Author: Andre Coleman

Technological development is becoming more and more essential in sport competition. Technological development refers to the development of techniques or appliance which can improve the quality and magnificence of the sport competitions. However, there could be some difference between different countries; it may depend on the level of the countries’ development. There are three main aspects revealing that technological development has revolutionized sport competitions. Firstly, the development of telecommunications promotes the globalization of sport competition. Secondly, the use of electronic appliance helps to reduce controversy and ensure the fairness of the results in the competition, such as auto-timing system. Moreover, the improvement sport equipments and analyzing system has become necessary for enhancing the performance of athletes.

One of the most dramatic revolutions in sport completion is caused by the developments in new technologies of mass communication, especially the development of Internet and satellite television, which are allowing the sport competitions to be publicized around the world much more quickly. As an example, mega-events such as the Olympic Games can be regarded as a ‘media-events (D. Rowe, 2004, 166). According to Roche, the 1936 Berlin Olympics was the first Olympic Games to be radio broadcast to the world; and it was also the first major sport event to be televised, although it was only available in the city of Berlin at that time due to the limited local cable system. Nowadays, the universality of the Internet and television are most effective to the globalization of the sports competition, however, turning the sport competition into global event. Referring to the television, Horne and Manzenreiter indicate that the estimation of 3.9 billion television audiences had watched parts of the 2004 Athens Olympic Games, and 40 billion which are cumulative television audiences, contributing to a increase of 27% over the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. Moreover, Horne and Manzenreiter also indicate the 2002 FIFA World Cup staged in Japan and South Korea, 41000 hours of programming were provided in 213 countries and about 28.8 television audiences of this event, even more than that in Olympic Games. From this situation, there is no doubt that the development of telecommunication provides a much larger stage for the sport competitions, and makes the sport competition become a global history.

In the sport competitions, the quality of the athletes is the most important factor in determining their performance. Analysing the movements of athletes could be the effective method to increase the possibilities of championship in the sport competitions; for instance, analyzing the movement or posture of an ice-skate athlete could help the athlete to maximize the speed and overcome the shortcomings. However, the details of the movements cannot be easily seen because the unassisted eye functions at the speed of 1/340th of a second exposure time; fortunately, the

Like many other sports, table tennis began as a mild social diversion. Descending from lawn tennis to badminton to the ancient medieval game of tennis. Table Tennis likely began as a social hobby in England toward the end of the 1800’s. These early pioneers may have referred to their sport as gossima, flim-flam, or ping-pong. The game became a huge fun event after the name Ping-Pong, the noise made by the ball striking the table, was introduced by J. Jacques & Son. It became very popular in England under its present name “Ping-Pong.” (Hickok)

By the early years of this century, Ping-Pong had already acquired some of its present day complexities, but it was still used by many as an after-dinner amusement game rather than a sport. Dining-room tables made up some of the early equipment that was used. Several different every-day objects were used to play the sport. They used a line of books as the net; rackets were lids from empty cigar boxes, and then a little later, parchment paper stretched around a frame created a paddle. The ball would be either a ball of string, or perhaps more commonly, a champagne cork or rubber ball. The game underwent a few changes in England in the next few years. One person introduced a celluloid ball to the game, while another added pimpled rubber to the wooden paddle. These additions were used by many and advanced on by others. Some box sets can still be bought from Milton Bradley. (Bradley)

The game was very popular in Central Europe in 1905 to 1910, but even this was a modified version that was introduced to Japan, where it later spread to China and Korea to become a huge popular sport in these countries. (Museum) The Japanese dominated the sport for much of the 50s and 60s. But in the 60’s and 70’s, the Chinese soon caught up with the Japanese. China alone has dominated the sport for much of the time since then, especially after Table Tennis became an Olympic event in the 1980’s. For a reason unknown, the Chinese took table tennis as their national sport. And most other countries can’t really touch them in skill. Alone from China four of the top ten from both male and female live here including number one. Now other nations such as Sweden and South Korea have joined the top ranks.

For a while in Europe, it lost its fun and became very unpopular to play. Then in the early twenties, it regained its popularity and became a sport. In 1926 the International Table Tennis Federation, ITTF, was formed. By that time it had adopted its new name of Ping-Pong, while also being called table tennis. It started to become so popular that organizations and federations developed and rules and regulations were made. (Museum)

Over the next sixty years, table tennis developed into a major worldwide sport. Today it is said that a rough 30 thousand people play competitively, and another million to 2 million play in household rooms and garages. Although it has became faster and harder to play, the game itself has not lost its “gentleman’s” sport aura. One major concern that the ITTF has always insured that table tennis remains a contest of human skills. Also, they are very concerned with technological developments, which add a new factor to the game like the spin and speed of a paddle or bat, do not give too great an advantage to the players who get to use these developments. Therefore, equipment specifications are carefully laid down, and rigorously enforced. (Museum)

Other changes like lowering of a net, is a big rule that shouldn’t be broken. Rules preventing excessive advantage being gained by the server-were introduced in the thirties, and only minor changes are made from time to time. Changes to the rules of the sport can only be made only at the ITTF’s Biennial General Meeting. These changes are never made without the agreement of a substantial majority of the hundred members in Associations represented at the BGM. In this vote everyone is equal. This is kind of like the UN Security Council too, if they want to veto a rule or movement, just one person can stop the rule or movement.

Modern table tennis at a high rank is as rigorous as any sport in its demands for the highest degree of physical fitness and mental concentration. Very physical and arduous training to develop natural skills for the sport usually attains this. Fred Perry in 1928-29 became the World Men’s Singles Table Tennis Champion, and then in the following years he became a champion at Wimbledon. Many say he moved to the tennis court because his reactions got slower. But it is certainly true that no other sport requires faster reactions and more delicate muscular co-ordination than ping-pong. (Museum)

According to a PBS article: One of the first public hints of improved U.S.-China relations came on April 6, 1971. This happened when the American Ping-Pong team in Japan for the 31st World Table Tennis Championship, received a surprise invitation from their Chinese colleagues for an all-expense paid visit to the People’s Republic. Time magazine called it “The ping heard round the world.” On April 10, nine players, four officials, and two spouses stepped across a bridge from Hong Kong to the Chinese mainland, ushering in an era of “Ping-Pong diplomacy.” They were the first group of Americans allowed into China since the Communist takeover in 1949.(Dean)

In table tennis there are very many different strokes, different swings, and different stances. I, myself as a ping-pong player, use the shake-hand grip. I use this grip for very many reasons. One reason would have to be that it feels the most comfortable to me. It feels way more natural and comfortable rather than the pen-hold grip. I have a lot more speed and control when I hit a hard move or hit. Another reason is because if someone hits the ball really fast back to me, then I am ready and I can hit back a very fast stroke back. In this style I can hit a backhand or forehand as fast as my body will let me. Also when I use this grip I can hit the ball to any spot on the table. When I use the pen-hold grip, I can’t usually hit the ball where I want to.

In table tennis, professionals play with either the shake-hand grip or the pen-hold grip. I myself use this grip. I have more control and more speed when I use this style. The shake-hand grip is appropriately named because you hold the paddle as if you were shaking someone’s hand, with your index finger extending over the bottom part of the rubber on the backhand side and your thumb slightly touching the rubber on the forehand side. (Bradley, Milton)

The pen-hold grip is also appropriately named because you hold the paddle just like a pen, only grasping the paddle at the top of the handle. Because of this, people that use this grip get a paddle with a more comfortable handle to use this grip.

The wrist flick is almost always done from the backhand side. The opponent usually does it to return a serve or to return a ball hit very short and low. (Bradley)

The counter is used against topspin balls, which you have no time to loop. This stroke requires very little forward arm motion, but it is extremely important that you angle and position your paddle correctly. If it is hard topspin, you must angle your paddle downward, so the ball is forced not to pop up when you hit it. If it is soft topspin, do angle your paddle so it’s nearly facing the opponent. If hitting either a backhand or a forehand, the paddle should only move forward about a foot during the complete shot. (Bradley)

All in all, ping-pong has a long history of ups and downs. It started in the end of the 1800’s and has since then become very popular. From all countries there have been many people that have played their way to the top of ping-pong history. There are a lot of different strokes and spin moves in the game of ping-pong. There are two main grips, pen-hold grip and shake-hold grip which are used in all games of ping-pong.

Works Cited:

Deen, Alfred. “History of Table Tennis.” PongWorld. 2000. PongWorld. 31 Jan 2008 .

Hickok, Ralph. “Table Tennis.” Hickok Sports.com. Monday, 17-Dec-2007 11:26:23. Hickok Sports. 4 Feb 2008 .

International Table Tennis Federation museum, “The History of Table Tennis.” Robbins Table Tennis Specialties. 2007. Robbins Table Tennis Specialties, Inc.. 31 Jan 2008 http://www.robbinstabletennis.com/history.htm

ITTF Museum. “A Comprehensive History of Table Tennis.” ITTF Museum. ITTF Museum. 4 Feb 2008 .

Milton Bradley, “The History of Table Tennis.” Table Tennis History. Fortune City. 4 Feb 2008 .

Willcox, Isobel. Acrobats & Ping~Pong. 13438. New York: Dodd, mead & Company, 1981.

Abstract

Fencing is a high intensity sport involving dynamic movements which expose the musculoskeletal system to high impact forces that may lead to overuse injuries. One of the most frequently used high impact movements is the lunge. With many different types of sports footwear available providing different levels of midsole cushioning, selecting the most suitable for a sport may be a factor in preventing the onset of injury. The aim of this study was to investigate the magnitudes of the transient axial impact shock experienced at the tibia between traditional fencing shoes and standard athletic footwear during the impact phase of the fencing lunge. Peak tibial shock was measured in 19 male fencers in 4 different footwear conditions using an accelerometer placed on the distal aspect of the tibia. The standard footwear resulted in significant reductions in peak impact shock in comparison to the traditional fencing shoes. Thus the reduction in impact shock found suggests that running or squash specific footwear may reduce overuse injury occurrence. However, despite this, the majority of participants indicated that they preferred fencing specific footwear for fencing. The results of this study suggest that there is justification for a re-design of fencing shoes.

Introduction

Competitive fencing (foil, sabre and epee) has experienced a rapid increase in participation rates during the past decade (Harmer, 2008). The sport places unique demands on the athlete and is characterised by asymmetry and the incidence of rapid motions which have the potential to generate large forces (Geil, 2002). In particular, the frequently used lunge which is the basis of most attacking motions is a high impact movement (Kopetka & Stewart, 2005).

The expansion in participation combined with the biomechanical demands of the sport has led to enhanced awareness of the incidence of injuries associated with fencing. Nonetheless, prospective, epidemiological studies of the incidence of repetitive strain and overuse injuries in fencing are scarce. As a result, it is difficult to draw dependable conclusions regarding the etiology of fencing injuries and their prevention based on impartial information (Roi & Bianchedi, 2008). However existing studies indicate that overuse injuries account for approximately 30% of injuries that interfere with training (Carter et al., 1993). The majority of injuries are confined to the lower extremities (e.g., stress fractures, impingement enthesopathies of the patellar tendon and tibia and plantar fascia) associated with fencing (Harmer, 2008, Wild et al., 2001; Zemper & Harmer, 1996) characteristic of dynamic activities involving high velocity change in momentum actions (Harmer, 2008).

