Author: Andre Coleman

How does harassment have a psychological effect on homosexuals?

Homosexuality has been an issue for people around the world seemingly since the beginning of time. It is a lifestyle that has been debated, unaccepted and stereotyped.But in recent years, society has welcomed more and more homosexuals into its loving arms under the umbrella of civil liberties. It is become increasingly acceptable to be homosexual in society today.1 Investigation made by the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Policy Institute including some surveys, found that there was a high percentage of discrimination against homosexual people. The investigation also stated that homosexual people have reported discrimination in public restaurants, medical facilities, insurance, and also education.2 Due to the investigation results the civil rights bills have introduced into the process that will give particular rights of nondiscrimination based on sexual orientation. Now a day as the adult homosexual community increases day by day, there is also an increasing number of homosexual youth in the present day. Results shown by the 1996 National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health found that in over 12,000 teenagers, ages between the 13 and 18, six percent reported same-sex attraction.3 So how does harassment influence a young homosexual psychologically? In order to answer the previous question, we must first deal with issues concerning homosexual discrimination while evaluating facts on the harassment and discrimination that homosexual teenagers have been exposed to and the psychological outcome that this has had on them. Also we must define what sexual orientation is, and study information of how many people in America are homosexual. We must then use the biological perspective to explain the origin of homosexuality. Over the past two decades data supports that there has been discrimination among the homosexual teenagers and that they are regularly being harassed by other people. The different types of harassment that the homosexual people undergo on a daily basis are presented later on in order to discuss the suffering and psychological problems. Along with the explanation of the different types of harassment, studies made present results that suggest that the victims of the harassment had some type of psychological problem. In this paper we are going to examine the impact of the harassment in homosexual people, the explanation on how psychologists view homosexual trauma, including suicide, and the best ways to get rid of discrimination against homosexual students in school are going to be examined.

2. Sexual Orientation:

Sexual orientation is the direction of ones sexual interest toward members of the same (homosexual orientation), opposite (heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (bisexual orientation).4 Homosexual people tend to remind themselves that they were the same as heterosexuals when they were younger, and that it wasnt until during or after they became adults that the majority of them become aware of their homosexual orientation. Most of them didnt announce themselves as homosexuals until they were in their twenties. At the beginning of the twenty-first century the press believed that ten percent of the American population was homosexual, but in 2002, the Gallup survey revealed that an estimated 21 percent of American men are gay and that 22 percent of American women are lesbians.5 Even though knowing the number of homosexuals will not change the civil rights issues, health experts consider that knowing sexual statistics would be very helpful.

3. The Psychology behind Homosexuality:

In general, a variety of biological and behavioral traits of homosexual people are different from those of heterosexual people. There are biological associations of sexual orientations found among brain differences, genetic influences, and prenatal hormonal influences. Now a day investigations propose that sexual orientation is, at least, somehow biological. The British-American neuroscientist, Simon LeVay, discovered while studying dead homosexual and heterosexual people, that some sections of the hypothalamus have a connection with homosexual identity. He established out that hypothalamus cell clusters are larger in straight men than in women and gay men. He also stated that the brain does change with sexual orientation, which is completely supported by the theory that establishes that everything that is psychological is also biological.5

LeVay doesnt see the brain as a sexual orientation organ, but, as an essential part of the neural trail connected in sexual behavior. Later on he confirmed his theory as he discovered a parallel difference between the six and ten percent of sheep that presented homosexual orientation, and the ninety or more percent that presented heterosexual orientation. A discovery made by Laura Allen and Roger Gorski, supported LeVays theory, as it established that the corpus callosum or tough body (located in the brain) is one-third larger in homosexual men than in heterosexuals or females. Through this discovery it has been stated, Homosexual men are more likely to have female-typical neuroanatomy than heterosexual men.5

Another factor that may influence sexual orientation is genetics. Investigations were made in sets of twin homosexual brothers, and the results stated that between identical twins, 52 percent shared the brothers orientation, and 22 percent among fraternal twin brothers. So as a result it was concluded that genetics wasnt the only factor that causes homosexual orientation, but that it is a factor that influences.5

An additional theory that has been stated on why twin brothers share similar sexual orientation is that they share the same prenatal environment. Usually in animals and in some human cases, irregular prenatal hormone conditions have been recognized to alter sexual orientation. Throughout the important period after the middle of the second month and up to the fifth month after formation, the structure of the brain’s neural-hormonal control system have led scientists to structure a hypothesis that states that homosexuals were exposed to unusual prenatal hormones. It has also been proved that contact to the hormone levels inclines the fetus to be attracted to men later in life. Analyses also reveal that homosexual men have spatial abilities more like those of typical heterosexual women. In the case of lesbians it has been shown that they tend to have a more male-typical anatomy. It has been revealed that the hearing system of lesbians build up in a transitional way between those of heterosexual people, due to the fact that there has been some influence from prenatal hormones.5

