Author: Andre Coleman

How does a teacher identify the different types of learners in a language classroom and how best plan for this afterwards?

‘…plan, teach / act, observe and reflect…’

(Sue Davidoff and Owen van den Berg, 1990)

The Observation

My observation was undertaken at the British Council in Kuwait/Gulf Region^[ej1]. The observation class was of mixed nationality Arabic Language speakers at Intermediate level. There were twenty students in total, 80% males to 20% females. The class comprises of 30% students, 60% working or professional people & 10% homemakers & others. The age range is between 20 to 55 years. The class is halfway through a 6 months language course. I observed and was involved in a 90 minute lesson focusing on vocabulary, reading and speaking. At the end the teacher answered my prepared questionnaire (see Appendix)^[ej2].

The following essay consists of a brief theoretical, analytical and practical examination of learning styles and typologies in a language classroom and how best to plan for them. It includes an analysis of specific elements from the observed lesson (see Appendix for a transcript^[ej3]) put in the context of theory and intended future practise.

To support the lesson, the teacher used the white board, an overhead projector with one transparency and three handouts. Whole class work focused on provision of vocabulary and contextualisation of the material. The material was real and relevant to contemporary interests and cultures. The teacher used discussion starters to motivate and encourage student interest and involvement (as Allwright and Bailey advise, 1991) Responses were elicited from the class and supported through teacher modelling of pronunciation and writing on the white board. Individual work was limited. The teacher had established small groups (three to four students) aimed at balancing ethnic background and gender.

Research shows the importance of understanding and catering for different learning styles and cognitive strategies. When a learning style is not catered for, the student can easily become ‘bored and inattentive, do poorly on tests, get discouraged about the course, and may conclude that they are not good at the subjects’ (Zhenhui, 2001). Various parameters have been constructed for defining student’s preferred way of learning, such as Knowles (1982) concrete, analytical, communicative and authority-orientated learning styles (cited in Richards, 1994). Another defines the groups as auditory, visual and kinaesthetic learning styles (Krause et al, 2003, pp154-155) whilst figure 1 gives a representation of student and teacher inter-reactions dependent on learning styles. Some researchers such as Richards (1994, pp.59-77) consider an individuals culture as vital to understanding learning styles. Ladson-Billings (1995) advocates a method of Culturally Responsive Teaching which integrates cultural points of reference through out the learning process. Others disagree (Kubes, 1998, cited in Krause) and cite more universal forms of learning.

This class was both interested and engaged in its learning. However, during the interview, the teacher expressed a wish that there was more time for individual tailoring. The teacher acknowledged that this would better cater for the range of learning styles. More concrete resources (actual materials eg fruit, etc) and increased use of visual aids (magazines, more transparencies, laminated pictures) may also help to convey understanding and increase retention.

Two ‘tests’ were used during the class – one was a linking exercise and one a reading exercise. The teacher finished the lesson with each student expressing an opinion on an article using the lessons language. Whilst these were not formal tests, they involved assessment strategies. As Nunan points out (1990, p62) assessment contributes part of the information for student evaluation. As this infers, the tools for student assessment, be they observational, formative or summative, need to balance with an understanding of the ‘bigger picture’. For example, the goal may be to allow students to understand, practise and develop their own language and learning strategies (see Hismanoglu’s exploration of Language Learning Strategies, 2000) – be they direct or indirect strategies (Oxford, 1990, p9). Most students require clear and precise scaffolding (Vygotsky, in Krause, 2003, pp60-65) to develop their metacognitive practises for making meaning. Assessment can act as a benchmark to the success of the learning process and show the teacher areas that need to be covered again or in a different way.

There is no space here to do full justice to the impact of the learning environment upon students yet it needs inclusion for a balanced understanding of students learning styles. Suffice it to say that, as Nunan and Lamb say (1996), the teacher needs to aim for a safe, positive and progressive environment that encourages student participation, thinking and risk-taking. Much as assessment is an end result of reflection upon what one wants to define, the learning environment should be based upon a thorough understanding of theoretical aspects. For example, traditional teaching methods tended towards a unitary approach to intelligence. Contemporary theories, such as Gardner’s work on multiple intelligences (cited in Krause et al, 2003) allow for the inclusion of variable factors that define a student’s strengths and weaknesses. Many agree with Wilson’s (1998) assertion that Gardner’s MI theory helps teachers create“…more personalized and diversified instructional experiences” and develops “empowered learners” (http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/mi/wilson1.htm)

Figure 2. Adapted from Huitt, 2004, http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/regsys/maslow.html

This holistic approach agrees with an understanding of other influences upon learning, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs for example (see Figure 2), or Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems theory. These ‘ecological’ factors encourage more integrated forms of assessment and are particularly useful in understanding various forms of ‘washback’ (see Cushing Weigle, 2002) that may result. Other more structured tests such as the Myers-Briggs Type Indications Survey, (Myers & McCaulley, 1985) may also have their place.

The teacher used gender and ethnic background to balance the groups. The groups worked well together in a pro-social manner. However, Woods encourages conscious examination of an educators own attitudes, especially when the may cause subconscious actions and opinions to form (Woods, 1996). Should the two parameters of gender and ethnicity become constraints, then they are not valid means of group construction. Sometimes is appeared that not all group members contribute in their cooperative learning. However, research has shown that even those who do not appear to be so communicative do benefit to a degree from the listening and processing that this format provides. It may be that they are better at working individually and as such should have the opportunity to do so.

The teacher used elements of the 3 P’s approach – presentation, practise, production. However, as the lesson transcript shows, the language was expanded in what became more of a Harmer-style engage – study – activate method.

I would like to list the implications for my own teaching under the following points:

Use a wide range of teaching strategies and styles to ensure comprehension eg support spoken material with writing on the white board, leave the transparency up on the overhead projector, bring in concrete materials, provide visual clues, model your required responses, “set short, realistic goals and review and recycle often.” (Antonaros, 2005 ), role play, use song.
Use methods according to the area you wish to cover, the materials you have prepared and present concisely and precisely. If the area is suited best to direct instruction then use it, if student-centred instruction or co-operative groups then vary accordingly. Motivation and interest are paramount, but sound understanding is the goal.
Prepare your materials so that they are interesting, real, relevant, encourage thinking whilst supporting language development.
Take an action research approach to (for example Wright’s, 1987, 2005) to develop a thorough understanding of my students learning and cognitive styles and my own attitudes.
Use active listening to understand, modelling to improve and discussion to encourage communication
Use teacher modelling strategies to develop the student’s autonomous language learning skills as exemplified by Lowes and Target (1998) in Helping Students to Learn.
Providing a positive learning environment where mistakes are not derided
Assign homework that re-caps and therefore re-enforces the issues covered in the lesson.
Ensure equity in communication – make sure everyone has a chance to speak.

“Every teacher who has taught a group of grown-ups knows that some individuals may be reluctant to speak, especially when they realize or assume that other students are more fluent.”

(Turula, 2002)

References

Allwright, D. & Bailey, K. (1991). Focus on the Language Classroom. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Antonaros, S. (no date) Looking Inside and Out for the Answer to Motivating Our Learners http://www.tesolgreece.com/nl/75/7505.html) Accessed 7^th February 2006

Davidoff, S., & Van Den Berg, O. (1990) Changing Your Teaching. The challenge of the classroom. Pietermaritzburg: Centaur Publications

Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of Mind. New York: Basic Books,

Harmer, J (1998) How to Teach English. Harlow, UK: Longman

Hismanoglu, M. (2000) ‘Language Learning Strategies in Foreign Language Learning and Teaching’, The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VI, No. 8, August 2000

Knowles, L (1982) Teaching and Reading. London, UK: National Council on Industrial Language Training.

Krause, K., Bochner, S., & Duchesne, S. (2003) Educational Psychology for learning and teaching. Southbank, Victoria: Thomson.

Kubes, M (1998) Adaptors and innovators in Slovakia: Cognitive style and social culture. European Journal of Personality, 12(3), pp.187-198

Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). But that’s just good teaching! The case for culturally relevant pedagogy. Theory into Practice, 34(3), 159-165.

Lowes, R. & Target, F. (1998). Helping Students to Learn. London: Richmond.

Malamah-Thomas, A. (987). Classroom Interaction. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Nunan, D., & Lamb, C. (1996). The Self-Directed Teacher. Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press.

Oxford, R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. New York, USA: Newbury House Publishers.

Richards, J.C., & Lockhart, C.L. (1994). Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Richards, J.C. & Nunan, D. (eds.). Second Language Teacher Education. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Turula, A (2002) Language Anxiety and Classroom Dynamics: A Study of Adult Learners. Forum English Teaching Online, US Dept of State, Vol. 40 (2). http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol40/no2/p28.htm#top

Wilson, L (1998). What’s the big attraction? Why teachers are drawn to using Multiple Intelligence Theory in their classrooms? http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/mi/wilson1.htm Accessed 7 February 2006

Woods, D. (1996) Teacher Cognition in Language Education. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press

Wright, T. (1987). Classroom Management in Language Education. Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan

Wright, T. (1987). Roles of Teachers and Learners. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Zhenhui, R. (2001) ‘Matching Teaching Styles with Learning Styles in East Asian Contexts’, The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VII, No. 7, July 2001

Websites

Matching teaching styles: http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Zhenhui-TeachingStyles.html accessed 3 February 2006.

Language Learning Strategies: http://iteslj.org/Articles/Hismanoglu-Strategies.html accessed 3 February 2006

Maslow’s Heirarchy of Needs, Huitt, 2004, http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/regsys/maslow.html. Accessed 7 February 2006

Language Teaching http://www.ittmfl.org.uk/modules/effective/6a/paper6a4.pdf accessed 5 February 2006

How to teach a dog to Stay

Training a dog involves the positive strengths and encouragement. To train a dog to stay when commanded is a useful advantage in many situations. It requires proper time, patience and determination though it is a simple process. This type of behavior of the dog is beneficial to the dog’s owner. When the dog gets over excited or does not behave properly, then the owner can settle his dog by commanding him to stay.

Effective training can be provided to the dog in a calm and quiet location so that the dog can concentrate on the owner’s training without any distraction. Do not try to train your dog when he is in the excited mood.

The first thing to start with the training is to make your dog sit and get its attention towards you. Do not provide any reward to the dog before the training. Once the dog is seated in front of you, just say the word “stay”. After sometime, move to the side of the dog and behind the dog but do not move away from your dog. If your dog does not move then offer him a treat. You can try to go a bit away from the dog. But, he gets up from his place and moves around you, then place him in the original location and command him to sit. Repeat this process until the dog gets seated in his position even if you move away from him. In the initial stage, let your dog sit only for 15 to 20 minutes.

Once the dog continues to sit and stay at the same place even if you are moving, then proceed further to the next step. Now start increasing the distance from the dog. Instruct the dog to sit at the same place as before and you try to move some yards away from your dog. Reward the dog as before if he does not move from its position. Start increasing the time as the dog understands the command to stay. Train your dog in such a way that he will remain in the seated position without a move when you are out of that room for some time.