No apparent data has been published providing information regarding the total number of lunges executed during a competitive bout. However, Roi and Bianchedi (2008) suggest that there are anywhere between 66 and 210 attacks (depending on the weapon) during a competition, which given the lunge’s function as the most common attacking mechanism, it appears that fencers will be regularly subjected to the impact forces imposed by the lunge.

One of the characteristics of the foot impacting the surface during a lunge is a rapid change in velocity of the foot and this velocity reaches zero upon foot placement in a short period of time (Whittle, 1999). This impact leads to the transmission of an axial transient shock wave through the body and carries with it the potential for injury. It is important to recognise that loading is necessary for maintenance of cartilage, bone, and muscle health (Stone, 1988). An optimal loading window for tissue strength can be characterized by frequent impacts of certain magnitude, duration, and frequency. Movements beyond the optimal loading window can lead to the breakdown of body tissue and overuse injuries (Hardin et al., 2003).

The magnitude of the impact shock is commonly measured using accelerometers. Accelerometers are traditionally placed onto the skin overlying the tibia to quantify the transient impact shockwave during motion. Despite the consensus that soft tissue interferes with the acceleration recording of underlying bone, the utilization of skin mounted devices is considered appropriate provided they are lightweight and rigidly attached to the overlying skin (Shorten and Windslow, 1992). This method has been used to examine the cushioning properties of athletic footwear (Lake & Greenhalgh, 2005) and better differentiates between impact conditions compared to data acquired using a force platform (Lafortune & Hennig, 1992). The high impact nature of the lunge implies that the lower extremities may be at risk from overuse injuries.

To date there is no information available regarding the potentially detrimental effect of the impact accelerations experienced during this movement. However, epidemiological studies suggest that a relationship exists between the magnitude of the transient shockwave and the etiology of a number of lower extremity overuse injuries (Nigg & Segesser, 1992). Therefore with a significant number of lunges being undertaken by a fencer and the potential connection between the magnitude of the impact shockwave and the incidence of overuse injuries makes it important to investigate the shock attenuation properties of fencing footwear.

The 1992 U.S Fencing Association review of the factors that may contribute to fencing injuries indicates that of the three primary areas for prevention, deficient equipment and facilities may be responsible for as many as 28% of the injuries associated with fencing, with ineffective footwear forming a significant component (Carter et al., 1993). The review noted problems with fencing shoes citing inadequate cushioning as well as the lack of footwear designs that could shield against the high impact nature of the sport, particularly lunging. To reduce injury, Zemper and Harmer (1996) have suggested a redesign of fencing shoes.

The primary function of athletic footwear as described by Stacoff et al., (1988) is to provide shock attenuation. The properties of athletic footwear have been linked to the prevention of overuse injuries. With many different types of sports footwear available providing different levels of midsole cushioning, selecting the most suitable for a sport can be vital in preventing the onset of injury. Fencing equipment retailers in the UK offer very few options for specific footwear, with only 2 major brands on offer (Adidas and Hi Tec). It also appears that the fencing shoe has been more specifically designed for the function of the trail foot to enable good grip on the piste as well as maximising the life span of the shoe if dragging the back foot, which is common in fencing.

The limited availability of specific shock attenuating footwear to the fencer may predispose fencers to overuse injuries. The majority of studies analyzing the influence of different footwear conditions on impact kinetics have focused on running.

Therefore, the aim of the present study was twofold. First, to assess the magnitude of the peak axial tibial transient accelerations associated with the lunge in fencing to provide practitioners with information regarding the potential causes of injury. Secondly, to compare two specific fencing shoes with two standard sports shoes (running and squash) with regards to their shock attenuating properties during the lunge movement.

In particular, it was predicted that peak axial transient accelerations were lower in shoes which have been particularly developed for shock absorbing qualities (running and squash shoes) in comparison to fencing shoes during the stance phase of the fencing lunge.

Methods
Participants

Nineteen male (17 right handed and 2 left handed) competitive fencers with a minimum of 2 years experience (Age 25.6 + 8.3 years; Height 1.78 + 0.5 m; Weight 76.8 + 9.0 kg) comprising a mixture of the foil (n=2), epee (n=15) and sabre (n=1) disciplines, volunteered to take part in this study. All were injury free at the time of data collection and completed an informed consent form. The procedure was approved by a university ethical board.

Materials

Each participant was fitted with four pairs of shoes for the study. The shoes were the same for each participant; they differed in size only (sizes 9 and 10 men’s UK sizes) and consisted of a conventional running shoe (Saucony Grid forum), squash shoe (Hi-Tec squash indoor) and fencing shoes (Hi-Tec blade) and (Adidas en guard). A tri-axial (Biometircs ACL 300) accelerometer sampling at 1000Hz was utilized to measure axial accelerations at the tibia. The device was mounted on a piece of lightweight carbon-fibre material. The combined weight of the accelerometer and mounting instrument was 9g. The voltage sensitivity of the signal was set to 100mV/g, allowing adequate sensitivity with a measurement range of ± 100 g.

The device was attached securely to leading leg on the distal anterio-medial aspect of the shank 8 cm above the medial maleolus in alignment with its longitudinal axis.

This location was selected as the boniest prominence of the distal tibia in accordance with the Nokes et al., (1984) conclusions to improve the mechanical coupling of the accelerometer mounting to the tibia and reduce artefact due to interposing soft-tissue. The accelerometer was positioned so that acceleration was measured in the direction up the tibia (Figure 1). Strong adhesive tape was placed over the device and the lower leg to avoid overestimating the peak positive acceleration due to tissue artefact. The device was attached as close to the tibia as possible, the skin on overlying the bone itself was stretched thus ensuring a more rigid coupling between accelerometer and tibia. Furthermore, adhesive tape was positioned over the device itself to ensure it was maintained in a fixed position along the longitudinal axis of the tibia. The acceleration signal was sent to a Biometrics data logger with a 2 GB memory card. The data logger was fastened securely to a lightweight backpack to reduce movement of the device during trials.

Procedure

The fencers completed a suitable warm-up and were allowed two minutes to familiarize themselves with the experimental protocol and footwear condition prior to the commencement of data collection. They were then required to complete ten lunges hitting a dummy with their weapon in each footwear condition whilst returning to a starting point (pre-determined by each participant prior to the commencement of data capture) following each trial to control lunge distance. Each trial was comprised of a lunge where contact between the sword and dummy defined a successful outcome. The starting point for the movement was adjusted and maintained. The order in which the different footwear conditions were worn was randomized. Upon conclusion of the data collection participants were asked to subjectively indicate which shoe they preferred for fencing.

Kinetic data was quantified/processed using Biometrics data-log software. The stance phase of each trial was acquired from each accelerometer signal for analysis. Peak positive axial tibial acceleration was defined as the highest positive acceleration peak measured during the stance phase after a 60Hz 1st order low pass filter had been implemented in accordance with the Lake and Greenhalgh (2005) recommendations.

The mean values of the footfalls per participant/condition for the axial component of the acceleration signal was quantified and used for statistical analysis. Descriptive statistics were calculated for each variable including means and standard deviations. Differences between footwear conditions were examined via a within subjects repeated measures analysis of variance with significance accepted at the p

Results

A statistical power analysis of pilot data was conducted in order to reduce the likelihood of a type II error and determine the minimum number of participants needed for this investigation. It was found that the sample size was sufficient to provide more than 80% of statistical power in the experimental measure. Figure 2 provides the mean and standard deviations for the peak tibial accelerations for the four different shoe types. The Mauchly’s sphericity assumption was violated and as such the degrees of freedom of the F statistic was adjusted via the Greenhouse Geisser correction. The Shapiro-Wilk statistic for each footwear condition confirmed that the data was normally distributed. The analysis of variance was significant (F (1.97, 35.52) = 16.31; P < .001; ?2 = .48). Post-hoc comparisons showed that the peak axial tibial shock was significantly lower in the squash and running shoes in comparison to the fencing shoes (p <.01). The fencing shoes did not differ from each other in terms of peak axial acceleration (P = .48) nor did the running and squash shoes (P = 0.087).

Discussion

The aim of this study was to determine the differences in the magnitude of the transient acceleration between traditional fencing shoes and standard athletic footwear during the impact phase of the fencing lunge. The results of this study support our hypothesis, in that the magnitudes of the axial impact shockwaves were significantly lower in both the running and squash shoes compared to the traditional fencing footwear.

The transient shockwave is linked to the development of a variety of overuse injuries (Whittle, 1999). It is essential to acknowledge the link between the magnitude of these forces and overuse injuries, as the frequency of these conditions can be reduced by attenuating the impact magnitude (Whittle, 1999). Therefore the significant reduction in impact shock found would suggest that running/squash footwear may assist in the reduction of overuse injury occurrence.

Interestingly, despite the higher impact magnitude and concerns regarding the potential development of overuse injuries, the majority of participants indicated that they preferred fencing specific footwear for fencing. This finding agrees with those of Geil (2002) who hypothesized that this finding centred on plantar sensory proprioceptive mechanisms, whereby the feel of the fencing piste underneath the foot is reduced in shoes that offer a high degree of midsole cushioning. Geil (2002) suggested that footwear may influence fencing performance. They noted that increased midsole cushioning and travel of the foot during compression may lead to slower motion of the feet, which in turn could contribute to diminished velocity of the weapon hand, reducing the overall execution quality of the movement itself.

Based on these findings it appears that midsole cushioning properties should play only a partial role in the design characteristics of an effective fencing shoe. Fencing involves a number of movement strategies in addition to the lunge, and as such shoe designs must cater to this. Fencers like most athletes require sure footing during competition; as such footwear designs must deliver adequate traction to provide stability during lunging, attacking and retreating motions. Furthermore, the medial forefoot of the trail shoe is an area traditionally subjected to high abrasion forces and thus heavy wear. Manufacturers should therefore focus attention on developing more resistant materials for this purpose to prolong the lifespan of the shoe. Whilst shock attenuation is the primary function of midsole cushioning, the elastic energy stored and recovered by cushioning systems has been proposed as a mechanism by which the oxygen cost of movement can be reduced. Given the aerobic demands the sport of fencing places on the athlete (Roi & Bianchedi, 2008) additional research should focus on this factor as it may serve to slow the onset of fatigue and improve performance.

The results of this study however, suggest that there is some justification for the Zemper and Harmer (1996) recommendations regarding the re-design of fencing shoes due to the demonstrated high transient impact forces on the front foot during the lunge. The primary design dilemma facing footwear manufacturers is to include features that would serve to attenuate the large impact forces and help reduce overuse injuries. At the same time, the design characteristics should also provide the fencer with an adequate feel for the fencing piste beneath the foot.

