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INTRODUCTION

The 1980s saw the birth of a number of approaches to Translation Studies (TS henceforth) collectively termed functionalist, which brought about a paradigm shift in the system. This essay examines the strengths and weaknesses as well as the contributions of these functionalist approaches to the field of TS. Structurally, the essay starts with a brief historical overview of the approaches to translation before the advent of functionalist approaches. Then it discusses the major functionalist approaches, highlighting their major postulations and the criticisms against them, which will then be followed by a general summary of the various contributions of the various strands of functionalism.

TRANSLATION STUDIES BEFORE FUNCTIONALISM

Over the years, scholars have approached the discipline of Translation Studies from various angles largely depending on ‘the dominant philosophy of the time and/or underlying conceptions of the nature of translation and how the translated text will be used’ (Schaeffner 2001: c5). However, one dilemma that has prevailed over the centuries is the decision on the best method of translating a text. This dilemma of the best method of translating is an age-old one. Jerome (395/2004: 24) expresses this dilemma thus:

It is difficult, when following the lines of another, not to overshoot somewhere and arduous, when something is well put in another language, to preserve this same beauty in translation…if I translate word by word, it sounds absurd; it out of necessity I alter something in the order or diction, I will seem to have abandoned the task of a translator.

However, Jerome and indeed many other translator of his time end up not translating ‘word by word. He quotes Cicero as observing that in his translation of Plato’s Protagoras and Xenophone’s Oeconomicus, that he kept their ‘meanings but with their forms – their figures, so to speak – in words adapted to our idiom’ (395/2004: 23). He adds that ‘except for the case of Sacred Scriptures, where the very order of the words is a mystery – I render not word for word, but sense for sense’ (395/2004: 25) so as not to sound absurd in the target language.

These scholars, including others like Nicolas Perrot D’Ablancourt (1640/2004), Martin Luther (1530) and John Dryden (1680/2004), may not be seen as translations scholars per se since they all had their respective vocations and translation was what they did in the passing. However, their views and comments formed the bedrock on which the field of translation studies was to be built.

Linguistic-based approaches

The argument over word by word or sense for sense translation prevailed over the centuries up till the 20th century when Jakobson (1959/2004) introduced the term ‘equivalence’ in the literature and Nida (1964/2004) expands it by distinguishing between formal and dynamic equivalence. While formal equivalence aims at matching the message in the receptor language as closely as possible to the different elements in the source language, including the form and content, dynamic equivalence ‘aims at complete naturalness of expression, and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture’ (Nida 1964/2004: 156). According to Nida, the purposes of the translator to a large extent determine whether the translator should aim at formal equivalence or dynamic equivalence.

One observes that these scholars are concerned with the correspondence between the target language and the source language and these approaches were thus collectively called ‘linguistic approaches’ to translation. According to Saldanha (2009: 148), the term linguistic approaches to translation studies is used to refer to ‘theoretical models that represent translation and/ or interpreting as a (primarily) linguistic process and are therefore informed mainly by linguistic theory’. Translation studies was subsumed under applied linguistics and thus studied with methods developed in linguistics (Schaeffner 2001: 6). Other scholars that contributed to research in this area are Catford (1965) and House (1977/1981). Translation was seen as a transfer of information from one language to another, as an activity that affects just the two languages involved. Thus scholars were concerned with prescribing methods of translating from one language to the other in order to reproduce in the target language a message that is equivalent to that of the source text. One such prescription was Vinay and Dabelnet’s (1958/2994) seven methods or procedures for translation: borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, equivalence and adaptation. The first three they call direct translations as they involve transposing the source language message element by element, while the last four they call oblique because they involve an upsetting of the syntactic order of the source language.

One major shortcoming of linguistic approaches is that they do not take cognisance of the contribution of the context in which an expression is used to the understanding of the whole message or text. Schaeffner (2001: 8 – 9) observes that

Studies conducted within a linguistic-based approach to translation concentrated on the systematic relations between units of the language systems, but often abstracted from aspects of their contextual use. A chosen TL-form may well be correct according to the rules of the language system, but this does not necessarily mean that the text as a whole appropriately fulfils its communicative function in the TL situation and culture.

Working on the translation of the Bible, Nida’s distinction between formal and dynamic equivalence introduced aspects of sociolinguistics and culture into translation studies. He says that any discussion of equivalence, whether formal or dynamic, must consider types of relatedness ‘determined by the linguistic and cultural distance between the codes used to convey the message’ (1964/2004: 157). He declares that a natural translation or dynamic equivalence ‘involves two principal areas of adaptation, namely, grammar and lexicon’ (2004: 163). However, his theory has been criticised for being restricted in application and scope as it appears to be meant mainly for Bible translations and to focus on just lexical and syntactic correspondence. A few years later, Koller (1979: 215f) proposes five categorisation of the concept of equivalence namely: textralinguistic facts/state of affairs (denotative equivalence); form of verbalisation, including connotations, style and (connotative equivalence); text norms and language norms (text-normative equivalence); TL-text audience (pragmatic equivalence); and specific aesthetic, formal , characteristic features of text (formal-aesthetic equivalence) (quoted in Schaeffner 2001: 9)

This too receives a lot of criticisms which apparently inform its review by the author over the years. Pym (1997: 1) observes that four editions of Koller’s book Einfuhrung in die Ubersetzungswissenschaft (Introduction to Translation Studies/Science) has been published as at 1995, with an article summarising the main points appearing in English in Target. Indeed the concept of equivalence was (and still is) highly controversial even to this day.

Textlinguistic approaches

In reaction to the apparent rather restricted linguistic scope of these approaches, some scholars then argue for a text-linguistic or pragmatic approach to translation, whereby the whole text is seen as the unit of meaning and translation, as against the lexicon and grammar which was the focus of linguistic approaches. Katharina Reiss’s (1971/2004) text-typology is seminal in this respect, being about the first to introduce into TS a ‘consideration of the communicative purpose of translation’ (Munday 2008: 74). According to Reiss, the communicative function of a text in its source culture determines its function in the target culture and how it will be translated. She classifies text-type into informative (communicates content), expressive (communicates artistically organised content) and operative (communicates content with a persuasive character) (Reiss 1971/2004: 171). In her view, a text that is adjudged ‘informative’ should be translated in such a way that the same content in the source text is transferred into the target text; an expressive text should retain the ‘artistic and creative’ features of the source text in the target text; while an operative source text should inform a target text with a similar or analogous effect on the target audience. In situations where a text exhibits features of more than one text-type, the translator should concern themselves with foregrounding the overriding text-type and back-grounding the rest if the need so arises. Reiss does a lot to stress the importance of text-variety or genre in translation studies. She observes that genre conventions are culture specific and the translator should consider the distinctions in genre conventions across culture ‘so as not to endanger the functional equivalence of the TL text by naively adopting SL conventions’ (1971/2004: 173). Neubert (1985) and its sequel co-authored with Gregory Shreve (1992) have done a lot to emphasise the importance of genre analysis in translation studies. In the preface to Translation as Text, they observe the decline in influence of linguistics in translation studies and the movement towards interdisciplinarity:

Translation studies has abandoned its single-minded concern with strictly linguistic issues. It has been invigorated by new ideas from other disciplines. Translation scholars no longer hesitate to adopt new ideas from information science, cognitive science, and psychology. (Neubert and Shreve 1992: vii)

Scholars that favour this approach focus a lot on setting up prototypes of genres, or as Corbett (2009: 291) puts it, these scholars ‘focused on the descriptions of highly predictable, ritual, transactional texts, many of which seem banal in nature’ like Swales (1990) on reprint requests and Eggins (1994) on recipes. Thus scholars tried to identify parallel texts across languages and cultures by doing a systematic comparison of genre exemplars in both the source culture and the target culture (Schaeffner 2001: 11). Schaeffner also notes elsewhere that ‘[g[enre conventions are determined by culture and, thus, prone to constant change’ (2000: 222). This enables the translator to adapt the text to the conventions of the receptor or target culture. Thus scholars operating within a text-linguistic approach to translation believe that a translation goes beyond language to cultural considerations.

FUNCTIONALIST APPROACHES

The second half of the 20th century witnessed some paradigm shift in translation studies, especially with the publication in German of Katharina Reiss and Hans Vermeer’s Foundation for a General Theory of Translation and Justa Holz-Manttari’s Translatorial Action: Theory and Method, both in 1984. These set the pace for what is later known as functionalist approaches to translation, approaches that see translation as ‘a communicative action carried out by an expert in intercultural communication (the translator), playing the role of a text producer and aiming at some communicative purpose’ (Nord 2001: 151). Functionalist approaches generally believe that the function of a text in the target culture determines the method of translation. They are said to have developed in opposition to the equivalence paradigm of the linguistic-based approaches which see the source text as what determines the nature of the target text. Using the communication scheme of SOURCE-PATH-GOAL, they accentuate the importance of the target text as the goal of the translational process. One of the major proponents, Vermeer (1987: 29) declares that linguistics alone is not effective because translation itself is not merely nor primarily a linguistic process, and that linguistics ‘has not yet formulated the right questions to tackle our problems’ (cited in Nord 1997: 10). Quite a good number of translation scholars subscribe to functionalism like Vermeer (1978, 1989, 1996; Reiss and Vermeer 1984, 1991; Nord 1997, 2005; Holz-Manttari 1984, 1993; Honig 1997; Honig and Kussmaul 1982, 1996; among many others. Following are some of the major strands of functionalism.

Skopostheorie

The most popular among the functionalist approaches, skopos theory was developed in Germany by Hans Vermeer in 1978 in dissatisfaction with the linguistic-based approaches to translation. He sees translation as an action governed by a skopos from Greek meaning purpose or aim. This purpose now determines how the translation is done. Vermeer argues that the source text is produced for a situation in the source culture which may not be the same in the target culture. It then follows that the translation should be produced to suit the purpose for which it is needed in the target culture: ‘the source text is oriented towards, and is in any case bound to, the source culture. The target text…is oriented towards the target culture, and it is this which ultimately defines its adequacy’ (Vermeer 1989/2004: 229). Reiss and Vermeer jointly published Translatorial Action: Theory and Method in 1984 to give what has been described as the general translation theory, ‘sufficiently general…, and sufficiently complex, to cover a multitude of individual cases’ (Schaeffner 1998: 236). They see a text as an offer of information and translation as an offer of information existing in a particular language and culture to members of another culture in their language. They hold that the needs of the target text receivers determine the specification of the skopos and the selection made from information offered in the source text (Schaeffner 1998: 236). Thus translation goes beyond linguistic considerations to also encompass cultural issues.

The question then arises: Who determines the skopos? According to Vermeer (1989/2004: 236), the skopos is ‘defined by the commission and if necessary adjusted by the translator’. Nord (1997:30) adds that the skopos is embedded in the translation brief, which means that the person initiating the translation invariably decides what the skopos is. She agrees with Vermeer that the skopos is often negotiated between the client and the translator.

The skopos of a text in the source culture might be the same as the skopos of the translation in the target culture, but that is just one of the different purposes for which a text might be needed in a different culture as the purpose in the target culture might be different. Reiss and Vermeer (1984) call the situation where the source text function is the same as the target text function functional constancy, while for the other situation where both texts have different functions they say the text has undergone a change of function.

Vermeer also gives two further rules: coherence rule and fidelity rule. Coherence rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent for the target audience to understand given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances while the fidelity rule focuses on the intertextual relationship between the source text and the target text (Schaeffner 1998: 236). The nature of this intertextual coherence between the source text and target is however determined by the skopos.

The theory of translatorial action

This theory, proposed by Holz-Manttari, draws a lot from action theory and communication theory. An action is generally seen as doing something intentionally, and communication basically means transferring information from one entity to another. Holz-Mantarri’s theory then sees translation as transferring information embedded in one culture to receivers in another culture, and the translator is the expert saddled with the responsibility of this information transfer. Using concepts from communication theory, Holz-Mantarri identifies the players in the translatorial process: the initiator, the person in need of the translation; the commissioner, the person that contacts the translator; the source text producer or author; the target text producer, the translator or translation agency; the target text user, teachers for example; and the target text recipient, for example students in a target user’s class. She does a lot to emphasise the role played by these participants in the translational process.

The need for a translation arises in situations where there is information in a particular culture that members of another culture do not have access to as a result of the cultural differences among the communities, or as Nord (1997: 17) puts it,

situations where differences in verbal and non-verbal behaviour, expectations, knowledge and perspectives are such that there is not enough common ground for the sender and receiver to communicate effectively by themselves.

Translation then is a process of intercultural communication aimed at producing a text ‘capable of functioning appropriately in specific situations and contexts of use’ (Schaeffner 1998: 3). And since the focus is on producing functionally adequate texts, the target text should then conform to the genre conventions of the target culture. This makes the translator the expert in translatorial action, who determines what is suitable for the translatorial text operation and ensures the information is transmitted satisfactorily.

One interesting aspect of this theory is the introduction of new terminologies into the literature. For example, instead of text, Holz-Mantarri prefers Botschaftstrager, message carrier, a concept that broadens the traditional concept of text to include non-verbal aspects of communication thereby ‘doing justice to the complexity of communicative processes’ (Martin de Leon 2008: 7). Other changes include Botschaftstragerproduktion for text production and translatorisches Handeln for translate or translation.

The principle of the necessary degree of precision

This principle was developed by Honig and Kusmaul to provide a more detailed account of translation relevant decision-making processes as against the ‘framework’ theory’ of translation (Honig 1997: 10). One of the outcomes of functionalist approaches is that the translator can give more information in the translation if the skopos requires that. An instance is making clear in a target text what is not so clear in the source text. However, it is not clear to what extent the translator can exercise this liberty. To this end, the principle stipulates that ‘what is necessary depends on the function of the translation’ (Honig 1997: 10). Honig illustrates this in this rather long quote:

the term ‘public school’ implies such a large amount of culture-specific knowledge that it is impossible to render its meaning ‘completely’ in a translation. Within a functionalist approach, however, the function of a word in its specific context determines to what degree the cultural meaning should be made explicit. In a sentence such as (my emphasis):

(2a) In Parliament he fought for equality, but he sent his son to Eton.

the translation will have to be different from translating the identical term ‘Eton’ in the sentence:

(3a) When his father died his mother could not afford to sent him to Eton any more.

The following translations would be sufficiently detailed:

(2b) Im Parlament kampfte er fur Chancengleichheit, aber seinen eigenen Sohn schickte er auf eine der englischen Eliteschulen. (one of the English elite schools)

(3b) Als sein Vater starb, konnte seine Mutter es sich nicht mehr leisten, ihn auf eine der teuren Privatschulen zu schicken (one of the expensive private schools).

Of course, there is more factual knowledge implied in the terms ‘Eton’ or ‘public school’ than expressed in the translation, but the translation mentions everything that is important within the context of the sentence, in other words, the translation is semantically precise enough. (1997: 11)

Here the translator does not aim at an exact or perfect target text, but a text that is sufficiently good enough for the situation. The translator provides as much (or less) information as the readers need as determined by the skopos.

Christiane Nord

Christiane Nord is one of the major proponents of functionalism. She agrees with Vermeer that the situation under which a target text is produced is different from that of the source text in terms of time, place (except for simultaneous interpreting), and sometimes medium. Thus the meaning of a text is found beyond the linguistic code, in the extratextual situation. In fact, she even stresses that meaning interpretation depends a lot on the personal experience of the text user:

A text is made meaningful by its receiver for its receiver. Different receivers (or even the same receiver at different times) find different meanings in the same linguistic material offered by the text. We might even say that a ‘text’ is as many texts as there are receivers of it. (2001: 152)

Nord however has some reservations for the unrestricted freedom Reiss and Vermeer, and Holz-Manttari have given the translator to produce a target text of whatever form so long as it conforms to the skopos as directed by the client. To check this, she introduces the concept of loyalty which she defines as the responsibility translators have towards their partners:

translators, in their role as mediators between two cultures, have a special responsibility with regard to their partners, i.e. the source text author, the client or commissioner of the translation, and the target text receivers, and towards themselves, precisely in those cases where there are differing views as to what a ‘good’ translation is or should be. (Nord 2006: 33).

Nord thus contends that the skopos is not the only determining factor in translation, that loyalty is necessary. Loyalty commits the translator bilaterally to the source text and target text situations: not to falsify the source text author’s intentions (Nord 2005:32) and fulfilling the expectations of the target audience or explaining in a footnote or preface how they arrived at a particular meaning. Loyalty is different from fidelity or equivalence in that the latter refer to the linguistic or stylistic similarity between the source and the target texts, regardless of the communicative intentions involved while the former refers to an interpersonal relationship between the translator and their partners (2001: 185).

Christiane Nord also elaborates on the possible range of functions a target text may have, different from that or those of the source text. She first distinguishes between documentary translation and instrumental translation. Documentary translation is such that ‘aims at producing in the target language a kind of document of (certain aspects of) a communicative interaction in which a source-culture sender communicates with a source-culture audience via the source text under source-culture conditions’ (1997: 138); instrumental translation, on the other hand, aims at producing in the target language an instrument for a new communicative interaction between the source-culture sender and the target-culture audience. A documentary translation usually results in a target text with a meta-textual function or ‘secondary level’ function according to House (1977). An instrumental translation may have the same range of functions as the source text, whereby it is said to be equifunctional; but if there are differences in the functions of both texts, the case is said to be heterofunctional. Nord also talks about homologous translation, also called ‘creative transposition’ (Bassnet 2002: 24), where the target text represent the same degree of originality as the original in relation to the respective culture-specific corpora of texts.

One other seminal input of Nord’s into functionalism is her call for an elaborate analysis of the source text before translation proper. Unlike Vermeer and Holz-Manttari who almost make the source text so invisible, Nord rather gives some attention to it since it is the provider of the offer of information that forms the basis for the offer of information formulated in the target text. She argues that the pre-translation analysis of the source text helps in deciding on whether the translation project is feasible in the first place, which source text units are relevant to a functional translation, and which strategy will best produce a target text that meets the requirements of the brief (Nord 1997: 62). Nord goes further to identify and categorise the kind of problems a translator might encounter – pragmatic, convention-related, interlingual and text-specific – and also steps to follow in the translational process. Schaeffner (2001) has done a critical review of Nord’s postulations (and indeed other functionalist approaches) and their applicability in practical translation.

CONTROVERSIES SURROUNDING FUNCTIONALIST APPROACHES TO TRANSLATION

Expectedly, functionalist approaches have received a lot of criticism, especially from scholars of the linguistic-based approaches, one of which is the definition of translation. Critics of skopos theory argue that not all target texts based on a source text can be called translations, that skopos theory makes no distinction between a real translation and adaptation or what Koller (1995) calls nontranslation. They argue that the supposed dethronement of the source text and focus on the target text (Newmark 1991; Schreitmuller 1994) subverts the intrinsic meaning of the translation. Pym (1997) argues in this light and supports Koller (1995) in upholding equivalence and calling on functionalists to distinguish between translation and nontranslation. However, functionalists view translation from a broader perspective, as ‘any translational action where a source text is transferred into a target culture and language’ Nord 1997: 141). They see the linguistic-based definition as being restrictive and in need of expansion.