Here are some additional tips with basic techniques to successfully train a dog to stay. During the training session of a dog, you should remain generous in treating your dog as well as in giving the rewards. Try to keep the sessions of small duration at least in the beginning. You can take several sessions in a day of 10-15 minutes. Instruct your dog by making it as a game. The dog cannot immediately understand your commands. So, if it does not perform up to your mark, then instead of punishing him, just do not reward him. Remember that not to provide any kind of training when the dog is in dangerous situation or any bad circumstances. Try to get him out of that situation and make him feel relax by diverting his mind in playing his favorite games.

Teaching involves a fine balance between what legislature states should be provided for students and the creativity of each teacher. Today, the way which these two elements work together to serve students best will be examined along with a talk about how maths toys can assist us in our work. The curriculum guidance for the foundation stage was distributed to schools with nursery and reception classes. This guidance includes six areas of learning which form the basis of the foundation stage curriculum. These areas include personal, social and emotional development; communication, language and literacy; mathematical development; knowledge and understanding of the world; physical development; and creative development. These six areas were created so that practitioners can effectively meet the needs of a diverse student population with a variety of needs. The hope of all practitioners who follow the curriculum guide is that all individual children’s needs are met, whether it is that a child needs increased individualized assistance or is in need of a gifted program.

Principles of the curriculum guidance direct all individuals who interact with children to help facilitate learning in various environments. Doing so causes greater understanding between both school personnel and caretakers. In effect, it also allows the teacher to better understand the needs of the family, thus, reduces various forms of exclusion. For instance, if the family has another child at home with special needs who is immobile; teachers are better able to understand why parents are unable to come to every school program (Curriculum guidance for the foundation stage, p.12).

The curriculum guidance format also heavily emphasizes the need for practitioners to focus on children’s individuality and emphasize what is unique and special about each child. In some instances, we as teachers become frustrated with unique personalities or the different methods some children use to understand curriculum. However, the curriculum guidance specifically says that we should embrace these idiosyncrasies. In line with this idea is another point made in the curriculum guidance documentation. It states that “no child [is] excluded or disadvantaged because of ethnicity, culture or religion, home language, family background, special educational needs, disability, gender or ability”. Instead, it goes on to say that practitioners should learn more about each child’s ethnic, faith and cultural heritage and home experiences so that they can be used to create an environment of familiarity for the child. For instance, a familiar custom can be employed within the classroom to increase familiarity for one child while teaching multiculturalism. It is amazing how little familiar notions such as this can promote not only comfort in a new environment but can also facilitate increased self-confidence (Curriculum guidance for the foundation stage, p12-14).

Every Which Way We Can: A Literacy and Social Inclusion Position Paper discusses policy, school, home and community issues relating to children’s literacy and learning. The authors discuss the many ways children can have access to literacy and education so that no child is excluded from receiving a strong education. They also discuss the importance of involvement in policymaking and how there is much work to be done in this area to advocate for inclusion (Bird and Akerman, 2005).

The DfES regarding Excellence and Enjoyment is another document that specifies best practice in education with children. This article states that an effective combination for learning includes elements of both excellence in teaching and enjoyment in learning. Excellence in teaching includes challenging yet engaging teaching, while enjoyment comes from the child being given the opportunity to engage in learning in the mental and physical environment that suits him best. If a child is very playful, then play could be a useful tool in teaching him. If he learns best with visual tools, he can be given the option to pictorially draw out a solution (DfES Excellence and Enjoyment, p.6-8).

Excellence and Enjoyment also charges practitioners to “take ownership of the curriculum, shaping it and making it their own”. This is encouraging to hear, especially because a curriculum is already set and a teacher sometimes feels that room for creativity is limited. However, when we hear that we can take ownership of the curriculum and mold it through a practitioner’s creative and playful eyes, it feels as though there is great possibility to generate other ideas from it.

Another important aspect of effective implementation of the Curriculum guidance is of course practitioners who truly understand curriculum requirements and have the ability to effectively implement them. Not only is it important that practitioners understand the curriculum, but that they also understand a child’s development in midst of the curriculum. This is a very significant point and the rest of the presentation will be focused on how curriculum and child development meet to produce a fruitful and educationally creative environment for children (Curriculum guide for the foundation stage, p. 13-15).

It is well-documented that children learn best when they are manipulating objects or participating vibrant discussion. Play and discussion are key factors in learning. Through play and discussion, children make great discoveries, are allowed to create hypotheses that may or may not always be correct and explore new ideas. There is a freedom and carefree attitude in play that allows creativity to flow naturally. The practitioner’s role then, is to gently guide the play and discussion without overtaking it.

Play becomes vital, particularly when working with children on the curriculum guidance point, Mathematical Development. Creative and unique methods must be employed in teaching young ones. There are currently hundreds of toys available on the market that aid in learning various school subjects. Many of them are focused around mathematical concepts and learning. Various maths toys stress different functions, whether it is addition, subtraction, or even just learning the maths symbols (Perry & Dockett, 2001, p. 1-3).

Toys in learning become a common language between teacher and student. They are indispensable in the learning environment and can be utilized in several different ways. For maths particularly, many toys can be created right in the classroom without few or no materials. For instance, the class could sing a number song together. The class could also make shapes with pencils and glue. While applying the glue, children could count the number of pencils being used. There are many examples such as these that could facilitate mathematical development. The important part of utilizing toys is to present the toy or game as engaging and fun. This should not be a difficult task to do, being that children already have a propensity to be drawn to toys (Perry & Dockett, 2001, p. 1-3).

Some toys are available for free online while others could become quite expensive. Many could easily be created in the classroom or at home. Some examples of online games include Numeracy Powerpoints, Number Poem and Five Little Ducks. These games do not require payment or any materials. Most of the games available online are placed there by parents and teachers who have utilized these games and found positive results (Brooker, 2003, p. 4; Conoley et. al., 2006, p47-48).

It is important to take some aspects into consideration when looking for educational maths toys. Most importantly, question whether the toy is really teaching the child about maths. Sometimes, although toys are geared toward children, they are not attractive to children. Second, make sure that the toy is suitable to the age range you are working with. Question whether it encapsulates the mix of children in your classroom. Will the child struggling most be attracted by this game? Will the advanced child be bored? Third, can the child recreate the game at home or in other environments? Every parent cannot afford some of the toys on the market. Therefore, it is important to consider whether parents can recreate it. If this is not possible and you would like to continue to use the game at school, are there other games that parents can create at home for the child that can assist in learning? In considering parents’ financial limitations, you can accommodate them in other ways and still ensure that all students are learning the same concepts (Brooker, 2003, p. 4). This type of questioning, by the way, is an example of using the inclusion framework at all times when working with students. As long as we as professionals continue to always think and play, we allow this same mind frame in our students.

References

Akerman, R. (2005). NRDC Policy Paper 2 – Every Child Matters: A response from the National Literacy Trust. www.literacytrust.org.uk/socialinclusion

Bird, V. and Akerman, R. (2005) Every Which Way We Can: A Literacy and Social Inclusion Position Paper, London: National Literacy Trust.

Brooker, L. (2003).Integrating New Technologies in UK Classrooms: Lessons for Teachers from Early Years Practitioners.Childhood Education, (79).

Conoley, J., Moore, G., Croom, B., Flowers, J. (2006). A toy or a teaching tool? The use of audience response systems in the classroom. Techniques: Connecting Education and Careers, 46-48.

DfES (2003). Excellence and Enjoyment.

Perry, B. & Dockett, S. (2001). Playing with maths. APMC, 6(2).

QCA (2003). Curriculum guidance for the foundation stage.

http://www.everychildmatters.gov.uk

Introduction

The following study is designed to be a very brief introduction to one distinct area of the Foundation Stage Curriculum. It would be impossible to fully discuss all the issues which have been raised by my study, nonetheless, it will attempt to provide a succinct introduction to each of the main points.

Rationale

I have chosen to research the Designing and Making aspect of Knowledge and Understanding of the World from the Foundation Stage Curriculum (DFES 2000, 91). I have chosen this particular area of Learning because I feel that I have had limited experience of teaching Design and Technology at any point in the Primary age range, and as such wish to develop extend and develop my understanding through further research. The Foundation Stage Curriculum could be considered to be the basis for all other learning throughout a child’s life, and as such a thorough grounding in teaching and learning Knowledge and Understanding of the World, should provide a sound basis for teaching Design and Technology in other phases of the Primary school, as this quote demonstrates:

‘In this area of learning, children are developing the crucial knowledge, skills and understanding that help them to make sense of the world. This forms the foundation for later work in science, design and technology, history, geography, and information and communication technology (ICT).’ (DFES 2000, 82)

In addition to the reason given above, I am also unsure how to best support a child as they develop designing and making skills at such a young age, with regard to providing them with a wide range of opportunities, yet taking health and safety into consideration.

‘Understanding design work will come from using a variety of joining methods and materials,’ (DFES 2000, 82), yet how should these methods be taught to best effect? It is also difficult to know which specific designing and making skills will be useful to the child, and what range of skills should be taught to the child. Should each child be taught a range of skills which are specific to them?

My final reason for choosing to study this particular aspect of the Foundation Stage Curriculum has been derived from looking at the Ofsted Subject Reports for 1999-2000 (Ofsted 2000). ‘In one quarter of schools standards and the quality of D&T have risen markedly since the previous inspection, but in one school in six D&T provisions have deteriorated,’ (Ofsted 2000, 1), this shows that although the provision of design and technology has improved in a quarter of our primary schools, it has either stayed the same, or deteriorated badly in three quarters of primary settings. This would seem to support the assertion that the provision of good quality design and technology teaching and learning, should be of paramount importance to out schools, starting with facilitating children as they access the Knowledge and Understanding of the World portion of the Foundation Stage Curriculum. A solid base on which to build, as discussed above, should ensure that children are better placed to access the design and technology curriculum as they progress through school.

Evidence

The following is a summary of the evidence collected concerning the teaching of designing and making skills in the Foundation stage settings of two different Primary schools. The schools will henceforth be referred to as School A and School B.

School A is a large Primary school with an integrated Foundation Unit. The majority of the staff in the Foundation Unit are ‘High/Scope’ trained and as such the setting follows the High/Scope daily routine, as outlined by Hohmann and Weikart (2002, 151-165).

‘In the High/Scope approach to early childhood education, adults and children share control. We recognize that the power to learn resides in the child, hence the focus on active learning practices. When we accept that learning comes from within, we achieve a critical balance in educating young children. The adult’s role is to support and guide young children through their active learning adventures and experiences. I believe this is what makes our program work so well.’

(Hohmann and Weikart 2002, 3)

The above quote neatly summarises the main reasons which prompt different settings to adopt a High/Scope or ‘active learning,’ approach to the Foundation Stage Curriculum, the main idea being that children learn best from first hand experiences and from self-generated learning opportunities. This idea is further supported by the Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage, for instance, ‘they learn effectively by doing,’ (DFES 2000, 82).