The severe angle between foot-segment and ground on initial contact is also significant when designing the shoe. The shoe cushioning system must therefore provide protection in the extreme rear of the heel, an area not normally associated with consistent high impact forces in other sports. The obvious asymmetry of the sport presents a challenge to footwear manufacturers and arguments can be made for the development of asymmetrical footwear designs.

Several different surfaces in fencing are used. Surface stiffness can have a significant influence on the magnitude of the impact shock during landing (Kim et al., 1994). This study was conducted during training sessions on a training surface as opposed to a traditional piste used during competition thus the results obtained may not adequately represent actual competition. During competition a hard floor can be used, as well as a metallic piste (either a cloth placed over the hard floor or a hard metallic piste). Future research should therefore concentrate on the magnitude of the impact shock during competition on a true fencing piste.

Limitations

Accelerometry is a complicated approach and methodological problems can affect the efficacy of collected data (Lake and Greenhalgh 2005). The magnitude of the signal obtained from the accelerometer is dependent on the mounting interaction, making cross study comparisons difficult. Soft tissue artefact can also influence the acceleration recording of underlying bone (Light et al., 1980). Attaching the device directly to bone represents the most accurate method of measuring impact shock and further work is necessary to determine the efficacy of the less traumatic skin mounting technique.

The device signal is also reliant on the centripetal acceleration due to angular motion of the shank in the sagittal plane during ground contact (Lafortune and Hennig 1991). Lake and Greenhalgh (2005) noted that despite the application of a distally mounted device, correction for angular motion may still be necessary. Further research should be conducted to investigate the necessary signal corrections for angular motion.

Another potential limitation/restriction of this study is that the results obtained are entirely specific to the footwear and ground surface conditions, any variation in these parameters would most likely cause changes to the participant’s fencing kinetics/kinematics. In addition this study analyzed the lunge motion only. The lunge represents a high impact motion; however there are other movements of lower intensity which may still be important in terms of the development of overuse injuries. Therefore, additional research is necessary regarding the influence of footwear on the magnitude of the transient shockwave during different fencing movements before appropriate prescriptions of fencing footwear can be made.

References
Carter, C., Heil, J., and Zemper E. (1993). What hurts and why – Data from the 1992 USFA Fencing Injury Survey shows some common culprits. American Fencing. 43, p 16-17.
Geil, M.D. (2002). The Role of Footwear on Kinematics and Plantar Foot Pressure in Fencing. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 18, p 155-162.
Harmer, P.A. (2008). Getting to the point: injury patterns and medical care in competitive fencing. Current Sports Medicine Reports. 7, 303-307.
Kim, W., Voloshin, A.S., and Johnson S.H. (1994). Modelling of the heel strike transients during running. Human Movement Science, 13, 221-244.
Kopetka, B., and Stewart, S.L. (2005).The kinematic determinants of speed in the fencing lunge. (Part 1). Journal of Sports Sciences, 2, 105.
Lafortune, M., and Hennig, E. (1991). Contribution of angular motion and gravity to tibial acceleration. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 23, 360-363.
Lafortune, M. A., & Hennig, E. M. (1992). Cushioning properties of footwear during walking: accelerometer and force platform measurements. Clinical Biomechanics, 7, 181-184.
Lake, M.J. (2000). Determining the protective function of sports footwear. Ergonomics, 43, 1610-1621.
Lake, M.J., and Greenhalgh, A. (2005). Impact shock measurements during running correction for angular velocity of the shank is necessary. Proceedings of the 7th Symposium on Footwear Biomechanics. Cleveland, Ohio, USA.
Nigg, B.M., & Segesser, B. (1992). Biomechanical and orthopaedic concepts in sport shoe construction. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 24, 595-602.
Nokes, L., Fairclough, J.A., Mintowt-Czyz, W.J., Mackie, I., and Williams, J., (1984). Vibrational analysis of human tibia: The effect of soft tissue on the output from skin mounted accelerometers. Journal of Biomedical Engineering, 6, 223-226.
Roi, G.S., and Bianchedi, D. (2008). The Science of Fencing Implications for Performance and Injury Prevention. Sports Medicine, 38, 465-481.
Shorten, M.R., and Winslow, D.S. (1992). Spectral Analysis of Impact Shock During Running. International Journal of Sports Biomechanics, 8, 288-304.
Stacoff, A., Denoth, J., Kaelin, X., and Stuessi, E. (1988). Running injuries and shoe construction: some possible relationships. International Journal of Sport Biomechanics 4, 342-357.
Whittle, M.W. (1999). The generation and attenuation of transient forces beneath the foot; a review. Gait and Posture, 10, 264-275.
Wild, AM., Jaeger, C., Poehl, C., Werner, A., Raab, P., and Krauspe, R. (2001). Morbidity profile of high performance fencers. Sportverletz Sportschaden, 15, 59-61.
Zemper, E.D., & Harmer, P.A. (1996). Fencing. In D.J. Calne, C.G. Caine, & K.J. Lindner (ed.), Epidemiology of Sports Injuries (pp 186-195). Champaign, IL Human Kinetics.

Steroid use in professional sports: are the punishments fair?
Introduction

Anabolic steroids are continually used by sporting professionals though major sporting organizations have banned their usage due to the negative attributes and effects associated with continued usage. Many nations are troubled by the increasing occurrences of usage of performance enhancing drugs exhibited by the sports people. Professional athletes and baseball players have been in the limelight especially during the summer and American Olympic Games. According to recent survey both old and seasoned sportspeople and athletes use steroids to enhance their performance. Teenagers also admit to have used the steroids at some point of their life (Paterson, 1998).

A recent poll on US, about 43% of Americans believe that almost half of the athletic professionals and American Olympics athletes in the country use steroids. Since non medical usage of steroids is illegal, amendments have been advanced in the Anabolic steroid control regulations to make possessions of these drugs a federal crime. Anabolic steroids which are testosterone derivatives enable the body to quickly metabolize the ingested proteins thereby enabling quick synthesis and formation of skeletal muscle. Primarily, sports personalities have continually used the steroids in order to delay the feelings of fatigue and ultimately enabling a feeling of euphoria be exhibited. This boosts their performance levels.

This document will highlight the prevalence of the vice amongst the sporting personalities and the kind of punishment advanced to the falters’ of the rules. With evidence from the Anabolic steroids governing bodies and major sports associations like the Olympics, NFL, NHL and the NBA, a critical analysis of the rules and penalties will be advanced. An agency referred to as World Anti- Doping has consistently maintained a list of steroids which are deemed to enhance performance like Dianabol, Anadrol, winstrol and oxandrin.

Literature review

Commonly abused steroids

There are generally three types of steroids which are commonly abused by sports professionals. Anabolic, Cortico and androgenic steroids are available in the market though the US Government has banned their usage. Anabolic and androgenic steroids have growth and thickening effects on the users’ skeletal muscles, larynx, vocal chords as well as the bones while affecting a considerable loss in body fat. When taken a remarkable transformation in the body of the user is exhibited due to increased muscle bulk and general body strength. This is primarily the reason why many sports people opt to use the anabolic steroids due to increased strength and agility exhibited after continued usage (Rogak, 1992). Without a valid prescription usage and possession of anabolic steroids is illegal. The Cortico steroids are made in such a way that they mimic the function of the naturally occurring cortisone in the human body. Cortisone deals with injuries in the body by regulating inflammation in the body. The Cortico steroids are used in treatment of such illnesses as asthma, allergies and kidney diseases. Common street names advanced for these steroids include pumpers, weight trainers, Arnolds amongst others.

Erythropoietin is commonly used by endurance athletes in a bid to improve on their performance. The drug works to increase the amount of red blood cells present in the body by stimulating the production and release of the red blood cells from the bone marrow. So when there are many red blood cells available in the body, a lot of oxygen is circulated in the body thereby increasing performance.

Steroid use in sports

The prevalence of steroid usage in sporting arena is high and stiff penalties have been advanced to the sports people found taking the drugs. Most athletes who take steroids do so in a bid to push the performance of their bodies past the limit thereby acquire a competitive advantage ahead of their opponents. Continued usage of steroids results to remarkable increase in muscle mass and strength thus giving the user a competitive edge over his opponents. Common usage of steroids is exhibited in those sporting activities which largely require a lot of strength and large size like football, baseball or wrestling as well as those requiring a lot of endurance like swimming and track athletes (Rogak, 1992). Body builders as well as individuals who fancy developed muscles largely fall prey in taking steroids. Except for the increased body strength and mass exhibited after continued usage of steroids, skill and performance of a player is not increased. It is such factors as the body size, age, diet and the frequency of training which determines the general performance of a sportsperson.

Testing and Punishment procedures

Every sporting agency has different procedures through which it administers testing and punishments to the players so as to determine whether they are under the influence of steroids. Though a lot of politics exists regarding the ways to administer testing of players, all stakeholders in the sporting arena acknowledge the need to test and make public the results thereby reduce the skepticisms associated with usage of steroids (Rogak, 1992). Challenges exist though, especially when players claim that a move to undertake testing will interfere with their privacy and the results may be maliciously influenced through falsely accusing the players of using steroids. Different sports have their testing procedures which they undertake. The minor league baseball players are tested for cocaine, marijuana, steroids as well as androstenedione. The first time offenders undergo education, counseling and treatment and are constantly subjected to random tests. Suspension from the league is affected to repeat offenders.

NFL players are tested during the preseason with random tests being done throughout the season and offseason. A first time offender earns a four game suspension, a second offence earns six games suspension while a third offence earns a complete expulsion. For NBA, the rookies are tested four times each year with penalties of suspensions without pay being advanced to the falters. The US Olympic team has stringent testing procedures with such activities as blood doping, stimulants, alcohol, marijuana as well as mimetic being prohibited. Penalties differ depending on the substance used. Primarily the penalties range from public warnings to suspensions ranging from two to five years.

Benefits of punishing steroid usage

Since the inception of the Steroid control act many sports personalities involved in steroid usage have been stripped off their titles, medals and records held. Thus through the enforcement of the legislations regarding steroid usage issues of cheating as well as hollow victories have been minimized (Paterson, 1998). By not permitting the steroid users sports personalities to compete with the drug free sportspersons is a show of fairness as no competitor is given a competitive advantage over the other players. Sanctity is reverted to the sporting industry since no pressure is advanced to the drug free sportspeople to use steroids in order to continually remain competitive in their field. Constant drug testing need be upheld by all sporting bodies in order to completely deter sports people from taking the steroids while instilling stiff penalties to people found taking the drugs.

Curbing Trafficking of steroids

Steroids can be obtained from pharmaceutical companies without prescription. Due to the negative effects associated with the drugs most governments have banned their usage and stiff penalties are advanced to the users as well as anyone found in possession of the drugs. There are several proponents of criminalization of individuals found in possession of the drugs. Many people contend that through putting in place stiff penalties, trafficking of the steroids will be deterred (Roberts, 2005). Monitoring the internet selling sources of the steroids will help in reducing instances of influx of the drugs into the market. Relevant Government agencies need monitor such selling avenue so as to determine their source and destination.

