Adventure Tourism Consumer Motivation
In this second chapter of the literature review, the theoretical background of motivation is explained. This chapter will align major factors like the importance of motivation, what motivate individual to engage in adventure tourism, specially the baby boomers, and how motivation could help in the decision making process.
3.1. Motivation
The theory of motivation was first developed during the Post-World War II, more precisely during the 50s and 60s (Zehrer and Siller, 2007). The term Motivation is originated from the Latin word ‘Movere’, and this means ‘to move’ (Wing, 2011). Motivation can be defined as the process by which an individual will be determined to take action or behave in a certain manner (Decrop, 2006). Motivation is known to be one of the fundamental reasons to understand and explain why does behavior happened. (Snepenger, King, Marshall, and Uysal, 2006) in (Phan, 2010). Moreover, Solomon (2004) described motivation as a ‘driving force’ that pushes individuals to action. Motivation is all about a state of need and desire to do and achieve something (Moutinho, 2000) in (Esichaikul, 2012).
3.2. Motivation in the tourism context
Understanding the concept of motivation in tourism is to understand the basic motives and reasons for tourists to travel (Trang, 2011). Several studies have been undertaken on tourism motivations, it includes Plog (1974), Crompton (1979), Hudman (1980); Dann (1981); IsoAhola (1982); Beard and Ragheb (1983); Pearce and Caltabiano (1983); Mansfeld (1992); Uysal and Hagan (1993); Fodness (1994); Gibson and Yiannakis (2002); Kozak (2002); Horner andSwarbrooke (2004); Kurzman and Zauhar(2005); Decrop (2006); Zehrer and Siller (2007); Devonish and Jonsoon (2008); Romando (2008); Esichaikul (2012).
Lots of research has been undertaken on tourist motivation to travel to a particular destination but little has been done on motivation of tourists to participate in leisure or adventure activities. Few have been analyzed as part of research and most commonly and recent ones well known are from Hudson (2003); Pomfret (2004); Phan (2010); Smerek (2010); Reynolds and Hritz (2012).
Referring to Leiper’s philosophy, understanding tourist’s consumer behavior is an essential tool for successful tourism planning and marketing activity (Choibamrong, 2005). It is obvious that consumer’s behavior is by no means easy and is influenced by so many factors principally in globalization era
3.3. Adventure, baby boomers and Motivation
Sung et al (1997) in Sung et al (2004) stated thatin adventure travel it is significant to understand the main motives of people to engage in specific activities, analyzing the traveler’s characteristics such as demographic information, psychographics like main needs and wants and their principle expectation (Weber, 2001). Studies have demonstrated that older tourists perceived adventure tourism more tempting and want to adventure themselves to gain a personal satisfaction (Gibson and Singleton, 2011). Some older people have the desire to get away from stress and boredom of daily routine. They want to enjoy their holidays with a range of exciting and new physically challenging activities and meet new people to build up relationships (Camden and Mccoll-Kennedy, 1990; Kludge, 2005).To understand motivation in leisure activities is to understand what encouraged tourists to choose a certain activity (PhanThi Kim Lien, 2010).
Empirical studies have shown that the Travel Career Ladder (TCL) model was an adequate instrument in understanding travel motivation (Kim, 1997; Lee, 1998; Loker-Murphy, 1995; Mills, 1985; Pearce, 1988, 2005; Teichmann and Zins, 2009). The TCL model is the most probableapplication for the design of motivational research for special markets such as eco tourists for instance (Pearce, 2005). From this statement, we deduct that the model is thus observed to be a suitable tool for adventure tourism. The concept of the TCL model was initiated by Pearce (1988)and updated in his publication in 2005, The Tourist Behavior: Themes and Conceptual Schemes (McNeil and Williams, 2011).