I observed a plan-do-review session, as part of the daily routine at School A. During such sessions the children choose where they wish to work, for example in the water area, and formulate a plan which they will execute once they start work in their chosen area. Following the main, ‘doing,’ part of the session the children are encouraged to ‘review,’ what they have done and comment on the relative success or failure of the plan. In this way the children are encouraged to learn from their mistakes, and also to gain encouragement from their successes, (Hohmann and Weikart 2002, 167-243).

I observed one child during the aforementioned session, Child A, and followed her through the entire process. She had planned to work in the construction area with the large bricks, and had decided to build a boat. Before beginning work she collected a piece of paper and a pencil and sat down to plan her boat. Child A worked for some time on this design before starting work. She used the large bricks to build her boat and then started to collect other equipment from around the setting to place ‘onboard,’ including large quantities of plastic food from the role play area. When asked about this Child A explained that she was going on a long journey and needed to take lots of food with her. During review time Child A explained to the rest of her group and the adults who were present, that she felt she had successfully carried out her plan, however, she would have preferred to build a boat that would float. The class teacher explained to her that this might be possible in the following plan-do-review session. Indeed for the following session, the teacher collected lots of materials, such as plastic bottles and corks to give Child A the scope to build her own floating boat:

‘When adults seek out and support children’s interests, children are free to follow through on interests and activities they are already highly motivated to pursue. They are also willing to try new things and to build on what they are already doing.’

(Hohmann and Weikart 2002, 55)

The evidence outlined above shows a good example of how children can be supported in developing their own designing and making skills, and indeed can be highly motivated to do so. Child A was given the opportunity to meet an early learning goal through the medium of play:

‘Provide opportunities for children to practise their skills, initiate and plan simple projects and select, choose and devise their own solutions in design and making processes….’

(DFES 2000, 91)

In School B, I was able to observe the teaching of designing and making skills in a completely different way to that outlined above. I observed a Reception teacher leading a planned lesson in which the aim was for each child to produce a money box. The children were taken in small groups to sit with a classroom assistant to make their money boxes, while the rest of the children played. The children were asked to assemble the net of a box, which had already been cut out for them, by gluing the flaps and sticking them together. They were then permitted to decorate their boxes as they chose. It was difficult to assess whether any true learning had taken place during the lesson as the children were all producing exactly the same piece of work, and in many cases much of the actual assembly work was carried out by the teaching assistant.

School B does not appear to have embraced the key features of the Foundation Stage Curriculum as outlined by Tassoni (2002, 1) in Appendix I, as such the children are unlikely to meet the Early learning goals for designing and making skills, one of which is detailed above (DFES 2000, 91). They would benefit from developing a child initiated approach to teaching design and technology in the early years, as advocated by the High/Scope approach (Hohmann and Weikart 2002) and the Foundation Stage Curriculum (DFES 2000). It is obvious from the evidence given that no real learning took place in the design and technology lesson which was observed in School B. Such a directed activity can leave no room for the child’s initiative and the development of their individual designing and making skills.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the evidence outlined above has led me to conclude that designing and making skills can be best taught through child initiated learning. The adult can support the child’s learning by providing further opportunities and materials once they have highlighted the child’s own interests. A directed approach to teaching design and technology in the Early Years does not follow the guidance given in the Foundation Stage Curriculum (DFES 2000), and as such should have no place in our schools as it does nothing to further the children’s learning. I now feel more confident that I would know how to approach the teaching of designing and making skills if placed in a Foundation Stage setting.

Appendix I

‘Key Features of the Foundation Stage:

Recognition that young children need to learn through practical experiences rather than being taught.
Play is emphasised as the vehicle of learning for children.
The importance of working from children’s interests and needs is highlighted.
It is the first curriculum in England to cross the divide between pre-schools and schools.
Personal, social and emotional development of children is recognised as providing the backdrop for other learning.
The role of parents is promoted as that of being an equal partner.’

(Tassoni 2002, 1)

Bibliography

DFES (2000) Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage London: Department for Education and Skills.

Hohmann, Mary and Weikart, David P. (2002) Educating Young Children London: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation

Ofsted (2000) Ofsted Subject Reports, 1999-2000: Primary Design and Technology (D&T) London:Ofsted

Tassoni, Penny (2002) Planning for the Foundation Stage: Ideas for themes and activities Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers

The question, ‘Why Teach Mathematics?’ as put forward by Ernest (2000), is one without a straightforward answer. Ernest (2000) outlines many difficulties which must be overcome if mathematics is to be taught effectively, namely the wide-ranging and complex aims of school mathematics (Ernest 2000, 7). The debate continues to rage in the columns of the broadsheets, as to whether the mathematics teaching in this country is effective and indeed whether or not it meets the needs of an increasingly complex society. Furthermore, as propounded by Ernest (2000), should the learners themselves be allowed to opt in or out of mathematics learning by choice?

The first issue to be discussed is the mathematics curriculum itself. Ernest (2000) recognises four main aims for school mathematics and, therefore, the curriculum:

‘1 To reproduce mathematical skill and knowledge-based capability;

2 To develop creative capabilities in mathematics;

3 To develop empowering mathematical capabilities and a critical appreciation of the social applications and uses of mathematics;

4 To develop an inner appreciation of mathematics – its big ideas and nature’

(Ernest 2000, 7)

These four aims represent the need for a demanding and comprehensive curriculum. The mathematics curriculum has undergone radical changes in recent years, most notably with the introduction of the National Numeracy Strategy in 1998 (DfES 1998). This was followed in 2006 by the renewed Primary Framework for Mathematics (DfES 2006), its aim ‘to support and increase all children’s access to excellent teaching, leading to exciting and successful learning,’ (DfES 2006, 1). Throughout the new framework there seems to be an increased emphasis on problem solving (using and applying) and calculating skills, seemingly in accord with Ernest’s views on the matter, particularly in terms of developing creative abilities in mathematics. The renewed framework for mathematics places increasing importance on developing practical skills and, ‘providing real experiences, context and meaning,’ (DfES 2006, 13), seemingly in line with Ernest’s views.

Consequently, it would seem that the current mathematics curriculum is headed in the ‘right’ direction. Indeed current classroom practise is a far cry from the traditional mathematics lessons of the past. Teachers are encouraged to think of the needs of all their learners through using a variety of different interactive teaching strategies. Children are challenged and supported to make progress at a differentiated level. Indeed classroom practitioners are expected to include sophisticated differentiation into their short term planning. This should surely mean that the standard of mathematics within schools is improving. This would also seemingly be at odds with the suggestion put forward by Ernest when he asks, ‘should the same curriculum be followed by all?’ (Ernest 2000, 8). This would imply that if the same curriculum is followed by every pupil, the needs of every pupil are not being met. However, this is not the way that mathematics should be dealt with in the classroom, as summarised by Wain:

‘The degree to which the teacher retains control of what the learners do each lesson and the extent to which the learners can choose the next task vary…but typical of all is that learning is individualized to a very great extent, although often within a group setting. Whole-class teaching is, in general, not used, or used sparingly, and each pupil is engaged in a learning process that is unique to him or her.’ (Wain 1994, 136)

The view that modern teaching methods have improved the standard of mathematics learning in this country is not, however, the opinion commonly put forward by many of today’s journalists. Chris Woodhead of the Sunday Times (August 26^th 2007) recently reported that an insufficient number of pupils are obtaining A*-C grades at GCSE level, despite the fact that pass rates are higher than ever:

‘Last year 45.8% of students achieved five A*-C grades including English and mathematics in the GCSE examination: 54.2% did not. This annual statistic is one that the government was long reluctant to release. In that English and maths are of such crucial importance, it is the only statistic that matters.’ (Woodhead 2007)

These figures would seem to suggest that the teaching of maths in this country, and perhaps the maths curriculum itself is in someway failing the young people who sit their GCSE mathematics examination every summer. However, A*-C are not the only pass grades, and this figures could, therefore, be construed as misleading. Institutes of further and higher education do seem to place emphasis on successful candidates having the required A*-C grade in mathematics, however, is this the most useful way of assessing how successful an individual will be at higher levels of study, particularly when that individual may not be continuing their mathematics education beyond GCSE level? Indeed Ernest puts forward the idea that, ‘mathematical attainment is mistakenly identified with intelligence and mental power and used to grade and select persons for various forms of work, including professional occupations, as well as in terms of suitability for higher education,’ (Ernest 2000, 8).

Consequently it would seem that too much emphasis is placed on achieving desired grades in mathematics at GCSE level. However, the view of employers and those of higher education institutes is unlikely to change until public opinion is revised, after all, ‘Yes 98% of candidates are awarded some sort of grade, but everyone knows that any grade below a C is worthless in the real world,’ (Woodhead 2007).

This argument would seem to lead into another suggestion by Ernest (2000, 8), concerning the viability of the current arrangements for teaching mathematics to five to sixteen year olds in a modern environment, ‘Requiring learners to study mathematics from the age of five to 16 years is less easy to justify if mathematics is not as useful as is often assumed,’ (Ernest 2000, 8). This could be taken to mean, is mathematics as necessary as we think in order to survive and progress in today’s society? It could be proposed that any number of professions, or avenues of employment, do not require the individual to have mathematical knowledge in order for them to execute their duties successfully. Consequently, it could be argued that individuals should be allowed to, ‘opt out altogether,’ (Ernest 2000, 8), if their chosen career path permits it. The difficulty with this route would be deciding at what point in their education the individual should be allowed to opt out of their mathematical instruction.

On the other hand Orton (1994, 14) expounds at length on the importance of mathematics in the world today:

‘The indisputable fact is that mathematics is vital to the maintenance of satisfactory living standards. It is mathematics which underpins the science and technology that support modern society. It would seem to be a legitimate aim for educators to wish that pupils will come to an understanding of how society works, and this implies an understanding of how mathematics provides support’ (Orton 1994, 14).

Consequently, it could be said that regardless of whether or not we need mathematics for our employment, it is essential for survival in the modern world. At its simplest level individuals needs a knowledge of money and monetary systems to survive in today’s world, something that is addressed by mathematics teaching. At a more advanced level, as technology advances apace, the individual needs to be equipped to operate it in a variety of different occupations. However, is the mathematics curriculum preparing the individual for this adequately?

Another question to be considered as part of this debate is, ‘where does mathematics teaching end, and information and communication technology (ICT) teaching start?’ There is surely considerable overlap, and when considering Orton’s (1994, 14) point above, this must be taken into account, indeed the teaching of mathematics must have considerable overlap with a number of different subject areas if it is to be effective. This is a view put forward by the renewed mathematics framework, which places emphasis on the importance of, ‘making links between curriculum subjects and areas of learning,’ (DfES 2006, 13). Making meaningful links between other subject areas and mathematics could make what is learned more valuable as it becomes ‘real’ for the learner.