Strict controls which limit the substances produced by pharmaceutical companies will ensure that destructive drugs like steroids are not undertaken. The control act states that any individual involved in the manufacturing, distribution and dispensation of controlled substances should always register with the attorney general office (Paterson, 1998). Although this move helps in curbing the manufacture and distribution of the steroids, the booming trade of counterfeit labs which mimic the legitimate pharmaceutical companies has resulted. The black market of the steroid drugs which are substandardly manufactured has continually frustrated the Governments efforts to kick out steroids from the reach of the users.

Steroids side effects

Anabolic steroids are deadly drugs with massive side effects. Since the sporting personalities self administer the drugs without prescription from the physicians, damage caused on the body of a user cannot be underestimated since the right dosage and duration of medication is not adhered to (Roberts, 2005). The side effects exhibited differ between individuals depending on the length of usage, the type of drug taken, individual sensitivity as well as the dosage administered. “Roid rage “is particularly common amongst the steroid users where they portray uncontrollable behavior which is spontaneous and overly aggressive especially after they cease to use the drugs. The function of the liver is inhibited by oral use of AS. Liver Lesions have been exhibited by users of nortesterone as well as testosterone esters.

The hospitalized patients of steroids have other illnesses like anemia, impotence and renal insufficiency. Usage of steroids with the 17- alpha- alkyl group cause liver turmoil (Roberts, 2005). More often than not the abnormalities are asymptomatic especially because peliosis as well as the liver tumors do not cause blood abnormalities. Continued use of steroids elicits structural changes in the formation of the heart while after discontinued usage ischemic tolerance remarkably decreases. Steroid users are at a greater risk of contracting prostrate cancer and susceptibility to getting skin infections. Since the AS is derived from testosterone, negative side effects are exhibited in the reproductive system. Decreased fertility, formation of breasts in men, irregularities in ovulation and menstrual cycle amongst women is exhibited. Thus through continued usage, males develop female characteristics whereas the females develop female characteristics. Growing children demonstrate virilization, stunted growth and gynecomastia. Steroid usage affects the cardiovascular system resulting to increased blood pressure. The immune system is also affected resulting to decreased productivity of the immune system. Some less serious side effects of acne include acne, rosccea, hair loss and increased fat excretion. Instances of glucose tolerance decrease in the bodies of seasoned steroid users while the levels of insulin in the body considerably increase thus symptoms of type 2 diabetes will be exhibited.

Findings and discussions

Issue 1: Marion Jones imprisonment and stripping of records, medal and prizes won after 2000, September. She was an award winning track &field athlete who admitted to taking performance enhancing steroids. Initially Marion Jones had denied ant involvement with drugs to the press, sports agencies and grand juries. In October, 2007 it was confirmed that Marion Jones returned the five medals she worn during the 2000 summer Olympics as was determined by the Anti doping agency of the U.S. Tim Montgomery was stripped his records after being found guilty of using steroids. He retired from sports immediately after the results were made public. The USA anti doping agency found him guilty of using the steroids as well as human growth hormones. A four year ban was imposed on him in December 2005 and consequently stripped him all the awards and records held since 2001. In 2008, Tim admitted that he took testosterone during the Sydney relay hence the reason why his team clinched the gold medal.

Rule1: According to the 1990 Anabolic steroid control act, it is a criminal offence to use steroids by sports person in order to enhance athletic and cosmetic performance. Suspension and imprisonment is the ultimate punishment for the defaulters of the rule.

Analysis1: The Anabolic steroid control act has placed the usage of steroids in the same class as such drugs as ketamine, LSD precursors as well as barbiturates. According to this act, Mariah Jones is guilty of possessing and using the steroids especially because she was involved in major competition events hence the reason why arrests, persecution and imprisonment was done. Tim Montgomery public admission that he used performance enhancers is a clear demonstration that the vice is deep-rooted amongst the athletes who wish to remain competitive in their various sports. The enforcement of the stipulated penalties serves to warn the users of the drugs against continued usage of steroids when undertaking major competitions.

Conclusion1: it is vital that the kind of punishment advanced to sports personalities implicated in steroids use is stepped up in order to show other athletes who are already practicing and those aspiring that usage of steroids is totally unacceptable. Throughout the entire career of Marion Jones, accusations that she was involved in the usage of steroids existed but she always denied until the tests were done in 2007. Thus Marion Jones return of all awards won when she was competing under grand violation of the laid down rules.

Issue 2: Ben Johnson, a well known Canadian sprinter enjoyed intense moments of fame in the 1980’s especially after winning two bronze medals and a gold medal during the Olympics. During the 1987 world athletics championships and the 1988 summer Olympics he set world records for the 100m race. When traces of Stanozolol were discovered, he was disqualified thus loosing both records and the Olympic title. He was suspended from the field until 1991. After his comeback, he was again found guilty of doping with high levels of testosterone after which he was banned completely from athletics by the IAAF.

Rule 2: The world Anti doping agency undertakes testing of blood samples as well as urine samples. Testing is a random and unannounced. A penalty for any offence is a two year ban from athletics competitions.

Analysis 2: After the tests done at Seoul, Ben Johnson is reportedly to have denied ever doping. During the 1989 Durbin inquiry, he admitted that indeed he used the steroids under the guidance of his coach Charlie Francis who said that Johnson had always been using the steroids since 1981.

Conclusion 2: The usage of steroids need be put on hold especially with the practicing athletes. If usage of steroids is to be continued, then the legitimacy of athletics will be questioned because the results produced are not naturally acquired. Since testing is random, enforcement of the laws becomes easy. Professional leagues which exhibit mysteries will be minimized and the credibility of professional leagues will not be questioned.

Issue 3: Barry Bonds who was an acclaimed baseball player was implicated in steroid usage. Through association with steroid usage Barry Bonds awards and achievement in baseball were tainted. He had worn seven MVP awards and numerous homeruns and All-Stars. BALCO regulations completely withhold the usage of steroids thus the reason why Barry Bonds was not reassigned to the San Francisco giants during the 2008 baseball season. He played with the Pittsburgh pirates where his prowess was manifested without being revealed he was under the influence of steroids.

Ken Caminiti is another baseball player who publicly admitted to the use of anabolic steroids. He played in the team Atlanta braves and worn three awards of Golden Gloves and the coveted 1996 MVP. His admission to the use of the steroids tainted completely the baseball profession where a common belief is held that all baseball players are indeed involved in the vice.

Rule 3: Baseball players who test positive for amphetamines will be automatically tested for the second time with a second offence eliciting 25 game suspension while a third offence will elicit 80 games suspension.

Analysis 3: A controversial career life of Barry Bonds was exhibited as he is notably amongst the major baseball players implicated in the usage of steroids. In the 2007, he was indicted for the evils of perjury especially since he obstructed justice when the case to determine investigation of the case and the outcome of the implications of the case. The case is still ongoing even now and it’s unlikely that he will be reinstated in the national team. Suspicions are high regarding the baseball players as most people believe that the players are souped with steroids in order to build on their muscles. Baseball players admit that a lot of pressure exists which forces them to take steroids especially in order to compete in the majors.

Conclusion 3: Washington’s baseball commissioner has advanced several stringent measures in a bid to counter steroids. Players who fail the steroid tests will be required to miss more than a third of the seasons of the match. Due to the threat of legislations which have been spurred, players who use steroids have been put up for stiffer penalties. Stiff penalties are advanced to the players so as to limit occurrence of instances of steroid usage (Yesalis, 2000). The current penalties which are in existence include a 10 day suspension for the first offensive occurrence ,30 days for the second offence and in case of a third offence 60 days suspension is advanced. Most baseball clubs ensure that they test players during the spring training sessions with random training sessions being advanced throughout the seasons in order to ensure that players do not fall prey to the vice (Taylor, 2002). Off season testing is also advanced to the players. Several bills have been advanced in a bid to intensify punishments for baseball players who use steroids.

Issue 4: An alleged East coast distributor of steroids was arrested with a huge stockpile of anabolic steroids.

Rule 4: Non medical possession of anabolic steroids with the intention of personal use or resale is illegal. A first time possession of steroids attracts a punishment of imprisonment period of more than one year with an option of a minimum fine of $1,000. Possession with previous conviction of drugs will attract a 15 day to two years imprisonment or a fine of $2,500. People with more than two instances of charges of steroids will attract an imprisonment term of not less than 90 days and a fine of $5,000.A distributor of steroids attracts a $250,000 to $1,000,000 with an imprisonment option of up to 5 years.

Analysis 4: The mere possession of steroids is punishable by law. Steroids users need be wary of the usage of the drugs because once police investigations are undertaken and athletes are found in possession of the steroids, stiff penalties are advanced. Legal penalties associate with the vice are massive as they incorporate jail terms of not less than two years. Sports people who self administer the steroids need to have a clue on the possible consequences associated with possession of the drugs.

Conclusion 4: Anyone involved in the usage or in selling of steroids need to reconsider association with the drugs as this is the best way to go about it both medically and legally. The different types of steroids available in the market today do not contribute to improved performance of a sportsperson (Yesalis, 2000). Health side effects will no doubt result hence the reason stringent measures have been advanced to curb continued usage of the drugs.

Conclusion

The sports figures who are constantly using anabolic steroids to improve their athletic prowess encounter several side effects which ultimately shorten their lives and careers. Thus strict punishments as advanced so curb the vice especially amongst the teenagers who admit to have use the steroids at one point of their training so as to mimic the elite athletes. While many users admit increased body muscles and strength, an alarming increase in injury levels is exhibited (Taylor, 2002). Tendon and ligament injuries erupt due to the massive stress advanced by the overdeveloped muscles owing to the continue usage of steroids. Baseball players attest to the fact that rotator cuff injuries are on the increase due to the usage of steroids. In order to save the legacy of the sporting industries governments and sporting bodies need uphold the strict punishments in the sporting industry. Players need be sensitized on the dangers associated with taking the drugs as well as undertaking regular testing as it’s not a violation of the constitutional rights but a guard against unethical behavior of steroids abuse. Strategies like healthy nutrition as well as strength training programs need be devised to as to prevent the use of steroids amongst the sporting personalities.

References

Paterson, E (1998) Anabolic steroids and sports and drug testing, New York, U.S.A: Whitston Pub.

Roberts, A (2005) Anabolic steroids. New York, U.S.A: Anabolic Information, LLC.

Rogak, L (1992) Steroids: dangerous game. Minneapolis, MN: Lerner Publications

Taylor, W (2002) Anabolic steroids and the athlete. North Carolina, U.S.A: McFarland,

Yesalis, C (2000) Anabolic steroids in sport and exercise .New York, U.S.A: Human Kinetics.