Linked to this is the supposed dethronement of the source text and emphasis on the skopos as the determining factor of how the translation is done. It is then argued that functionalism gives translators the freedom to produce any kind of target text and call it a translation. Pym (1991), for instance, accuses functionalists of producing ‘mercenary experts able to fight under the flag of any purpose able to pay them’ (1991: 2). Nord responds to this by introducing the concept of loyalty, which restricts the liberty of the translator as they are now expected to be loyal to the source text author as well as other partners in the translational process. She also insists on an elaborate source text analysis before translation for a better understanding of both the source text and source culture which will then engender some high level coherence between the source text and the target text.

One other controversy surrounding functionalism is the myriad of terminologies introduced and used differently, especially those by Holz-Manttarri. Indeed many of these criticisms still go on to this day. However, despite the various controversies surrounding the development and thrust of functionalist approaches, their contributions to the study of translation are remarkable.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF FUNCTIONALIST APPROACHES TO TRANSALTION STUDIES

One major contribution of this approach is that, according to Nord (1997: 29), it addresses the ‘eternal dilemmas of free vs faithful translations, dynamic vs formal equivalence, good interpreters vs slavish translators, and so on’. Thus a translation may be free of faithful or ‘anything between these two extremes’ depending on its skopos or the purpose for which it is needed. The translator no longer has to always go back to the source text to solve translational problems, rather they base their translation on the function of the text in the target culture.

Functionalist approaches liberate translation from theories that impose linguistic rules upon every decision (Pym 2010: 56). They recognise that the translation process involves more than languages involved and requires the consideration of these extra-textual and extra-linguistic factors for its actualisation. Thus they introduce the cultural dimension to translation studies and break the unnecessary recourse to the ‘authority’ of the source text. While linguistics-based approaches may be said to be retrospective in that they look back at the source text as the model for the target text, functionalist approaches are seen as prospective in that they look forward to the function of the text in the target culture as the major determining factor for how the translation will be done. A retrospective translation operates a bottom-up process, works from source language elements and transfers the text sentence by sentence, or phrase by phrase. But a prospective translation operates a top-down process, starting on the pragmatic level by deciding on the intended function of the translation and asking for specific text-typological conventions, and for addressees’ background knowledge and their communicative needs ( Ouyang 2009: 104).

Functionalist approaches are flexible and general enough to account for a wide range of translational situations. Talking about the theory of skopos theory for example, Schaeffner (2001: 15) observes that ‘[t]his theory is presented as being sufficiently general to cover a multitude of individual cases, i.e. to be independent of individual languages, cultures, subject domains, text types and genres’. Interestingly, the consideration of extra-textual factors in the translational process accentuates the multidisciplinary nature of translation studies. The introduction of text-typology and considerations of genre-conventions introduces elements of pragmatics, text-linguistics and culture studies into the discourse. So also is the belief that a text does not have a stable intrinsic meaning, but that meaning is affected by the subjective translator as well as by the cultural, historical, ideological and historical circumstances surrounding the production of the text (Schaeffner 2001: 12).

Tied to the quality of flexibility mentioned above is functionalism’s apparent accommodation of the shortcomings of some other translation theories. For example, Baker (2007) criticises the polysystem theory (Even-Zohar 1990) and Toury’s (1995) theory of norms for encouraging analysts to focus on repeated, abstract, systematic behaviour and privileging strong patterns of socialization into that behaviour and for glossing over the numerous individual and group attempts at undermining dominant patterns and prevailing political and social dogma (Baker 2007: 152). She also expressed some dissatisfaction with Venuti’s dichotomies of foreignizing and domesticating strategies (Venuti 1993, 1995), also called minoritizing and majoritizing strategies (Venuti 1998), for, inter alia, reducing ‘the intricate means by which a translator negotiates his or her way around various aspects of a text into a more-or-less straightforward choice of foreignizing versus domesticating strategy’ (Baker 2007: 152). However, these criticisms have been adequately taken care of by functionalist approaches whose methodology would not be seen as been that straitjacketed, with no room for flexibility. By their very nature, functionalist approaches bridge the gap between mere theorising and the practice of translation, as they suggest practical ways of going about translational problems.

Before the advent of functionalist approaches, the translator is rarely noticed. Emphasis was on the source text and its supposed equivalent, the target text. No attention is paid to the identity or status of the translator in the translational process. On the one hand, the translator is seen as not being original, as merely performing a ‘technical stunt’ (Honig 1985: 13) of transferring an original author’s ideas into a different language. On the other hand, the translator’s identity is hidden when they produce texts that sound so fluent in the target culture as it they wer

Introduction

Text “Banker’s bonuses: Caps on pay are no way to restore the financial system to health” (text 1) and text “Labour conference: Talking to itself” (text 2) are quite different and at the same time share some common features. The title of text 1 suggests that the text is about cutting top-bankers’ salaries and its overall effect on the financial system of the country. Whereas, judging by the title, the subject matter of the second text is the results of the Labour party conference.

The texts are both specialised, but the specialist fields differ: text 1 belongs to the field of business and economics and text 2 is a national political text. The last part of this essay will look at this aspect in detail; the first two will aim at the comparative analysis in terms of text type and purpose, register and readership, lexis and syntax; the third part will deal with potential translation problems aroused by certain lexical items.

Abbreviations:

ST – source text

TT – target text

BT – back translation

Text type and purpose, genre, register and readership

As Hatim and Mason state, generally most texts are hybrid in their nature, but “text purposes may only be viewed in terms of ‘dominances’ of a given purpose or contextual focus” (1990: 146). Text 1 is purely argumentative, while text 2 can be also called hybrid, as it comprises some features of narration (report on the Labour party conference held in September of 2009), but mainly argumentation. According to Hatim and Mason’s text typology, text 2 belongs to the type of the “through-argument”, which is “citing the thesis and arguing it through” (1990: 152). Indeed, the author at the very beginning states that the leading political party is separated from the British people and it is unlikely to be re-elected, because the public trust was lost, and then he proves that idea in each paragraph, making a conclusion at the end that Labour is not loved by public, therefore there is not too much hope for them to win the future elections. As for text 1, it can be classified as the counter-argumentative. At first, the author cites John Kenneth Galbraith, a very famous economist of the second half of the 20th century, who expressed his negative attitude to the bonuses’ system. Then in each paragraph he opposes that thesis by various arguments, giving examples of how that problem is solved in other countries and in the UK. Finally, he expresses his own opinion that the problem is very acute but legislation to cut bankers’ salaries is all wrong and another way out should be found by the British government in order to restore the financial system of the country. So the texts belong to the same text type (with the hint of hybridisation in text 2), meaning that their main function is persuasive. It is known, that “the intention of the text represents the SL writer’s attitude to the subject matter” (Newmark P. 1988:12). The notion of the text type is closely connected with the purpose of the text. Thus the authors of both texts aim at appealing to their addressees by promoting acceptance or evaluation of some ideas or concepts. Moreover, the choice of lexis in both texts is strongly determined by the authors’ intentions, text type and purpose: the texts are marked by the use of connotative words which immediately indicates the argumentative text type. Lexical features of the texts will be looked at in detail later.

As a “conventional text type that is associated with a specific communicative function” (Munday J. 2001: 91-92) genres of the texts are also linked with their argumentative nature; especially text 2 which is an editorial from the online version of the Guardian newspaper (editorials usually have highly evaluative content and, as can be assumed, appellative purpose). Text 2, as a comment from www.timesonline.co.uk, is characterised by the persuasive function of the whole text with the little difference that it also performs, although not predominantly, an informative function, which is typical of the genre of a newspaper article.

Register, as a “variety of language that a language user considers appropriate to a specific function” (Baker M. 1992: 15), always depends on intention, text type, genre and purpose of the text. Text 1 and 2 can be also compared in this sense meaning that the first text, as stated before, deals with problems in banking sector, so it belongs to the field of economics, whereas text 2 is clearly political. There is also a difference between two texts in terms of tenor: text 1 has a higher level of formality than text 2 as it is more specialised, while text 2 is less formal. Although in both texts the register is semi-formal. The texts are similar in the mode – written to be read reflectively, because the authors’ aim at producing that kind of effect.

As it was stated before, text 1 and 2 are from the national English newspapers which are ranked as highly authoritative sources. That is why their intended readership is, obviously, an educated public, presumably of middle or upper class, who reads that kind of newspapers. Although the distinction can be made here in terms of different fields of these texts: text 1 is addressed to the people who are able to understand and evaluate economical issues, whereas text 2 is mostly aimed at those who are interested in politics. Overall, the readership for both texts is quite the same: it entitles a great deal of cultural background knowledge and assumes a substantial, but not very specialised, knowledge of political, economical, historical and social life on its national and international levels.

Lexis, grammar and syntax

Lexical and syntactic features of both texts are determined by several important factors which are certainly interdependent. Firstly, because they are argumentative they are marked by the extensive use of connotative words, mainly negative in meaning:

(text1) ‘heady rewards'(line 4), ‘public fury'(line 10), ‘full-blown financial panic'(line 18), ‘shed his troubles'(line 18), ‘ambitious plan'(line 19), ‘expresses dismay'(line 24), ‘introduce distortions'(line 33), ‘reform'(line 39), ‘hobble the City'(line 40), ‘landgrab'(line 42), ‘bloated'(line 45)

But in text 2 the connotative lexis is stronger than in the first one, again, because of its argumentative text type, editorial genre, author’s appellative intention and persuasive function.

(text 2) ‘dreary apparatus'(line 3), ‘speaking mournfully'(line 6), ‘retrospective regret'(line 8), ‘dogmatic enthusiasm'(line 13), ‘helium-voiced theatricality'(line 22), ‘cheeky self-referential game'(line 27), ‘populist crackdown'(line 36), ‘crusade'(line 39), ‘inject passion'(line 35)

The selection of words in terms of style is also different in two texts: text 2 is marked by the use of colloquialisms, together with more formal lexis:

(text 2) ‘smash down'(line 5), ‘backward-looking'(line 10), ‘what on earth…'(line 20), ‘boils down'(line 15), ‘keep leadership alive'(line 10), ‘drive the party further'(line 15), ‘awful idea'(line 41), ‘fell flat'(line 29), ‘messy'(line 37)

In this case such lexical choice depends a lot on highly persuasive effect the author aims at producing in the text.

There is no doubt that the field of specialisation has strong influence on the language of the texts. Text 1 is about banking and economics, that is why there are many terms from this field:

(text 1) ‘boardroom'(line 4), ‘chief executive'(line 5), ‘corporation'(line 5), ‘global economy'(line 11), ‘banking sector'(line 8), ‘recapitalise'(line 20), ‘traders'(line 27), ‘compensation schemes'(line 31), ‘tax liabilities'(line 36), ‘chairman'(line 43), ‘economic case'(line 44), ‘financial instability'(line 15)

The following example illustrates another feature of economical texts, – noun clusters, – which are “several nouns and adjectives to designate one single concept “(Guadalupe Acedo Dominguez and Patricia Edward Rokowski, Ph.D., available at http://accuparid/Journal/21clusters.htm, last updated on 05.03/2003):

(text 1) ‘short-term trading profits'(line 29), ‘risk-adjusted profits'(line 32)

As for text 2, it is similar to text 1 in terms of the use of terminology, but this time the terms belong to the field of politics:

(text 2) ‘political conference'(line 3), ‘ministers'(line 7), ‘strategy'(line 10), ‘electorate'(line 15), ‘polling day'(line 19), ‘speeches'(line 22), ‘technocratic instrument'(line 42)

The terms from other disciplines are widely used in both texts, again, because the fields of politics and economics are characterised by this feature:

(text 1) ‘policymakers'(line 11), ‘capitalism'(line 25), ‘code of conduct'(line 26), ‘legislation'(line 33)

(text 2) ‘apparatus'(line 4), ‘security state'(line 4), ‘economic crisis'(line 12), ‘recovery'(line 13), ‘secure zone'(line 17), ‘financial crisis'(line 35), ‘populist'(line 36)

“Political texts are a part and/or result of politics, they are historically and culturally determined” (Schaffner C.” Strategies of Translating Political Texts”, Text Typology and Translation, edited by Trosberg A., 1997: 119). This can also be said about economical texts. That is why both texts are abundant in culture-specific references (proper names, dates, personal, historical and geographical references):

(text 1) ‘John Kenneth Galbraith’ (line 4), ‘the G20’ (line 9), ‘the City'(line 40), ‘Mr Brown’ line 18), ‘Angela Merkel’ (line 26), ‘president Sarkozy’ (line 24), ‘the incomes policies of the 1970s’ (line 34), ‘Lord Turner Ecchinswell’ (line 43), ‘the Financial Services Authority’ (line 43)

(text 2) ‘Labour’ (line 10), ‘Gordon Brown’ (line 11), ‘the Conservatives’ (line 16), ‘Alistair Darling’ (line 21), ‘Peter Mandelson’ (line 21), ‘the City’ (line 36), ‘Progress rally’ (line 43), ’11 ministers’ (line 43), ‘chancellor’ (line 24), ‘business secretary’ (line 28)

Texts 1 and 2 are both rich in figurative language, mainly metaphors and metonyms (influenced by their text type, purpose and field). For example, Newmark says that “game metaphors” are frequent in political texts (1991: 158), which can be shown by the example:

(text 2) ‘Lord Mandelson played with the hall, a cheeky self-referential game…’ (line 26)

Here Mandelson’s speech is compared to a game, thus metaphorically establishing a comparison between one idea and another (Beard A. 2000: 19).

Synecdoche, as a type of metonymy when the part stands for the whole, is used in the second text (face stands for the person):

(text 2) ‘convincing face of a crusade against the City’ (about Alistair Darling) (line 39)

There are many other metaphors and metonyms in text 2:

(text 2) ‘age-old characteristic'(line 31), ‘chase the prime minister'(line 19), ‘left the country cold'(line 27), ‘conference speaking mournfully to itself'(line 6), etc.

Text 1 is not that rich in figurative language as text 2, because it deals with economical problems, still a few examples can be given:

(text 1) ‘bloated (financial sector)'(line 45), ‘market award'(line 5), ‘contaminating the wider economy'(line 16), ‘hobble the City'(line 40)

As far as grammar is concerned, in both texts such parts of speech as adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions and particles, emotive verbs are used extensively which is related to the argumentative text type conventions:

(text 1) ‘heady rewards'(line 4), ‘widespread belief'(line 8), ‘populist and fanciful schemes'(line 15), ‘competitively'(line 17), ‘likely'(line 10), ‘ambitious plan'(line 19), ‘commensurate penalty'(line 30), ‘shed his troubles'(line 18), ‘sought to rescue the global economy'(line 11), ‘inveigh against'(line 11), ‘expresses dismay'(line 24), ‘insists'(line 27), ‘are adept at inventing'(line 36), ‘devoted themselves'(line 35), ‘but'(line 21), ‘however'(line 23)

(text 2) ‘dreary apparatus'(line 3), ‘valedictory dispatches'(line 7), ‘wrong'(line 16), ‘feelgood therapy'(line 22), ‘mutual distrust'(line 45), ‘awful idea'(line 41), ‘speaking mournfully'(line 6), ‘helium-voiced'(line 22), ‘fighting for their future'(line 7), ‘cutting the party off'(line 5), ‘smash down'(line 5), ‘turned on the public'(line 18), ‘indulged in'(line 22), ‘fell flat'(line 29), ‘demean'(line 32), ‘certainly'(line 36), ‘but'(line 6), ‘still'(line 28), ‘if'(line 19), ‘only'(line 33), ‘at least'(line 10)

Both texts are marked by the use of active voice of verbs. It is linked to the authors’ intentions and the text purpose, when it is important to point out agents of the action (individuals, parties, groups, economies or countries) in order to appeal to the reader:

(text 1) ‘public fury…reflects'(line 8), ‘governments are outdoing'(line 13), ‘Mr brown shed his troubles and sought to rescue'(line 18), ‘Mr Brown’s notion never extended'(line 21), ‘governments seen the opportunity'(line 23), ‘search of profits generated large rewards'(line 29)

(text 2) ‘ministers are writing'(line 7), ‘party feels'(line 8), ‘the Conservatives would threaten recovery'(line 13), ‘party made no attempt'(line 18), ‘both men found it easier'(line 30)

To achieve emphasis in meaning modal verbs are often used in both texts:

(text 1) ‘Gordon Brown could perform….’ (line 14), ‘Mr Brown should not mistake…'(line 41)

(text 2) ‘they should be fighting…'(line 7), ‘no minister should talk…'(line 24), ‘the debate should be had in public…'(line 42)

Transitivity of verbs also adds to their emphatic meaning:

(text 1) ‘cap bankers’ pay'(line 13), ‘prevent financial instability'(line 15), ‘recapitalise the banks'(line 20), ‘seen the opportunity'(line 23)

(text 2) ‘smash down barriers'(line 5), ‘left the country cold'(line 27), ‘writing dispatches'(line 7), ‘demean your opponents'(line 32), ‘won an argument'(line 40)

Mostly present and future tenses are used in both texts to show either the real state of things, the authors’ statements expressing their negative attitude or not very promising predictions:

(text 1) And bankers are adept at inventing ways to minimize tax liabilities. (line 36)

But legislation to cap bankers’ pay is not the answer. (line 33)

(text 2) That is true, but only adds to the need to talk about the future. (line 33)

The disadvantage is that it will drive the party further from the electorate. (line 14)

Syntactic features of the text are certainly determined by the argumentative text type. Thus both text 1 and 2 do not have a very complex syntax. The average length of the sentences is medium. Text 2, being explicitly appellative, comprises more short sentences than text1:

(text 2) He is right. (line 24)

At least Labour now has a strategy. (line 10)

He still knows what is needed. (line 28)

There is certainly much to do. (line 36)

The sentences are relatively simple. In those which are complex the main clauses and the subordinate clauses are connected with conjunctions or temporal adverbs. Conditional clauses are typical of the argumentative text type: they are used to reflect the author’s opinion:

(text 1) If employers wished to reward staff, they would do it in benefits rather than in cash. (line 34)

(text 2) ‘…if you win the next election, what on earth do you want to do with the next four years?’ (line 19)

The types of the sentences are determined by the argumentative text type of the texts: there are statements, rhetorical question and even imperative used for emphasis:

(text 1) There is a problem in bankers’ pay. (line 29)

It is not to hinder the banking sector from operating competitively. (line 16)

Recall the incomes policies of the 1970s. (line 34)

(text 2) At least Labour now has a strategy. (line 10)

He is right. (line 24)

‘…if you win the next election, what on earth do you want to do with the next four years?’ (line 19)

The word order in both texts is fixed, although there is a slight deviation from the English norm (subject + predicator + object + adjunct), when the time adjunct precedes the subject (in purposes of emphasising its meaning in the sentence):

(text 2) Too late, Labour is trying to inject passion into its response to the financial crisis… (line 35)

On the textual level, both texts have much in common in terms of cohesive devices used for emphasis, opposition, contrast or reasoning, as they are markers of the argumentative text type. For example, adversative, temporal and continuative conjunctions used as connectors between sentences relate sentences, clauses and paragraphs to each other (Baker M. 1992: 190):

(text 1 ) But it is easier for policymakers to inveigh against highly paid bankers… (line 11)

Other European governments have, however, seen the opportunity to propose tough new regulation. (line 23)

And bankers are adept at inventing ways to minimise tax liabilities. (line 36)

(text 2) At least Labour now has a strategy. (line 10)

He spoke much of the time in the past tense, while Lord Mandelson played with the hall… (line 26)

That is true, but only adds to the need to talk about the future. (line 33)

In text 2 parallelism is used emphatically as a perfect cohesive device to stress out Labour’s separation from the public (the structure from the topic sentence of the first paragraph is repeated but filled with the new content in the last paragraph):

(text 2) ‘…still fences, scanners, identity badges and armed police.’ (line 4)

Sitting inside its steel fence, Labour is asking why it is no longer loved. (line 46)

Potential translation problems in text 1

Translating this text from English into Russian, a translator might experience some translation problems, connected with specialist and culture-bound terms and collocations used in the source text. For example:

(ST) ‘central bankers’ (line 9)

(BT) heads of central banks.