Ernest puts forward the idea that, ‘it is an unhappy learning experience for almost half of the population,’ (Ernest 2000, 8), referring to the experience of learning mathematics which five to sixteen year olds undergo. This would seem to be supported by current research, which indicates that students are reluctant to carry on their study of mathematics beyond GCSE level. Doctor Richard Pike of The Royal Society of Chemistry said in an interview with BBC News:

‘Schools and students are reluctant to consider A-level mathematics to age 18, because the subject is regarded as difficult, and with league tables and university entrance governed by A-level points, easier subjects are taken.’

(Doctor Richard Pike, BBC news 2007)

This would seem to suggest that mathematics at A-level is considered too difficult and insufficiently interesting to tempt students to continue their studies after GCSE level. It also implies that schools and further education institutes are foregoing this more traditional subject in favour of more popular subjects. Doctor Pike also claims that because of this drop in the number of students taking A-Level mathematics, there has been a knock on effect for students wishing to study science at university:

‘Increasingly, universities are having to mount remedial sessions for incoming science undergraduates because their maths skills are so limited, with many having stopped formal lessons in mathematics two years earlier at GCSE level.’ (Doctor Richard Pike, BBC news 2007)

If the fact that students are no longer choosing to take their mathematical studies forward into A-level can have such a knock-on effect on their university studies, surely it could be argued that giving students the opportunity to ‘drop’ maths earlier in their education could have even greater implications. Pupils need to be fully aware of all implications before making choices about their A-Level studies. It would seem that thought should also be given to making the prospect of studying A-Level mathematics more attractive to both students, and educational establishments.

The concept of making mathematics more ‘attractive’ to the potential A-Level student, takes us back to the discussion we started about the curriculum. It also links into Ernest’s thoughts on appreciating mathematics for its own sake. He discussed appreciating the social role mathematics plays, and has played in the past, (Ernest 2000, 7). Perhaps by incorporating the history of mathematics into pupils’ education it may give them an increased appreciation of the subject itself:

‘The appreciation of mathematics as making a unique contribution to human culture with special concepts and a powerful aesthetic of its own, is an aim for school mathematics often neglected by mathematicians and users of mathematics alike.’ (Ernest 2000, 7)

This would suggest that this aspect of mathematical education would be a valuable addition to the mathematics curriculum. Ernest also says that it would be a mistake to confuse an appreciation of maths with ability, as the two don’t necessarily go hand in hand. It is quite possible to develop an appreciation of maths without having an innate ability in the subject (Ernest 2000, 7). Indeed developing an appreciation for mathematics itself, may lead to an increased interest in the subject, consequently this may lead to an improvement in mathematical ability, as interest can be a key factor in children making academic progress.

In conclusion Ernest (2000) makes a number of interesting points in attempting to answer the question, ‘Why Teach Mathematics?’ Despite the improvements made to the mathematics curriculum, and the teaching of mathematics, in recent years, there does not seem to have been a sufficient improvement in the number of pupils achieving A*-C grades at GCSE level. There has also been a knock-on effect on the number of pupils taking mathematics at A-Level and beyond, perhaps due to lack of interest, or perhaps due to the difficulty of the subject. Institutes of further education also seem reluctant for their pupils to study mathematics at A-Level. Ernest also puts forward the suggestion that pupils should be permitted to choose to what point they continue their mathematics education, however, this could also have multiple implications. It has been argued that a sound mathematical knowledge is essential for living and working in the world today, despite the fact that many occupations do not necessarily require the individual to have any formal mathematical qualifications. Ultimately a mathematical education would seem to be a necessity for pupils in full time education, however, the way in which it is taught should be constantly reviewed in order for pupils to gain the full benefit of what they have learned. It is the responsibility of educators nationwide to ensure that pupils have a rich and varied mathematical experience, and that they themselves see the importance of teaching mathematics.

Bibliography

BBC News (2007) www.news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/6588695.stm, date accessed 27.08.07

DfES (2006) Primary Framework for literacy and mathematics. London: Department for Education and Skills.

DfES (1998) The National Numeracy Strategy. London: Department for Education and Skills.

Ernest, Paul (2000) Why Teach Mathematics? in Bramall, S and White, J (Eds) Why Learn Maths? Bedford Way Papers London: Institute of Education

Orton, Anthony (1994) Aims of Teaching Mathematics in Orton, Anthony and Wain, Geoffrey (eds) Issues in Teaching Mathematics. London: Cassell.

Wain, Geoffrey (1994) Learning Styles and Teaching Mathematics: Towards Open Learning in Orton, Anthony and Wain, Geoffrey (eds) Issues in Teaching Mathematics. London: Cassell.

Woodhead, Chris. (2007) The GCSE’s Failure www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/education/article2326707.ece, date accessed 27.08.07

Black Codes

Black codes were slavery just in a different name, before black codes there was slavery but black codes. Black codes were an attempt from the white’s to recreate slavery. Black codes were new because it limited the rights of black people and segregated them from the white. When slavery ended it gave the Freemans just a little bit of equality, they got just a little bit more choices about where they work and what they own. The short term impact was that it gave the Freedman’s limited rights and the long term “change” was equality, and after black codes segregation started.

Black codes were really bad but it was a lot better than what they went through which was slavery. Black codes gave more rights to black which was slowly and slowly starting to be taken away as southerners started inventing their own harsh black codes. “One by one southerners created their own black codes” (Perritano 21). African Americans were allowed to do things during black codes that they weren’t allowed to do in slavery which were things like they were allowed to own property, enter into contracts. Marry but not marry a white person because it was against the black codes and they would be sentenced to prison for life if they do so which did happen, and they were also allowed to sue in court, and also be sued. Although it was better than slavery it wasn’t enough because black code’s increasing and increasing, getting harsher and harsher.

“Black codes were essentially designed to return the social and economic order of the south to a facsimile of antebellum times” (Jones 93.)When they wrote the new laws they used the words slave or freedman’s replacing the word Negro. The laws were different in each state, “In writing the new laws, postwar southern legislatures often turned to the old slave codes” (Jones 93). Freedman’s weren’t allowed to do a lot of things such as own homes, land, or any kind of property. They weren’t allowed to marry a white person, it was forbidden. They had to move aside when a white women were on the sidewalk, They had to remove their hats when they were wearing it near a white person was near them, in their presence to show respect, They had to address white people appropriately, They didn’t have the right to hold a public office, they weren’t allowed to participate in riots it was illegal and police could even arrest them for just standing in groups, they couldn’t have public education. , they had to obey commands that white people gave to them “Illegal for freedmen to preach the gospel without a license” (Jones 94).They didn’t have the right to serve in jury. Any black found after 10 at night with a note were sent to prison. They weren’t allowed to sell liquor, or allowed to use offensive language or gestures, it was illegal. It was Illegal for them to carry firearms. Their kids didn’t have the right to go to public schools, in some towns they weren’t even allowed to own rooms. In South Carolina they couldn’t open a store unless they had a license that the judge gave them, most importantly, they weren’t allowed to vote and last but not the least they weren’t allowed to leave their plantations. The white’s just kept going with these codes because they believed in white supremacy.

There were a lot of punishments if the freedman didn’t follow the harsh codes that were stacked up against them. If the freedman’s didn’t follow the penal code they had to pay a fine, “If the freeman refuses to pay, he will be hired out to any white man who will pay” (Jones 94). If a freedman does marry a white person they’ll be sent to prison for the rest of their life. “If an apprentice escapes and is caught master may reclaim him” (Jones 94). Anyone who doesn’t follow the law was deemed a vagrant .All vagrants were fined up to $50 and jailed up to 10 days. If a white male employ’s or aids a freedman that ran that ran away, would have to pay up to $200 penalty. They would be imprisoned for selling things without permission. Employer was legally allowed to punish the freedman’s in anyway a parent would to their kid for example: beating, whipping, branding and etc.

Black codes only gave African Americans just a little, tiny bit of freedom the laws were different in each state and the black codes made it so that freedman’s had to work because in many states if you didn’t have a job you would be arrested for vagrancy. By 1866 black codes were suspended by federal officials who thought that these codes were too harsh and African Americans should have the same equality as the white’s. Segregation was a huge factor, segregation effected freemen hugely they didn’t have the same facilities the white people did such as the voting rights, they weren’t allowed to work in high level jobs, and public transportation, because they weren’t allowed to sit in the same places as white people. They weren’t allowed to eat in the same places as the white’s or drink in the same fountains that white people drank in. Segregation started after black codes because of the fact that whites didn’t like black having the same equality and opportunities as them. Even the schools were unfair, cause they went to separate schools in some schools only black’s were allowed and on some school only white’s were allowed. African children’s didn’t have the same opportunities for education as the white kids, whatever the white children’s had African kid’s had less or none at all because they went to separate schools, and white kids had more facilities and better education system than the black’s. “For 75 years southerners whites used these laws to bar blacks from restaurants, hotels, trains, and other places” (Perritano 24).Segregation was a separation of people from different racial group. Segregation was started by the white’s because they didn’t like African American’s having the same equal rights as them.

When the civil war ended and slavery with it black people didn’t know how to react, they had been part slavery for so long they didn’t know that, that day would come and they didn’t know what to make of it. They were very confused and didn’t know what to do. The African Americans were not only confused but also worried about whose going to feed them, and their children’s, where are they going to work, How are they going to live after slavery ended they got a lot more rights but at first they didn’t know what to make of it, what they should do, if they should enjoy that they’re now free or be worried about how they are going to live their new life.

Black people didn’t have the 3 main things they needed to have, which they got after segregation and black codes ended the 3 more important things are freedom because black wasn’t able to provide for themselves economically, they weren’t allowed to participate in things like politics, they were also not allowed to be with anyone or be in a relationship with anyone without the consent of their master. After slave codes ended freedmen were able to provide their families economically because they had freedom, they were free.

Black codes kept racism undead. Education was a huge factor because freedman’s wanted to learn, they wanted to be educated, and they were willing to learn for happiness. The freedmen’s had no way of doing anything they couldn’t even get a simple job to feed their family because of the way they were made, because of the color of their skin. Even though the African Americans wanted to study they couldn’t because they couldn’t do any more than agricultural work because that was their only task during slavery, and after freedom they still only knew how to do that. Freedman’s first needed to get educated than needed to get a home. Black people had so many different problems that they stayed in low class society for so long because of all the problems they faced but chance to get educated was given to the freedman’s later on, and it even provided free food and even helped newly freed slaves find jobs.

Black codes gave them more freedom but it only made their life harder because they had to go by the laws and if they didn’t there were tons of laws that were just plain unfair such as they could be arrested for vagrancy (being poor) or they would be commanded into involuntary servitude, and the Ku Klux Klan only made the freedman’s life even worse because they hung black black’s because they weren’t in agreement to slavery. The Ku Klux Klan supported white supremacy, anti- Semitism, anti- Catholicism, racism, anti-communism, and nativism. They got away with crimes to ethnic groups and didn’t get punished for it, not only that but they also attacked Jews, Catholics, and other groups. They would randomly take black guys or people walking and hang them; they would also injure people that spoke out against them. They would shoot at black people’s houses and cars that didn’t do anything. The Ku Klux Klan has done a lot of horrible stuff but they rarely got arrested, it was very difficult to find them. Their fear that they’re going to get caught made them never stay at a same place for too long. The Ku Klux Klan got weaker and weaker as years went by because freedman’s got stronger and stronger. As the years went by the police forces also got better, and stronger. Strangely, many tried to bring them back in power. However, the Ku Klux Klan never got strong as it was in the first few years when it started. The KKK dressed in white robes because white is the color of purity.

