating in its learning and development. aˆ•If a young child’s brain is to thrive aˆ¦ she needs to be loved, held, talked to, read to and allowed to explore4aˆ- The positive social and emotional support that a young child receives help her feel secure and feel good about herself, and this develops the motivation to learn. We also see the child as being focused, asking questions, like aˆ-what is this?’ and aˆ-why?’ and engaging in problem solving, from figuring how to drink soup from a plate to keeping a tower of 5 blocks from toppling when a 6th block is added. Quality environments and positive relationships with adults help develop autonomy and independence and at the same time builds confidence and self- esteem.

4 Simmons & Sheehan (1997) – source to be provided

?¶ˆ The Intentional Programme

The programme, environment and curriculum are flexible to meet the needs of young children. The emphasis is intentionally developmental and appropriate to the well-being and life stages of young children. The focus is on positive interactions and building warm and nurturing relationships. The environment is created to facilitate play and exploratory behaviours for learning and development. Pre-toddlers who are crawling and toddlers who have discovered the joys of walking need customised environments. The purposeful environment CONFIDENTIAL DRAFT 5

provides opportunities for movements and varied activities and is well stocked with appropriate materials and resources. These are safe, available and accessible to the children.

?¶ˆ The Professional Educator

The Educator is attuned and responsive to the needs of young children. She is keenly aware of the different developmental stages, especially the distinct needs for infants and toddlers to develop secure attachments and relationships. She is also aware of individual differences and needs of children in her care. With this knowledge, the Educator creates a nurturing environment for positive interactions with adults and children and for facilitating play, exploration and learning. The educator is professionally qualified and is always seeking to further develop her skills and knowledge in working with young children, families and the community.

?¶ˆ An Involved Family

The family is an integral part of young children’s development. A shared and sustained partnership between the centre and the home draws on their respective strengths and ensures that children’s growth and developmental needs are addressed optimally. The educator understands that parents and other family members are individuals with their own set of concerns and issues which may at times affect their behaviour towards the child and the centre. While keeping in mind the child’s best interest, the educator also seeks to understand, be supportive and offers help to family members where necessary.

?¶ˆ An Engaged Community

The home-centre partnership is further enriched with linkages with the community. The resources from networking with other professionals, specialists, agencies and organisations, will offer families support and professional assistance when needed. At the same time, the children benefit when community resources are accessed by the children or when they are brought or invited to the centre to enhance children’s health, development and learning. CONFIDENTIAL DRAFT 6

THE EARLY YEARS DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK

The focus on children aged 3 and below is at the heart of this framework. Our professional knowledge and research, past experiences, beliefs and values shape the way we work with children. These factors interact with children’s need to develop secure attachments, stable relationships as well as their inclination to explore the environments.

Children grow and develop as they learn to construct and expand their sense of self, their confidence, their capabilities, and their understanding of who they are in relation to the surrounding environments and the world beyond. The rich fabric of interactions and relationships is the foundation upon which all other developments take place.

The framework recognises the valuable role played by families and Educators and the partnerships with families and the community. The EYDF comprises 3 areas – Guiding Principles, Expected Outcomes and Suggested Practices.

Guiding Principles:

Five guiding principles constitute the foundation of the EYDF and reflect the best interests of children. The principle statements are anchored on research evidence, neuroscience, child development literature and good practices.

The principles embody values and beliefs of how children grow, learn and develop and the role of educators in this process as well as the integral place families and the community have in this development. CONFIDENTIAL DRAFT 7

Guiding Principles
Statements

Guiding Principle 1:

Developing secure attachments and confidence in children with nurturing adults in a safe and healthy environment.

Guiding Principle 2:

Generating culturally and developmentally appropriate opportunities for children’s holistic development and learning.

Guiding Principle 3:

Committing to professional standards and ethics in working with children and families, and to educators’ own professional development.

Guiding Principle 4:

Involving families as partners in the care, development and education of children

Guiding Principle 5:

Engaging the community as support and resources for home and centre.

The role of the preschool in the development of a child is very important. Preschool education provides basic literacy to prepare children for higher levels of study. It also gives training to prepare them for the challenges of life. In particular, it is in the preschool that children learn and improve their motor skills. Teachers play a significant factor in developing and refining these skills. Also, the school is expected to provide enough opportunities and tools for harnessing such skills. In this paper, we discuss the role of the teacher and the school in developing gross and fine motor skills of young children.

Gross motor are broad movements that involve large muscle groups (Mauro, n.d.) while fine motor are movements produced by the body’s small muscle groups. Gross motor activities include walking, jumping, kicking, crawling, climbing stairs, etc. Meanwhile, fine motor skills include writing, drawing, cutting or folding paper, etc. Both require coordination of the body functions such as the brain, eyes, and the muscle responsible to produce the movement (i.e., hand muscles for writing). Inability to perform motor tasks with precision may mean a disability. Therefore, it is important to observe the child closely when undertaking activities requiring motor skills.