In Russian the constituents of this economic term cannot collocate and translated literally would sound wrong, thus the strategy of supplementation plus translation using related words is used.

Another example of the problem connected with specialist terms:

(ST) ‘capital reserves’ (line 37)

(BT) reserved capital

In Russian this economical term is represented in a different form from the grammatical point of view: the word order and the parts of speech are changed. The translator should be careful in rendering this term accurately.

In the following example the term is translated literally, because it represents an exact notion, suggested by Gordon Brown:

(ST) “new international financial architecture” (line 21)

In this case the potential translation problem of non-equivalence is solved but in order to do it the translator has to do some research on parallel texts in the target language.

The translation problem can be aroused while translating the following jargon expression:

(ST) ‘cap bankers’ pay’ (line 13)

(BT) limit bankers’ bonuses

The English colloquial expression is translated by the more neutral Russian equivalent. This choice is determined by style and register conventions of the target language; in English the use of colloquial language in newspaper articles on serious political or economical issues is common, whereas in Russian a more formal expression is stylistically more appropriate.

As Schaffner points out, “texts with references to a wide range of cultural patterns of the society in question, including aspects of its economic, political and legal life, require a lot of background knowledge for a coherent interpretation”(1997: 133). Consequently, the translating cultural words and collocations may pose difficulties for the translator.

(ST) ‘John Kenneth Galbraith’ (line 4)

(BT) a famous economist, John Kenneth Galbraith

It is necessary to use the strategy of supplementation plus explanation, because not all the readers in the target culture would be familiar with this European name.

(ST) ‘incomes policies of the 1970s’ (line 34)

(BT) unsuccessful incomes policies of the 1970s in Britain

Translating from English into Russian it is better to specify the result of the particular economic measures in Britain, as the term is clearly culture-specific and needs to be explained to the target reader.

(ST) ‘City bonuses’ (line 8)

(BT) bonuses of the City of London

Again, when this cultural reference is first met in the text it is necessary to explain which “City” the author refers to.

(ST) ‘Financial Services Authority’ (line 43)

(BT) Financial Services Office

The name of organisation will possibly cause a translation problem, especially if the translator is not an expert in the field of economics in the target language.

There might be problems at the above word level:

(ST) ‘financial sector that is bloated’ (line 45)

(BT) bloated financial sector

According to Larson, “the metaphor may be kept if the receptor language permits (that is, if it sounds natural and is understood by the readers)” (1998: 279). In Russian it is possible to keep this metaphorical image. But the word should be put in the inverted commas not to make it sound colloquial in Russian.

(ST) ‘hobble the City’ (line 40)

(BT) cause troubles for the City

In English the meaning of this expression is idiomatic (to cause to limp). In Russian there is no idiomatic equivalent with the same meaning, that is why the translation strategy of paraphrase is used here. Moreover, in Russian it would be stylistically inappropriate to use an idiom in the text of semi-formal register published in the national newspaper. Although the translator should take into account the text type conventions. Thus the colloquial word in the inverted commas would be an option in the same type of argumentative text in the target language.

Field of specialisation

According to Desbalche’s communication pyramid, texts 1 and 2 can be positioned on the level 5, as they are produced by generalists in number of sciences and addressed to educated, interested general public (2001: 21).

What makes these texts specialised is that they belong to certain specialist fields and that they are marked by the use of terminology specific to those fields.

As it was stated before, the fields of specialisation in text 1 and 2 are different. Text 1 belongs to the field of banking which is a sub-field of business and economics. The language of the text, as in any text of economic discourse, is very specific: it relates to other fields such as politics and history, that is why not only specialist terms listed before are widely used but also many external terms can be found:

(text 1) ‘populist'(line 15) (historical), ‘policymakers'(line 11) (political), ‘code of conduct'(line 26) (legal), ‘statute'(line 38) (political and legal), etc.

An abundance of culture-bound references is an important feature of the language of economics. The cultural, personal, historical and geographical references occur frequently in the text:

(text 1) ‘Gordon Brown’ (line 14), ‘the City’ (line 40), ‘the Financial Services Authority’ (line 43), ‘the incomes policies of the 1970s’ (line 34)

Text 2 belongs to the field of politics. It is literary in style (as many other texts of the same field, especially those of the argumentative text type), that is why there are numerous examples of strong connotative and colloquial language:

(text 2) ‘bombast'(line 21), ‘smash down’ (line 5), ‘fell flat’ (line 29), ‘awful idea’ (line 41), ‘mutual distrust’ (line 45), ‘technocratic instrument’ (line 42), ‘messy’ (line 37), ‘ingratitude’ (line 18), ‘fighting for their future’ (line 7), ‘sly jibes’ (line 31)

Also the extensive use of figurative language is essential for political texts. The language in text 2 is marked by the use of metaphors and metonyms adding to the effect of emotiveness and evaluation:

(text 2) ‘two worlds in one town’ (line 3), ‘crusade against the City’ (line 39); ‘when it talks to people outside will it discover the answer’ (line 47) (about Labour); ‘Lord Mandelson played with the hall…’ (line 26); ‘sitting inside its steel fence’ (line 46) (about Labour)

Irony as a figure of speech, often found in political texts, is also used here:

(text 2) It boils down to telling voters that they are wrong not to thank the government for the good things it has done. (line 15)

Mr Darling enhances the government with a quiet reliability and he was well-mannered enough yesterday came not to point out that the prime minister came within hours of sacking him last June. (line 37)

Both texts, as they belong to language-specific fields of politics and economics, comprise some concepts of abstraction:

(text 1) ‘public fury’ (line 8), ‘individual’ (line 6), ‘widespread belief’ (line 8), ‘issue’ (line 10), ‘new regulation’ (line 23), ‘large rewards’ (line 30)

(text 2) ‘apparatus’ (line 4), ‘strategy’ (line 10), ‘separation’ (line 6), ‘enthusiasm’ (line 13), ‘decency’ (line 21)

At last, text 2 can be addressed not only to the source language community, meaning that it has a wider political audience in mind (Schaffner C. 1997: 127).

Bibliography
Baker, M. (1992) In Other words, A Coursebook on translation. London: Routledge
Beard, A. (2000) The Language of Politics. London: Routledge
Desblache L. (2001) Aspects of Specialised Translation. Paris: La Maison Dictionnaire
Guadalupe Acedo Domingez and Patricia Edward Rokowski, Ph.D, University of Extramadura, Spain (2002) “Implications in Translating Economic Texts” Translation Journal 6 (3). Available at http://accuparid/Journal/21clusters.htm, last updated on 05.03.2002
Hatim, B. and Mason, I. (1990) Discourse and the Translator. London: Longman
Larson M. L. (1998) Meaning-Based Translation: A Guide to Cross-Language Equivalence. New York: University Press of America Inc.
Munday, J. (2001) Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. London: Routledge
Newmark, P. (1991) About Translation. New York/London: Clevedon: Prentice Hall
Newmark, P. (1988) A Textbook of Translation. London: Prentice Hall Europe
Schaffner C. (1997) “Strategies of Translating Political Texts”, Text Typology and Translation [edited by Trousberg A.]. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, pp. 119-143

UiTM is Malaysias largest institution of higher learning in terms of size and population. It has experienced phenomenal growth since its origin in 1956 and it is still growing. The university has expanded nationwide with 12 branch campuses, three satellite campuses, 9 city campuses and 21 affiliated colleges. With this vast network and a workforce of 17,000, the university offers more than 300 academic programmes in a conducive and vibrant environment. It is also home to some 172,000 students.

Presently, Shah Alam is host to 45.5% of the total number of students, while the rest are distributed over the other campuses, with Perlis campus handling the biggest number (6.3%). These campuses provide excellent opportunities for Bumiputeras all over the country to pursue higher education and attain higher economic and social development. UiTM’s main campus started with the laying of its foundation stone on 14 October 1967 by Tun Abdul Razak and by mid 70s, the campus was already in full operation. It acts as the focal point of development and expansion to a network of 21 other campuses. In the year 2004, Shah Alam campus had approximately 36,000 full-time and 6,500 part-time students. There are 13 residential colleges within the campus that house no less than 16,800 students. Apart from that, many homes around the university also open their doors to off-campus students. About 25 numbers of faculties had in Shah Alam campus. This campus is very close to Shah Alam city centre and therefore public facilities and services are within easy reach. An added advantage is the fact that Shah Alam is the hub for information technology and multimedia applications. It is also easily accessible via the major highways that link the city to strategic locations in the country.

The university campus provides all staffs and students a place for their working, studying and even living. Parking is one of the important topics in urban transportation planning and traffic management. This is true too for the university campus. In recent years, Malaysia’s higher education has developed rapidly, which has led to a dramatic increase of students educated on campuses and thus severe shortage of land used for teaching and researching. The parking system that used in the Shah Alam campus were open-space parking for students or visitors and staff card entry and exit system.

Parking facilities and programs were also considerable importance in traffic engineering. Most urban and regional commercial centers were access primarily by automobiles. The viability of these areas depends in a large part on the availability of convenient parking facilities adjacent to or easily accessible to desired destinations. Thus, comprehensive parking programs involve planning, design, construction, operation and financing parking facilities, as well as placement and enforcement of parking regulations. Experts agree that, when it comes to on-campus parking, there is no such thing as a one-size fits-all approach. The parking problem can be different in each case to another and the parking problem solution also can be varies.

This study is about a study on the supply and demand car-parking facilities for engineering complex and Melati parking lots in UiTM main campus that associated with zonal parking or trend of pattern problem. The supply car parking facilities is for existing parking lots in UiTM main campus, whether it’s enough space for users demand. It also derived by assessing potential spaces for parking facilities, including the possibilities of utilize any on-street parking.

Problem Statement

In Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) Shah Alam, among the most complaint from students, are the parking facilities problems. For students, UiTM had provided various parking area surround the building. As engineering students, they have choices to park at Melati, Mawar and near Dataran Cendekia parking (surrounding engineering complex building). Although they are several of parking facilities near engineering complex building, the students are still having the parking problem. There are only complaints from students about this parking problem in UiTM and no technical evidences to prove it.

The demand for university or public parking area has increased drastically in recent years by the increasing number of students especially for non-resident. An existing parking supply remained and it does not increase in proportion with demand parking. This will effect the lost of time by the users for limited parking space searching. Even though parking needs and parking issues have always been a major concern for institution organizations, it frequently fails to receive proper planning processes, including providing necessary security safeguards. Other than that, illegal parking causes traffic circulation problems. For example, one or more parking lots were used for park construction materials other than vehicles.

1.3 Objective

For providing students enough space for the land used for teaching and researching. The purpose of having an observation or empirical study is to measure the demand between supply parking facilities and parking pattern. Besides, other suggestion can be determine to improve the general features existing in the campus parking systems.

1.4 Scope of the Research

The locations for the zonal parking studies are at the faculty of engineering building and beside the college of Melati in UiTM Shah Alam campus. The campus inflow and outflow of vehicles, the location and use of parking lots also will be analyzed. The average parking duration and the use turnovers of 2 parking lots are computed from the survey data. Duration of the studies is on weekday (2days) from 7.30 am to 7.30 pm at engineering complex and Melati parking lots.

1.5 Significance of Research

The parking study important for determine parking pattern and trend demand for campus environment. It also essential to implement parking policy equate the demand and supply parking system in selected parking area in UiTM campus. From the observation, parking can be utilized more efficiently by the users.

CHAPTER 2.0: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction

In recent years, more and more university employees or students tend to have the transport for their facilities. As a result of this situation, the number of cars and motorcycles owned by them is increasing rapidly. In addition, the communication between universities and communities has become much closer than before. This leads to a shortage of campus parking capacity. Various researches and theories have been developed to determine the supply and demand of parking facilities. There are also many theories about the recommendation and solution of solving the parking problem.

Early in 1990, McIntyre made a survey in twenty-five community colleges in California and recommended some measures for improving the campus parking environment. Carl and David (2001) applied mathematical models to investigate the effects of various campus parking policies. In mainland China, Leng and Yan (2003) examined the university campus systems for taking account of the specific conditions. Song and Wang (2004) conducted several relevant surveys in Chinese universities. Overall, however, few systematic reports of the studies on campus parking problems can be found in literature. It can be stated that almost all university campus in other country than Malaysia have same problem dealing with the parking system.

2.2 Types of Parking

Public and private are the two broad categories of parking. Public parking describe as on streets and alleys (curb-side parking) or off-street. On the curb-street area, the parking may be free or not and it may regulate or unregulated which is no parking overnight. Curb-street in downtown area usually metered and regulated. For the off-street parking usually in lots, decks or exclusive parking structures operated by the private firms or public agencies to open to the public. The certain rule of some facilities may operated such as parking on a long term. (Papacostas, 2001).

Home or apartment building garages, stalls and driveways, or affiliate-specific parking (permit required or access card to enter home). Parking need stalls and pricing arrangement schemes characteristics that important to maximize revenue as well as to fulfill certain purposes for pricing schemes. For the stalls may be parallel or angled (20O-90 O).

2.3 Parking Studies

According to the Transportation Planning Handbook, published by the Institute of Transportation Engineers (p. 199-400) the 1992 edition, parking studies are used to evaluate the current supply of parking or to plan for future parking needs. Some parking studies are only concerned with the adequacy of parking for a particular need, such as a shopping mall, office building, or a sports facility. Other studies are designed to evaluate the parking conditions in an area to establish time limits, parking rates, and the need for additional parking. Some studies are used to aid operational analyses in relation to removal or modification of curb parking. Still others are required to evaluate residential parking impacted by encroachment from outside parkers. There are a wide variety of other specialized studies to meet specific needs. Studies must be conducted to collect the required information about the capacity and use of existing parking facilities. In addition, information about the demand for parking is needed. Parking studies may be restricted to a particular traffic producer or attractor, such as a store, or they may encompass an entire region, such as a central business district.

Before parking studies can be initiated, the study area must be defined. The survey area should also include any area that might be impacted by the parking modifications. The boundary should be drawn to counts by minimizing the number of entrance and exit points.

Parking studies include financial feasibility, functional design, structural design and demand studies. For this research, priority for demand studies and functional design studies only. Demand studies classified into three major types to determine the demand studies. There are comprehensive, limited and site specific.

Comprehensive demand studies cover an entire area, such as central business district. It also contains the prediction models which include population growth, demographic, social and economic trends as well as trends of using the transportation modes. Detailed information on utilization patterns from analytical and comprehensive inventories on and off street were collected too. From the information, the lack of supply and traffic circulation will be known. Then proposed scenario of for fulfilling anticipated demands are developed and evaluated for judgment by authorities. Inventories studies was included list of graphic display of existing information, geometric design, traffic characteristic, traffic operation and traffic control and regulation. (Papacostas, 2001)

Similar to comprehensive studies, the limited demand studies not contain the geographic element and some requirements. This type of demand studies will investigate one type of parking and the estimation for future demand not required for forecast. The result of survey involves field measurement, past case studies result and analysis and the data of the relevant information about the case study area. The limited parking studies will be covered on this research.

For site-specific demand studies, narrow in geographically but analytically or analysis extensive. Focus site may include existing, planned or expanding area for development. Then, information of existing supply and utilization are taken and future demand will predict. The information collected under operational conditions such as speed study, travel time and delay, traffic volume, parking, accidents and others.

2.4 Parking Policies

According to C. Jotin Khisty (1990), the planner has to contend or discuss the formulation of parking policies that is one of the more difficult tasks. The difficulty lies in coordinating parking policies with several other planning objectives. The following consideration of having parking policies may be taken into account:

To design parking lots that not effected by the entry and exit of vehicles.

To ensure that the interest of business organization along the street is enhanced by good parking arrangements.

To maintain or protect the character of the area by restricting parking and enforcing land-use controls.

Car park areas are spaces that are provided, planned as places to park cars or other vehicles. From the Town and Country Planning Department in Peninsular Malaysia, the policies and guideline standard has been stated to fulfill a better parking environment for urban development.

2.4.1 Implementation Policies
Provision of a Comprehensive Car Parking Plan at Urban Areas

Each local authority must provide a comprehensive car park area plan at the urban level for integration into the Local Plan for a period of 5 to 15 years.

Determination of Maximum Limit of Parking Lots

Determine the maximum number of parking lots within a city based on radial road capacity that leads to the city centre.

Details of Parking Lot Provision in Development Projects

Each developer must outline detailed plans concerning the provision of parking lots according to standards in the planning approval application. Development proposal report should outline the estimated parking lot requirement, quantity of lots that should be provided, and type of car park structure and payment collection methods.

Conditions Regarding Parking Facility in Issuing Certificate of Fitness (CF)

Interior space that is designed to show a structure that is orderly and clean has a mechanical and electrical system of quality, to create arrangement and signage that provides clear movement orientation for users.

The Provision of Shared Car Parks

Encourage the implementation of mixed or integrated development projects that combine three or more land uses and of different business activities within the same building / complex.

Joint Use Parking Concept

Separate development area does not exceed 400 meters and has peak parking hours that do not conflict.

Introduction of Parking Impression Scheme

Local authorities should enhance the quantity of car park areas in existing areas so that it is able to increase the number of cars as much as 30% – 60% from the original quantity without requiring additional land.

Payment Policy for Parking Area

Implement a payment rate that is higher to decrease the number of cars in the city centre.

2.4.2 General Parking Policies for University Campus:

Faculty/staff lot is identified by signs at the entrances and is for faculty/staff parking. A current faculty/staff permit is required.

Student lots are marked as non-residential student parking. A student permit is required to use these lots, including designated off-street parking associated with campus-owned houses.

Parking at the Engineering Complex parking lot is not permitted for students.

Park only in designated parking areas. Areas designated by yellow curbs, hash marks, or those with no lines designating a space are not available for parking.

Do not park in driveways.

Use only one parking space.

Do not park on the grass.

Do not park in disabled spaces without a disabled placard/ permit.

Do not park in fire lanes.

Do not park in the faculty/staff lot during reserved times.

Do not park in reserved spaces.

Do not drive on lawns or sidewalks.

Warnings will be given the first full week of each semester for cars parked without a valid permit, but all other policies will be enforced.

2.5 Guideline Standard by Town and Country Planning Department in Peninsular Malaysia
General Guideline

Standard Classification According to the City Population Size Requirement and usage of parking space depends upon the type, scale and concentration of activities and also the number of residents in a city.

Standard Based on Urban Traffic Modal Split

Standards for the provision of car parking space for various types of land uses should be formulated based on several values of the modal split of private transportation mode to the quantity of commuters who utilize public transportation modes.

Specific Guidelines

Guidelines Provided for Housing Area Car Park

Heavy vehicle parking area in low cost residential area (including lorry, trailer, bus and heavy machinery).

Housing development that is fronting the local road, access road or cul-de-sacs.

The provision of car park areas within condominium development equipped with mechanical equipment.

These car park guidelines are based on a modal split:

High cost condominium or apartment – city exceeding 1 million inhabitants.

High cost condominium or apartment – city of 300 thousand to 1 million inhabitants.