Dahir Mubarak wrote a magazine article in The Advocate (The U.S. based national gay and lesbian newsmagazine) entitled, Why Are We Gay? which explores whether being gay is influenced by genetics, environment, or biology. He states that, for years, the gay and lesbian political organization has been stating that homosexual orientation is inherited and permanent.6 This has in fact won some few followers to the gay and lesbian civil rights group. The article states, Americans who believe sexual orientation is either genetic or biological are much more likely to support gay and lesbian civil rights than those who believe it is determined primarily by environmental influences.6 Scientists consider that approximately 70 percent of them are influenced genetically to have a homosexual orientation, even though they also think that three percent can influence their sexual operation. Scientists today suppose that homosexual orientation is influenced by genetics, environment, and has biological tendency. Their researches and answers may permit the public to put an end to harassment and discrimination for sexual orientation, if they demonstrate that sexual orientation cannot be manipulated and that it is not only influenced by the environment.

4. The Harassment of Homosexuals:

On a daily basis lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people are victims of harassment and violence, for the most part at school. The controversial expressions hate crimes or bias-motivated crimes are frequently used to explain the psychological violence with lesbians, gays, bisexuals, and transgender teenagers must deal. These hate crimes were defined by the U.S congress in 1992, as, when a perpetrator targets a victim because of his or her perceived membership in a certainsocial group, usually defined byracial group, religion, sexual orientation, disability, class, ethnicity, nationality, age, gender, gender identity, social status, or political affiliation.7 In the last decade, the punishment for these hate crimes have develop into much harsher punishments, even though it is more probable to refuse a criminal with a death penalty for murder that is associated with hate.

A study was accomplished by Gregory M. Herek, Ph. D, and two of his colleagues, in order to assess the mental health of hate crimes between the years of 1993 and 1996. This investigation was performed on 2300 gays, lesbians and bisexuals. The experiment included more or less an equal number of men and women within an average age of 34 years. The participants were provided a questionnaire about their personal experiences with crime, their attitudes, and beliefs on a diversity of topics, their community participation, and their psychological well being. The researchers found out that hate crimes had more psychological effects than other type of crimes. They researchers also noticed higher levels of pain shown by the gays and lesbians that had survived hate crimes, depression, stress or anger, than those who had survived crimes that were not linked to sexual orientation.8 The researchers accept as true that delicate suffering was caused by the involvement of personal hazard and vulnerability with their identity. Along with causing more suffering, the duration of the suffering caused by hate crimes was discovered to last longer than the suffering caused by crimes that had nothing to do with sexual orientation. Among these discoveries there was the prevalence of hate crimes against homosexuals; the reports of these crimes to any kind of authority were rather fewer than other type of crimes, but the majority of all this type of harassment is not the only kind to which this population is exposed.8

Harassment refers to the broad spectrum of offensive behavior. Behaviors that harassment refers to are found to be menacing or alarming, and further than those that are sanctioned by society. The Journal of Adolescent Health has published a study in order to examine the connection between intolerance at school and mental health risks, by using representative information and comparing lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) teenagers with heterosexual teenagers. The data was taken from the 1995 Youth Risk Behavior Survey, given in Massachusetts and Vermont; it included 9188 students, which included 315 students who recognized themselves as either homosexual or bisexual. The studys conclusion stated, The findings supplied evidence that differences in health risks among LGB teenagers are mediated by intolerance in school. Such discrimination of LGB teenagers are associated with health risk behaviors.9 In societies that support free speech, only monotonous, constant and dishonest types of speech are sanctioned legally as harassment. To comprehend, we must make clear the different types of harassment that are important to todays teenagers. The different types of harassment include bullying, gang stalking, psychological harassment, racial harassment, religious harassment, sexual harassment, stalking, and street harassment.