Steroids in Sports

Decade after decade, sport scandals have come and gone. The topic of steroid use in sports continues to make the headlines more frequently. We hear about Olympic athletes that have been striped of their medals because they failed the drug testing. There are also the professional sports athletes who are caught and centered out for using steroids. Athletes believe that by taking steroids it will benefit their careers and launch them to the peak of their performance. What are the consequences for both the athlete and the sport? How does this affect the fans? Fans view steroid use as a major corruption in sports, as well as the athletes that use the drug. During the last decade, many sports analysts debate the topic. Does the players’ statistics even matter anymore if players are cheating?

There may be a legitimate reason for steroid use. One example would be that the drug helps the athlete overcome personal injuries. Steroids help the repair process, by quickly repairing joint tissues allowing them to return to the game rapidly and to compete more competitively. Steroids are especially popular with senior sport athletes. As one gets older, their skill level decreases and at the same time their bodies have a hard time keeping up with the younger players. By taking steroids, it helps these players maintain a strong physique, and to keep up with the sport endurance as it advances, which in turn will prolong their career. Taking steroids will shorten the player’s time of being sidelined through injury. The most popular reason behind the use of steroids is to achieve an all time goal surpassing past successors. Steroids will always be around in sports, as long as big pay checks and fame come along with athletes accomplishments. The athlete may think that it’s in their best interest at the time, but not for the fans who lookup to these athletes they call “heroes”.

Professional sports can have a huge impact on the human body as they are constantly pushing themselves to the limit and have a high chance of running into injuries and skeletal problems throughout the intense seasons. When players are hit with injury, it can seriously impact ones career, and also the performance of an entire team. As an athlete progressively uses steroids, their bodies will begin to react negatively to the unnatural change. “The researchers’ who conducted the survey also reported that the use of anabolic or androgenic steroids raises players risk of suffering joint, ligament and cartilage injuries throughout the body” (Reinberg, 1). Many times players are influenced by their trainers who will give their injured athletes steroids to speed up the rehabilitation process, to return them to the game. “In a survey that guaranteed confidentiality, 2,552 former pro football players answered questions on their use of performance- enhancing steroids and the musculoskeletal injuries they suffered during their playing years” (Reinberg, 1). For many NFL players take steroids, it allows them to compete through the though sixteen weeks that they face, and since football players are exposed to a high chance of injury, the use of steroids will help them battle any injury they in counter. In the long run these athletes do not realise the negative effects that will follow. “Guskiewicz speculated that the additional musculoskeletal injuries could have resulted from the increased weight of the muscle mass created by steroids, putting extra stress on joints that then wears down” (Reinberg, 1). As an athlete bulks up, they push their bodies beyond their limits and place too much stress on their joints.

As many sports legends reach the end of their careers, they take steroids to push their bodies so that they can prolong their career for a few more seasons. Also, up and coming stars also join in and take steroids as they want to prolong their future and the sport that they love to play, and to get to the next skill level.

In the MLB many stars such as Barry Bonds and Mark McGwire took steroids in the later stages of their careers as they wanted to continue to battle with the young stars, and to continue to climb to the top of the statistic charts. “It is easy to understand why Mark McGwire, Roger Clemens or Barry Bonds might use steroids, assuming they did. McGwire got hurt, turned 30, and his career was in jeopardy. He had to hit home runs to stay in the big leagues. He ended up hitting a lot of them” (Posnanki, 1). Many pro football players take steroids to compete harder. This is a disadvantage towards the older players, which ultimately force them to also take steroids to allow themselves to compete longer. “9.1 percent said they had used steroids, with the certain categories of players more likely to report using drugs. For example, 16.3 percent of offensive linemen admitted using steroids, as did 14.8 percent of defensive linemen” (Reinberg, 2). As everyone takes steroids it evens out the playing field between the younger and older athletes. Not only do the older athletes take steroids to compete longer, high school athletes also take steroids to jumpstart their careers and to make it to the next level of competition. “The nation’s largest steroid testing program caught only two Texas high school athletes taking unauthorized substances out of more than 10,000 students who were tested, according to results issued last week” (USA Today, 1). Athletes of all ages cheat and take steroids to allow them to compete longer in the sport that they would die for. To them it is a gift to play longer, but to many fans they see these older players as “washed up”.

The use of anabolic steroids is banned by all major sporting bodies, including the International Olympic Committee, Major League Baseball, the National Football League, the National Basketball Association, the National Hockey League, World Wrestling Entertainment, TNA, ICC, ITF, FIFA, FINA, UEFA, the European Athletic Association, and the Brazilian Football Confederation. Anabolic steroids are controlled substances in many countries, including Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, the Netherlands (NL), the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States (U.S.), while in other countries, such as Mexico and Thailand, they are readily available over-the-counter for easy purchase. More and more athletes are being banned each year for the use of steroids, but why do they continue to use them when they know their careers are at risk? A lot of this has to do with poorly enforced regulations and the bending of the law when it comes to professional sports. The most common reasons why doping is banned from organizations are because it’s harmful to the athlete’s health, there is an unfair advantage to athletes who are doping when they are sized up to natural players, and finally steroid use conflicts with the spirit of the sport, which is to work for victory by exhibiting “natural” physical skills and quality of character. The substance is banned for all the right reasons, but the consequences for breaking the ban aren’t severe enough to scare athletes from using them. Steroids had been passed as a Federal crime in the 1990’s to stop the use of drugs promoted by role model athletes, “It was claimed that making non-medical steroid use a federal crime would accomplish this, but over the last 15 years, I can’t think of a single high- profile professional ballplayer who was ever arrested for possessing steroids” (Jendrick, 94). Even though possessing steroids is a Federal offence these athletes are being seen above the law, and receiving lesser punishments within the organization they are apart of. In order to completely abolish the chances of doping, these organizations would have to step up their punishments, by leaving it in the hands of the law to be properly prosecuted.

Throughout the years, in all types of sports and competitions, steroids have been present, creating degrading controversy that has destroyed the game for many fans. For the athletes, both young and old, who are taking steroids to overcome injuries and achieve personal goals, they soon realize the negative long term effect that it has on their bodies. Some health risks can be produced by long-term use or excessive doses of anabolic steroids. These effects include harmful changes in cholesterol levels, acne, high blood pressure, liver damage, and dangerous changes in the structure of the heart. A review in 2005 in CNS Drugs determined that “significant psychiatric symptoms including aggression and violence, mania, and less frequently psychosis and suicide have been associated with steroid abuse. Long-term steroid abusers may develop symptoms of dependence and withdrawal on discontinuation of AAS”. (this quote came from this website:Wikipedia put in the info)

In Conclusion there will always be athletes that take steroids. They will take the drug for various reasons, to break records, help their self esteem, use as a substitution for hard work, recover from injuries. Unfortunately it does not give them a good reputation and many organizations and fans view this as cheating. In my opinion Steroids will always be around in sports and competitions, unless serious steps are made by governing organizations to completely abolish the use of steroids in the sport and severe penalties are imposed. It’s unfortunate that this abuse of steroids is taking place, especially since many athletes are viewed as role models for many young children who aspire to someday become famous athletes.

Show a Critical Awareness of the Theoretical Basis to Applied Sport Psychology Techniques; Research Design, Methods and Procedures Used in This Domain, and Practical and Ethical Issues in the Delivery of Sport Psychology.

In the research article relating to sports psychology, in particular the achieving of excellence, we can see that an attempt has been made by the researchers to asses the role of certain psychological phenomena related to positive performance to see if they could determine whether or not these factors played a significant part in the success of highly acclaimed professional sportspersons, in particular tour golfers. The research involved key concepts such as imagery, goal setting, focus, distraction control and evaluation techniques that all pertained to fundamental concepts outlined in findings from sports psychology theory and research. The study itself used a questionnaire from which an interview was conducted in the hope of extracting some of the mental processes and preparations of top golfers that were believed to have become evident in their responses. These interviews were tape recorded and transcribed according to qualitative research method processes and conventions. The interviews were conducted at the convenience of the sportsperson as it was believed that this would make the process more free flowing as the interviewee would be more focused and inclined to cooperate with the questions. The findings of the research suggested in conjunction with former findings related to the field of sporting excellence that their was clear evidence of the usage of imagery, goal setting, focus distraction control and evaluation techniques in the interview answers put forward by the sportspersons. It was concluded that an integral part to the psychological phenomena detailed was the role of commitment and suggestion was made for subsequent research to be conducted into this area.

Some of the areas that were drawn out and critiqued within the interview pertained to goal setting. Goal setting techniques can be understood as being set by psychologists to put in place the achieving of high levels of endurance in sport (Orlick & Partington, 1988). Goals are generally set to focus the individual on desirable target behaviours or performance actions. The focusing on goals or targets is believed to take away extraneous and undesirable distractions from the sportspersons conscious perception and produce a well defined path towards achievement. This can be seen being evident in some of the interview responses as being a ‘clearly defined’ target. In Bandura’s model he suggests that there are three major factors at work in the acquisition of a behaviour or performance. Three key factors are believed to inform the intention towards a desired target in this model. It was suggested that manipulation of these factors could change the intention of a person and consequently change, or shape, their behaviour to a more desirable one (Bandura, 1997). In accordance with other factors a positive attitude towards a desired behaviour would essentially increase the intention towards any goal. To function successfully, the intended goals would have to be clearly defined. This notion of clearly defined goals is included and incorporated throughout the methodology of the research article and forms an essential part of the findings according to the model of excellence proposed by Orlick & Partington (1988).

Another factor indicated in research on goal setting is that of unrealistic goal setting and the effects of negative mental attitudes when the goals do not relate to the desired outcome. For instance, unrealistically high goal settings from pressures such as media and peer pressure may lead to a high percentage of failure. This can have a very negative effect on the individual’s mental state. For example, in the model proposed by Baumeister (1990) the destructive effects of unrealistic goal setting can be understood in three steps. The first step is a mismatch between circumstance and expectation, leading to unrealistic goal setting. The second stage highlights the negative outcomes of this phenomenon. The third and final step indicates the importance and fragility of the mind if it is not focused. Essentially, to avoid disturbing ideas of failure, the individual negates responsibility for the outcomes of their actions altering their logic in a very negative and destructive manner (Baumeister, 1990). That is to say, that if the perception of realistic goals is not adjusted then the mind of the individual will begin to apply severely disturbing logic patterns to the process of goal achieving. This is not regarded in the condition of club professionals. Rather than them being simply uncommitted as is concluded, it could be that the negative effects of unrealistic goal setting has disturbed their focus or commitment. For instance, the individuals may begin to apply the successful achievement of goals to external factors such as luck, and take responsibility for only failed goals (Abramson et al, 1978).

Another key concept in achievement is learning. Essentially, objectives are considered to manage goals and goal setting. Fontana (1993) suggests that these objectives can be split into five mental processes. He defines these categories as ’identifying clearly what needs to be done, plan how we are going to do it, monitor our progress while we are doing it, assess the extent of our success when we have done it, learn more effectively from the experiences it has offered us’ (Fontana, 1993). This learning model shows of how goal setting and achieving goals can be utilised through the introspection of the experience gained. We can see from the research article that this idea of learning rather than focusing upon error is incorporated in the findings. The effects of learning can be seen in the formulation and use of educational objectives (Pearson and Tweddle, 1984). This research indicates the benefits of evaluation, reflection and consideration within the domain of sporting achievement. The notion of learning can also be seen in the role of imagery and the imagination, highlighted within the findings of the interviews. This notion is concerned not only with the role of understanding and the learning of psychological processes after the event, but also the role of psychological processes before the event.