The KKK was trying to develop “100% Americanism”, which means they were against Catholics, Jews, blacks, immigrants, and unions. The KKK was trying to say that blacks cannot be Christians. They would burn the crosses to not disrespect but more like to say go Christianity, and sadly KKK’s are still around despite everything. The happiest day for African people/ freedman’s were when the segregation finally ended which was in July 2, 1964 they got better opportunities than they had, equal opportunities as the whites. Their kids had better education system because they were now studying in the same place as whites, their work they had better chances of finding a job now that they had equal opportunities they were paid the same amount plus things like eat they could eat in the same place as white people and drink in the water fountain that only white’s could drink in, they could sit in the bus. Last and definitely not the least they were now allowed to vote, which was the ultimate proof that African Americans had the same equality as the white people when they were allowed to vote.

From all the facts it’s a definite fact that best part of black codes was when it was over, and when segregation ended. Segregation was probably the biggest impact that happened to African Americans after slavery because after segregation was over so many newly freed slaves got freedom, and more importantly they got the right to vote, and they also got the equality they wanted and always dreamt for.

I have always had aspirations to be a Primary teacher. Although I am relatively new to the profession I am ]

However despite the challenges that face me I am trying to remain positive and make the best out of this situation

Before I started writing I felt the best start way to reflect on my practice was to conduct a …

SWOT

Analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities Threats) to analyse my CPD opportunities in a way to focus on my goals and reflect on my practice so far. (See Appendix 1) By doing this I was able to highlight what I believe to be important and factors that I would like to improve on. I will now look at the political issues affecting education in Scotland, current research and how each have had an impact on my own learning. From this I will then review my position and set my goals for the future.

The Political Position

Harold Wilson the former Labour P.M. once said:

“A week is a long time in politics”

First Minister Alex Salmond discovered to his dismay the meaning of this quote in the first week of December last year. On Tuesday the 1st December 2009 Fiona Hyslop was redeployed from her position as Education secretary marking the first change in the Scottish Government Cabinet since the SNP came into power over two years ago. (Swanson 2009) The question is what happened?

Alex Salmond made this decision only days after the Scottish government statistics showed a fall in teacher numbers of 1,348 over the past year, despite his plea to increase them. Fiona Hyslop has suffered a lot of criticism as education secretary the main reason being her failure to deliver the SNP’s biggest education pledge of lowering primary 1-3 class sizes to 18. The final straw was Ms Hyslop threatening to centralise education taking power away from local authorities. The opposition parties also threatened a “vote of no confidence” in the Education Secretary if the First Minister did not do something to deal with the situation- a threat that could not be taken lightly. (Macleod 2009)

By the 8th of December the SNP Government and the new Education Secretary Mike Russell faced its first challenge – an enquiry into the class sizes pledge a major part of the SNP 2007 manifesto was called into question of whether or not the pledge was deliverable in their time in office.

As if the current situation wasn’t bad enough on the 11th Dec 2009 the General Teaching council published their report of probationers gaining employment after their initial year and their findings were not encourage able. The report stated that out of teachers surveyed only one teacher in five (20.2%) gained a full time permanent job after completing probation this summer and a significantly greater number of new teachers more than 1 in 4 have been able to gain employment as a teacher at all. Commenting on this report EIS General Secretary Ronnie Smith said “The fact that so many of our newly qualified teachers are unemployed or under-employed on very patchy, short-term, contracts is a tragedy not only for these individual teachers but also for Scottish education and its pupils”. (EIS 2009)

Current Research and Personal Experiences

“Every aspect of being a teacher draws on both your professional and personal resources and values”

(Moyles and Robinson 2002 cited Asprey, Hamilton and Haywood 2002)

Watzke (2007) amongst others talks of stage theory in teaching stating that there are distinct changes in a teachers thinking throughout his or her career. Fuller (1969) was one of the first to comment on this matter and suggests that in the beginning teachers are not concerned about teaching but their own survival. This stage known as “self concerns” e.g.. Can they survive and pass their probationary year? Later in their career Fuller stated the focus is on “actual performance as teachers” calling this stage “task concerns.” This makes sense as it is only natural once you have confidence in yourself to then focus on improving your learning experiences. The last stage after successful teaching the focus then moves on to “having a meaningful and positive influence on their pupils” which is known as “impact concerns”. As teachers learn and grow in the teaching profession they learn what works and what does not and this is something that comes from experience therefore it makes sense to follow a path like Fuller suggested. All teachers are very different and each have their own unique “learning style”. However, one thing what I would hope all teachers would have a shared value is the belief that the children are the most important part of their job and is their job as teachers to get the best out of the children they teach.

As humans we all have our own values as individuals and as teachers. Eisner and Vallance (1974) talk of three main dimensions on which varied value positions are held. They suggest that that they are best represented as continua:

Individual society

This is the concept of whether education should be geared to meet individuals’ needs rather than educational terms being planned to meet the needs of the society.

values skills

This is the concept of whether education should focus on developing individuals’ sense of values in a moral ethical context, or on developing their skills.

adaptive reconstructive

This is whether education should prepare children to fit into the present society, or strive to change and in turn changing society.

( Eisner and Vallance 1975 cited in Pollard 2005)

By looking at these three dimensions, we can perhaps see where our own values fit in. Pollard (2005) like Watzke (2007) talks of how teachers change and adapt as they gain more experience throughout their career. Pollard (2007) uses this example; a newly qualified or student teacher may place their self at the “individual” extreme of the first dimension placing more importance on skills extreme and feel more comfortable with the “adaptive” extreme of the third dimension. However, as time goes on and more experience is gained opinions may change.

Being on supply I am able to see good practice in many different schools in my area. I also have the opportunity to be flexible and work in different establishments Nursery, Primary and the Additional Support Needs (ASN) sector. Working on supply you get to know particular schools and soon realise the schools that are nice to work in and the ones you may want to steer clear of. The question is how do we know this? What makes something feel like this?A I think what it comes down to is the culture of each individual school.

“Culture is both a dynamic phenomenon that surrounds us at all times, being constantly enacted and created by our interactions with others” (Schein 2004 p1)

Every organisation whether they realise it or not has their own unique culture. Being in so many different schools you come across just how different the working environment can be from school to school. The tricky part is being able to gauge the culture and act accordingly because what wouldn’t be an issue in one school could be in another. The most popular example is the staff room. If it is my first time working in a particular school you have to gauge the environment and try to follow suit for example the seating arrangements, the biggest mistake you can make is to sit on someone else’s seat if this happens you may either depending on the school get asked to move or be given the evil eye for the rest of the day. Another example especially in a big staffroom is when you sit down and other groups come in after and sit in little groups and you are left in the middle on your own twiddling your thumbs. To be on the safe side I usually wait until everyone is in the staffroom and then ask is it ok to sit in a particular seat. Sometimes you ask “Is it ok to sit here?”A To which the reply will be “Oh yes you don’t need to worry, we don’t have particular seats in here” but then you realise that every break time and lunch all of the staff remain in the same seats. Therefore culture is so in built they don’t even realise it’s there but from an outsiders point of view it is more apparent.

Once you’ve got your seat the next obstacle is talking to people. As soon as you walk in to a staffroom you can immediately sense the ambience, it is hard to explain but it is very apparent. As noted above you soon realise what schools you prefer to be in and those you aren’t as keen on, because in some schools you are “only the supply teacher” and you can sit and be ignored. On the other hand you walk in to some schools and you immediately feel a good atmosphere and although you still go through the same ritual in the staffroom asking where to sit you don’t feel as apprehensive as the staff talk to you and make you feel welcome and generally seem interested in you as a person.

Although I don’t currently have a base school I do have schools where I work in more often. One such school is the school I worked in during my probationary year. Looking back it is funny how your first impressions of a place can be somewhat different after you have worked in a place for a while. The dynamics of a place can be very different on the outside than they are on the inside. NEED TO ADD MORE HERE On the whole my probationary school is a very good place to work on and portrays an ethos of respect and supportiveness. During my time in the school I had two very good mentors who I could always go to when I needed help which was the case for most of the staff in the school. However, I found out very quickly who I could ask advice from and who not to bother. My class had a lot of problems and was one

Continuing professional development (CPD) is now an obligatory and accepted part in the contracts of all teachers who teach in Scottish schools. 35 hours worth of professional development activities is required over the course of the year. Teachers decide on what goals they would like to achieve over the school year and tailor this around what courses they will attend. With the advent of the Curriculum for Excellence (CFE) the Government is proposing CPD opportunities to be more specific and clearly linked to the priorities of the CFE. The biggest study carried out on CPD in the early stages of teachers career was by Draper et al., 1991, 1997, 1998 – “The “Scottish Study of Probationers: 1988-1991 and 1995 -1996”.A The research followed a group of teachers as they completed their probationary year. The researchers hypothesised the CPD would be at the fore front of the probationers activities and believed they would regard it as a priority. However, what they did find was probationer teachers stated that they spend more time proving to others that they could do their job rather than trying to further develop their practice. From a personal experience this is something that I myself can relate to. From the minute you walk into a school as a probationer you (unconsciously in some cases) are being judged for competency. This idea also ties in with Fuller (1969) first stage of self concerns teacher are concerned with their own learning and the thoughts of others around them. Draper et al also found that the teachers who completed their probationary year on a supply based method was more likely to threaten their development as they were not in the same place for any one time. Results showed that the second cohort 1995/96 was more satisfied with their professional development experiences than the first cohort 5 years previous to them. However, those teachers who completed their probationary year through short term contracts reported lower levels of satisfaction and perhaps have an impact on their practice in the future. As one of their participants in the study commented:

The effect of short-term contracts on initially keen and dedicated staff is disastrous. Morale, dedication and professionalism quickly evaporate’.
(Draper et al., 1997, cited in GTCS 2006)

This is not surprising as the chances of those teachers being in a position to partake in many CPD sessions are rather low as what school nowadays would fund a place on a course for example for someone who a) isn’t a permanent member of staff and b) probably won’t be in the school long enough for the training to benefit the school. Without a doubt this will have an effect on a teacher’s morale if little or no opportunities to develop present themselves. I myself find myself in a similar position a supply teacher the professional development opportunities are little or none.

(Draper et al cited in GTCS Research Jan 2006)

It may sound cliche but for as long as I can remember I have always wanted to be a Primary teacher. I applied for Primary Teaching in 6th year at school however I was not successful. Teaching for me at the time had been my only option and at the time I was devastated but soon realised that I could apply again. I then went on to complete a B/A honours degree in Psychology at the University of Psychology and then went on to the Post Graduate Primary course at the University of Paisley.