Verbal harassment is the most commonly reported type of harassment, because it contains no boundaries. It is just defined as something that makes a person believe as if he is in menace or that an announcement was taken abusively by the victim. The gay, lesbian, and straight education network (GLSEN) measured the anti-gay harassment found in schools and discovered that 61.1 percent of gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender students reported being verbally harassed.10 The Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology published an article that reviews the verbal and physical abuse of homosexual teenagers. The article states, This answer to gay, lesbian, and bisexual adolescents by significant others in their environment is frequently associated with quite a few challenging outcomes, including school-related problems, runaways, conflict with the law, substance abuse, prostitution, and suicide. Although the causal relationship between these stressors and outcomes has not been scientifically established, there is suggestive evidence that these outcomes are consequences of verbal and physical harassment.11

Bullying is one of the many types of harassment that usually takes place on the playground, in the classroom at school, or in the workplace. Typically physical and psychological harassing behavior is carried out against a certain person. Psychological harassment is degrading or offensive behavior that lowers a persons self-esteem or causes him or her a torture. This type of harassment is primarily seen in the form of verbal comments, actions, or gestures. Also psychological harassment can be expressed in the method of writing, such as on restroom walls in school. Sometimes another type of harassment appears which is the stalking, activity in which an unauthorized following and observing of an individual is done, to an extent that the persons privacy is inappropriately interrupted, and in most cases the victim fears for his own wellbeing.

In March of 2005, UCLA researchers reported the first study that examined everyday school harassment, which was conducted on the 192 sixth grade students. 47 percent of them reported being bullied at least once during the development of the study, while 46 percent said that they had been bullied at least once. This study is in some way helpful because it addresses the psychological problems that these students were left with after being harassed. Juvonen, Mark and Graham Schuster wrote, Students who reported getting picked on also reported increased embarrassment and fury, while students who saw a classmate picked on reported increased concern and disliked school more.12 Adrienne Nishina, Jana Juvonen, and UCLA developmental psychology graduate student Melissa Witwok recently published in the Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, Middle school students who are bullied in school are likely to feel depressed, lonely and miserable, which in turn makes them more susceptible to further bullying incidents”12 Because they are different from their school mates, the bullying that homosexual students are subjected to, is considered out of the normal. Homophobia is one of the main reasons the teenagers are often harassed, and homophobia starts early and is often influenced by the adult figures in the childs life. The Institute of Education conducted interviews in 1987, with teachers at schools, and it concluded that 82 percent of teachers are conscious of homophobic bullying, although the school still lacks the attempt to deal with these issues. Homophobic bullying and harassment has been estimated to be the reason of one in five homosexuals attempt to commit suicide or harm themselves. Bullying and harassment are types of disturbance and, therefore, may lead to cause damage to ones health. The warning signs that the victims usually present are the ones that are identified as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. Aggression and harassment frequently cause the PTSD to be more difficult. Complex PTSD is often untreated because the sufferers of PTSD tend to find it difficult to find any kind of treatment or knowledge of treatment, and, if untreated, PTSD symptoms can last for a lifetime. In homosexual teens today, this seems to be one of the most important issues, because harassment leading up to PTSD, which it commonly does, in most cases prevents people from achieving their goals.13

Sexual harassment is also common among teenagers in educational facilities. In the year 2001, the American Association of University Women conducted an investigation on students in grades 8 to 11, and discovered that 4 out of 5 boys and girls reported some sort of sexual harassment.14 The GLSEN found in a study conducted in 2001 that 46.5 percent reported being sexual harassed. Although the percentage is rather bit smaller, the homosexual community is especially small compared to the total population in the world, and some students may have feared to testify the incidents of being sexually harassed.

Over the past year, a national survey was conducted by the Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network (GLSEN) and administered to the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender (LGBT) teenagers; and found out that, more than four-fifths of the LGBT teenagers have experienced verbal harassment, and that 42 percent have experienced some kind of sexual harassment. In 1997, an Iowa study found that on an every day average, high school students will hear 25 anti-gay comments. These types of harassment can rise up to physical attacks and even rape. During a five year study finished by the Safe Schools Coalition of Washington State, the researchers documented and stated that there were 111 incidents of anti-gay violence in 73 different schools. This violence included eight gang rapes with students from sixth to eleventh grade. Sexual harassment in America is considered a form of criminal prejudice and it is a form of mental violence. Many victims of psychological harassment go through physical disorders, irritability, anxiety, nervousness, insomnia, stress, fatigue, depressive states, bum outs, and in some cases, suicide.