High cost condominium or apartment – city of 100 thousand to 300 thousand inhabitants.

Medium cost apartment – city exceeding 1 million inhabitants.

Medium cost apartment – city of 300 thousand to 1 million inhabitants.

Medium cost apartment – city of 100 thousand to 300 thousand inhabitants.

Low cost apartment – all cities.

Parking Standards for Housing Area Car Parks

Parking Guidelines and Standards for Commercial Area Car Parks

Parking Guidelines for Industrial Area Car Parks

The provision of clustered car parks.

The provision of car park in industrial plots.

The provision of car park for special industrial factories.

Parking Standard for Industrial Area Car Park

Parking Guidelines for Institution Area Car Park

Parking Standards of Institution Area Car Park

Parking Standards of Recreation Area Car Park

Parking Guidelines for Other Urban Activities

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY

Title

Objective

Scopes

Sites identification & selection

Parking studies data collection

Data statistical analysis & evaluation

Recommendation

Figure 3.1: Study Flow Process Chart

3.1 Title, Objective and Scopes

Before start any research, it is often necessary to know the title, objective and scopes of research. The need of having these materials is to know the preliminary understanding of zonal parking studies. Objective of this research is to determination of current parking for supply between demands and parking pattern was focused on parking inventory, parking usage survey. This entire works will give the parking characteristic (existing condition) and the total load of the current parking in the location during 2 days from 7.30am until 7.30pm.

3.2 Sites Identification and Selection

There are many parking lots within the Shah Alam campus area. The study area for the survey data is focus at the Engineering Complex and Melati parking area shown at Figure 3.2.1. The location was selected because of high population number of non-resident and staff. Although, it easy for numerator to count the survey data at this two parking lots and identify the parking supply and parking demand. The focus of the research was at car parking facilities for students and staff in engineering faculty.

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Figure 3.2.1: Locations of two parking lots to survey
3.3 Parking Studies Data Collection

The data collection can be determined from the survey. Since curb parking or off streets parking is an element of parking supply, it is often essential to estimate the demand for parking and check the balance between supply and demand. If demand exceeds supply, additional off-street parking may have to be provided. Type of parking in the Melati parking lot is public parking. While, private parking is on the Engineering Complex parking lot.

Firstly, collect the number of inflow and outflow vehicles especially cars to the study area. The surveyor must count the number of cars at entry and exit each parking lot from 7.30 am until 7.30 pm for a day. The length of interval time is I?=15 min. If a vehicle enters the parking lot at time interval t1 and exits at time interval t2, then its time span for parking on the campus is I”t = t2- t1 interval. Assume that the summation of the travel time spent on the campus and the time delay for searching for a parking lot is not more than 10 min.

Supply is much easier to quantify than is demand because it is a physical count. Demand, on the other hand, is an estimate of the number of drivers who wish to park in the study area at any given time. Supply is generally constant, although there can be some changes during the day (e.g., tow away zones during peak hours, part-time loading zones, etc.). Demand varies by time. In fact, one of the elements to be defined in the study is the time of peak demand. In some areas there may be multiple peaks because of the differing uses within the study area. A simple example is an office complex. The peak employee accumulation may be by 9.00 am; while the peak client or visitor accumulation may be 11.30 am or 2.30 pm. Deliveries or service personnel may peak at still different times.

Current demand may be estimated in those study areas where supply greatly exceeds demand by merely counting the accumulated vehicles at various times of the day. However, when the demand reaches 85 percent or more of the supply, it may not represent the true demand because there may be additional demand that is not present because of the lack of adequate parking.

3.4 Data Statistical Analysis and Evaluation

After got the data, the several statically analysis has to be shown to recognize the pattern of parking demand. Parking measurement and analysis consist of different graph analysis. The results can be determined by:

Total parking supply as calculate as parking could be parked in study area over the given period of the study. However, it does not mean that all vehicles could be parked at same time.

Number of vehicles per interval vs. time (inflow and outflow). It can be seen that there are peaks volume of cars corresponding to the periods.

Number of vehicles vs. realized parking demands in two lots. The realized parking demands associated with these lots for every fifteen minutes.

Number of vehicles vs. time shows the total parking demands of the campus for each time interval and compare between supply and demand of parking.

3.5 Recommendation

To solving the parking problem, there are two ways to solve the problem, either supply new parking spaces or reduce the parking demand if demand exceeds the supply parking.

CHAPTER 4.0: FINDINGS AND RESULTS
4.1 Parking Measurement and Analysis

Real time trend on parking demand

Variation of demand vs. supply over the period

Parking turn-over at the two parking lots

4.2 Expected Outcomes

On the basis of these statistical results, the problems have been explored and suggestions have been given for improving the campus parking system. It is expected that this case study can benefit the solving of similar problems existing in other UiTM branch campuses.

CHAPTER 5.0: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Limitations and Constraints
5.3 Recommendation

1.0 INTRODUCTION1.1 Background of the Zanzibar Commission for Tourism

Under that Act ZCT is responsible with many functions including licensing (operation) of all the tourist establishment in Zanzibar, Monitoring and supervision of the Zanzibar tourist, Assisting potential investors, etc (ZCT, 1992 )

1.2 Mission

Zanzibar Commission of Tourism (ZCT) on regarding the development tourism in Zanzibar has the mission to be the most interesting, miscellaneous island targeted in the Indian Ocean constituency that will be more interesting in the world.

According to that mission ZCT combines various types of tourism such as: Culture & Tradition, Performing Arts, History & Archaeology, Beaches, Culinary (spices), Medical (herbs) ,etc (ZTPS, n/d)

1.3 Introduction and background of the problem

In order to survive in today’s business environment,in small companies, particulaly Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in tourism industry utilize innovative techniques as a basis of competitive advantage. At the moment globalized world, SMEs have turn out to be more imperative for developed and developing countries since they produced high percentages of overall production, employment and revenue collection to the government.

The most important and the greatest growing sectors of the overall economy, tourism in Zanzibar contains many SMEs that make an effort to be doing well in aggressive and quickly changing business situation. SMEs play a critical role not only in national trade but also in international trade. The previous information from different sources such as the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) shows SMEs in many countries account for a very substantial proportion on local and export market (Knight, 2001). Porter (1991) argues that in order for any industry to compete within the business environment, it has to adopt competitive advantage strategy, so the owners and stake holders should be able to identify their competitors.

The competitive advantages for any organization are superior skills and resources. Therefore any source of advantage is like a drivers of cost or differentiation advantages. (Porter, 1985). Like any SMEs, in order for tourism SMEs to survive in competitive business environment, SMEs should be more entrepreneur and innovative,it means that should perform well in dynamic locations and not in regulated markets.

SMEs could have low performance and unstable environments due to delay of product innovations, the working operation was not aggressives even throw the enterprenuership could be benefited in various ways but does not provide a sustainable competitive advantages. (Hult and Ketchen, 2001). Above all, the innovation, promotion, lowering of the price, differentiation, creativity, all these cannot be performed well without the adoption of ICT(Kotler and Armstrong ,2008). Indeed, the nature of any industry cannot compete with its competitor to bring the superior value to their customers without the appropriate adoption of ICT. ICT is regarded as the main force of sustainable competitive advantage and a strategic weapon especially in the tourism and hospitality industries (Poon, 1993). Generally, most of the tourism industry should be well equipped with ICT, which include radio, television, as well as newer digital technologies such as computers and the Internet, have been touted as potentially powerful enabling tools for tourism change and reform. These changes and reforms include services such as e-commerce, e-booking, e-reservation and not only that ICT facilitate the information processing system.

In order to survive strong competition and current economic crisis in the region, SMEs involved in hotel industry have to improve the quality of its services. What is the role of tourism SMEs in the process in order to gain customer’s satisfaction through service quality and business improvement? It is generally accepted that ICT is a modern instrumental tool that enables the SMEs entrepreneurs to modify their tourism methods. It is used in order to increase the tourist interest. The extended use of ICTs drove the society into a new knowledge based form where information plays an important role for the SMEs as well as tourist satisfaction.

In Zanzibar there is a significant research gap on small tourism business and failure to identify critical weakness of small and medium sized tourism enterprises. A number of studies on tourism have been conducted, however very little has been studied about tourism SMEs and particularly how these SMEs engaged in adopting ICTs for more productivity and overall total economic growth of the Zanzibar .The need to undertake a thorough tourism analysis in Zanzibar has been realized recently. For example, It is important to have a database on tourism development if, students, policy analysts, planners, decision makers and entrepreneurs to be up to date with drive of tourism industry .As a large number of tourism SME’s are involved in the delivery of tourism products and that they are also potential for future development of tourism is a need to carry out studies that might show how small and medium tourism business develop, function, conduct business and how they contribute to local and national economic development. Zanzibar has many tourist attractions and contributes high percentage of economy of the country and that the tourism sector is dominated by SME’s. However there is a continued absence of studies on small tourism firms, therefore it is important to do research on tourism SMEs.

1.4 Statement of the problem

There are different kinds of ICTs used in tourism activities such as e-reservation, tele- and video-conferencing and e-booking tools. The extent into how these products services are used by the SMEs involved in Zanzibar and their potential to improve the sector has not been explore enough. Challenges facing these SMEs in application of ICT are not known and areas for improvement have not been investigated. Given the mounting global demand on usage of ICTs in tourism, there is therefore a need to look at the impact of ICTs application on SMEs engaged in tourism sector in Zanzibar. This study is learning to address the issued.

1.5 Aim of the research

To examine /explore the role and use of Information Communication Technology (ICT) in enhancing the competitiveness advantages of Small and Medium Enterprises (SME’s) in Zanzibar Tourism operation.

1.6 Research objectives

The main objective of this study is significantly examined how ICT help to create competitive advantage in tourism sector in Zanzibar. Not only that but also to identify constraints facing SMEs using ICT.

Specific objectives:

To examine the awareness and the extent of ICT utilization in Zanzibar tourism SMEs sector

To identify constraints and opportunities of ICT usage in tourism sector in Zanzibar

To find out solution options to overcome the shortcoming of the ICT utilization in tourism SMEs in Zanzibar

1.7 Research questions

For the purpose of meeting the above objectives, the study comes up with the following questions:

How do Zanzibar tourism SMEs aware and utilize the ICT in their business?

How do Zanzibar SMEs perceive profitability and performance of their business in relation to use of ICT in their business?

What measures have been taken to solve the problems of lack of use of ICT?

1.8 Scope of the study

This study was conducted to investigate how usage of ICT and its application in sectors, involved in tourism industry could help the way business is run and hence contribute increased efficiency and effectiveness. Due to the time constraint this study covered the part of Zanzibar Islands which is Stone town and the portion of North East Coast zones which includes Kiwengwa village, Matemwe village and Nungwi village because this area is more active in tourism activities in Zanzibar.

1.9 Significance of the study

This study intends to disclose the influence of the ICT as a competitive advantage strategy that can be applied in SMEs in the tourism industry. The study is expected to be of much value to a number of peoples and organization as follows:-

The results obtained from this study will provide some recommendation to the Governing Authority, which is expected to bring insights into Zanzibar’s SMEs on how ICTs usage can bring competitive advantages against their competitors so as to accelerate economic growth of Zanzibar. It will help the policy makers of the country to appreciate the implications on ICT in SMEs in tourism to increase the quality of services in hospitality industry.

The research will provide sufficient information to be used as a reference on this area of the study and to fulfill the requirement for the Degree of Master of Business Administration in Information Technology Management in Coventry University.

1.10 Limitations of the study

Some data are confidential so it was difficult to get the current data.

Financial constraints, so it could be difficult for a researcher to cover all the Zanzibar regions due to financial constraints.

1.11 Summary of the chapter

This chapter was introduced the introduction of the study, the introduction of Zanzibar Commission for Tourism (ZCT) was done under this chapter where all services offered were summarized and the mission statement of ZCT were also started.

Also in this chapter the researcher discussed something about the aim of the research, research objectives, research question and statement of the problems. Not only that but also the researcher briefly discussed the significance of the study, scope of the study and limitation of the study.

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction

This part provides definition of the important terms and concepts which are used in this study including ICT in tourism sectors, the conceptual frame work of this study, the performance of tourism in SME’s, and the opportunity and challenges of tourism in Zanzibar.

2.2 Definitions of the terms and concepts
2.2.1 Small and Medium sized Enterprises (SMEs)

Morrison (1996) argues that it is difficult to define the term SMEs because there are no universal criteria that can be used to determine the size of the business, as a result, Olomi (2009) noted that although the SMEs all over the world contribute a major role in social development, its definition varies from one country to another and even from one institution to another in the same country. An enterprise may be perceived as small in terms of physical facilities, production/service capacity, market share, and number of employee. Olomi (2009) cited that ,the United States Agency for International Development-USAID (1993) ,suggested that SMEs can be defined by considering combination of both qualitative and quantitative criteria and should include one among the aspects such as number of employee, capital investment, share capital, number of share holders, number of stakeholders, total asset, turnover, market share, geographical market coverage, organizational complexity, composition of management and degree of formalization.

In Tanzania, the SMEs Development Policy (2002) classifies SMEs under the consideration of employment size and capital investment of the organization. A micro-enterprise is one with fewer than five employees, a small enterprise with 5-49 employees, a medium enterprise with 50-99 employees and a large enterprise with more than 100 employees. In contrast with the Capital investments the definition was based at the range from less than Tshs 5 million to over Tshs 800 million. For the purpose of this research, the Tanzania SMEs Development Policy of (2002) definition will be adopted because it is based on the local environment of Tanzania, where SMEs are characterized by family ownership and local area of operation, which is not the case to other countries. This illustrated in the table below:-

Table: 1 Category of SMEs in Tanzania

Category

Employees

Capital investment in machinery Tshs

Micro enterprise

1-4

Up to 5mil

Small enterprise

5-49

Above 5mil to 200mil

Medium enterprise

50-99

Above 200 to 800mil

Large enterprise

100+

Above 800mil

Source: SMEs development policy (2002)

Accordind to Zanzibar Youth Employment Action Plan.(2007), Zanzibar has a large informal sector operation where more than 80 percent of the workforce is believed to be engaged in. Majority of the establishments in the informal sector are micro, own account or employing less than 5 people. This situation is linked to low skills base as a result of limited opportunities for skills training, working capital and inadequate support for off-farm activities in rural areas. From a gender perspective,women have low participation rates and fewer skills than men. Women account for only 19 percent of total employees compared to 81 percent for men in this sector. This sector is dominated by private individuals through 1,541 registered businesses in 2002. Out of this number, only 6% employs more than 10 people while 79% of the industry employs less than 20 people and only 3% of registered industry employs more than 100 people (SME Policy, 2006). The potential is still there for more employment opportunities especially to out of school youths and those from different vocational training centers. The Zanzibar SME policy (2006) is aiming at developing and creating conducive environment through participation of public and private sector for the purpose of increasing employment provision, income generation and poverty reduction. The policy and the MKUZA aim at increasing job opportunities through SMEs. SMEs are important to the national economic, but they are facing a number of problems, both administrative and financial and thus fail to contribute fully in employment creation.

Apart from the SMEs sector, Zanzibar has a small manufacturing sector. Manufacturing sector in general is at infant stage and has not been fully exploited to its maximum potential to increase its contribution to the economy and welfare of the people. There is a wide potential for investors to come in, invest in big industries and thereby generates employment on the youth. The importance of manufacturing sector in terms of employment creation and development of linkages with the rest of economy is well understood. Employment opportunities that exist in manufacturing take into consideration its linkages with agriculture, tourism, and trade. Other opportunities that could be generated include those from agro-processing, production of souvenirs, transportation, and other new activities that will meet demands of tourism and trade.

2.2.2. Importance of Small and Medium Enterprises (SME’s)

There are many benefits that obtained from SME’s in day to day operation forexample there will be about 1.7 millions business engaging, in micro enterprises operation which is about 3million persons that will be about 20% of Tanzanian labour force (URT,2003)

The SME’s was be the labour intensive by creating the employment opportunity at different level of investment.The estimation will be shown as about 700,000 new entrants in every year as a labour force, not only that about 500,000 of it are school leavers with few skills, while the employment trend in public sector will show about 40,000 are the new entrants and about 660,000 remained to be unemployed (URT,2003) as cited in Temba(n/d)

According to that the trend will be shown in Tanzania will be characterised by low rate of capital formation and normally the SME’s will tend to be more effective in the utilisation of employment situation in the country (URT,2003) as cited in Temba(n/d)

The development of SME’s will promote the distribution of economic activities within the country and boster the technology in easierst way,this is because due to lower overheads and fixed costs in their normally operation, therefore the owners of SME’s must be tend to show the greater resilience in the face of recession by holding their business (URT,2003)

2.2.3 Information Communication Technology (ICT)

The literature shows that there is no universally accepted definition of ICT, because the concepts, methods and applications involved in ICT are constantly evolving on an almost daily basis.

Blurton (2002) as cited in Badnjevic and Padukova (2006) defines ICT as a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, and to create, disseminate, store, and manage information. Kumar (2001) claimed that ICT is the study, design, development, implementation, support, or management of computer-based information systems, particularly software applications and computer hardware. ICT deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert, store, protect, process, transmit, and securely retrieve information.

2.2.4 The adoption of ICT by SMEs:

Obviously, ICTs are more than computer or internet even though they focuse on business technology.Therefore ICTs include the software and hardware telecommunicaton and information management techniques, also the ICT can be used to creates,receive, retrives and distribute/ transform information in a wide range. (Porter and Millar, 1985, Brady et al,2002)

SME’s in tourism operation are important tools on contribution of the economy in the country in particulaly ICT has more effective use and better position of working performance and rapidly change the new technologies and creates the tourism organization in more competitive.(Hartigan, 2005)

In recent years, SMEs have acquired direct access to digital technologies for individual task development.In previous this opportunity only for large companies to use computing and communication capabilities to coordinate their work. On the other hand, ICT reduced the expenditure on cost consumption and improve the performance in organization due to certain kinds of communications and coordination can occur. (Summut-Bonnii and McGee, 2002).

(Ragaswamy and Lilien, 1997).On the business today their was certain changes that global interdependencies are becoming more critical thus, companies/organization realized they need to take advantage of ICT capabilities for improving their competitiveness and productivity.

2.2.5 ICT and SME competitiveness

The presence of ICT and use it could lead to increase the competitiveness of SME’s due the faster and more conscientious communication channel, it means the use of ICT has increase the competitiveness of SME’s also enables the establishment of litheness associated with different trading partners due to more consistency of channel of communication. In addition the increases of the biggest enterprises it comes through introduced of ICT in many organizations and adapt quicker to changing operational conditions. For that reason the aggressive compensation of SME’s possibly will turn down.

Normally well-built enterprises not relay comfortable information as SME’s; therefore the realistic decision is not costless if needed appropriate information. However SME’s contain the improvement of slighter interior harmonization expenditure as each and every one resolution is completed by a small number of assessment makers. (Raymond 1993, Muller-Falcke 2001)

The economies of extent can be condensed due to lowering the operational expenditure with the presences of ICT, particularly internet monitor the enterprises situation for appropriate information to obtain the exacting information concerning sellers, buyers and clients that was absent of accomplish. In addition delivery of goods, funds transmission and banking system facilities are reliable, this will enables SME’s to be expanded regionally and internationally.