Adapted from Maslow’s (1970), Pearce adopt the five hierarchical categories of influencing the tourist motivation (Teichmann and Zins, 2009). This includes Biological needs (Relaxation needs), safety and security needs (or level of stimulation), Relationship development and extension needs, self-esteem and development needs and Self-actualization and fulfillment needs. The TCL presumed that tourists when gaining more travel experience will go up the ladder towards high-level needs. Figure 2 demonstrate the hierarchy of Pearce Travel career ladder:This includes Fulfillment level, Self-esteem and development, relationship, stimulation and relaxation.
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Figure 2: Hierarchy of Pearce Travel Career ladder
Source: Ryan (1998)
According to the TCL model and diverse tourist motivation and experience, people may start at different level of the ladder; this may varies with some up warding the ladder and some others down warding it (McNeil and Williams, 2011). For instance, a new tourist in adventure might wish to start with a soft activity like bird-watching or horse-riding, an activity that demand less physical efforts, low in risk and experience peace and harmony. Moreover considering the security and safety needs, one must wish an activity low from risk while the other one seeking for adrenaline might want an activity high in risk.
As per Phan (2010), someone might have a greater need for achievement rather than a need foraffiliation, power, or uniqueness. This can involve participating in an activity or doing something all alone isolating themselves from others so as to satisfy main needs and desires. Additionally, such individuals like to set personal goals that are neither too low in a way for it to be achievable nor too high that would be impossible.
It is significant to point out that similar to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the TCL coincide with the theoretical framework, because it clearly shows that as people acquire more experiences, their motivation tend to change (Ryan, 1998). Moreover, Ryan (1998) notes that those traveling for the first time might prefer to book a package tour for more security butin time and with more experience will opt for a more self-arranged travel itinerary (McNeil and Williams, 2011). Similarly, Crompton (1979) came out with seven dimensions of motivation as an influence to leisure this include escapism; relaxation; prestige; exploration and self-evaluation; regression; kinship relationships enhancement and facilitation of social interaction. It is further observed that motives for social interaction, enhancement of human relations and pleasure seeking has repetitively been observed and analyzed as major motivating factor in different studies (Beard and Ragheb, 1983; Kim and Chalip, 2004; Kozak, 2002; Wann, Ensor and Bilyeu 2001; Zhang and Lam, 1999), cited in (Regan and Carlson, 2009).
Another tool, well known in evaluating tourist motivation is the leisure motivation scale of Beard and Ragheb (1980; 1983). This is found to be a suitable tool in measuring leisure motivation factor since it encompassesintellectual, social, mastery/competence, and stimulus avoidance motives. The intellectual elements mean that people participating in leisure activities are in quest of discovery, increase their knowledge. The second factor is the social motive; this implies a personal motive that will satisfy human relationship with others, a sense of belonging, and respect from others (Maslow’s hierarchy, 1943). The third motivational factor is competence/mastery motive. This stimulates individuals engaging in leisure physical activities to “achieve, master, challenge and compete”. The last motive is the stimulus-avoidance motive, which is about escapism from the monotonous routine, stress and tension, or to refresh and have rest in a new environment (Phan, 2010; Niemela, 2010).
3.4. Segmentation based on motivation
According to Schiffman and Kanuk (2004: 158), “Market Segmentation can be defined as the process of dividing a market into distinct subsets of consumers with common needs or characteristics and selecting one or more segments to target with a distinct market mix”.When talking about motivation, it is important to consider the aspect of segmentation. The baby boomers could be considered as one segment of new or future retirees but their motives are diverse (Phan, 2010). Categorizing the motives into different characteristics will help researchers and marketers to benefit from profound and useful information.
It has been observed that the expansion of adventure tourism is principally due to a demographic, personal, socio-economic, political and technological change (Swarbrookeet al. 2003). It is true that changes are not constant and keep updating, but such trends are known to be basis of forecasts for several researchers.
One of the most important influences of tourist motivation is the demographic characteristics (Rose and Kahle, 1998; Muso, Hall and Higham, 2004; Bonera, 2008). Demographics element consists of gender, age category, family patterns, nationality (Swarbrookeet al. 2003; Bonera, 2008; Devonish and Jonsson, 2008). Many women have few children or have already adult children living on their own and as part of family and household structure; there are more single-parent families and childless couples (Swarbrooke et al. 2003).