Imagery is considered as being directly associated with the pathways of the imagination. This field of research has highlighted the importance of pre-conceived and pre-empted eventualities within the thought processes of the individual. Essentially, it focuses upon the actualisation of possibilities and outcomes within the mind. This would indicate the need for the individual to think in a certain way to achieve the best results. The imagination of sporting techniques is considered a cognitive pathway that can be honed and lead to more confidence and a more successful outcome. For instance, if the individual can visualise success then it is presumed that he/she can gain confidence in the achieving of a successful goal without the actual physical experience usually required in confidence acquisition (Kohler, 1925). We can see that this core idea has been implemented into the methodology of the research. For instance, there is an indication of imagining the ideal put before practising it. Imagery is also believed to help in the preparation for events that can not be prepared for with physical training alone. For instance, improvisation and the applying of insight into extreme circumstances can be utilised in ways that cannot be accounted for in normal physical training. In this sense the imagination and imagery is a key component in the conceptualising of an ideal action involved in a sporting technique. We can see from the methodology of our study that this notion has been incorporated. For instance, the ideal technique of a swing can be seen in the account that indicates that once the ideal stroke has been accomplished there is no longer a need to practise physically. This imagery can be seen as being indicated by the pro in the success of his action that is then carried out against the imagined goal in the learning manner put forward by Fontana. Imagery and the imagination seem to be manipulated by the golfers to hone their focus techniques as the methodology of the research article suggests. Focus is understood as being not something that is physically learned, but that is important to success. As we have seen, extraneous variables from the environment can have negative effects on the performance of actions. However, it would seem from the accounts of the tour pro’s that these extraneous factors have been removed from as they have attained focus.

It would seem that this research has backed up the findings of former research. Although, some problems may arise from its use of a confined and pre-determined model of closed questions, it can be said to be valuable. Although this may arouse critical questions of validity, it can be said this research has brought to our attention some of the psychological dynamics associated with achievement, excellence and success within the sporting domain.

Bibliography

Abramson, L, Y., Seligman, M, E, P., & Teasdale, J., (1978) Learned Helplessness in Humans: Critique and Reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 49-74.

Bandura, A. (1997) Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Self Control. New York: WH Freeman.

Baumeister, R, F., (1990) Suicide as Escape From Self. Psychology Review, 97. 90-113

Fontana, D., (1993) Managing Time: Personal and Professional Development. Leicester: BPS Books (British Psychology Society).

Kohler, W., (1925) The mentality of Apes. New York: Harcourt Brace (Reprint ed., 1976. New York: Liveright.)

Orlick, T., & Partington, J. (1988). Mental Links to Excellence. The Sport Psychologist, 2, 105-130.

Pearson , L. and Tweddle, D., (1984) The Formulation and Use of Educational Objectives. In Fontana, D. (ed.) Behaviourism and Learning Theory in Education. Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press.

Youth Sport Specialization

Abstract

Children should be encouraged to participate in a lot of different physical activities to develop a wide range of skills. Safety is an important factor of why sport specialization is such a big research topic. This paper will look at the research to determine at what age is the most beneficial for a youth athlete to specialize in one sport. The term “sport specialization” is defined as intense year round training in a single sport with the exclusion of other sports at a very young age. The myth of the only way to master a skill is 10,000 hours of practice will be looked at and what affects that might have on child as opposed to a more mature athlete.

Keywords: Sport specialization, year-round training, burnout.

Youth sport participation proves a rewarding experience for young athletes in which they can develop psychological, social, and physical benefits. It can also for some athletes serve as an opportunity to cultivate athletic talent similarly to school cultivating knowledge. The problem is that athletic talent development and the process how that occurs is misunderstood and it often results in unsuitable practices. Sport specialization is one way that young athletic talent can be abused.

Sport specialization has been going on for years. With the new technology and advances in the medical field new research has been going on to determine what is the appropriate age group a person should start specializing in their specific sport to one day achieve a professional contract. “Sport scientists have reported that there are critical periods in the life of a young athlete in which the effects of training can be maximized” (Leite & Sampaio, 2012). Over the last twenty years the practice of specializing in one sport on a year-round basis has increased. In a survey of 152 high schools athletic directors over 70 percent of them felt that sport specialization was on the rise (Hill & Simons, 1989). Some of the important factors contributing the increase in sport specialization included: pressure from coaches, athlete’s want to participate in championships, an emphasis on specialization in the area the athlete lived, the high expectations of parents, and encouragement from college recruiters. The exact number of young athletes specializing today is not exactly known even though research shows that it is on the rise. Concerns over specialization include that athletic performance cannot be narrowed down to a specific age in childhood and correlate directly to performance at a later age. According to Weirsma, “98% of athletes who specialize will never reach the highest levels of the sport (2000). From the perspective of sociology early specialization can isolate the young athlete from friends and hinder normal identity development. Early specialization is also thought to be related to an increase in burnout or withdrawal from sport as a result of prolonged stress.

One of the theories grabbed by pro specialization people is Ericsson’s 10,000 hours of deliberate practice (1996). The most important question is what age should young athletes specialize in a specific sport? Researchers and professionals are concerned that specialization is happening at too young of an age. Preliminary evidence shows that early specialization has little advantages, but it may also have negative psychological, social, and physical effects on young kids. The American Academy of Pediatrics (2000) ask for caution when it comes to early specialization. They also stress the importance of providing young athletes and coaches recommendations and knowledge to help them with avoiding the negative effects of early specialization.

One of the key terms used in sport specialization is “year-round training”. This term is used for young athletes who are involved in A.A.U. or club sports that operate outside of a student’s school team sports. This is seen in basketball, volleyball, and soccer. Swimming and gymnastics are the outliers when it comes to sports. Gymnastics is proven that a child at a younger age is more flexible and can teach train their bodies to participate in the sport at high level at a young age. Most athletes who dedicate their young lives to gymnastics will stop when they hit puberty due to their body not being able to keep the flexibility they had when they were younger or they become burnout on the sport. Another key term used is “burnout”. Burnout occurs when the athlete either becomes bored with the sport or the outside stress put on the athlete by parents and coaches becomes too much for the athlete to handle and they drop out of the sport.

For the future this topic of sport specialization will become evident with the students and athletes that I will be over as an athletic director. In high school I will see students either not wanting to participate in sports due to their previous experience in sports or I will have students with constant injuries due to their specialization in a specific sport. It is important to continually be looking at research so that I can hopefully educate my parents that I will be in contact with daily as well as the coaches that I will be conversing with directly. It is vital that my parents understand the potential issues and problems sport specialization can have on their son or daughter. It is also going to require discretion when I have these conversations with adults. There needs to be understand that the parents have sacrificed a lot of money, time, and miles so that their child can succeed in sports. Some parents may be open to hearing the research on the topic and others may be angry with even the suggestion that what they are choosing to do with their child is wrong. One idea is to post the research found on the school’s website along with other major issues seen in schools and sports across the United States. This will allow the parents the option to understand themselves what the research is saying about specific topics such as sport specialization and it can help them make decisions according to what they interpret from the research. It would be ideal to internship with a local middle school and high school athletic director to see what their day to day life is like during the school year and summer. This experience will help with the understanding of dealings with other schools, scheduling of games and referees, dealings with athletes, coaches, and parents directly, as well as what it takes to be in a highly touted position. It would also be interesting to ask questions of people in the athletic director position on tough decisions they have had to make and why they chose one decision over the other. I foresee the internship as a priceless experience that can answer a lot of questions as well as show the ins and outs of what it takes to be an athletic director in the area.

In conclusion sport specialization is important for any athlete to become elite. As the research points out the hard part is pinpointing the age at which a child should specialize. The whole issue with specialization is raised because of safety. The most important goal of any coach, parent, or athletic director is safety. When the safety of the athlete is compromised it can be detrimental to the athletes psyche emotionally and physically. As long as the athlete’s safety is held in the highest regard then the job is done. Hopefully as more research comes to light on sport specialization parents, coaches, and athletic directors will use it to keep the athlete safe because life after sports is more important than the short term sporting career most athletes will have.

References

AAP Advises Against Early Sports Specialization. (2000).Physician & Sportsmedicine,28(8), 15.

Intensive Training and Sports Specialization in Young Athletes. (2000).Pediatrics,106(1), 154.

Baker, J., Cobley, S., & Fraser-Thomas, J. (2009). What do we know about early sport specialization? Not much!.High Ability Studies,20(1), 77-89. doi:10.1080/13598130902860507

Bodey, K. J., Judge, L. W., & Hoover, J. V. (2013). Specialization in Youth Sport: What Coaches Should Tell Parents.Strategies (08924562),26(1), 3-7.

Callender, S. S. (2010). The Early Specialization of Youth in Sports.Athletic Training & Sports Health Care: The Journal For The Practicing Clinician,2(6), 255-257.

Capranica, L., & Millard-Stafford, M. L. (2011). Youth Sport Specialization: How to Manage Competition and Training?.International Journal Of Sports Physiology & Performance,6(4), 572-579.

Christianson, P., & Deutsch, J. (2012). Making a Case for Early Sport Specialization in Youth Athletes.Journal Of Youth Sports,6(2), 3-6.

Clarke, N. J., & Harwood, C. G. (2014). Parenting experiences in elite youth football: A phenomenological study.Psychology Of Sport & Exercise,15(5), 528-537.

Goncalves, C. B., Rama, L. L., & Figueiredo, A. B. (2012). Talent Identification and Specialization in Sport: An Overview of Some Unanswered Questions.International Journal Of Sports Physiology & Performance,7(4), 390-393.

Hill, G. M., & Simons, J. (1989). A study of the sport specialization on high school athletics. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 13(1), 1-13.

Leite, N. C., & Sampaio, J. E. (2012). Long-Term Athletic Development Across Different Age Groups and Gender from Portuguese Basketball Players.International Journal Of Sports Science & Coaching,7(2), 285-300.

McLeod, T. V., Decoster, L. C., Loud, K. J., Micheli, L. J., Parker, J. T., Sandrey, M. A., & White, C. (2011). National Athletic Trainers’ Association Position Statement: Prevention of Pediatric Overuse Injuries.Journal Of Athletic Training (National Athletic Trainers’ Association),46(2), 206-220.

Mostafavifar, A. M., Best, T. M., & Myer, G. D. (2013). Early sport specialisation, does it lead to long-term problems?.British Journal Of Sports Medicine,47(17), 1060-1061.

NYLAND, J. (2014). Coming to Terms With Early Sports Specialization and Athletic Injuries.Journal Of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy,44(6), 389-390.