Looking at my strengths I believe teaching ICT seems to be one of them. ICT is something that I enjoy and is something that the children always respond well to. It comes very natural to me given the fact that I have grown up using computers. This is probably why the children enjoy it as they can see that is something I love doing and this in turn enthuses them. In my probationary school I led an in service on Activ Primary for my colleagues who were either new to the IWB (Interactive whiteboard) or were still puzzled after attending the course on Activ Primary. By doing this I felt good as it felt like I was giving back to the school by supporting colleagues rather than being supported all the time. Even now as a Supply Teacher I carry my pen drive around with me which has along with many other things ICT activities. Teachers in different schools often ask me where I get my resources most of which are from the internet. A recent example is an interactive advent calendar Power Point which I use with the children in the lead up to Christmas. Although I do feel that ICT is a strength of mine like everything else I am constantly learning new ideas and will continue to learn.

Looking at the SWOT analysis I have some experience using Active Learning in the upper school I would like to gain experience in using active learning in the early years. As a whole one of my goals is to try to keep abreast of current developments in early years education especially in light of the CFE. I recently was given the opportunity to attend an in-service in “Story Grammar” one of the schools in which I do supply in. I found this to be very interesting and very beneficial in the early years. By attending this course this prompted me to look more closely into the curriculum where Story Grammar came from “Key to Learning Curriculum” and I purchased the Curriculum book by Galina Doyla. I have tried to use some of the ideas from the book in my work in the Nursery. Obviously just now I only volunteer in the Nursery my first and foremost goal for the future would be to gain a permanent job in early years.

REFERENCE LIST

Asprey, E., Hamilton. C & Haywood.S (2002). PGCE Professional Workbook – Professional Issues in Primary Practice. Exeter: Learning Matters

BBC News. (2009). Demoted SNP education secretary endorses successor.

Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/8388141.stm).

Last accessed 4th December 2009.

EIS. (2009). Collapse of jobs for new teachers is damaging pupils’ education prospects says EIS. News release

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Error CorrectionWhy Correction is Necessary

Correction is necessary. The argument that students just need to use the language and the rest will come by itself seems rather weak. Students come to us to teach them. If they want only conversation, they will probably inform us – or, they might just go to a chat room on the Internet. Obviously students need to be corrected as part of the learning experience. However, students also need to be encouraged to use the language. It is true that correcting students while they are trying their best to use the language can often discourage them. The most satisfactory solution of all is make correction an activity. Correction can be used as a follow-up to any given class activity. However, correction sessions can be used as a valid activity in and of themselves. In other words, teachers can set up an activity during which each mistake (or a specific type of mistake) will be corrected. Students know that the activity is going to focus on correction, and accept that fact. However, these activities should be kept in balance with other, more free-form, activities which give students the opportunity to express themselves without having to worry about being corrected every other word.

It is to S.P. Corder that Error Analysis owes its place as a scientific method in linguistics. As Rod Ellis cites (p. 48), “it was not until the 1970s that EA became a recognized part of applied linguistics, a development that owed much to the work of Corder”. Before Corder, linguists observed learners’ errors, divided them into categories, tried to see which ones were common and which were not, but not much attention was drawn to their role in second language acquisition. It was Corder who showed to whom information about errors would be helpful (teachers, researchers, and students) and how.

There are many major concepts introduced by S. P. Corder in his article “The significance of learners’ errors”, among which we encounter the following:

It is the learner who determines what the input is. The teacher can present a linguistic form, but this is not necessarily the input, but simply what is available to be learned.
Keeping the above point in mind, learners’ needs should be considered when teachers/linguists plan their syllabuses. Before Corder’s work, syllabuses were based on theories and not so much on learners’ needs.
Mager (1962) points out that the learners’ built-in syllabus is more efficient than the teacher’s syllabus. Corder adds that if such a built-in syllabus exists, then learners’ errors would confirm its existence and would be systematic.
Corder introduced the distinction between systematic and non-systematic errors. Unsystematic errors occur in one’s native language; Corder calls these “mistakes” and states that they are not significant to the process of language learning. He keeps the term “errors” for the systematic ones, which occur in a second language.
Errors are significant in three ways:

– to the teacher: they show a student’s progress

– to the researcher: they show how a language is acquired, what strategies the learner uses.

– to the learner: he can learn from these errors.

When a learner has made an error, the most efficient way to teach him the correct form is not by simply giving it to him, but by letting him discover it and test different hypotheses. (This is derived from Carroll’s proposal (Carroll 1955, cited in Corder), who suggested that the learner should find the correct linguistic form by searching for it.
Many errors are due to that the learner uses structures from his native language. Corder claims that possession of one’s native language is facilitative. Errors in this case are not inhibitory, but rather evidence of one’s learning strategies.

The above insights played a significant role in linguistic research, and in particular in the approach linguists took towards errors. Here are some of the areas that were influenced by Corder’s work:

STUDIES OF LEARNER ERRORS

Corder introduced the distinction between errors (in competence) and mistakes (in performance). This distinction directed the attention of researchers of SLA to competence errors and provided for a more concentrated framework. Thus, in the 1970s researchers started examining learners’ competence errors and tried to explain them. We find studies such as Richards’s “A non-contrastive approach to error analysis” (1971), where he identifies sources of competence errors; L1 transfer results in interference errors; incorrect (incomplete or over-generalized) application of language rules results in intralingual errors; construction of faulty hypotheses in L2 results in developmental errors.

Not all researchers have agreed with the above distinction, such as Dulay and Burt (1974) who proposed the following three categories of errors: developmental, interference and unique. Stenson (1974) proposed another category, that of induced errors, which result from incorrect instruction of the language.

As most research methods, error analysis has weaknesses (such as in methodology), but these do not diminish its importance in SLA research; this is why linguists such as Taylor (1986) reminded researchers of its importance and suggested ways to overcome these weaknesses.

As mentioned previously, Corder noted to whom (or in which areas) the study of errors would be significant: to teachers, to researchers and to learners. In addition to studies concentrating on error categorization and analysis, various studies concentrated on these three different areas. In other words, research was conducted not only in order to understand errors per se, but also in order to use what is learned from error analysis and apply it to improve language competence.

Such studies include Kroll and Schafer’s “Error-Analysis and the Teaching of Composition”, where the authors demonstrate how error analysis can be used to improve writing skills. They analyze possible sources of error in non-native-English writers, and attempt to provide a process approach to writing where the error analysis can help achieve better writing skills.

These studies, among many others, show that thanks to Corder’s work, researchers recognized the importance of errors in SLA and started to examine them in order to achieve a better understanding of SLA processes, i.e. of how learners acquire an L2.

STUDIES OF L1 INFLUENCE ON SLA

Various researchers have concentrated on those errors which demonstrate the influence of one’s native language to second language acquisition. Before Corder’s work, interference errors were regarded as inhibitory; it was Corder who pointed out that they can be facilitative and provide information about one’s learning strategies (point 7, listed above). Claude Hagege (1999) is a supporter of this concept and he mentions it in his book “The child between two languages”, dedicated to children’s language education. According to Hagege, interference between L1 and L2 is observed in children as well as in adults. In adults it is more obvious and increases continuously, as a monolingual person gets older and the structures of his first language get stronger and impose themselves more and more on any other language the adult wishes to learn. In contrast, as regards children, interference features will not become permanent unless the child does not have sufficient exposure to L2. If there is sufficient exposure, then instead of reaching a point where they can no longer be corrected (as often happens with phonetics features), interference features can be easily eliminated. Hagege stresses that there is no reason for worry if interference persists more than expected. The teacher should know that a child that is in the process of acquiring a second language will subconsciously invent structures influenced by knowledge he already possesses. These hypotheses he forms may constitute errors. These errors, though, are completely natural; we should not expect the child to acquire L2 structures immediately (p. 81).

In addition to studies of L1 transfer in general, there have been numerous studies for specific language pairs. Thanh Ha Nguyen (1995) conducted a case study to demonstrate first language transfer in Vietnamese learners of English. He examined a particular language form, namely oral competence in English past tense making. He tried to determine the role of L1 transfer in the acquisition of this English linguistic feature as a function of age, time of exposure to English, and place and purpose of learning English.

The influence of L1 on L2 was also examined by Lakkis and Malak (2000) who concentrated on the transfer of Arabic prepositional knowledge to English (by Arab students). Both positive and negative transfer were examined in order to help teachers identify problematic areas for Arab students and help them understand where transfer should be encouraged or avoided. In particular, they concluded that “an instructor of English, whose native language is Arabic, can use the students’ L1 for structures that use equivalent prepositions in both languages. On the other hand, whenever there are verbs or expressions in the L1 and L2 that have different structures, that take prepositions, or that have no equivalent in one of the languages, instructors should point out these differences to their students”.

Not only was L1 influence examined according to language pair, but according to the type of speech produced (written vs. oral). Hagege (p. 33) discusses the influence of L1 on accent; he notes that the ear acts like a filter, and after a critical age (which Hagege claims is 11 years), it only accepts sounds that belong to one’s native language. Hagege discusses L1 transfer in order to convince readers that there is indeed a critical age for language acquisition, and in particular the acquisition of a native-like accent. He uses the example of the French language, which includes complex vowel sounds, to demonstrate that after a critical age, the acquisition of these sounds is not possible; thus, learners of a foreign language will only use the sounds existing in their native language when producing L2 sounds, which may often obstruct communication.

STUDIES OF CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK

Corder elaborated on Carroll’s work to show that the most efficient way to teach a student the correct linguistic form is to let him test various hypotheses and eventually find the right form (point 6, listed above). In these steps, Hagege points out the importance of self correction (p. 82-83). According to Hagege, it is useful to always perform an error analysis based on written tests administered by the teacher, but without informing the student of the purpose of the test. On that basis, self-correction is preferable to correction by the teacher, especially if the latter is done in a severe or intimidating way. Self correction is even more efficient when it is done with the help of children’s classmates. According to teachers, the younger the children, the greater the cooperation among them and the less aggressive or intimidating the corrections. Hagege dedicates a section in his book to the importance of treating errors in a positive way. In this section, titled “The teacher as a good listener”, he notes that it is useless, if not harmful, to treat errors as if they were “diseases or pathological situations which must be eliminated”, especially if this treatment becomes discouraging, as occurs when teachers lose their patience because of children’s numerous errors. This, of course, does not mean that corrections should be avoided; after all it is the teacher’s duty to teach the rules of the L2. But the correction of every error as soon as it occurs is not recommended. The justification that Hagege offers is the following: the linguistic message that the child tries to produce is a sequence of elements which are interdependent; immediate corrections which interrupt this message tend to produce negative consequences, even to the less sensitive children; such consequences include anxiety, fear of making an error, the development of avoidance strategies, reduced motivation for participation in the classroom, lack of interest for learning, reduced will for self correction, and lack of trust towards the teacher. Esser (1984, cited in Hagege) also made a similar point: repetitive and immediate corrections, he noted, may cause sensitive children to develop aggressive behavior towards their classmates or teacher. Thus, Hagege concludes, correction must not be applied by the teacher unless errors obstruct communication. This is the main criterion for error correction (i.e. obstruction of communication) presented by Hagege; however there have been studies which examined such criteria in greater detail, such as Freiermuth’s “L2 Error Correction: Criteria and Techniques” (1997). Freiermuth accepts Corder’s view (point 6) and proposes criteria for error correction in the classroom. These criteria are: exposure, seriousness, and students’ needs.