Another aspect which is gaining more persuasion on the tourist motivation is age (Bonera, 2008). Gibson and Yiannakis (2002) have studied this theory, underlying the tourism reason through a life cycle. This explains that those baby boomers aged from 47 to 50 are more motivated to travel and engage in activities due to superior economic benefit. This additionally led to a desire to show off their status reached, in quest of challenge and adrenaline or simply a desire to experience something new completely different from their usual routine. While those aged between 50 and 55 years old, and those over 65 are more involved in soft activities that demand less effort and where security is mended.
On the other hand other research has found that gender and age are factors affecting the perceived image and choice for particular leisure areas (Baloglu, 1997; Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; Chen and Kerstetter, 1999; Walmsley and Jenkins, 1993).In opposition, Andreu, Kozac, Avci and Cifter (2005) found that age of someone do not have any striking influence on the motivation. The authors assessed that females had stronger motivations to travel than males where male tourists had a preference for more demanding recreational activities, asking for actionswhile female tourists had a stronger need for relaxation and escape-based motives (Devonish and Jonsson, 2008).
As mentioned earlier, nationality as well as culture can influence the tourist choice in engaging in adventure activities (Swarbrooke et al.2003). This includes tourists from cold areas traveling in warm areas or vice versa, choosing a destination where the climate might be more adequate and better to practice a particular activity than would have been in their country. This can include tourists from European market coming to exotic destination to do water sport activities like whitewater rafting, kite surfing, or wind surfing such activities being more suitable for exotic destination having the sea, good wind conditions and deep waves. These demographic trends are a result of a change in social advancement and more financial power; moreover there are socio-economic factors.
Socio-economic trends include income and time disposable, changing attitudes to ageing, lifelong education, Health and fitness. In today’s world, baby boomers have the time, tendency to travel and experience new activities but more importantly have the money to enjoy all the privilege of recreational activities (Patterson, 2006). It is observed that in nearly all developed countries, those people being 55 or above benefit from better discretionary income having all investments and debts cleared for the house, having adult children no longer dependent on them (Chon and Singh, 1995).
As seen previously, baby boomers tend to be more educated than their predecessors (Patterson, 2006). Mintel (2000b) state leisure is perceived as a personal growth since individuals turn out to be more full-grown and more educated. As a result, these people are more interested to engage in adventure for self-development and to improve lifelong education (Swarbrookeet al .2003). Moreover, an increase in healthier way of life is an indication of more baby boomer’s participation in adventure activities.
A modernization in technology has result in an impressive increase in adventure participation. This has improved the ease of access to many adventure recreation sites. Subsequently, technological improvements have brought some facilities to the skill of the participant primarily while engaging in dangerous proceedings or environments. There is also progression in clothing and equipment, for example climbing ropes (Ewert and Hollenhorst, 1997). Baby boomers are really concerned about safety and security aspects and such measures being taken by adventure operators has encourage further participation. In addition, due to the technological advancement, baby boomers are now arranging their own trip arrangement through direct reservation on the internet, looking on their own for discounted prices rather than going to tour operators. Parr (2012) identified this trend and argue that internet booking has known a rapid growth since 7years. In 2005, they used to book their holidays through direct travel agency but in 2012, this has dropped down and more baby boomers are now finding it easier and cheaper to book on the internet.
3.5. Push and Pull Factors
The key to comprehend tourism motives in any tourism literature is often categorized into the terms push and pull forces (Crouch et al, 2004). Dann (1977) was the first researcher to propose these two dimensions, other researchers relied on the theory as well (Crompton, 1979; Mannel and Iso-Ahola, 1987; Bandura, 1987; Yuan and Donald, 1990; Andreu, Bigne and Cooper, 2000; Kozak, 2002; Swarbrooke et al, 2003; Woodside and Martin, 2008).