Russell, W. D. (2014). The Relationship between Youth Sport Specialization, Reasons for Participation, and Youth Sport Participation Motivations: A Retrospective Study.Journal Of Sport Behavior,37(3), 286-305.

Wall, M., & Cot, J. (2007). Developmental activities that lead to dropout and investment in sport.Physical Education & Sport Pedagogy,12(1), 77-87. doi:10.1080/17408980601060358

Wiersma, L.D., (2000). Risks and benefits of youth sport specialization: Perspectives and recommendations. Pediatric Exercise Science, 12, 13-22.

BMS-3033 SPORT NUTRITION URN6041693

Choose a sport of your choice. Critically discuss the nutritional requirements of this sport. Give examples where appropriate to illustrate your answer

Swimming is a very competitive sport worldwide with different events like 50 to 1500 meters with time duration of 22s to 16 minutes respectively. Moreover, with four different strokes freestyle, butterfly, breaststroke and backstroke. With typical training programs with the aim to increase lean body mass, and decrease body fat levels over the season Petersen et al. (2006). Sport nutrition plays a very important role especially for elite athletes. The goal of this essay is to discus more specifically the dietary needs for athletes that compete in the 50 and 100 meters distance events.

In the 50 and 100 meters events in particular event swimmers relies on the production of large power outputs with highly coordinated and efficient technique in a short range of time. This power output rely on the anaerobic glycolysis and high energy phosphates. Therefore, the main type of muscle fibre developed in athletes in training for 50 and 100 meters event is Type2 a and 2 b of muscle due to the speed of contraction, short length of time, anaerobic capacity using high energy phosphates (ATP and creatine phosphate) and glycogen as fuel, however due to the nature of the high intensity aerobic activity with training sessions from 1.5 up to 4 hours a day there is no question that type 1 fibres muscle is developed.

Training

Overall training programs for elite swimmers are based on experience of successful coaches rather than scientific evidence of superior performance outcomes. There seems to have difference in opinions among coaches regarding to training sessions. Some opt for training only in the pool and others use less sessions in the pool (more specific training) but add cycling and running sessions to improve aerobic capacity.

Generally the pool workouts consist of aerobic warm-up and cool downs, training aims to improve techniques in starts and turns, and sets of repeated bouts of swimming at different intensities depending on the goal wanted, in this case sprint. Moreover, generally 40% of the training intensity less than 80% of VO2max, from 40% to 60% at intensities of 80% vo2max, and less than 5% at >100% Vo2max.

Sherman and maglischo (1992) have estimated the energy requirement of swimming training at approximately 16.8 to 22.6 MJ.day-1(4000-5400 kcal.day-1) for males working 4 hours a day and between 14.2 to 16.8 MJ .day-1(2400-4000kcal.day-1) for females working 4hours a day, although these factors will vary within each athlete physical condition and technique performance.

Nutritional Chalenges

The nutritional issues and challenges for swimmers are to prepare a nutrition strategy to provide fuel to cope with large energy demand, promote recovery for each session, achieve optimal levels of lean body mass and body fat as well as keep the vitamins and minerals within normal levels during the different phases of training in the season (E.g. high volume training, taper or off-season).

However, swimmers struggle to cope with large energy needs not only for training but for competition some common issues are presented below:

Training

High energy requirements due to fluctuations in growth patterns (growth spurt in adolescents), changes in training volume or simply active gain of muscle mass.
Irregular eating patterns due to a busy time table.
Social and cultural issues.
Poor nutritional knowledge.
Adjusting energy intake
Competition
Adjusting energy intake during taper to prevent excessive gain of weight and body fat.
Adequate fuel stores for the day of competition.
Postrace recovery between different competitions or between heats, semifinals, and finals.
Training program vs. competition nutritional requirement

Therefore the nutritional requirement in order of priority for pre-training, training and post training (same for competition) are: rehydration, refuelling and recovery.

Pre-training

Training

Post training

Consideration in use of supplements.

ASSIGNMENT 1

Analyse one particular sporting event, one series of sporting events (e.g. The FA Cup) or one sporting organisation in the UK. Analysis should cover the event’s/s’ or organisation’s social, cultural, political and economic significance in the UK. You may choose which sporting event, which series of sporting events or which organisation that you wish to analyse.

This essay will analyse the benefits that the 2012 Olympic Games will and has brought to the UK.

The London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games will bring many benefits to the UK this essay intends to look at several of these opportunities; these opportunities include the development of sport, increase in tourism and increase in economic activity throughout the UK. (reference)

Local authorities are already using the inspiration of the Games to spread wider social, economic and sporting benefits to their communities in the run up to the 2012. This will be the basis for a long term and UK wide legacy from the Games.

The local Government Association has worked with local authorities to identify six UK wide legacy benefits:

– Inspiring children and young people

– Raising our sporting game and influencing healthier lifestyles

– Volunteering

– Championing culture

– Generating and supporting tourism

– Boosting the local economy

Many of these legacy benefits are already important to local communities, and local authorities are working hard to partners to improve performance and service delivery. The 2012 Games provide a unique catalyst to reach new groups of people, bring new partners to the table and help local authorities achieve existing targets. (reference)

Staging the Olympic Games and Paralympic Games in 2012 is an opportunity to bring about positive change on a massive scale. The Games would not only add to the UK’s nation’s sporting heritage but will also celebrate the diversity of the capital.

It is a unique chance to showcase the best of London to the world and would generate huge benefits for all those who live or work in the city:

Boost for Sport:

A London 2012 Games would accelerate the delivery of new world-class sports infrastructure for the UK – and London in particular. For example, after the Games, the athletics Stadium, Aquatics Centre, Velodrome, Indoor Sports Arena, Hockey Centre, Canoe Slalom will all be available for use by the community as well as elite athletes.

The 2012 Olympic Games is most likely to create extraordinary levels of interest from local authorities and business’ that would most likely open up further channels of funding for sport at all levels. Based on the experiences of former host Olympic countries, funding for the development of elite athletes in the years running up to the Games would increase.

Hosting teams for many months before the Games could also act as a catalyst for developing and refurbishing existing UK sports facilities.

The 2012 Olympic Games will increase the amount of jobs, will provide skills for people and will provide a boost for Business’. Every sector of the economy will also benefit from the staging of the Olympic Games.

Thousands of UK companies, small and large will be needed to deliver the Games i.e., construction, manufacturing, catering, merchandise, services etc, creating valuable procurement opportunities. The experience from Sydney showed that New South Wales business won over A$1Billion in contracts for the Games (PWC report), over A$300M from regional companies with 55,000 people receiving employment related training.

The Australian experience shows that around 125 teams from 39 countries undertook pre-Games training in locations across New South Wales. This training is estimated to have injected some A$70 million into the State’s economy (PWC, 2002). This activity commenced as early as 1997 when the Belgian athletics team trained at Narrabeen.

London’s tourism industry will receive a significant boost, not just for the duration of the Games but in the run up to and long after the Games. An example of how an area can benefit from the 2012 Olympic Games is the increase in local visitor economy in Dorset, Weymouth and Portland. They will host the Sailing events in 2012. The Spirit of the Sean festival, which celebrates the area’s close relationship with the sea, has completed its second year and is going from strength to strength. Last year’s festival showcased around 50 activities at 27 venues. The festival brings together a range of sporting and cultural events, including water sports competitions for people of all ages and standards, concerts on the beach, the Dorset Seafood festival, the Henri Lloyd Weymouth Regatta and the Moving Tides Children’s Procession. As well as encouraging people to be more active and get involved with local cultural opportunities, each visitor to the festival spent on average of ?68, providing an important boost to the economy. Dorset and its partners will be using the council’s beacon status to share learning on how to secure a tourism legacy from the 2012 Games with other local authorities.

A London Games would also provide many new learning opportunities for Londoners to train and develop their skills. Thousands of new jobs will be created by building the new park that will be connected to the tidal Thames estuary.

Up to 70,000 volunteers would be required to help run the Games in 2012. This would require the biggest volunteer recruitment drive in UK peacetime, providing a unique boost both to sport specific, and general, volunteering in the UK. An example of this is Kent County councils aim to secure maximum benefit and long-term legacy from the Games. A key project of the campaign is the Kent event team, which has used Games as a catalyst to recruit volunteers for events and one off sport, leisure and cultural activities across the count. The Kent event team is a partnership between Kent county council and the voluntary sector. Voluntary Action Maidstone is the lead voluntary sector partner. In its first 18months, a manager and voluntary support staff were appointed, 700 volunteers and 40 organisations were registered and 20 events were supported. These included sporting, cultural and artistic events and festivals. The Kent event team aims to:

– Enable people who are unable or unwilling to make a long term commitment to volunteer on a flexible, one off basis.

– Support the voluntary, community, statutory and private sectors to develop good practice in volunteer management with regard to community events

– Deliver a network of volunteers available for wider community use after the 2012 Games.

An Olympic host nation is obliged by the IOC to stage various large scale “test events” – such as world championships – ahead of the Games. In addition, International Sports Federations are keen to hold world and European championships and other major events in the Olympic host country to enable their athletes to acclimatise with that country. Such events can deliver several million pounds to the relevant town/host city. E.g. Birmingham City Council concluded that hosting of the World Indoor Athletics Championships and World Badminton Championships in 2003 had a positive economic impact of ?3.5M and ?2.5M respectively. (reference)

Creative Capital:

Creative Industries is the fastest growing sector in London, responsible for one in five new jobs in the capital. An Olympic cultural Programme is a major aspect of the Games. From concerts in the parks to street theatre, the Games would provide a platform for talented artists in London to showcase their skills to a global audience.

A UK-wide Olympic Torch Relay in 2012 – possibly lasting several months – is likely to involve every major city and town in the UK.

Stage managers, lighting technicians, producers and artists will be needed to deliver the Games. Training programmes will ensure that the skills are embedded within the creative sector for future generations.

Boosting Health and Sporting success:

Hosting the world’s greatest sporting event – given the passion, excitement and interest likely to be generated – would boost Government initiatives to promote participation in sport and physical activity at all levels.

Physical Change:

The Olympic Games would bring forward one of the largest and most significant urban regeneration projects ever undertaken in the UK, through the transformation of the Lower Lea Valley in east London. The area has already been identified as a priority by the Government, the Mayor and the LDA. The building of the Olympic Park and the different venues has many economic and social benefits which in turn has a positive impact on local communities in London and different parts of the UK.

The transport throughout London will be improved in order to smoothly transport thousands of officials, athletes and spectators to the Games. Some of the improvements will be a ?1bn improvement to the London East line, a Channel Tunnel Shuttle link from Stratford to Kings Cross, and extensions to the DLR.

The development of the Olympic Park would increase the amount of green space, conserve local biodiversity, wetlands, improve air, soil and water quality in the area. The park will be planted with many different trees and plants. The waterways and canal of the River Lea will be cleaned and made wider; the natural floodplains of the area will be restored to provide a new wetland habitat for wildlife, birdwatchers and ecologists to enjoy in the middle of the city.