In the case of exposure, Freiermuth claims that when a child creates language (for example, when he tries to express an idea by using a linguistic form he has not yet acquired), he will most likely make errors; correcting these errors will be ineffective because the learner is not aware of them. Thus, error correction would result in the acquisition of the correct form only if the learner has been previously exposed to that particular language form.

As regards the seriousness criterion, Freiermuth claims that the teacher must determine the gravity of an error before deciding whether he should correct it or not. Here Freiermuth sets a criterion which agrees with that of Hagege’s: “the error, he states, must impede communication before it should be considered an error that necessitates correction”. But what constitutes a serious error? Which errors are those which should not be corrected? As an examples of non-serious errors, Freiermuth mentions those errors which occur due to learners’ nervousness in the classroom, due to their stress or the pressure of having to produce accurately a linguistic form in the L2. These errors can occur even with familiar structures; in that case, they are not of serious nature and are similar to what Corder called “mistakes”. Here again we see Corder’s influence in error analysis, and in particular in the distinction between errors and mistakes. Freiermuth goes on to suggest a hierarchy of errors (according to seriousness) to help teachers decide which errors should be corrected: “Errors that significantly impair communication [are] at the top of the list, followed by errors that occur frequently, errors that reflect misunderstanding or incomplete acquisition of the current classroom focus, and errors that have a highly stigmatizing effect on the listeners”. He also clarifies what can cause stigmatization: profound pronunciation errors, or errors of familiar forms.

Another important criterion that must be considered by the teacher is individual students’ needs. The importance of this factor is mentioned in Corder, who in turn notes that this idea had been suggested previously by Carroll (1955, cited in Corder 1967) and Ferguson (1966, cited in Corder 1967). Each student is different and thus may react differently to error correction. We infer from Freiermuth’s claim that the teacher must perform two main tasks: first, assess some specific character traits of students, such as self-confidence and language acquisition capability. Freiermuth agrees with Walz (1982, cited in Freiermuth) that self-confident, capable students can profit from even minor corrections, while struggling students should receive correction only on major errors. This claim agrees with Esser and Hagege’s claim that repetitive corrections are likely to decrease motivation; it is reasonable to accept that students who lack self-confidence will be “stigmatized” to a greater degree than confident students.

The teacher’s second task, according to Freiermuth, is to listen to learners’ L2 utterances in order to determine where errors occur (i.e. which linguistic forms cause students difficulties), their frequency, and their gravity (according to the severity criteria mentioned above). Then the teacher can combine the outcome of these tasks and decide on correction techniques for individual students.

A different approach to error correction was suggested by Porte (1993), who stressed the importance of self-correction. Porte refers to Corder’s distinction of errors and mistakes and points out that many students do not know the difference. It is important, Porte notes, that students know how to identify an error in order to avoid it in the future. She agrees with Corder that it is more efficient for learners to correct themselves than be corrected by the teacher, and goes on to suggest a four-step approach for self-correction. This approach consists of questions that the teacher provides to students. After writing an essay, students should read it four times, each time trying to answer the questions included in each of the four steps. Thus, in each re-reading task (each step) they concentrate on a different aspect of their essay. In brief, the first task asks them to highlight the verbs and check the tenses; in the second task students concentrate on prepositions; the third task requires them to concentrate on nouns (spelling, agreement between subject and verb); finally in the fourth task students should try to correct potential personal mistakes. Porte also offers some clarification of what is meant by personal mistakes, in order to help the students identify them.

The studies mentioned above are only a few examples that demonstrate how S. Pit Corder’s work influenced the area of error analysis in linguistics. The concepts that Corder introduced directed researcher’s attention to specific areas of error analysis; they helped linguists realize that although errors sometimes obstruct communication, they can often facilitate second language acquisition; also they played a significant role in training teachers and helping them identify and classify students’ errors, as well as helping them construct correction techniques.

REFERENCES

Corder, S. P. 1967. “The significance of learners’ errors”. International Review of Applied Linguistics 5: 161-9.

Dulay, H., and Burt, M., “Errors and strategies in child second language acquisition”, TESOL Quarterly 8: 129-136, 1974.

Ellis, R., “The Study of Second Language Acquisition”, Oxford University Press, 1994.

Esser, U., “Fremdsprachenpsychologische Betrachtungen zur Fehlerproblematic im Fremdsprachenunterricht”, Deutsch als Fremdsprache, 4:151-159, 1984, (cited in Hagege 1999).

Freiermuth, M. R., “L2 Error Correction: Criteria and Techniques”, The Language Teacher Online 22.06, http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/97/sep/freiermuth.html, 1997.

Hagege, C. “L’enfant aux deux langues” (The child between two languages), Greek translation, Polis editions, Athens 1999. (Original publication: Editions Odile Jacob, 1996).

Kroll, Barry, and John C. Schafer. “Error-Analysis and the Teaching of Composition”, College Composition and Communication 29: 242-248, 1978

Lakkis, K. and Malak, M. A.. “Understanding the Transfer of Prepositions”. FORUM, Vol 38, No 3, July-September 2000. (Online edition: http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol38/no3/p26.htm)

Mager, R.F. “Preparing Instructional Objectives”, Fearon Publishers, Palo Alto, CA 1962.

Nguyen, Thanh Ha. “First Language Transfer and Vietnamese Learners’ Oral Competence in English Past Tense Marking: A Case Study.”, Master of Education (TESOL) Research Essay, La Trobe University, Victoria, Australia1995.

Porte, G. K., “Mistakes, Errors, and Blank Checks”, FORUM, Vol 31, No 2, p. 42, January-March 1993. (Online edition: http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol31/no1/p42.htm)

Richards, J., “A non-contrastive approach to error analysis”, English Language Teaching 25: 204-219, 1971.

Stenson, N. “Induced errors” in Shumann and Stenson (eds.), 1974, cited in Ellis (p. 60).

Taylor G., “Errors and explanations”, Applied Linguistics 7: 144-166, 1986.

Academic English Requirements:

University-Level Preparation Programs for International Students

Introduction

The issue of English language standards and the academic preparation programs of international students who must meet them has become an increasingly complex and controversial topic in education today. This paper will explore this issue in depth, focusing on the specific needs of foreign students at University level. It will do this by exploring the current literature and theories that dominate the field, including Computer-Assisted Language Learning, or ‘CALL’. Then it will discuss issues pertinent to planning and developing an effective language preparation program to address those needs

Current literature and theories

A number of theories are currently competing to dominate the field today. Among these are several entry level issues. Most professionals agree that some sort of preparatory training is absolutely necessary for first year University students of non-English speaking background (NESB). However, the agreement stops there, as they seem unable to decide on which of these programs is best.

One of these programs is focused primarily on teaching students only those English language concepts that are essential for them to be successful in attaining their academic degrees. Called ‘English for Academic Purposes’ (EAP), this plan, as the name suggests, zeroes in on those skills that best ensure academic success. Academic success here is defined solely by completion of a degree. This raises issues of its true long-term worth as a sustainable skill (‘Pathways’ 2004, 2).

Other plans include ‘English for Specific Purposes’ (ESP), which focuses on teaching students those aspects of English that will be most relevant their specialised professional projects. Alternate pathways to University level education are another option; this approach focuses on integrating relevant skills learned outside the academic setting in such a way that the student is given academic credit for them. A methodology similar to this is described by Sandra Elbaum in Grammar in Context: ‘Learning a language through meaningful themes and practicing it in a contextualized setting promote both linguistic and cognitive development’ (Elbaum 2005, xv).

The ‘Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol’ Model, also called the SIOP Model, focuses on what the authors refer to as ‘sheltered instruction’. It is an approach ‘that can extend the time students have for getting language support services while giving them a jump-start on the content subjects they will need for graduation (Echevarria et al. 2004, 10).

Computer-Assisted Language Learning

Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) was first used to assist in foreign language teaching in the 1960s. This was only at University level; it has since grown to include earlier grade levels as well. It has made drastic strides in development since its introduction (Warschauer & Healey 1998, 58).

CALL is described by Warschauer as having three primary functions: behaviouristic, communicative, and integrative. The first of these, the Behaviouristic, is the simplest model. In this mode, the computer functions primarily as a means of providing the learner with the appropriate educational materials. Essentially, this means that the computer functions in a tutorial capacity.

The second mode is called the Communicative mode. It is much more interactive and allows the learner a greater degree of choice and control in the methodology and level of study. Some examples of this mode include word processing functions, spelling and grammar checkers, and stimulating games such as Sim City (Davies 2005, par. 3; Warschauer & Healey 1998, 67).

The Integrative phase, the final and most recent, is also the most complicated and the most rewarding of the three. It offers a far greater degree of sophistication. It does this by combining both multimedia and internet technologies to offer a wide range of control to learners and teachers. Communication can be synchronous or asynchronous, eliminating scheduling conflicts as well as time zone differences. This also helps students to pace themselves according to their own learning needs. Finally, geographic distance ceases to be a barrier, allowing individuals to expand their social horizons as they exchange ideas with other members of the global community (Davies 2005).

Thus, the Integrative aspect of CALL offers such a wide range of options and challenges for second-language learners. However, the Integrative phase does invite criticism, particularly regarding foreign-language acquisition. For example, it can be said that language is basically a social activity. As such, the concept of truly learning one without face-to-face contact may seem prohibitive to some. It can also be argued that Integrative communication tends to isolate rather than draw people together, making the concept of global community seem more unattainable than ever.

Proposal for Course Layout

In order to plan an effective preparatory course for international students at this level of study, facilitators must be aware of the variety of material available for improving students’ language skill, not just one or two texts. The variety and options offered by University-level textbooks and accompanying tools seem endless. Although the standard grammar-based ‘traditional’ approach still forms the core of many methodologies, few programs base their programs on a single methodology.

Dana Ferris stresses the need to develop a comprehensive ‘error-treatment’ plan that directly addresses key issues regarding linguistic ability in composition and writing (Ferris 2002, 105). According to Ferris, teachers need to realize that ‘differences in students’ levels of L2 proficiency will affect both the number and type of errors that they make as well as their ability to process particular types of feedback’ (Ferris 2002, 56).

It is also vitally important to know the needs of the students in the class. This is a point that cannot be stressed enough: to effectively plan the class, instructors need to know the basic makeup of individual classes rather than design a curriculum that is based on theoretical conjecture. Use of multimedia and similar resources can greatly facilitate this process.