Finally most of the SME’s are located in outside the town areas due to competition of larger enterprises,transportation and communication costs that, ICT might increases the competition for enterprises and becomes more effectivelly and productivity or the enterprises to be close down. (Annual Forum at Misty Hills, Muldersdrift (2001))

2.2.6 ICT as a business tools

The use of Information, Communication and Technology is very important in current business operations. Entrepreneurs need to understand the market situation before doing any business and the preferred types of products at particular time. This knowledge can be sought through ICT system. The use of media is important in advertising and promoting business inside and outside the country. The available public and private media institutions can be utilized to publicize the available potential of products and services undertaken by youth and others.(Zanzibar youth Employment Action Plan, 2007).

ICT is technology’s version of economic growth, to satisfy the needs and wants of the community over time. Organizations are forced to adjust and take advantage of the opportunities provided by ICT in order to stay competitive. Businesses that do not take advantage of the ICT will run the risk of losing customers and their competitive advantage (Sharma, 2002). Some of the functions that technology has impacted are information search, advertising, consumer buying patterns and behaviors (Hanson, 2000). On a global scale, all industries have been affected by the emergence and implementation of technological advances. All above, ICT can be employed to give users quick access to ideas and experiences from a wide range of people, communities and cultures. The positive impacts of ICT can be seen in the following aspects:

Economic impacts: ICT, in combination with globalization and the information uprising have reshaped the employees. By raising the momentum of international communication, ICT has enabled corporations to subcontract jobs, both in the industrialized as well as professional sector (Lippis, 2007).

Social impacts: ICT has influenced societies on numerous levels. They have comprehensive the contact of public administration, leading to a centralization of district administration into city centre. They have lead to new forms of employment in innovation and production of ICT and a stipulate for highly accomplished specialists. On the other hand, ICT has enabled professionals in certain industries to be replaced by unqualified human resources, or even completed exclusively redundant.

Lifting productivity: Investing in ICT can have a powerful effect on productivity in almost every industry, driving innovation, cutting costs, and opening up new opportunities. ICT can boost profits, help small firms overcome limitations of size, and enable even small enterprises to establish a global presence. Nevertheless, to take full advantage of the opportunities of ICT, we need to develop the skills of our workforce at every level, from front-line staff to senior management.

In summing up, ICT has the potential to change the tourism SMEs in improving the productivity at a lower cost and to raise the quality of information. It contributes to make the tourism penetration around the globe. In today’s world, people want to find the appropriate tourist destination, booking and buying airline ticket, check in and getting boarding pass when they are sited at their home or working place. All these can be done with the support of ICT.

2.2.7 Tourism

Holloway (2004) defines Tourism as the business of providing for different types of visitors; overnight or longer stay and day visitors and includes accommodation, car parking, entertainment and attractions, food and drinks. According to Beech and Chadwick (2006), the widely accepted modern definition of tourism is that given by the World Tourism organization (WTO) which describes as the activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business or other purposes.

In tourism sector, various travel operators, hotels, restaurants and travel agencies have been active in development of Internet and e-commerce. The Internet allows travellers to access and recommend the tourism information directly as well as , reviews the local tourism information, this was done previously through the physical offices of large travel agencies. Therefore most of Information Communication Technology (ICT) capture the compensation of direct discounted sales of airline tickets and travel packages, due to both online/offline agencies have shifted on selling leisure products involve high operating expenses. Given that Internet and others travel agencies allow the customer to make comparisons in a price of air tickets and other services of the online travellers (OECD, 2004)

2.2.8 The competitive advantage

Porter (1985) views that a competitive advantage is an advantages over competitor gained by offering consumer greater value than competitors offer. His view on competitive advantages is at the heart of a firm’s performance in competitive market. He argued that a firm’s ability to outperform its competitors lay in its ability to translate its competitive strategy into competitive advantages.

Kotler and Armstrong (2008) suggested an advantage that firms has over its competitors, the way of building relationship with targeted customer, understanding their needs better than competitors do and deliver more customers value. That is it is the extent a company can differentiate and position itself as providing superior customer value.

The competitive advantage is a way of giving a company an edge over its rivals and an ability to generate greater value for the firm and its shareholders. The more sustainable the competitive advantage, the more difficult for competitors to neutralize the advantage (Walker et al, 2006)

2.3 Performance of Tourism SME’s
2.3.1 Trade, industry and tourism

Zanzibar Povery Reduction Policy Report (2003) has the broad objective of this sector in order to create a competitive manufacturing and trading sector, which is geared towards for economic diversification in order to ultimately alleviate poverty. The sector is aimed to provide opportunity for further participation of the private sector. The fundamental goal is to equip and facilitate this sector in building its capacity, create better working environment and institute legal and institutional framework for the enhancement and expansion of its activities. The tools to be used are the National Trade policy, Promotion of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) and Private Sector Involvement and Development. Zanzibar has a strong determination to develop tourism as an economic sector to provide foreign exchange earnings, creating employment opportunities, stimulate local economy and diversify the economy.

On the other side most of the tourist guides and/or RoGZ believes that on development of tourism factors, tourism is a vital socio economic that participate effectively and successfully in order to manage their life and to be more development. This can be implemented through the Zanzibar National Tourism Policy and the Indicative Tourism Master Plan.

Since the inception of the ZIPA in 1991, the investment process has been very positive and progressive. Statistics shows that by the end of 2002, ZIPA had approved about 242 projects with a total proposed investment value of USD 403 million. Tourism sector takes the lion share with 70% of total projects with proposed capital of USD 313.8 million. In 1985, the number of tourists who visited Zanzibar was 19,368; while the number of tourists has reached in the range between 85,000 and 100,000 annually. In 2001 Zanzibar earned approximately US$ 46 million in forex from international tourism, this accounts for approximately 15% of the GDP. This contribution is projected to increase to around $ 116 million and 21% of the GDP by 2012. (Zanzibar Povery Reduction Policy Report, 2003)

2.3.2 Contribution to GDP

Tourism already makes a significant contribution to the economy of Zanzibar. It is provisionally estimated that the sector accounted for about 14% of GDP in 2001, with 12% for Tanzania as a whole. This contribution is projected to increase to around 21% by 2012.(Indicative tourism master plan ,2003)

2.3.3 Foreign exchange earnings

According to the preliminary results of the International Visitor Exit Survey Zanzibar earned some $46 million from the spending of International tourists in 2001. To this must be added an allowance for the spending of tourists traveling to Zanzibar on internal flights (who are not presently covered by the official statistics). This raises total visitor expenditure to $55 million in 2001. Allowing for the imports from foreign countries that are utilized by the tourism sector, net foreign exchange earnings from tourism are estimated at $46 million in 2001. This figure is projected to increase to some $116 million by 2012. Even allowing for leakages on imports, it is clear that tourism is a most important sources of foreign exchange, and helps considerably to offset the trade deficit which widened from $51 million in 1997 to $86 million in 2000, reducing to an estimated $50 million in 2001.( Indicative tourism master plan final report,2003)

2.3.4 Contribution to employment

According to (Indicative tourism master plan final report,2003), there exists no official data on the employment generated by the tourism sector, it is estimated that currently some 5,800 persons are directly employed by the tourism industry in Zanzibar, of whom approximately 4,400 persons (76%) are employed in the hotel/guest houses sub-sector. The remainder is employed in tourist restaurants, tourist shops, ground tour operators, airlines (state-owned and private), the Commission for Tourism and other tourism-related government departments or as tour guides. In addition to those directly employed in the tourism sector, there are many more-perhaps, as many again, who derive part or all of their employment from supplying goods or services to hotels, restaurants, etc, or who otherwise benefit from the spending of persons who are directly or indirectly employed in tourism. Thus, total tourism-generated employment in Zanzibar could presently be in the order of 37,000 jobs or full-time job equivalents. This number should further increase to around 48,000 jobs by 2021, if, as is hoped, the tourism sector returns to a path of sustained growth. Indeed, Zanzibar Vision 2020 envisages that as much as 50% of all jobs in the modern sector could be provided in tourism and the free zones by 2020.

Zanzibar Growth Strategy (2007) has accorded tourism as one among the three lead sectors of the economy. In recent years the economic growth in Zanzibar has been driven by the increasing contribution and growth of the service sector, (including tourism) which represents up to 43 percent of GDP (2006).According to Zanzibar Youth Employment Action Plan(2007),arque the employment in tourism sector they believed to employ 56,000 people most of them in hotel operations of which 60% are Zanzibari youth. They are mostly engaged in building of the hotel and other infrastructure as well as in services such as tour guiding, transportation and hotel services. The potential is still there, and the government hopes more people especially youth with further be employed in this sector.

2.3.5 Contribution to government revenues

The tourism sector makes a substantial contribution to government revenues through the wide range of fees, licenses and taxes levied on the sector. While precise figures are not yet a

Introduction

“India was the 10th most preferred destination in 2004, the 4th in 2006 and is now at the top in 2007 and that is where we want to be,” Union Tourism Minister Ambika Soni said while receiving the award at a glittering ceremony Monday night in London.

(http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/India/India_is_the_numero_uno_travel_destination_/articleshow/2337923.cms)

Literature Review

Tourism industry today is the fastest growing industry in the world. According to a report by WTTC (World Travel & Tourism Council) tour and travel industry is expected to grow at the rate of 4.3% per year over the next 10 years. Tourism industry today, on a global scale has become a US$662 billion industry. It generates around 10.3% of the global economic output, and provides employment to 234 million people. Also, a report by World tourism Organization states that more than 698 million people visited one or more foreign countries (in 2000), and spent more than US$478 billion. A recent report states that the number of international tourists have increased form 234 million in 1950 to 763 million till the last few years. Looking at the above facts one can very well conclude that tourism industry can impact the economy of a country to a very high extent.

How, and in what ways can tourism impact a countries economy?

Tourism impacts a countries economy by bringing in Foreign Exchange, contributing to government revenues, generating new jobs, demanding investment for new infrastructure or for the maintenance which in turn helps the country develop and cater to the tourists needs better.

Now let’s take each one of these one by one and see how deeply each of these aspects contributes to the economy of the country.

Foreign Exchange

Tourism invites a lot a foreign residents to come and bring with them foreign currency in the country. To accelerate growth and development, each economy needs these tourists to bring and spend this foreign currency in the country. All economies need this foreign exchange to maintain a positive balance of payments (“Balance of payment is defined as a record of all economic transactions between residents of a country and the residents of all other countries that trade with that nation.”) Theory and Practice by Mohammad Reza Vaghefi. Tourism marks to the top in export categories in around 83% of the countries and has become the main source of foreign exchange for as high as 38% of the countries all over the world. A Report by World Tourism Organisation (http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/sust-tourism/economic.htm)

Government Revenues

There can be direct and indirect contributions towards the government revenues by the tourism sector. Direct contributions include the taxes on incomes generated by tourism employment and businesses, and by imposing direct taxes like departure taxes. Whereas indirect contributions come from taxes and duties paid by these tourists on goods and services consumed. “The world Travel and Tourism Council estimates that travel and tourism’s direct, indirect, and personal tax contribution worldwide was over US$ 800 billion in the 1998 – a figure it expects to double by 2010.”(WTTC/Michigan State University Tax Policy Centre)

Employment Generation

A report by WTO states that tourism sector worldwide provides employment to move than 7% of the total workforce. Over the years, tourism has created new jobs through hotels, pubs, restaurants, taxis, stalls etc. and through other tourism related service sectors.

Investment for Infrastructure

Tourism creates revenue for the economy so it demands development and improvement for the present systems and services available to serve the tourists better. This not only caters to the needs of the tourists and the native people but also improves the infrastructure, giving the place a new better look.

Types of tourism

Adventure Tourism

Pleasure Tourism

Cultural Tourism

Sports Tourism

Study Tourism

Research Tourism

Professional Tourism

This report talks about use of sports related mega-events as a tool of regeneration and development by various countries.

What is Sports Tourism?

“Sports tourism: A social, cultural and economic phenomenon arising from the unique interaction of activity, people and place.”(John Beech and Simon Chadwick (eds.), THE BUSINESS OF TOURISM MANAGEMENT)

There have been various arguments over the definition of sports tourist/ tourism. Some people described it as, ‘A sports tourist is an individual who participates in sports on holiday.’ (De Knop’s, 1987), ‘active participation of tourists in sport events is also a part of sport tourism’ (Glyptis and Jackson, 1993). “Sport tourist is a temporary visitor staying at least 24 hours in the event area and whose primary purpose is to participate in a sport event, with the area visited being a secondary attraction.” (Nogawa et al., 1996) There are reports that show 26% of the holidays planned all over the world are solely related to sports.

Sports tourism has a history going beyond 776BC, where we have descriptions of Romans and Greeks organising fabulous sport events to attract people from various places.(Coakley, 1990). The first ever Olympic, for which we have written records, was played in 776BC. It was started by the Romans, and is still organised every four years. Athletes, Organising Teams and Spectators travel from all over the world to make Olympics a successful event for over 1200 years.

What are the impacts?

Events like these (E.g. Olympics, Commonwealth Games, and World Cup Series etc.) attract millions of visitors from all over the world to the host country. This brings in a lot of revenue in local and foreign currency both. Moreover locations associated with these mega events gain a special charisma for themselves, attracting people from all over, not only to see the events but even before and after the events. Places like the Cricket Museum (Lords) , Basketball Hall of Fame (Massachusetts), Olympic Stadia (Atlanta and Barcelona) not only generate revenue by hosting events, but over a period of time have became places of great tourist interest.

Delpy (1992, 1997) surveyed English speaking spectators at the Barcelona and Atlanta Olympic Games in an attempt to understand the motivations of individual who attended the Games. She found that although the Olympic Games are orchestrated for television, for those attending the Games, nothing compared with the excitement of “being there”. Indeed, Baines (1996) likened sport tourism to the “leisure pursuit of being there.” Both Baines and Delpy addressed the market trends for event based tourism with a focus on the spectator. Chalip et al. (1998) also looked at the motivations of individuals from the United States and assessed the likelihood that they would travel to attend an Olympic Games. They focused their investigation on three polysemic variables (Chalip, 1992): narratives, genres, and symbols associated with the Olympics. They examined the effect these variables had on Americans’ interest and intent to travel to the Olympics. Chalip et al. (1998) found that the genres of sport and spectacle can be used to predict interest and intent to travel, while narratives about Olympic athletes used by the media to promote the Games seemed to increase interest in watching them on television, rather than travelling to actually “be there”.

Another study that is noteworthy from a methodological perspective is a longitudinal study of the British Columbia Games (Carmichael & Murphy, 1996). The researchers were particularly interested in identifying patterns and trends across several years of the Games so that future events could be planned more effectively. Carmichael and Murphy also focused on how best to measure the number of spectators at “open access” events and how to determine the economic impact of smaller scale short term sports events. They recommended that future studies separate sport tourists into two groups: spectators and participants, as the two groups differ in their length of stay and spending patterns. Moreover, in a study of sport tourists attending ten US collegiate national championships, Irwin and Sandler (1998) found that degree of team affiliation impacted tourist expenditure and length of stay in the host community, with the more avid fans tending to stay an average of a day longer at the event.

Other studies have taken a more comprehensive approach to measuring the economic impact on a community of hosting major sports events. Again methodological difficulties regarding how to accurately measure economic impacts have been encountered. In fact, Hall (1992a) warns of the possibility of “displacement effect” whereby tourists and locals alike avoid the event destination because of the inflated prices which may accompany such an event. Similarly, Crompton (1995) warns of the direct, indirect, and opportunity costs generated by large events. These can be quite considerable. Burgan and Mules (1992) suggest that it is best to err on the conservative side when estimating the economic impact of an event. They assessed the utility of using various economic models to measure the economic impact of hallmark sports events. The authors argue that many studies fail to deal adequately with the expenses incurred in organising and marketing the event. Also, they suggest that any estimate of economic impact should incorporate the “psychic income” experienced by members of the host community in addition to visitor expenditures and event organisation costs. In a study of the 1995 Northern Conference University Sports Association Games (Lismore, Australia), Walo, Bull, and Breen (1996) found that the Games did have a positive economic impact on the community and that the use of existing facilities and volunteer staff were important not only in defraying the costs of hosting the event, but also in getting the community involved. The authors found that the most significant difference between hosting a hallmark event and hosting a small scale local event was that a small scale event is more likely to enhance the way of life of the host community. In other words, small events may have a greater positive effect on the psychic income of the residents, as more community residents are likely to be involved in the event in some way.

The psychic income of hosting a sports event for a community is not always positive, however. Soutar and McLeod (1993) in a study of resident’s perceptions regarding the America’s Cup Defence (1986-87) hosted by Fremantle, Australia found that both the positive and the negative impacts of the event did not live up to expectations. Prior to the event, many believed that Fremantle would become a “boomtown,” while, residents feared that the event would also bring severe congestion to their city. Using a longitudinal approach, Soutar and McLeod found that residents’ expectations were more extreme than what actually occurred. While the economic benefits did not reach their predicted levels, the apriori fear of congestion was worse than that experienced during the event. In fact, Ritchie (1984), used an analysis of the (then) forthcoming Winter Olympic Games in Calgary (Canada) to develop a list of both the positive and negative impacts a community might expect to encounter from hosting a hallmark event. Moreover, even within one community the impacts of an event may not be distributed evenly. For example, in a New Zealand based study, Garnham (1996) found that in hosting the Ranfurly Shield (a national rugby tournament which takes place over a two week period), some segments of the community gained, while others lost. While restaurants, pubs, and clubs reported increased business, retail shops saw no increase in trade. Nevertheless, Garnham found that community morale was the highest it had been in 22 years. The event provided a central focus for the local population which inspired a sense of pride in their community. Thus, once gain the psychic income of hosting an event may have counterbalanced some of the negative impacts.

Another much touted benefit of hosting sports events is that they may promote tourism beyond the event itself. For example, people who attend the event may return for a vacation, or those who watch the event on television may decide to visit the destination later. Initially, as Collins (1997) writes, “sports events can provide a tourist focus where nature has failed to do so, or can spread the use of accommodation into off-peak periods or stimulate accommodation provision” (p. 199). Later, especially in the case of the televised events, it is hoped that the exposure afforded the town or city hosting the event will generate tourism in the form of individuals wishing to visit the community. This may include nostalgia sport tourists, who wish to visit the stadia and venues associated with an event. For example, in many Olympic cities, the stadium is open for tours on a daily basis. Even in the years leading up to hosting the Games, venues are open for visitors. In Park City, Utah (one of the venues for the Winter Olympic Games in 2002) visitors can take a bobsled or luge run down the chute, even before the Olympians themselves.

There is a growing body of literature which adopts a critical approach towards the impacts of hallmark events on communities. Dovey (1989) using Perth, Australia which hosted the Commonwealth Games in 1962 and the America’s Cup in 1987 as a case study charges that “the real value (and damage) of such events for cities is quite unpredictable” (p. 79) and frequently “… it is revealed, often all too late in the domain of the everyday experience of the inhabitants …” (p. 79). Likewise, Roche (1994) argues that too much emphasis is given to the economic benefits (events often do not live up to expectations) and the political and planning processes which underlie hallmark events are inadequately evaluated. Roche suggests that future research on the effects of hallmark events on urban communities needs to address the contextual forces at work in all major western cities. These would include unemployment and the decline of traditional industries, as well as the “situational rationality” of the policies and actions taken in the planning of the event, such as the effect of local politics on the planning process.