3.5.1. Push factors
“Push” factors can be defined as “intangible factors that push a tourist away from his home”, while “Pull” factors are “tangible factors pulling tourists towards a destination” (Andreu, Bignr and Cooper, 2000) in (mo 44). Push factors are often related to inner motives such a desire for novelty and escapism (mo 29) and pull factors similar to outer motives like the attractiveness of a particular destination or activity (mo 29). Conventionally, push motives were considered as functional to elucidate the reasons for travelling, in this study engaging in the activities while pull motives is observed as practical to give explanation to the actual destination or activities’ choice (mo 27).
Push factors are principally known to be socio-psychological motives that affect the tourist consumer decision, whilst pull factors are those stimuli that pulled someone to try the experience (Mo 37). Crompton (1979) in partial agreement with Dann (1977) considers seven push factors include escapism from the daily routine, examination and evaluation of self-development and progress, in quest of new friendship and social relationship. The pull motives involve novelty and education (mo 47), (mo 6).
Baby boomers are mostly pushed in adventure tourism for fun (Hudson, 2003). Baby boomers are in quest of latest and exciting adventure experiences, test their physical abilities and continue to be more active. Swarbrooke et al (2003) (Mo 1). Patterson (2006) points out that some are really seeking bigger change, diversity, challenge to escape the monotony of everyday routine. On the other hand, Muller and O’Cass (2001) put forward the notion of ‘subjective age’ as foremost motive for baby boomers to take on adventure travel. Older people have this desire and nostalgia to feel younger and their trip and choice preferences are frequently similar to younger people (Patterson, 2006). There is nowadays an increasing consideration and need for personal development, this was principally due to higher education, professional development and excellence and thanks to globalization that such demand and motives have been popularized (Swarbrooke et al.,2003).
3.5.2 Pull factors
Pull factors are also known as outer motivations (Robinson et al, 2011), where individuals is ‘pulled’ or enticed by other factors to engage in something while the decision has already been made (Lam and Hsu, 2006). On the other hand, Jang and Cai (2002, p.114) state that pull elements is what influence someone in its decision, this encompass the ‘When, Where and How’ to do things.
In the context of Adventure Tourism, destination is one element of pull factors that play a vital role in the motivation of individuals (Ewert, 1985; Millington et al., 2001, p.77). This could be choosing a destination because of the beauty that comprise its natural surrounding, for instance taking the decision to go for Safari in Kenya or going for mountaineering in the Himalayas. Moreover, the pull factor could be due to a favorable weather condition (Pomfret, 2004).For example, to enjoy from a good weather conditions for kite surfing in Mauritius, one should participate in it during the winter season, starting from June to November. These periods are suitable since the island is under the South East Trade winds influence.
In addition, the natural environment in which the activity is occurred can be studied all the way through the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (Pomfret, 2004). The Recreation Opportunity Spectrum can be defined as the ‘availability of the choice to participate in a preferred recreation activity within a preferred setting and to enjoy the desired experience’ (The British Columbia Resources Inventory Committee, 1998, p. Iv). This encompasses a range of setting prior to the physical environment including majorly access, remoteness, naturalness as well as the countryside and topography (Clarke and Stankey, 1979). This natural setting in adventure tourism could be seen as an influential factor. For instance, a baby boomer might prefer a natural landscape where access is not so easy, requiring a minimum level of risk, being totally primitive and one with nature. On the contrary, another can be looking for a site where access is easy, easy-doing activities and where they could benefit from some facilities on-site. Therefore, it is to be noted that the decision to participate in the activity was already made; nevertheless the characteristics of the location could act as a dominant feature in the individual’s choice.
Finally, there are the marketing elements acting as basic stimuli as part of pull factor. This include the marketing mix which is product, place, price, promotion (Kotleret al., 2008), followed by promotional and advertising aspects (Goosens, 2000). Though through brochures, travel books and internet, individuals are persuaded or stimulated to engage in a particular activity.