Another aspect to consider in designing a course is that fact that approaches to studying are different in different countries. For example, in the UK and most other English-speaking countries, students are expected to be very independent. International students should be made aware of the different levels of expectation, as well as strategies for learning to adjust and thrive in this environment. This theory is a key part of the theory of Lowes et al. in their guide for international students. Lowes and his partners are lecturers who have had several years’ experience teaching students at University in the UK. They include specific, real-life examples of the experiences they have had with students from different cultures and countries to demonstrate the relevance of their point.

Conclusion

It is clear that the issue of academic preparation programs for international students is complex and controversial. The trend today seems to be leaning heavily towards computer-assisted methodologies, which offer flexibility, convenience, and control for both students and instructors. There also seems to be an increasing awareness that general English-language courses need to be tailored to fit the specific needs of the students who take them, thus enabling them to concentrate on their primary courses of study.

By designing a preparatory course that considers the actual levels and the specific needs of international students, the lessons will address relevant issues—issues that will enable students to focus on their primary programme of study to successfully complete their degrees.

Reference List

Ascher, A.. 2004. Think About Editing: An ESL Guide for The Harbrace Handbooks. Boston, MA: Thomson.

Davies, G. 2005. ‘Computer Assisted Language Learning: Where are we now and where are we going?’ Accessed September 5, 2005.

URL: http://www.nestafuturelab.org/viewpoint/learn23.htm.

Echevarria, J., Vogt, M., and Short, D. 2004. Making Content Comprehensible for English Learners: The SIOP Model. 2^nd ed. London: Pearson Education.

Ediger, A. and Pavlik, C. 1999. Reading Connections: Skills and Strategies for Purposeful Reading. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

Elbaum, S. 2005. Grammar in Context. 4^th ed. Boston, MA: Thomson Heinle.

Ferris, D. 2002. Treatment of Error in Second Language Student Writing. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Lowes, R., Peters, H., and Turner, M. 2004. The International Student’s Guide: Studying English at University. London: Sage Publications Ltd.

‘Pathways to University Level Education’. 2004. Survey sponsored by Tertiary Sector Special Interest Group (TESOLANZ). Collated by Tricia Hewlett.

Accessed September 5, 2005.

URL: http://www.tesolanz.org.nz/Pathways Survey.doc

Warschauer, M., & Healey, D. 1998. ‘Computers and language learning: An overview’. Language Teaching, 31, 57–71.

Earlier in the history of electronic advancement, children in highly developed countries had learned to appreciate and use simple to complex electronic gadgetries but never understood basic principles behind them. Some knew how to assemble robots but could not understand how the motor or magnets in it work. In other words they learn to walk before they crawl.

Concerns have reached the classroom as today’s educational systems use more of ICT in teaching basic principles of English, Mathematics, and Science teaching. The question whether how much exposure and competence the pupils must have on certain science principles before they are exposed to ICT as a means of performing laborious, repetitive or more complex tasks is a challenge for educators of today. The schools and all education stakeholders must however understand that the uses of ICT tools are an advantage to both teachers and pupils.

Results of several studies conducted throughout the world revealed that the use of ICT greatly increased the level of learning and understanding of the pupils on the scientific principles being studied (Betts, 2003, Mistler-Jackson & Songer, 2000, Hogarth et. al, 2006).

In fact the ICT tools can even be use to demonstrate science principles in a safer way. For instance, teaching electricity principles to pupils can be both interesting and dangerous. But the advent of computer hardwares and softwares has made it more motivating and rewarding minus the hazards. Primary knowledge and skills about how electrical circuits work, how much power is required for certain types of lights, and others can be learned through simulation and not in actual exposure to real electrical circuits.

To determine if ICT is really needed for primary science education and understand when is the proper timing of its introduction into the learning process it is proper to understand first what ICT applications are necessary and how can they be integrated into the learning systems? What are the advantages and disadvantages of its applications?

Types of ICT learning tools in science

The use of ICT in teaching science for primary education came in various forms. Review of schools’ science teaching modules show the use of ICT hardwares and softwares to obtain and use science information, encoding of data, and creating presentations. Science information materials can be obtained from CD-ROM based encyclopedia and other e-books, journals, and articles, through a wide variety of Internet locations, and through local and international electronic library networks. There are a lot of word processing softwares that can be used to prepare science reports including customized programs for science report preparations. Data processing programs, spreadsheets, databases used for logging science data, processing them, and analyzing the results and its implications are already available for use.

Higher-level applications include the use of simulation programs to explain scientific principles and perform experiments in virtual conditions. There are experiments, which are impractical to conduct under normal conditions but can be simulated in computers to show the implications to let the pupils appreciate and understand. Example to this are CD programs that show what would happen if we walk on surfaces of different planets, what are the magnitudes of the gravity in Mars, Pluto, our moons, and others. Children can appreciate the effects through computer images animated based on the actual situation in the simulated locations.

Advantages of ICT science learning tools

The use of ICT tools has a lot of identified advantages over the use of conventional methods of instructions such as the traditional ordinary chalk and board and the pen and paper system. Several of these identified edge of ICT is discussed below.

In primary level ICT applications on data logging using sensitive probes to measure temperature, light, pressure, acidity, and other parameters increase the affectivity in data gathering and extend the range and accuracy of the observations. Ordinary tools used to gather these data such as thermometers, pressure gauges, pH meters or pH papers, and others require manual reading and data quality is dependent on the child’s skills and mode. The use of ICT based instruments has helped free the children from doing laborious task and repetitive works and focus their attention on analysing the meaning of the data.

The use of networks through Internet, intranets, e-libraries, and other ICT medium widened the pupil’s access to information and even brought him to places virtual which cannot be accessed easily with conventional means without ICT. Children can access information from libraries in other European, American, Asian, and other countries around the globe without leaving the classroom.

Simulation software used in science learning provides higher achievements of students than those not using the simulation, with girls achieving equally with boys (Huppert, 2002).

The use of ICT in the classroom makes as much demand on teachers’ understanding and mediation as non-computer activities; however it speeds up the process and makes use of class times more efficiently by eliminating board works as replaced by computer presentations. Illustrations and examples are more realistic with use of virtual replica of real world figures like plants, animals, and objects.

ICT has really made learning more fun and exciting and even made to raise the enthusiasm of the pupils as learning is made easy and enjoyable just like games.

Disadvantages and problems

Just like any other promising technologies the use of ICT has perceived problems in education and in application to teaching-learning in particular. Several reports and reviews enumerated these problems which can be grouped into: teacher related, facility related, and learner related.

As far as the teachers are concerned, review of Hogarth, et. al (2006) revealed some of those involved in utilizing ICT in science classes have doubts over the value of ICT in promoting learning in science lessons. This is caused by the fact that many ICT resources have no clear rationale for their inclusion in teaching. The worst case is that some teachers lack adequate training to handle ICT programs and if they are trained they lack the time to plan for effective use of ICT in their lessons. Some teachers lack confidence on the effectiveness of some hardware and software used in the process while others felt threatened by the presence in the classroom of a new, powerful source of information. Yerrick & Hoving (1999) also reported that despite similarities in teachers knowledge on ICT the implementation of ICT programs differ with teachers which could have been affected by the school’s and teacher’s practices.

In relation to facilities, Hogarth, et al. (2006) reported there are planning difficulties associated with banks of networked computers being located centrally in rooms which had to be booked in advance for the instructional purposes. These are caused by shortage of computers and other hardware and the lack of technical support. Materials in CD-ROMS and websites used in science researches must be controlled to conform to standards. Proliferation of non-approved materials in CDs and online can be a threat to performance and the quality of primary science learning.

On the part of the pupils the use ICT, which speeds up the processes may cause learning disparities across different types and learning capacities of pupils especially in the heterogeneous classes wherein fast learners are merged with medium and slow learners.

The Importance and Timing of ICT programs in science learning.

It has been properly illustrated above that advantages of using ICT in primary science education outweighs that of the disadvantages and that problems identified from different settings can be solved with proper planning and coordination among stakeholders.

Whether or not to adopt ICT programs to improve the learning of process skills among primary science pupils is already out of question. The question would be how much exposure to theories and learning the principles of science process skills the learners need before they are exposed to ICT applications. Is it necessary that theories must be learned first before application, or the other way around?

The answer requires common sense and areas of concern must be dealt in a case to case basis. There are process skills that require just basic competency such as data encoding, internet browsing, CD-ROMS access. But there are skills that require just theoretical knowledge before ICT applications are used. Graphing is one particular case. To understand the graph, pupils must be taught how it is done and how to anaylyse them.

But there are cases when innovativeness and flexibility on the part of the teacher is a better judge. To site an example in most cases pupils are taught about the basics on the physico-chemical properties, such as those mentioned above (temperature, pressure, pH, etc) and what these things are all about before they must be exposed on how to obtain the measurable properties whether conventional of through ICT. The use of ICT here just replaces the conventional which at this age are really outdated. But try to think that other teachers uses unique methods of presenting situations first via simulation software or even data logging programs to spur curiosity among pupils before discussing in depth the concepts behind them. Concepts such as magnetism, the earth, and others can be treated this way. Unless properly regulated, a teacher has the leeway to use his styles in order to achieve the learning outcomes. As a matter of fact, “who discourages innovation?”

Conclusion

We have lived into the Third Wave, the Information Age, and no one can argue about that. Whether we like it on not everyone even those who are out of school are exposed to ICT in everyday lives from the TV, the microwave ovens, the heaters, the street lights and everything. These electronic gadgets which have ICT software integrated in them confront us without any advance or basic knowledge about the theories behind them. The fact is everything can be learned if one desires. So if you are tasked to know how to operate a microwave oven you don’t have to understand how the microwave works on the food. But if you want to know about it you have the prerogative to learn. The point is as long as the basic requirement is satisfied then let the children use ICT to learn more.

References

British Educational Communications and Technology Agency (Becta). 2004. Moving on: The role of ICT in pupil’s transition. Millburn Hill Road Science Park Coventry CV4 7JJ

Information and communication technology in primary schools The Annual Report of Her Majesty’s Chief Inspector of Schools 2004/05. Retrived on Jan 4, 2008 from http://live.ofsted.gov.uk/publications/annualreport0405/4.1.6.html

Betts, S., (2003). Does the use of ICT affect quality in learning science at Key Stage 3? Studies in Teaching and Learning, pp. 9-17.

Hogarth S, Bennett J, Lubben F, Campbell B, Robinson A (2006) ICT in Science Teaching. Technical Report. In: Research Evidence in Education Library. London: EPPI-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, Institute of Education, University of London.

Huppert, J. (2002). Computer simulations in the high school: Students’ cognitive stages, science process skills and academic achievement in microbiology. International Journal of Science Education, 24 (8), pp. 803-821.

Mistler-Jackson, M., Songer, N.B., (2000). Student motivation and internet technology: Are students empowered to learn science? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37 (5), pp. 459-479.

Yerrick, R., Hoving, T., (1999). Obstacles confronting technology initiatives as seen through the experience of science teachers: A comparative study of science teachers’ beliefs, planning, and practice. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 8 (4), pp. 291-307.