Sack and Johnson (1996) conducted a study very much along these lines. They investigated the policy processes which brought the Volvo International Tennis Tournament to New Haven Connecticut in 1989. As hosting sports events is becoming a common strategy for the economic regeneration of many urban communities, Sack and Johnson wanted to gain insight into the workings of the various political groups in attracting the tournament to New Haven. The authors found that the main policy decisions had been made long before the general public became involved. Further, the workings of the local elites had a powerful impact on decisions concerning how the event would be financed and how the event would be run. Public funds to the amount of US$15 million would be used to build the tennis stadium needed to host the event. Yet, despite this public investment, the facility would not be open to the general public except when “special events” were held.

Sports related tourism has geared up to a great extent in the last few years.

November 2009, Budget travel the largest tour operator in Ireland ceased trading and closed the remaining 17 of total 31 retail shops. The company was established in May 1975 and had a 30% share of the market.

“The internet is a tidal waveaˆ¦. It will wash over the computer industry and many others, drowning those who don’t learn to swim in its waves.” (Bill Gates, 1995)

Travel agents used to be the purchase channel between the travellers and the suppliers; now travellers can bypass the travel agents and purchase directly from the suppliers by using the internet. Will the internet drown the travel agents, like Bill Gates predicted, or will they learn to swim in its waves?

A lot of research in this area has focused on how travellers and suppliers use the internet to eliminate the middle man, this research examines how travel agents are evolving and surviving this ‘disintermediation’. This dissertation is important to the middle men (the travel agents) and will examine what future, if any, they have and what form that future will take. Also this is important to future researchers, due to the lack of recent research literatures on this topic.

Background to Study

Currently travellers demand more and higher quality travel services, products, information and value for their money. The internet serves as a new form of communication and distribution channel for the traveller and travel service suppliers. It enables tourism suppliers to improve their competitiveness and performance, by cutting out the middle man, bringing more profit to the tourism suppliers and allowing suppliers to provide lower fare to the travellers.

Before the internet, travellers had to book though travel agents. These bookings typically consisted of a large range of bundled products; each of the products within the booking was presented to the traveller in a sequential fashion. For example, the start of the trip would almost certainly consist of a flight product; at the destination airport the traveller would possibly collect their hire car and they would then go on to their pre-booked hotel. The industry relies on linking various products from various sources at specific times and locations to create a coherent package or product for the traveller.

As Longhi (2008) stated, the value chain of the travel and tourism industry could traditionally be split into five main types of actors or participants (Figure 1):

Figure 1

The Travel and Tourism Industry Supplier Chain

Suppliers

GDS

Tour operators

Travel agents

Traveller

Suppliers and service providers.

Global Distribution Systems (GDS), such as Galileo, Sabre and Amadeus, used for reservations, information search, client management and reporting.

Tour operators, who bundle the tourism products from suppliers.

Travel agencies, which distribute the different products from services providers and tour operators to the consumer.

Travellers, the actual customers.

In contrast to the traditional model above, the internet provides a way for tourism suppliers to sell their products globally to potential travellers. For these suppliers, this model represents lower distribution costs, access to a much larger market and therefore higher potential revenues. For travellers, it represents an ability to communicate directly with tourism suppliers and to purchase what they wish when they wish to; with no recourse to a ‘middleman’.

To some researchers, online booking sites significantly reduce the importance of travel agencies, a trend that could ultimately result in the permanent removal of travel agents from the supplier chain (Barnett and Standing, 2001). However, Palmer and McCole (1999) argue that travel agencies provide personal information and advice to traveller and that this is their key strength.

There has been a significant amount of research on how the internet has changed the way travellers purchase products, but very little has been conducted on how the internet impacts the intermediaries – travel agents. With the trend towards ‘disintermediation’, the elimination of the middle men between the suppliers and the consumers, travel agents would seem to be facing extinction. Bennett(1992) claims that changes to information technology in the travel industry over the past few years have worked primarily in favour of the suppliers and at the expense of the travel agents. Caywood, Loverseed and Murray (1999) support this view and suggest that these changes are aimed at encouraging travellers to bypass travel agents altogether.

It is certainly undeniable that the internet is providing the means for suppliers and consumers to communicate directly. Figures available from the Irish Central Statistic Office indicate that over the past 4 years, the number of travellers booking online has increased dramatically and, by the same token, the number booking through travel agents has substantially decreased.

Number of Trips by Irish Residents (Thousand)

Travel Agent
Internet
2006

1729

5510

2009

1046

7496

Despite these statistics, travel agents still exist within the marketplace. The fact that they are still here means that they are somehow managing to compete with the internet.

A number of arguments have been put forward to suggest why travel agents are still surviving and also what they need to do to continue to compete and flourish. Lowerngart and Reichal (1998) claim that there are opportunities available to travel agents provided they focus on specific markets and specialise their activities. Waksberg (1997) argued that travel agents should move from a focus on transaction processing to the provision of consultative services. Lovelock (1992) claims that travel agents will need to expand their advisory function and concentrate on the provision of information and details that are not available to the traveller through the internet. Beirne (1999) suggests that travel agents should become consumer advocates, finding the best deals for the traveller.

The Research Questions

The primary research objective is to recognize how the internet is changing the travel industry and what strategies or techniques travel agents are adopting to evolve and sustain their positions.

The key research question maybe posed as “How does the internet impact travel agents?”

From the key question than expand to sub questions as following:

How has the internet changed the business of travel agents?

What threats does the internet present for travel agents?

How are travel agents using the internet to run and improve their businesses?

In what ways are travel agents competing with online travel providers?

How will travel agents utilize the internet in the future to enhance their business operations and increase their profits?

Timeframe of the Study

The study was conducted over a nine months period from December 2010 to August 2010. The initial proposal was established during December to February, when the research topic was decided. The main body of work commenced in March 2010.

Roadmap of Chapters

The dissertation is split in to five major chapters followed by reference, bibliography and appendices.

A summary of the subsequent chapters is outlined below:

Chapter 2 contains a brief history of travel reservation system, as well as a discussion on existing research in the area and predictions concerning the future of travel agents.

Chapter 3 discusses what methodological approach has been taken, the methods used to design and develop the research instruments, detailing the rationale for selection of the focus group, interview and online survey questions.

Chapter 4 contains analysis on the primary secondary data and the findings.

Chapter 5 presents the conclusion of the research and future work needed in this area.

Chapter 2 literature review

2.1 Introduction

“November 2009, Budget travel the largest tour operator in Ireland ceased trading and closed the remaining 17 of total 31 retail shops. The company was established in May 1975 and had a 30% share of the market.”

This chapter sets out to examine how travel agents operated before the widespread use of the internet. It contrasts this historic, or traditional, mode of operation with the way that they operate today; placing particular emphasis on how the internet has directly impacted travel agents in the modern marketplace. There is a lack of recent and current research on this very specific topic, as a result most articles cited within this chapter are quite old. However, the lack of pertinent articles is also indicative of the importance of this research.

This chapter draws on selected research identified during the literature review. It outlines the relationship between the internet and travel agents and it is from this literature review that the research questions for this dissitation emerged.

2.2 Exploratory Research

A list of relevant articles and other sources were initially established through searches in selected computer science, communications and social sciences databases. Additional articles were found by following references from the initial list to their sources.

The following databases were searched for the keywords “Travel agents”, “Internet vs. Travel agents”, “Reservation system”, “Distribution channel”, “Tourism and travel”, “Information system”, “survival of the middle man” and “travel agency”.

Electronic journals

http://atoz.ebsco.com

IEEE Online Journal Index

http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/periodicals.jsp

Stella catalogue

http://stella.catalogue.tcd.ie/iii/encore/home?lang=eng

Science Direct

http://www.sciencedirect.com

Emerald

http://www.emeraldinsight.com.elib.tcd.ie/

SAGE Journals Online

http://online.sagepub.com.elib.tcd.ie

ISI Web of knowledge

http://apps.isiknowledge.com.elib.tcd.ie

Google Scholar

http://scholar.google.com

Fig 2 Selected database table

2.3 History

Any discussion on the history of the travel industry is necessarily complicated by large scale conflicts or wars. These are events which profoundly restrict any and all international travel, effectively shutting down the travel industry. For this reason, this document will consider the history of travel industry from the late 1940s onwards. Events prior to this are outside of the scope of this research.

During the period under discussion, the late 1940s, travellers were few and fares were tightly regulated. The customer would telephone the travel agent, giving them details of the required travel arrangements. The agents would then call or telex the suppliers, on receiving these details the supplier would store them on a ‘reservation card’ and then file that card.

The number of air travellers steadily increased during the late 1940s and 1950s, in response to this; the airline schedules grew more complex. The existing simplistic system of booking travel products had to evolve to meet the increased size and complexity of the travel marketplace.

In 1959, IBM developed a Computer Reservation System (CRS, also known as a Global Distribution System (GDS)) called Semi-Automatic Business Research Environment (SABRE). Initially developed for American Airlines, it was an answer to the problem of how to scale the reservation process to match the increased demand for travel.

By 1964 it was the largest civil data processing system in the world (DUNCAN G.1995). Other airlines followed suit and introduced their own CRS or GDS systems.

To book an air itinerary, travel agents had to call a reservation agent within the specific airline; the airline reservation agent would then make the flight reservation though a GDS terminal. The travel agent would then book any other additional travel products, such as hotel accommodation or a rental car, again using the telephone.

This process created constrain on the travel agents, so they began pushing for a system that could automate their side of the process. In 1976 all airlines start grant travel agents access to their reservation system, allow agents to book ticket through their systems directly. At the same time in the UK , British Airways, British Caledonian and CCL launched Travicom, the world’s first multi-access reservation system, it has 49 airlines subscribing to it, it enable the travel agents and airlines communicate via a common distribution language and networks. From its success Travicom start implement similar system in different country, later when British Airline chose to participate in the development of the Galileo system ; Travicom changed its’ trading name to Galileo UK and a migration process was put in place to move agencies from Travicom to Galileo (B. Schmid, 1994). By the end of the 1990’s there are nine major GDS’ of which 6 are still been used today. The GDS allow travel agent to access its data using a terminal window through the network. Now travel agents can book flights directly with the GDS, they quickly realised that the computer terminals they are using everyday could be a convenient tool for booking other services as well. The GDS soon realised to fulfil the travel agents requirements; they need to add booking capabilities for rent cars, accommodations and other travel products (HSMAI Marketing Review, 1996). Finally travel agents can now book itinerary though one source within a network.

When the internet becomes more and more popular, airlines and travel agents like other corporations start to use internet to improve their business. All GDSs can now be accessed through internet, travel agents can simply log on to the GDS’s website to make search and reservation, most of the communications are done by email, the internet allows the travel agents operate more efficient. It also enables airlines to discard paper tickets, allow travellers to check in online, and travel agents will no longer has to worry about if the paper ticket will not reach the traveller on time.

At the same time the internet also enable the traveller to book trips bypass the travel agents (Jo Cheyne et. Al, 2005).

2.3 Existing research of internet and travel agents

Examining the key findings of some of the major studies on the relationship between the internet and travel agents.

2.3.1 The advent of the internet and disintermediation in the travel industry

The internet has changed the traditional distribution channels; various studies have shown how well the internet is suited to the travel and tourism industry (Buhalis and Licate, 2002; Chirstian, 2001). With advent of the internet, suppliers can provide information on their products online, timely, up to date, to the travellers to assist their decision making. This , in turn, necessitates the balancing of perishable tourism products and changeable tourist demand, furthermore, the tourism industry is diversified, with a plethora of different suppliers that operate independently, even as tourists expect travelling to be complete experience. The resolve this mismatch, the internet offers an effective means for developing a single and sustainable electronic infrastructure for information gathering and business transactions for both travellers and suppliers. A natural outcome of this is that the suppliers can carry out one-to one marketing and mass customization. In other words, travel supplier an now understand each customers needs, and therefore target each customer individually and deliver tailor-made products. More importantly, travel suppliers can understand how to deliver information and sell their products and services to customers directly through their website (Law, 2002).

Travel services and product suppliers see the internet as an opportunity to save money on distribution costs. Inkpen (1998) stated that the internet allows the suppliers to sell their product directly to the travellers, bring them a significant cost savings. As Law (2000) contends that the internet allows the tourism suppliers to control and update their service remotely with electric speed, reaching global travellers anywhere, anytime. The benefits of an online website bring lower distribution cost, higher profit, and larger share of the market to the tourism suppliers. For the travellers, the internet allows them to bypass the travel agents, book directly with the chosen suppliers anytime, anywhere (Olmeda and Sheldon, 2001). The suppliers can reach the travellers directly, which allow suppliers reduce cost on distribution channel, hence cheaper price are offered to the travellers, this seems like a Win-Win situation for the travellers and the suppliers, which bring uncertainty to the future of the travel agents.

2.3.2 Advantage of the internet for travellers

Jo Cheyne et al (2006) attested that travel agents are the key intermediary between travel suppliers and travellers; with the advent of the internet travellers and suppliers could interact directly, internet offer more information then travel agents and often provide cheaper price. Long (2000) summaries it in 4 points:

The internet provide convenient and instant access for availability enquiries and bookings at times when consumers want o research and purchase travel

Ability to access easily information that is detailed and also up to date, helping decision making.

A cost advantage in purchasing travel online as results of the market becoming more competitive, as well as the ability for consumers to take advantage of substantial online discounts that cannot be obtained via any other traditional distribution channels and possible cost advantages for consumers as result of decreased distribution cost

Avoid travel agent fees and charges.

2.3.3 Disadvantage of the internet for consumers

Lang (2000) also identified the disadvantages that stop customers purchase online:

Difficulty in finding the website and information they require

Time consuming

Online security issues

Information overload

Lack of trust in the technology

Lack of human interaction

Standing and Vasudanvan (1999) indicated that some researchers are mainly focusing on the impact of internet and threats of disintermediation, there are very littler work carried out on the strategies travel agents has adopted and the internet marketing models they are using. A large survey of Australian travel agencies’ website has been carried out, the findings shows that the major of agencies use internet as a yellow pages or online holiday brochure, a small percentage of websites allow the travellers to make booking, around half of the website capture the data on the travellers, but only few captured the traveller email address. The paper also suggested that travel agents should use internet as a marketing tool.

2.3.2 Implications of the internet for travel agents

The internet has changed the traditional distribution channels; customers can buy products directly from the suppliers anytime anywhere. Travel services and product suppliers see the internet as an opportunity to save money on distribution costs. Inkpen (1998) stated that the internet allows the suppliers to sell their product directly to the travellers, bring them a significant cost savings. As Law (2000) contends that the internet allows the tourism suppliers to control and update their service remotely with electric speed, reaching global travellers anywhere, anytime. The benefits of an online website bring lower distribution cost, higher profit, and larger share of the market to the tourism suppliers. For the travellers, the internet allows them to bypass the travel agents, book directly with the chosen suppliers anytime, anywhere (Olmeda and Sheldon, 2001). The suppliers can reach the travellers directly, which allow suppliers reduce cost on distribution channel, hence cheaper price are offered to the travellers, this seems like a Win-Win situation for the travellers and the suppliers, which bring uncertainty to the future of the travel agents.

Lawton and Weaver (2009) did in-depth interviews with 19 owners of successful US-based travel agencies, the paper did SWOT analysis over the 19 travel agencies, and identified that the negative public perceptions of travel agencies is the main external threat.

2.3.2 Demands for travel agents

One of the most recent study on this topic, tried to identify the tourist perceptions of the potential for the elimination of travel agencies in the presence of the internet. Law et al (2004) conducted a questionnaire on selected experienced travellers, who had visited at least one travel Web site were asked to participate. The answers of 413 travellers on preference on book through internet-based or traditional distribution channels were analysed. The results show that travellers still ask travel agents for advice and their professional services. The paper proposed that from the findings both online and travel agents can coexist in the future. This is probably the most cited recent piece of research on the relationship between travel agents and internet, although some of its findings have subsequently been contested, it must still be regarded as one of the seminal works in the area.

Jo Cheyne et al (2006) attested that travel agents are the key intermediary between travel suppliers and travellers; with the advent of the internet travellers and suppliers could interact directly. Main finding was the factors that influence traveller’s choices on using a travel agent or the internet when booking an over sea holiday, the factors are: services reliability, managing complex itinerary, guarantee, attractive deal and payment security.

2.3.2 The changing roles of travel agents

Lowerngart and Reichal (1998) claim that there are opportunities available to travel agents provided they focus on specific markets and specialise their activities. Waksberg (1997) argued that travel agents should move from a focus on transaction processing to the provision of consultative services. Lovelock (1992) claims that travel agents will need to expand their advisory function and concentrate on the provision of information and details that are not available to the traveller through the internet. Beirne (1999) suggests that travel agents should become consumer advocates, finding the best deals for the traveller. Michael Bloch and Arie Segev (1997) has contend travel agents should adopt the IKEA concept, the Swedish furniture giant transformed from a traditional store to a family destinations, with restaurant, kids play ground ,etc. Travel agents can do the same, with each area set to different destinations, or type of travel products. Each area has an information point, that travel agents could provide information on the particular destinations, supported by video clips of the main attractions. The experience of shopping might be the only thing that internet could not replicate.

2.3.5 Importance of internet technology for travel agents

Barnett and Standing (2000) have identified two major threats that the internet has on the traditional travel agents; they are disintermediation of retail agencies by the product suppliers, and the emergence of new online intermediaries. It argues that the traditional travel agents are not aligned with the demand of new travel economy, travel agents has to establish web present.

Standing and Vasudanvan (1999) indicated that some researchers are mainly focusing on the impact of internet and threats of disintermediation, there are very littler work carried out on the strategies travel agents has adopted and the internet marketing models they are using. A large survey of Australian travel agencies’ website has been carried out, the findings shows that the major of agencies use internet as a yellow pages or online holiday brochure, a small percentage of websites allow the travellers to make booking, around half of the website capture the data on the travellers, but only few captured the traveller email address. The paper also suggested that travel agents should use internet as a marketing tool.

2.5 Research questions and objectives

The Western Ghats of Kerala are lush, verdant and consist of dense and thick rainforests. There are so many wildlife sanctuaries in Kerala that one can never tire out if one has come looking for nature, wildlife and thrill. Several wildlife reserves house several species of birds and animals. People throng these places to glimpse into the nature, the bio diversity and the unique eco system. The tourist attractions here are majorly the national parks and several reserves. Given below are species of reptiles and animals found in all the sanctuaries mentioned below them.

The animals found in the Kerala sanctuaries are gaur, sambar, deer, wild dogs, langur, wild boars, tigers, grizzled giant squirrels, leopards, sloth bears, lion tailed macaques, Elephants, jungle cats, Hanuman langurs, malabar giant squirrel, flying squirrel, tiger, barking deer, panthers, spotted deer, Nilgiri Tahrs, wild dogs, peacocks, star tortoises, The Atlas moth, civet cats, macaques, Loris, mongoose, foxen, bears, pangolins, bison, bonnet, bears etc..

The reptiles found in the sanctuaries are Viper, Cobra, a number of non poisonous snakes, krait, crocodiles, bicoloured frogs, cane turtles, varanur pond terrapins, geckoes, star tortoises, chameleons, skunks, pythons, spectacled cobras, rat snakes, green keel backs, vine snakes, monitor lizards etc.

Below is a list of sanctuaries located in Kerala.

Begur Wildlife Sanctuary

The Begur Wildlife Sanctuary is situated 20 km from Wayanad district of Kerala. This sanctuary is at Mananthavady in Wayanad close to the Western Ghats. The best time to come here is between the months of December and May.

Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary

This sanctuary is 60 km from Munnar, Idukki. The Idukki Chinnar wildlife sanctuary sprawls over a region of 90 sq km. It is situated somewhere 500-2000 meters above the sea level. One can spot the rare grizzled squirrel here. The best time to visit this place anytime except the monsoon months.

Muthanga Wildlife Sanctuary

Muthanga wildlife sanctuary also referred to as Wayanad sanctuary is situated in the well shielded regions between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. This place is spread over 344 sq km. It was estabilished in 1973. The best time to visit this place is between the months of June to October.

Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary

The most prominent of all the sanctuaries Periyar Wildlife sanctuary is considered to be one of the most beautiful sanctuaries of India. It is known for the 200 species that it houses. The best time to be here is between October and March.

Peechi Vazhani Wildlife

Located 22 km from Trissur, Peechi Vazhani houses wildlife like Palapilli – Nelliampathy. This sanctuary is one of the most famous sanctuaries in India. The sanctuary lies between dams of Peechi and Vazhani. The best time to be here is October to March when the weather is pleasant.

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary

It is located between Annamalai mountains of Taminadu and Nelliampathy mountains ranges of Kerala. The Palakkad Parambikulam wildlife sanctuary covers a mind boggling expanse of nearly 285 square kilometres. The Anna Malai hills are spread all across this sanctuary over .The best time to visit this place is from October to March.

Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary

Situated around 50 km from Trivandrum, This wildlife sanctuary covers a large area of approximately of 53 square kilometers. This wildlife sanctuary was declared one in the year 1983. This sanctuary has one of a kind eco system. It is the core of various life forms. The best time to visit this place is between the months of October to March.

Silent Valley National Park

This park lies in the verdant hills of Kundali in Palakkad. This Silent Valley national park is supposed to be one of the most untouched by human intervention. The place is very dearly protected by the scientists as they value the place for its rich bio diversity. The best time to visit this place is during the months between September and March.

Shenduruny Wildlife Sanctuary

This sanctuary is located some 66 km away from Kollan town in Kerala. This sanctuary has been named after a tree which is known as a Chenkuruny. The rivers Shenduruny and Kalatupuzha are at its very centre. The best time to visit this place is probably between the months of October and May.

Thattekkad Bird Sanctuary

This sanctuary was formed in the year 1983 by a very famous and learned Indian ornithologist, Dr. Salim Ali. This sanctuary is situated in the Kothamangalam district of Idukki. The best time to visit this sanctuary is between the months of September and March.

India is a very rich country in terms of bio- diversity. Almost all big mighty creatures roam its jungles. The sight and sounds of a majestic elephant, a peacock??s dance, the roar of a tiger are unparalleled experiences in themselves.The country offers immense opportunities for wildlife tourism. The immense heritage of wildlife in India comprises of more than 70 national parks and about 440 wildlife sanctuaries including the bird sanctuaries.India has always been a fete for wildlife enthusiasts from around the world with its fascinating myriad of flora and fauna that has remained both unique and mysterious for nature lovers.

A paradise for the nature lovers, these forest areas are also crucial for the conservation of the endangered species like the Snow Leopard, Asiatic Lion, Asiatic Elephant, the bengal tiger and One-horned Rhinoceros. Spread across the length and breadth of India, these reserves and forest areas, right from the Ranthambore National Park in Rajasthan to the Hazaribagh Wildlife Sanctuary in Bihar, from the foothills of Himalayas, the Jim Corbett National Park to six national parks in Andaman; the Indian Wildlife circuit is an Incredible treat, unmatched by any other experience.The Indian subcontinent is rich in both floral and fauna species. According to estimates, India has about 18% of the plant and 8% of the total animal species found in the world, which makes the country a paradise for wildlife enthusiasts and nature gazers.

India harbours eighty percent of the entire population of the one horned rhinoceros in the world. The parks like Bandhavgarh N.P, & Kanha NP support a sizeable population of the mighty tigers. The Kaziranga Game Sanctuary is an ideal habitat for the rhino and a popular destination with the naturalists and environmentalists as well as the wildlife travellers.The Corbett National Park one of the most popular National Parks in the northern region for the wildlife enthusiast as well as the holiday makers These National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries are promoters of wildlife tourism in India.A wildlife escapade in India is not complete until one decides to spend a few days amongst the wilderness.Wildlife resorts located in different national parks and wildlife sanctuaries lets you experience just that. Imagine living in a tree house, eighty feet above the ground or an antique wildlife resort where your dinner partner may be a wild beast feasting on its prey. Wake up to the twittering of birds or the roar of a lion, definitely a spine chilling experience.

Interestingly India is immensely rich in avian life & the sub-continent witnessed huge migration of birds in the winters.Bharatpur birds paradise & Nalsarover in Rajasthan, Sultanpur in Haryana close to Delhi, famous parks like Corbett, Manas, Kaziranga are a treat to the bird lovers. Come, feel, explore this wildlife lovers’ paradise. Feel free for any kind of information on these national parks.

Why tourists are going green?

With increasing environmental awareness and consciousness of tourists and tourism businesses, there has been a growing trend towards green practices. The advancement of new technologies has made people in a better position to acquire information in less time required, where effective decision making are being made. Going green is a necessity for most of the people, hotels, airlines and tourist visiting places, as people nowadays are more concern for the environment. If the tourist can make the effort to be green at his place so what happens when he goes travelling? This is where hotels are more and more adopting green practices, when planning for your trip, in one click, people can view on internet the different practices the hotels are using. “There is a growing amount of evidence indicating that consumers are choosing products or avoiding others based on their impact on the natural environment” ( Mohr and Webb 2005; Tilikidou 2007).

Hotels are initially located in places of exceptionally natural beauty, in historic cities and in places which are developing their tourism sector, it is seen that hotels are doing more harm to the environment and an unlimited exploitation of limited resources. As per the statistics of the UNWTO, 2011, there were 980 million tourist arrivals worldwide and this is predicted to augment in the years to come. This increase of travelers has put the natural environment in a difficult situation: water consumption, energy, waste management, loss of biodiversity, food and an effective management of cultural and natural heritage areas which are significant for the promotion of a sustainable green tourism industry. This is where the hotel industry is more and more adopting green practices whereby satisfying the consumer’s new trends and being environment consciousness.

1.2 Why hotels need to be eco-friendly?

Environmental issues have indeed taken a huge place in the day to day operations in many tourism businesses, including Mauritius. Hotels such as Le Prince Maurice, Hilton, Beachcomber, Lux* Belle Mare, recently Voila Bagatelle, has since some years started to follow the green principles and many of them have been awarded for that. (Appendix A) Consumer behavior is an important factor for the hotels in order to attract and retain their customers. Hotels have various reasons why they need to be eco-friendly such as a feeling of social responsibility, governmental regulations, and economic benefits (Bohdanowicz, 2006). Nevertheless, as the amount of green hotels continues to augment, current research about consumers’ opinions of them is lacking (Lee, Hsu, Han & Kim, 2010).

With the new trend of consuming green, hotels are taking into consideration consumer’s opinions about the environment by incorporating them in their management/marketing decision-making (Bohdanowicz, 2006; Lee, Hsu, Han & Kim, 2010; Mensah, 2006). This is where it is noted that the promotion of green principles do lead to the hotel’s competitive advantage in the tourism industry. If the customers had a nice experience during their stay, where they will come again to the hotel, whereby being loyal to it and to its environment practiced that have implemented (Graci & Dodds, 2008). Hence, it is seen that it is a must for hotels to be in the level of most customers expectations.

Moreover, hotels are not implementing green concepts just because of being environment conscious, it is also the fact that the trend has been that tour operators has increased their attention within this industry. Although tourism provides business opportunities for local companies, it nevertheless has an impact on the natural environment. With the growing of mass tourism, the effects of the development of tourism in certain regions which used to be untouched environment have caused many problems. As a result, the progress of so-called ‘green’ hotels has become one of the more important recent innovations in the tourist sector. Green hotels may be distinguished from ordinary hotels in that they aim to use products and services that minimize the consumption of water and energy, and reduce the output of solid waste, in order to protect the environment from the further depletion of its natural resources (GHA, 2010) Imported lifestyle is not always desired by the host community so this is also why hotels try to integrate themselves to the lifestyle of the people.

1.3 Mauritius: tourism sector

Tourism is the third pillar of the economic sector in Mauritius and it has from years now been reputed for its 3S, that is Sea, Sun and Sand. Mauritius has actually around 115 hotels with and arrival of 950,000 (CSO, 2011). People from different origins have been building infrastructures on the natural escapes of Mauritius, consciously or not to form a new nation. With time the island has experience degradation in terms of natural & cultural resources and it is seen from the types of tourists coming to Mauritius which has changed. More and more, the types of tourists coming to Mauritius expect to have some aspects of green elements in the hotel they are staying.

The green revolution has impacted all facets of the society and all sectors of the global economy. Tourism brings both positive and negative impacts for a country, thus sustainable development is important for an island which rely much on its tourism sector. Day by day people are being more alert about environmental issues, terms such as eco-friendly, recycling are being integrated in daily tasks for the preservation of the environment. With worldwide consciousness and trend of being eco-friendly, Mauritius also has launched a new concept that is Maurice ile Durable (MID), 11 April 2011. MID is a vision and mission whereby it is explained by being more environment conscious, such as developing in a sustainable way with our limited resources. For example, a recent campaign was “To zeT to taC”, whereby this was a strategy from the government to protect the environment by preventing people to throw rubbish anywhere they want.

Thus, with the limited resources available, the increasing pollution and with the increase of non biodegradable wastes, this is where also the MID project has arisen. Although as per the environment protection act of 2003 by the Ministry of Environment, most of the hotels in Mauritius must have waste water treatment plans, yet many of the hotels do not follow the rules and do not adopt good environment practices. Mauritius has often been criticized for the fact of engaging into enclave tourism, but the enclave model has been to certain extent an advantage where it was restricting the number of visitors and their activities to specific areas, away from local people, thus at least limiting the negative impact of tourism (Kokkranikal et al., 2003).

Much research has been done to sustainability of countries but none of them has precisely adapted it to a local context, an island. Hotels in Mauritius are largely dependent on the physical environment in which it operates, where resorts usually use its physical environment as part of its unique selling proposition. Thus, for the purpose of this research the study will lay emphasis of tourists’ perception/motivation on green aspects in a local context whereby diversifying from the normal context of Sea Sun and Sand which attract mass tourism to the island. This study will take more into consideration a type of niche market which caters more for green aspects.

1.4 The need of this study

During my 6 months internship in Seychelles, it has made me conscious to be surrounded by such a natural environment and this is where while choosing the subject of the dissertation, it was obvious the study of green arises for the context of Mauritius.

Tourist motivation and behaviors are often determined, in part, by the desire for an environmental learning experience and this is where the aims of this study are to analyze:

An analysis of consumers traditional way of choosing a conventional hotel and consumers choosing a green hotel

The extent to which consumers are willing to pay (WTP) for green practices

Factors influencing tourists attitudes and behavior towards green practices – responsible tourists

Analyzing consumer behavior – Theory of Planned behavior

The extent to which green practices forms part of the organizational culture of the hotel and how will it benefit in a the long term perspective

To what extent is green practices a competitive advantage for the company

1.5 The dissertation consist 5 main parts, namely,

Chapter one: Introduction

The introduction will highlight some factors of why consumers and hotels are adopting some green principles.

Chapter two: Literature Review

This chapter will provide an overview of the some previous research, theories, models that were used, and which will also be used for the purpose of this study. This section will as well cover some main research on consumer behavior and green tourism.

Chapter 3: Research Methodology

This section will describe the various methods of how this study shall be conducted: surveys, pilot testing, sample size, constraints, primary and secondary sources of data. It will also consist of developing the questionnaire to understand consumer behavior in green tourism.

Chapter 4: Analysis and Discussion

In this chapter, the results obtain during the survey, shall be analyzed and hypotheses will be explained. It will also analyze to what extent tourist are willing to go green.

Chapter 5: Recommendation and conclusion

This section will give recommendation to the problem found during the research, improve certain ways of doing things in hotels in Mauritius so as it can operate smoothly to achieve customer satisfaction.

Chapter 2
Literature Review

This chapter has the purpose of giving an overview on previous research work, theories and models used to for the completion of this study. The first part will illustrate some reviews of some main research within the hospitality industry. The second part will describe some theories concerning consumer behavior and the final section will talk about effectiveness of this study as well as the hypotheses.

“The most important thing is to forecast

where customers are moving and to be

in front of them.”

(Philip Kotler)

Green Tourism
2.1 Tourism- sustainable development

To understand why responsible tourism has been pointed as the solution to the negative impact of tourism, we shall first look at some concepts tourism sustainable development. The concept of tourism development has been formed in equivalent with that of sustainable development which was influenced by some major events such as: Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA, 1973) conference ‘Tourism Builds a Better Environment’, followed by the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) publication of Manila Declaration on World tourism in 1980 and the adaptation of Agenda 21 for the travel and tourism industry. The principles for sustainable tourism (WTO, 1995) were produced during the conference which was held in Lanzarote and where the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development recommended national governments, along with the private sector and stakeholder, to work towards the formulation and adoption of a global code of ethics for tourism as recommended in the Manila Declaration.

The theory of sustainable tourism development has been debated by many authors such as Garrod and Fyall (1998), Swarbrooke (1999) on its appropriate definition, but the simplest one adheres to the one closely to the wording of the Brundland report from which has evolved – tourism: “. . . meets the needs of present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunity for the future” (WTO, no date). However, this definition is easy to understand yet to some extent it can be interpreted as others, it may both be as strength and its weakness as well. As per the study of McKercher, 1993, debate this definition, as both industry and conservation movements can “. . . legitimize and justify their existing activities and policies although, in many instances, they are mutually exclusive . . . thus exacerbating rather than resolving development/conservation conflicts”. Other studies such as Godfrey (1998:214) avoid the debate by proposing that sustainable tourism “. . . not an end in itself, nor a unique or isolated procedure, but rather an interdependent function of a wider and permanent socio-economic development process”.

The tourism development of the hotel industry in Mauritius faces much challenge due to the importance the government lay on its competitiveness as a regional player and thus it makes an interesting case to study. In this context, the government has developed the National Tourism Development Plan (NTDP) in 2002 (amended in 2008 for improvements) where it reinforces the island’s previous and current position as high- quality and up market tourist destination (Deloitte & Touche, 2002). It was implemented due to the fact that the government was concerned about the impacts of tourism on the fragile Mauritius’s ecosystems. And thus, it is seen from recent years, Mauritius has changes its ideal model of Sea- Sand-Sun model of bringing mass tourism into a more niche market whereby nowadays more and more hotels in Mauritius are engaging in green practices.

2.2 Reasons hotels are going green

Green practice research has grown steadily since the 1970s (Hartmann and Ibanez, 2006). Before going into details the reasons why hotels engage in green practices, let us first define what a green hotel is. According to the Green Hotel Association (GHA, 2008), green hotels are environmentally friendly lodging facilities which employ management that participate in and initiate environmentally sustainable programs. Products are defined as “environmentally-friendly” if in some way they aim at reducing a product’s negative environmental impact. Programs such as water saving techniques, energy reduction, and waste consolidation are frequently used within green hotels.

The hotel industry has always been judge, to be a dirty industry in the sense that it releases toxic materials or causes gross pollution into the environment but it is like any other service sector companies. The success of tourism, as well as the hotel industry, largely depends on the availability of a clean environment. Hotels cause damages to the environment such as: consumes valuable raw materials such as energy, water, food, plastics of which require disposable, a number of undesirable emissions including CO2, CFCs, noise, etc. But all these is cause by its location, as for example, since the hotel may be situated in a unique place, it might require the use of private car rather than public transport, this might be unimportant and yet significant when added together. Consumption of environmental resources in an unbalanced manner creates overburden on the supporting environment. In combination with the general concept of environmental industries, green hotels rely on natural lodging facilities using operation techniques that have a minimum impact on the environment, while maintaining their business environment to provide clients with green products, green services, and living environments that are natural, healthy, clean, and comfortable. Clients thus are educated about nature and the history of protecting as they lodge (Tourism Council Australia Jointly with Commonwealth of Australia, 1998; Green Hotels Association, 2002; The state Economic and Trade Commission, 2003).

According to Foster et al. (2000), the hospitality and tourism industry is under pressure to become more environmentally friendly from the following forces:

Consumer demand;

Increasing environmental regulation;

Managerial concern with ethics;

Customer satisfaction

Maintenance issues related to the physical plant; and

The need for aesthetics.

2.2.1 Consumer Demand

Within the hotel sector, increasing numbers of customer prefer to choose a green lodging facility that follows environmentally friendly practices, showing concern about the seriousness of ecological degradation (Han, Hsu, & Sheu, 2010; Manaktola & Jauhari, 2007). Taking into consideration the interest of consumers need of being eco-friendly, nowadays many hotel firms seek to integrate customers’ rising concerns about the environment in their management/marketing decision making (Bohdanowicz 2006; Lee, Hsu, Han, & Kim, 2010; Mensah 2006). Consumers being conscious about the environment, this creates the demand for the green hotel niche. Since demand for green hotel attributes are rising, current consumers attitudes and perceptions are important to study (Bohadanowicz, 2006). In the study of Manaktola & Juahari, 2007, a survey was conducted among Indian lodging consumers about their attitudes towards green practices in the lodging industry in India and it was found that 22 percent of the respondents seek out environmental properties.

For hotel operators, it is a must to understand what are the attributes guest are looking for, in order to make their hotel attractive and retain them. Studies have also shown that policies and practices geared toward managing and improving the environment can enhance a destination and consequently a lodging property’s competitiveness (Hassan, 2000; Mihalic, 2000; Huybers, 2003). Research works has shown that hotels offering green characteristics may experience higher customer retention rates as consumers are devoted to a particular hotel and the environmental practices in place (Graci & Dodds, 2008). Moreover the article of Shaw, 2000, has shown that the Colony Hotel located in Maine found that their occupancy increased by one fourth when they began positioning themselves as a green hotel. For this reason it seems right and beneficial for lodging facilities to adopt policies and practices aimed at reducing the overall negative impact on the environment (Claver- Cortes et al, 2007).

2.2.2 Cost Cutting & Competitive advantage

There are various motives for a company or a hotel to be driven by green initiatives: the need to keep competitiveness, or using green initiatives to invest profitability; legitimization, or the company’s need for improvement based on established regulations, values, norms and beliefs; and ecological responsibility, or the need for the form to meet its social obligations (Bansal and Roth, 2002). In the hospitality and tourism industry, academic works on the subject of environmental management, environmental pressures for change are often discuss, but most of the time it is focus on reducing costs and saving resources to stop future cost issues. This may be due to the obsession with high fixed costs and low return on investment typical of this industry (International Hotels Environment Initiative in 1993 and 1995), Kirk (1997), Middleton and Hawkins (1998), Green Globe (1994), Forte (1994), Ton et al. (1996).