As a child grows, certain motor abilities develop. For instance, a two-year old child holds a pen differently from a three or four-year old child. Likewise, a toddler may be unable to hold onto monkey bars while a seven-year old may find it easy to do so. Still, a nursery child will draw a human figure with incomplete features, while a kindergarten who is aware of the body parts may be able to produce a better representation of the actual figure. Given this, it is important to help develop the motor development of a child to avoid delays and identify disability in advance, if any. Particularly, teachers in the preschool should provide activities to make children develop the right skills they need to perform bigger tasks in the future. These activities should include both gross and fine motor activities.

Arnheim & Pestolesi (1978) provide indicators of average motor development in children 48 months to five years. These indicators imply that with only a four-month difference, normal children can develop additional gross motor abilities. For example, a two-year old child can hop two times on one foot while a child four months older can hop four times on one foot. Likewise, a three-year old child can jump from a small step with both feet while a two-year old can do so but with asynchronous feet. In terms of fine motor skills, children show development in fine motor as they age. Particularly in writing, toddlers and children out of school exhibit the so-called supinate grasp with the fist holding the pen while nursery students may have the pronate grasp with the pen between the middle and ring fingers. Meanwhile, a kindergarten student may show the dynamic tripod, which is the way most people, even adults, hold a pen. Considering this, it is important for every teacher to provide activities and monitor students’ motor skills, because a delay in fine motor could mean a disability.

Several activities should be included in the pre-school curriculum to enhance gross and fine motor skills. For gross motor skills, school activities could include hopping, jumping, walking, running, kicking, skipping, crawling, rolling, pushing and pulling and catching. Holecko (n.d.) suggest freestyle activities or dancing to the tune of children’s songs such as “I’m a Little Teapot” or “Wheels on a Bus.” Aside from improving gross motor, these activities bring an atmosphere of fun and camaraderie among children. Moreover, playing games that involve gross motor activities also brings excitement and makes children develop sportsmanship. Furthermore, pretend plays such as imitating movements of animals, things and people allow students to exhibit gross motor, and creativity.

Meanwhile, fine motor ability, which includes writing, drawing, sculpting, tying knots, folding and cutting paper, etc should likewise be given proper attention in the pre-school curriculum. Learners who exhibit inability in such activities should be noted and subject to further observation by the teacher and if possible, by the counselor. Children found to have evidence of disability in either gross or motor skills should be referred at once to the relevant authority for proper intervention. Considering this, it is important to know some standards set as regards developing motor skills in the pre-school classroom.

The National Network for Child Care, a private organization, has developed the Early Childhood Education Rating Scale, otherwise known as ECERS (Harms & Clifford, 1980). This is a set of standards which includes important requirements to look for in a preschool, including space and furnishings, personal care routines, listening and talking, program structure, etc. This scale provides relevant information to both administrators and parents on what to look for in a preschool in as much as developing motor skills is concerned. In particular, it specifies the tools and equipment needed to enhance fine and gross motor skills. A highly equipped pre-school will likely develop motor skills more comprehensively than an unprepared environment. Therefore, it is important to note which tools and equipment should be present in a pre-school.

The tools and instruments that ECERS recommends to develop gross motor ability include building blocks, sand and water boxes, balls, and playground equipment. All these should vary in colors to make them look attractive. They should also come in different sizes to provide allowance for improvement of skills. For example, younger children can play with smaller balls and put up lesser number of building blocks while bigger children can do otherwise. In any case, the school should provide a variety of resources for different kinds of children.

For developing fine motor skills, schools should ensure they cover for the child’s needs to practice fine motor and hand-eye coordination. Activities such as clay-molding, writing, drawing, playing simple musical instruments, and tying a knot are only some of the activities that help improve fine motor skills. Relevantly, writing, drawing and musical instruments, clay, and utensils should also be in place. Importantly, the preschool program should include the proper use of utensils when eating. As schools serve as the second home, so they should learn the proper way of holding utensils for eating.

The development a child’s motor skills may come naturally. It can occur even without the teacher’s intervention. Nevertheless, the pre-school teachers and school programs play a major role in harnessing and refining these skills. Teachers serve as the guide to check whether children are exhibiting safe and proper motor practice. They are also the record keeper to the child’s progress or disability. Meanwhile, pre-school programs and tools also help enrich the child’s motor skills by aiding practice of such skills. Together, these factors harness children’s ability to perform functions, thus preparing them for greater challenges in the primary level and later in the adult life.