The Games would set new standards for sustainable production, consumption and recycling of natural resources. This approach echoes the ethos of Towards a One Planet Olympics, applicable to cities in both the developed and developing worlds.

There are many benefits that the Games will have on the UK but one of the main benefits of the Games will be the building of 5,000 homes following the renovation of the Olympic Village after the games. Officials and athletes will stay in the Olympic Village during the Games and then after the Games the village will be converted into housing for workers such as nurses and teachers. Housing will also be built on the Olympic Park site after the Games, this will provide further amenities for the local community which will include cafes, shops, restaurants etc.

This equality impact assessment of the Olympic delivery authority (ODA) Lighting Strategy has sought to assess the likely impact of the delivery of the lightining strategy on the equality target groups. The ODA Equality and inclusion programme, the ODA’s equality and diversity strategy and the ODA’s three equality schemes covering race, disability and gender equality. The overreaching aim of the ODA is to create an inclusive Games, which promoted good equality practices and access for all. This mission extends the aims of the ODA beyond these statutory duties to include the newer equality strands of age, religion and sexual orientation and other inclusion issues centred on socio-economic, culture and political disadvantage. The ODA are using a wider range of diverse suppliers, this will help to promote equal opportunities to everyone and hopefully will erase discrimination in the workplace by doing this recruiting and managing employees would be considered as fair. The ODA are working with other organisations to offer training to minority ethnic people, women and disabled people to encourage them to apply for jobs in the construction of the 2012 Olympic Games where they have been under represented. The ODA want to create an inclusive 2012 Olympic Games which will be inclusive for all people, ways in which they will do this is by providing a reachable transport network that will allow everyone to enjoy the Games and by involving the local communities. If all the above is achieved by the ODA then the 2012 Olympic Games will leave a lasting legacy for equality and inclusion.

The London organising committee of the Olympic and Paralympic games plan to get women, disabled people and BAME people actively involved in sport by raising awareness so a wider range of people watch the 2012 Games and influencing key partners to train young people in sports volunteering, coaching and other related skills. They will also challenge discrimination in sport by spreading positive messages, supporting programmes that promote equality and making full use of the London 2012 Paralympic games to inspire disabled people. They hope that with the right approach that the 2012 Games will benefit everyone.

Introduction:

Biomechanics is the sport science field that applies the laws of mechanics and physics to human performance, in order to gain a greater understanding of performance in athletic events through modelling, simulation and measurement (Wood, 2009). According to Mcginnis, (2004), Biomechanics is useful to sports and can identify what forces may have caused an injury, how to prevent the injury from recurring and what exercises may assist for injury rehabilitation. It can be used for alternations in technique, equipment or training to prevent or rehabilitate injury. The general role of Biomechanics is to understand the mechanical cause-effect relationships that determine the motions of living organisms. In relation to sport, Biomechanics contributes to the description, explanation, and prediction of the mechanical aspects of human exercise, sport and play. Sports biomechanics offers methods by which the very fast actions which occur in sport can be recorded and analysed in detail. An important application of sports biomechanics with any sport is the definition and understanding of skills. This can help in the coaching process and as a result enhance the learning and performance of those skills (Reilly and Williams, 2003).

When looking at golf it is clear to see a lot of skill is involved during the swing. Hung and Jani, (2004) stated that the golf swing is one of the most complex biomechanical motions a human can make in sport. The aim of the golfer must be to make a consistent strike of the ball to propel it in the desired direction for a given distance. Furthermore the hip plays an important role in the golf swing.

The Hip joint:

The hip joint is one of the largest and most stable joints in the body. It is a ball and socket joint that consists of the head of the femur connecting with the acetabulum of the pelvic girdle. The pelvic girdle, including the hip joint plays an important role in the supporting the weight of the body while offering mobility by increasing the range of motion in the lower extremity. The acetabulum is the concave surface of the ball and socket joint, facing anteriorly, laterally and inferiorly. Furthermore the spherical head of the femur fits snugly into the acetabular cavity, giving the joint both congruency and a large surface. Both the femoral head and the acetabulum have large amounts of spongy trabecular bone that facilitates the distribution of the forces absorbed by the hip joint (Floyd and Thompson, 2001; Nordin and Frankel 2001; Uys, 2004).

Ligaments of the hip:

According to Callaghan et al, (2006) several strong ligaments reinforce the capsule of the hip joint. These include the iliofermoral ligament, the pubofemoral ligament and the ischiofemoral ligament. The iliofemoral ligament is the strongest ligament in the body and helps to prevent extension of the femur when the body is standing erect. It is a Y-shaped band of very strong fibres that connects the lower front iliac spine of the coxal bone to a bony line (intertrochanteric line) extending between the greater and lesser trochanters of the femur. However the pubofemoral ligament extends between the upper portion of the pubis and the iliofemoral ligament. Its fibres also blend with the fibres of the joint capsule of the hip joint. The ischiofemoral ligament is made up of a band of strong fibres that originate on the ischium just behind the acetabulum. These fibres blend with the fibres’ of the joint capsule of the hip. (Pickering, 2009)

Muscles of the Hip:

The muscles of the hip joint are those muscles that cause movement in the hip. Most modern anatomists define 17 of these muscles, although some additional muscles may sometimes be considered (Mind Body Motion, 2007). These are often divided into several groups. These muscles control the movements of the hips. According to Ozkaya et al, (1999) the psoas, iliacus, rectus femoris, pectineus and tensor fascia latae are the primary hip flexors. These are also used to carry out activities such as running, walking and kicking. The gluteus maximus and the hamstring muscles are hip extensors. The gluteus medius and gluteus minimus are hip abductor muscles providing for the inward rotation of the femur. The gluteus medius is also the primary muscle group stabilizing the pelvis in the frontal plane. The adductor longus, adductor brevis, adductor magus and gracilis muscles are the hip adductors and also provide for the outward rotation of the femur.

Movement of the hips:

The hip joint allows for the greatest range of movement as it has the capacity to move in three planes, about three axes. It also has a great deal of mobility, which allows normal locomotion in the performance of daily activities. Kolt and Mackler, (2003), state that the hip joint has three degrees of freedom of motion which include flexion-extension in the sagittal plane, abduction-adduction in the frontal plane (figure 3.2) and external-internal rotation in the transverse plane.

Golf

The modern golf swing has evolved with this use of technology, both in equipment and analysis; as well as the physical training the golfers now go through. The golf swing is a very complex body motion, involving a large range of movement of the upper limbs that act as a link between the golf club and the body, with the lower limbs acting as the main movement promoting areas. Limitations in the body in terms of flexibility, muscular strength, endurance, or power can create faults in the swing from a biomechanical perspective. As a result, most of the successful golfers in the world today, are relatively fit, flexible and strong compared to in the older generation of golfers. Improved technology in gyms has given golfers the opportunity to strengthen specific and key muscles used in the swing.

Hip rotation is very important to the effectiveness of the golf swing. According to Hill, (2007), it holds the key to a powerful swing. To increase power and ball-striking ability the hips need to rotate properly during the swing. According to Atherton,(2009), most amateur golfers rotate their hips too far during the backswing, which makes it difficult for them to get their hips to open up to the target at impact, a key component of a successful swing. However, the increased risk of hip injury is a relatively recent hazard for golfers, arising from the greater rotation favoured by the modern golf swing. This adaptation of this technique itself reduced the incidence of low-back injury among golfers.

The downswing begins with a forward movement of the hips that, with good golfers, actually begins approximately 0.1 seconds before the club head reaches the limit of the back swing. This moving forward of the hips rotates the whole upper body and moves both levers through the first part of the downswing (Hay, 1993). The forces responsible for this forward movement of the hips and the lesser forces exerted by the same hip and leg muscles later in the downswing have been estimated to account for 2.5 hp of the total 3-4 hp generated in a good drive. Thus it can readily be seen that the muscles of the hips and legs constitute the main source. A series of EMG studies have described the role of the hip muscles during the golf swing (Thain and Alistair, 2002).

A study by Tsai et al, (2004), showed that hip abduction strength was significantly higher in better golfers. In addition it stated all the hip movements tended to be stronger in the best golfers who had the lowest handicaps and longest driving distances.

In one study performed by the University of Umea in which the muscle activities in 13 male professionals while performing a golf swing were analysed using dynamic surface electromyography (EMG) and the muscle activities were measured in percent of maximum manual muscle testing (MMT) of each muscle. During the forward swing, gluteus maximus, expressed the highest muscle activity during a complete golf swing (84%). This indicates that especially the trailing side, gluteus maximus, is an important hip stabiliser as the golfer shifts the weight to the target side and the golf club begins to accelerate (Grinell, 1999). In golf the hip is especially exposed to high-velocity internal rotation on the downswing, requiring a great deal of eccentric gluteus muscle control.

Set-up, ball positon, alignment and posture are essential for a good swing. However according Shamus, ( 2001), the most common characteristic of an improper setup position is failing to use a hip-hinge motion to obtain the primary spine angle. Furthermore evolved technology has made it easier for golfers and coaches to analyse the golf swing and correct mistakes made by the golfer.

Technology advances: (ASTAR and Powerstool)

The Astar digital video technology is the latest, highly sophisticated software that evaluates and analyses recorded golf swings. This means that golf instructors can literally capture and illustrate every aspect of a student’s swing to determine and remedy any problem areas. It automatically creates a video file of the entire desire motion (for a golf swing from address to follow-through). Astar includes all necessary functionality to analyze technical performance, hence improve the golf swing by this method of analysis. By using the very latest A Star professional software, golf swings can be analysed from many different angles and a plan can be put in place for the improvement of any golf swing (ASTAR, 2006).

The powerstool is another example of advanced technology used to improve the golf swing. It mimics the perfect golf swing as close as possible enabling the golfer to get inot the most efficent position (Strachan, 2009).The powerstool makes sure the golfer achieves the right amount of hip turn and shoulder turn. This helps to reduce tension and strain that is common with over turning.

Technology in footwear and insoles has also developed throughout the years making golf shoes more comfortable and blister free. It has also been proven that specific golf shoes reduce injuries of the lower extremities. In addition, according to Light, (2008), the use of custom foot orthoses to change the mechanics of foot function may improve hip extension and create prolonged relief of low back pain symptoms. As a result, they provide a viable alternative to surgery to treat hip and back painmaking it pain free for golfers. Orthoses are also helpful for supporting the arch of the foot, offloading specific pressure points in the foot, and cushioning the heel. Furthermore it was claimed that orthoses could be a non-invasive approach to improving biomechanics and possibly pain.

ECCO golf, (2009) states that their golf shoes use a double-layer inlay sole that ingeniously absorbs heel force, reducing the impact felt by your knees, hip and back. That same heel force is also used to power an air-circulation system that ensures a fresh, dry and cool environment for your feet making it comfortable for the golfer.

In conclusion, it is clear to see that technology is evolving a rapid rate with new advances in biomechanical parameters. Advances in analysis and equipment has been proven to improve general performance of all sports and even holds an important role in reducing injury and the rehabilitation of injury.