Willingness to adopt green practices for hotel properties appear to be beneficial and business driven, as well as for consumers who have various reasons for going green and purchasing green products and services. Thus, it is likely that lodging operations as business entities will assess the financial viability of investing in green initiatives. Hence, hotels will take up green initiatives if they lead to profitability factors such as cost savings, competitive advantages, employee loyalty, increased customer satisfaction and retention, or if they facilitate the hotel to comply with, or circumvent governmental regulations or minimize exposure to operational risks. Across Asia, many independent hotels have also engaged in green practices as one of their core strategies. Damai Lovina Villas in Bali, Indonesia, for example, has effectively reduced cost by reducing waste and energy usage. The resort partners with a local research center that gives the resort with environmentally safe agricultural and household products. The resort’s restaurant use 80% of its ingredients from its own organic garden and local farm. The farm has been able to reduce its crop production costs by 90% and increase crop production by 20% by practicing sustainable farming, such as using permaculture to reduce water consumption and increase crop health and using composting instead of using chemical fertilizers. Using recycling practices has led the resort to eliminate the need to send solid waste to a landfill seven hours away (Ernst & Young, no date). This fact has also been demonstrated by the study of Graci & Dodds, 2008, that hotels can make considerable cost cutting in operating costs by engaging in green techniques.

The first example of an environmentally friendly expansion with a cost-savings benefit was the appearance of cards in hotel rooms, such as in Mauritius, the first hotel was with Coco Beach hotel which use this system in 1998. This was an “easy win” for the hotels as cost savings were made for virtually zero outlay (Ernst & Young, no date). By implementing green practices, it means to say that hotel is changing its habits whereby it will have to do investment in green habits that are usually different from conventional hotel (Kasmin, 2004) and hence, from a business standpoint, such investments must be acceptable and result in economic benefits and advantages for the lodging facility. Chief among these benefits is cost saving (Cheyne and Barnett, 2001; Rivera, 2002; Gonzalez-Benito and Gonzalez-Benito, 2005; Lynes and Dredge, 2006; Graci and Dodds, 2008). In fact, cost advantages in the form of financial savings are one of the most important factors that determine whether a company implements environmental initiatives (Graci and Dodds, 2008).

In the hotel industry, employee turnover is one of the biggest problems of the hoteliers. It has been found in studies, employee involvement in eco-friendly practices lead to a reduction in the turnover of the cost of the property. Employees feel themselves engage in the hotel practices whereby making them loyal and also being environment conscious (Graci & Dodds, 2008). This also avoid the hotels the cost of hiring and training new employees. Hence, hotel properties can construct competitive advantage for themselves.

“Sustainable competitive advantage exists with the ownership or a valuable resource that allows the organizations to perform better or more efficient than their competitors” (Graci & Dodds, 2008, p. 256).

Engaging in green practices, has also led the hotels to attract more customers. Customers are very much conscious of the environment nowadays, they feel themselves more comfortable staying in a good environment instead of a purely conventional one (Gustin and Weaver, 1996). This engagement also leads hotels to have a good image, such as in Mauritius, “Le Prince Maurice” from the Constance group is very much known for its green practices both locally and internationally and each year it has many repeated customers which come because of the principles that it is engaged in.

Reasons consumers are going green

Responsible tourists

In the study of Poon (1993) and Urry (1995), it was argued that mass tourism will soon come to an end, tourism, in whichever way is practiced or presented, is still massive. Many studies have argued about the alternative fact, or the term, of tourist being more responsible/ ecotourism/ green consumerism, while being on holidays. A person consuming green products or being a responsible tourist, as per the study of Wood and House, 1991, define the alternative as being ‘good tourists’, Swarbrooke, 1999, as ‘green tourists’. Swarbrooke also discuss on the level of a person of being green. The description is explained below.

Table 1: Shades of green tourists
Not at all green
Light green
Dark green
Totally green

Read what brochures say about green issues and about sustainable tourism

Think about

green issues

and try to

reduce

normal water

consumption

in

destinations

where water

is scarce, for

example

Consciously

seek to find

out more

about

particular

issues and to

become

more actively

involved in

the issue, by

joining a

pressure

group, for

example

Use public

transport to

get to

destination

and to travel

around, while

on holiday

Boycott

hotels and

resorts which

have a poor

reputation on

environmental issues

Pay to go on

a holiday to

work on a

conservation

project

Not take

holidays

away from

home at all

so as not to

harm the

environment

in any way,

as a tourist

Source: (Swarbrooke: 1999)

As it is shown in the above table, Swarbrooke has shown that there are different levels of ‘greenness’, on the other hand the table illustrate only the environmental issues. According to Swarbrooke the totally green consumer would not go on holiday because of his consciousness of the environment; however this will surely have an impact on the multiplier effect in the economy, such as for an island which relies mainly on tourism. Yet this model has many other contradictions, as for example, a person who works on an environmental project and he uses his personal transport to go to work, where will he be placed? Some parents, being psycho centric, not willing his children being exposed to other cultures, which category do they fit in? Also, the model shows also only one unique way of going, from light green to dark green.

Environmental concern or green consumerism was defined in a study as “the degree to which people are aware of problems regarding the environment and support efforts to solve them and or indicate the willingness to contribute personally to their solution”, (Dunlap and Jones; 2002, 285). Other studies have shown that knowledge about the environment generally motivates ecologically and environmentally responsible consumer behavior in disparate parts of the world (Haron, Paim and Yahaya 2005; Lee and Mascardo 2005; Fryxell and Lo 2003).

2.2 Reason Purchasing green products and Influencing factors

According to Kaplan (1991), the state of one’s knowledge about an issue significantly influences one’s decision making regarding that issue. In the study of Ibrahim, Aliagha, and Khoo’s in 1999 has concluded that information and awareness about recycling were both important predictor of environmentally behavior. Based on Ajzen’s (1988) theory of planned behavior consumers’ environmental purchasing intensions and behavior may be influenced by a number of factors, such as the individual’s knowledge and motivation, the ability to perform the behavior and the opportunity to behave in an environmentally-friendly way (Pieters, 1989; Olander and Thogersen, 1995). A Canadian Study (Laroche, 2002) found that people who were highly informed about environmental issues were more willing to pay a premium price for green products. However, another study (Tilikidou, 2007) found that consumers would buy green products when there were no price differences.

Even though consumers have expressed concerns about the environment, these concerns have not translated into purchase or consumption of green products or services (Wong et al, 1996; Peattie, 1999; Crane, 2000). As Johri and Sahasakmontri, 1998; and Lubieniechi, 2002 discuss in their research work, it is also the fact that consumers often perceive many green or eco-friendly products or services as expensive and unattractive, mainly when the latter is compared to non-green products and services. Although it has been found that some consumers may, for example, accept a lower functional performance in order to buy a product that delivers environmental benefits, the environmental benefits in itself is neither the primary benefit sought nor the primary motivation for purchase (Speer, 1997; Ottman 2001.) “Green’s is seldom the over-riding determinant of product or brand choice but just another benefit or attribute that adds value, usually a ‘feel good’ factor to the overall product” ( Wong et al, 1996, p. 269).

Furthermore, consumers seems to be price sensitive when purchasing green products and services (Madese. 1991), and are usually not willing to pay a premium for such items (Wasik, 1992; Manaktola and Jauhari, 2007; kasim, 2004). Consumers who buy green or environmentally friendly products and services must perceive the quality as equal or superior to the usefulness provided by traditional non-green ones. This is important as customers are unwilling to accept a lower quality green product or service especially at a higher price (D’Souza et al, 2006).

Moreover, it was found in research works, many people prefer to stay at a green hotel for an educational purpose. As it was define by the Commonwealth Department of tourism (1994, p.17),

‘Ecotourism is nature-based tourism that involves education and interpretation of the natural environment and interpretation of the natural environment and is managed to be ecologically sustainable.’

This definition recognizes that ‘natural environment’ includes cultural components and that ‘ecologically sustainable’ involves an appropriate return to the local community and long-term conservation of the resource. Green hotels, is a source of learning opportunity for consumers which are naturally curious and crave for knowledge. It is a sort of new experience and benefit for the consumers. In a study in New Zealand, it was found that over 75 percent of its survey had a positive observations of ecotourism locations and “agreed that ecolabels” should be used (Fairweather et al., 2005). In Mauritius, hotels such as the Lux Belle Mare, display much information about its green practices where people can see and read and makes their own opinion about such practices. This not only expands people’s knowledge about the environment, but allows them to visually connect the information and see how it is applied within the hotel.

Staying is a green hotel usually makes the person a sense of positive feeling of having done something good to the environment and this feeling make the consumer to frequent the same hotel again (Manaktola & Jauhari, 2007). In this way, hotels, having a certificate or accreditation on environmental protection, benefit a lot from customer retention and as well consumers benefit from a unique experience in staying in a protected environment. Lam and Hsu (2006) agree on the frequency of certain types of past behavior had a direct influence on behavioral intention when choosing a destination, while Lee and Choi (2009) showed that past experience was an accurate predictor of behavioral intention in the hospitality and tourist sectors.

Consumers’ values and beliefs need to be taken into consideration when examining the influences that affect the purchasing decisions (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004). Environmental values play a primary role in pro-environmental behavior: values affect people’s beliefs which then have influences on personal norms that lead to consumers’ pro-environmental behaviors (Reser and Betrupperbaumer, 2005; Stern, 200). In the Study of Mainieri et al. (1997) it was found that consumer beliefs were “positive predictors of (1) the number and type of goods purchased because of their environmental claims, (2) the imp

Introduction

What is English, English is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now a global lingua franca. It is an official language of almost 60 sovereign states and the most commonly spoken language in sovereign states including the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and a number of Caribbean nations. It is the third-most-common native language in the world, after Mandarin and Spanish. It is widely learned as a second language and is an official language of the European Union and of the United Nations, as well as of many world organisations or group. After this is, Owing to the assimilation of the words from many other languages always from the history, modern English is consists of a very large of the vocabulary, with complex and irregular spelling, specifically of vowels. For the modern English has not only assimilation words from other European languages, but from all over the world. The Oxford English Dictionary lists more than 250,000 of not the same words, not include the many technically, scientific, and slang period. Why the teenagers in the tourism industry are unable to communicate of well in English, what is the communication. The communication is the giving or receive the information, message or the data from other person. The communication is the something we are doing in the life of the everyday. In this way, why the communication from us is very important for other people. The communication also can separate the two types of communication for the example is the verbal communication and the non-verbal communication. The good communication is very important in the tourism industry this is because it is prevent of the misconception and the error or the mistake.

Main Body

Next, if you is a good or well of communicator. You must speaks expressly to customer, guest and the tourism. After this is, you must listen carefully to listen what are the customer, guest and the tourism says to you. Next, check and confirm the information, message, and the data is correct or not.

What is the reason about why the teenagers in tourism industry are unable to communicate are well in English. This is because, the teenagers working in tourism industry have some teenagers is come from other country or the overseas for the example is Vietnam, Brunei, Philippine, Thailand, and also have other country, because the most teenagers come from country in above cannot or don’t know how to speak and communication with the customer, and the guest. This is because every guest come from different country is using the English to communicate or ask the different kind of the question with the other person.

Why English is important for us using to communicate or ask the different question from other person. Why English is important for us using every day, the reason is the English may not be the most of spoken language in the world, but it is the official language in a large number of countries and English is forecast that the number of the people in the world that use in English to communicate on a regular basis is 2 billion ! Next, if our can speak or understand the English can easily to understand the question from other person and easily to make or ask question from other and also can improve the relationship with other person.

Next is the many of the world’s top films, books and music are published and produced in English. Therefore by the learning English you will have access to a great wealth of the entertainment and will be able to have a greater of theculture understanding, and the most of the content produced on the internet ( 50% ) is in English. So knowing English will allow you access to an incredible amount of information which may not be if not available !

Why the English is very importance for the Hotel Management, this is because in hotel everyday can see the different kind of the traveler or the tourist want to stated in the hotel. Sometimes a lot of the traveler or tourist is come from United Stated, United Kingdom, New Zealand, Canada, Australia, and the Ireland. In hotel, every day can see the a lot of the people is online booking the room or the reservation. All of the online booking or the online reservation is using the English, the staff of the hotel will check or confirm have the person online booking or online reservation or not. Sometimes have some guest is use the phone to booking or reservation of the room, the guest almost is using the English to booking or reservation the room. You must know the information, message or demand from the guest want to booking or reservation the room in your hotel. Can easily to get the information, message and demand of the different kind of guest this is because our know the importance of English in hotel management and understand the English. If our cannot understand the English our cannot get the information and massage from the guest, also our cannot give the information and message about our hotel for the customer, because cannot understand or don’t know how to speak the English to guest.

English is importance for a hotel management, this is because you can easily to get the information or the message from the tourist or the traveler. Our also can easily to using the English to communicate with the communicate and can satisfy the demand, need and wants from the different kind of the customer. This is because you understand what is the people said to you so you can clearly to confirm the demand, need and the wants. In the hotel most time is using the English to communication because the English is a international or the official language in the world, sometime some guest want to using the facilities in the hotel such as the spa, the gym, swimming pool, or other facilities in a hotel.

Next, the English is important for us in hotel management this is because our can easily or faster to receive or to get the information from the different kind of the guest, so can easily to give the different service to the guest on the time or fast, the customer can feel the more polite from your. Also can increase the image or the name for your hotel. Next, also can increase the profit of the hotel. Next, the English is important in hotel management is you cannot confuse the information, this is because you understand and know the demand, wants, and needs of the different kind of customer. And you can easily to request and serve to customer.

CONCLUSION

Conclusion, English is important for us is easily to communication with different kind of guest. This is because the English is a important language in the world and English also is a international and official language for us. If the teen staff in tourism industry or in hotel can communicate well in English, the guest will feel the staff in hotel have good polite and give the good service to different kind of guest. So, English is very important for teen staff in tourism industry or in hotel.

INTRODUCTION 2

What is a English, the English is a is a language from the West Germanic language that was first spoken in early madievel England and is now a global lingua franca. It is an official language of almost 60 sovereign states and the most commonly spoken language in the sovereign states include the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and a number of Caribbean nations. Why English is very important for us to communicate with different kind of the people, service for the other person, get the message, information or the data from the other person. First, the English may not be the most spoken language in the world, but it is the official language in a large number of countries. It is estimated that the number of people in the world that use in English to communicate on a regular basis is 2 billion ! Next, English is the dominant business language and it has to become almost a necessity for people to speak English if they are to enter a global workforce, research from all over the world shows that cross-border business communication is most often conducted in English. Its importance in the global market place therefore cannot be understated, learning English really can change your life. Third is many of the world’s top films, books and music are published and produced in English. Therefore by learning English you will have access to a great wealth of entertainment and will be able to have a greater culturalunderstanding. Why have some people working cannot speak and cannot understand the English from the different guest ask them. This is because, some people working in the hotel is not Malaysians all is come from other country for the example is Vietnam, Brunei, Philippine, Indonesia, and also have some country.

MAIN BODY

I already access the teenagers working in tourism industry and the hotel. The name of the hotel I already access is called the Vistana Hotel. The reason why the teenagers in tourism industry are unable to communicate well in English. Because some teenagers are working in tourism industry is not Malaysians, all is come from the overseas country, so them cannot unable to communicate well in English for the different kind of the guest. Have a lot of the reasons of the teenagers are working in tourism industry are unable to communicate well in English. First reason is the teenagers is dislike, this is because the English have a lot of the vocabulary and the all vocabulary is have the many different meaning, the English easily to confuse and more difficult than other language. The teenagers working in tourism industry and the hotel them feel the English difficult understand, this is because the English vocabulary have a lot of use and the meaning.

Next reason of the teenagers in tourism industry and the hotel are unable to communicate well in English reason is, lazy to learning the English because them very lazy to learning or speak the English. This is because them feel the English is not important for them of the life in every day. Them is also feel the English are very difficult for them, this is because in the English have a lot of the things are not spelled as they sound, such as pterodactyl which sounds like the teradactle or tough which sounds like tuff.

Third is them feel the English language is a crazy language, this is because the English is the sometimes them think all the English speakers should be committed to an asylum for the verbally insane. In what language do people recite at a play and play at a recital ? Ship by truck and send cargo by ship ? Park on driveways and drive on parkways ? Have noses that run and feet that smell ? How can a slim chance and a fat chance be the same, while a wise man and a wise guy are opposites ? You have to marvel at the unique lunacy of a language in which your house can burn up as it burns down, in which you fill in a form by filling it out and in which an alarm goes off by going on.

Next reason is, them feel the English is easily to learn but hard to perfect because English can be hard, but not the hardest. Chinese, Japanese, and Russian with all of the characters and sounds. They seem more difficult to tackle. So, them say it’s somewhat hard to learn, but hard to perfect of the English. Some native speakers don’t even know the major grammar/spelling rules. But can see how someone who isn’t a native speak get confused between the ” read ” and ” read ” or ” lead ” and ” lead. “

The fifth reason of the teenagers in tourism industry or a hotel unable to communicate well in English language is English is the hardest language to speak Pretty much every comment on the ” No ” side makes me laugh. Some people wrote Cantonese and Chinese are the hardest languages to learn. Its Cantonese and Mandarin or them said English was easy to learn. Probably because they were born and raised around English in schools and around friends. Any Chinese person that I have met who lived in China up until certain ages have incredible difficulty speaking English and you can barely understand them. People should become more educated about different languages and cultures before they make comments.

Next reason is the English is the most difficult language does mean that you know the whole English language, even though them starting learning English since they are on their mother womb, this is because them don’t practice or trying to learning on them will stuck on some sentences and them will use the N word and the M on each sentences because them don’t know how explain or spelling or talk the correct English. And some sentences have plus the ing, ed, and s will to become the sentences have a lot of different meaning.

The next reason is the teenagers in tourism industry or a hotel, them only like, speak or learning their mother tongue. This is because them feel their mother tongue is easily to understand, speak and learning than English language. Another reason is the teenagers is anytime speak the mother tongue for the guest come from same country such as the Brunei, Vietnam, China, Philippine, India, and the Indonesia. So this reason is cause the teenagers are unable to communicate well in English.

Next reason of the teenagers in tourism industry or a hotel unable communicate well in English is them cannot remember the use or the meaning the English sentences. This is because, some English sentences is more spelling can cause the teenagers easily confuse and very difficult to remember the English sentences. For the example, some guest want to reservation or booking the room. The guest will give the name, phone number, IC number, and other data, if the teenagers in hotel cannot remember and no confirm the data from guest, and give the wrong message or the information to guest will cause the loss of hotel and the guest don’t want state in hotel because the guest is using the English do the reservation the room. Why the hotel loss the profit, because the teenagers of overseas cannot understand, confuse, lazy, not confirm the information and check the spelling is correct or not, don’t know the meaning and use of English and cannot speak and communication in English. All of this reason is cause the teenagers in industry tourism or a hotel unable to communicate well in English to different kind of the guest come from different country.

CONCLUSION

Conclusion, if speak or communication are using English will be more polite of us. If cannot speak, communication or understand the English our cannot give any information or message to guest and also if our cannot understand the guest or other person said, our cannot receive the any information or the message from the guest or other person because them is using the English to communicate with you. So, English is important for teenagers in tourism industry or a hotel this is because the English is a international language in the world and in hotel every day need to serve the different kind of guest so the teenager cannot without the English in every day.

REFERENCE

https://www.google.com/webhp?tab=ww&ei=dW3TVN28L6PGmAW5-YHQDw&ved=0CAYQ1S4&gws_rd=cr&fg=1#q=conclusion+why+the+english+is+important+for+the+teenagers+communicate+in+hotel&spell=1
https://www.google.com/webhp?tab=ww&ei=dW3TVN28L6PGmAW5-YHQDw&ved=0CAYQ1S4&gws_rd=cr&fg=1#q=WHY+ENGLISH+IS+IMPORTANT
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http://www.academia.edu/281159/A_Review_of_Personality_Research_in_the_Tourism_and_Hospitality_Context

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