5. Suicide, a Result from Harassment:

Gay and lesbian teenagers have increased rates of assault, suicide, substance abuse, and homelessness; these events are a reflection of what homophobic attitudes express by others or may be internalized feelings of self-hatred. Adolescents who have by now decide that they are gay or lesbian can happen to be depressed or act out, and commonly become absent or even run away from home, or they may get to express negative feelings towards the family members. Now a day homosexual teens need assistance managing the effects of the persistent attacks by social institutions on their self-esteem and hopes for a successful career.15

Suicide, although not always the result of sexual harassment, is fatal. Suicide is the act of a human being intentionally causing his or her owndeath16 It seems for a lot of people that gay and lesbian teenagers are in danger of committing suicide because of the sexual harassment throughout their lives. Several state and national studies have revealed that, among homosexual teenagers, there are more thoughts and actual suicide attempts than among heterosexual teenagers. Most of the time psychologists consider suicide as a way to call the attention of people. They also believe that reasons for suicide are not only external but also internal, meaning there is a chemical imbalance. They have not found any relations of suicide of homosexuals due to internal problems. This is important because it strongly suggests that sexual harassment is the major cause of suicide of homosexuals with internal problems. Statistics for homosexual suicide have fluctuated between 30 percent to less than 1 percent. Peter LaBarbera, in an article titled The Gay Youth Suicide Myth, uses statistics provided by Dr. David Shaffer, one of Americas authorities on suicides throughout todays teens.

LaBarbera quotes Dr. Shaffer by saying,

“… by broadening the definition, we therefore ran the risk of overdetermining the number of gay suicides. In spite of this, out of 107 male teen suicides, only three were known to have talked to others about a homosexual experience (2.7%) and two of these three died together in a suicide pact. A further four showed some behavior that could have been indicative of homosexuality. None of the female suicides were thought to have been lesbian. If all of the teenagers who showed any evidence of homosexual behavior were indeed gay, then a total of 6% of the suicides in our study would have been gay. Once again, there is no evidence that a large proportion of suicides are gay, but [6% is] more or less [what] we would expect in the general population”17

In Oklahoma suicide, is the second most common cause of death in people among the ages of 13 and 25, including both sexes and all races. In the year 2003, according to the National Center of Injury Prevention and Control, 76 young adults in Oklahoma committed suicide. Out of that, five were homosexuals. Oklahomas statistics were considered because it is believed to be an enthusiastic and conservative state, considering it was one of the 11 states in November 2004 approving [the] constitutional amendments codifying marriage as an exclusively heterosexual institution.” Additionally, the state defined it as a misconduct crime to issue a marriage license to a same sex couple.18 Throughout the United States, there were 4620 suicides in the year 2003, and the homosexual community accounted for 277 for all those deaths. Taking into consideration the population of the United States, 277 does not seem like a lot of people, but considering that the homosexual community only makes up 1percent or 2 percent of the whole country, it is quite a few. Suicide rates are significant to examine at in this case, even though it is difficult to do so because sexual orientation is not listed on ones death certificate.

6. Conclusion:

In conclusion, harassment does have an effect on a homosexual individual by making him either feel stressed, afraid of being open with his sexual orientation, or even suicidal. There are all diverse types of harassment that face up to homosexuals, but all result in psychological violence against the individual, and it is essential to note that the reason that homosexuals have psychological difficulties is not because of their homosexuality, but rather than, from the harassment to which they are exposed. One of the psychological results from homosexual harassment is PTSD, which weakens the victim from the pressure of a traumatic occurrence; bullying and sexual harassment can cause this also. The most crucial result from homosexual harassment is suicide. The suicidal teenagers feel that the pressure of the attacks is too challenging and that they cant live with the weight of being homosexual.

Suicide is the result of all types of harassment, including verbal, physical, and sexual harassment, which is the reason that discussing homosexual harassment is so important.

The reason that homosexuals are treated differently is because people are not well-informed about homosexuality. The National Association of School Psychologists recognizes that children who question their sexual orientation are at a greater risk of harmful situations, such as suicide, physical and verbal harassment, and physical violence. These risks usually take place for the child at school, and in their study the NASP concluded that 28% of the students missed at least one day of school as a result of feeling unsafe because they questioned their sexuality. Their suggestions for creating a safe school for sexual minority teenagers include establishing and enforcing non-discrimination policies that apply to all students, educating students and staff, intervening when a student is harassing or being harassed, along with giving that student support. In order for the homosexual youth to feel secure at school, these students need to be incorporated in the non-discrimination policy that most schools have. The students and staff then need to be involved because of all the consequences that may follow the harassment of a homosexual student or peer. The education of students and staff about sexual minority teenagers should include a meticulous in service training on all diversities of human beings, as well as including pertinent research of the risks experienced by homosexual youth. Consequences should be applied to the perpetrators, but psychotherapy should be offered to both the victim and the perpetrator.

A social relationship is an interaction of two or people, also a social group. They are believed to shape the behavior of individuals in different ways, as the saying goes, ‘show me your friends and I tell you your character’. At some point most people especially the women and also research shows that social relationships reduce pain. When women are in a relationship they are happy because they have someone to lean on. Social support is seen as a very important factor for both physical and mental health. Stressful and painful experiences can be reduced through engaging in social relationships as one will get moral support and encouragement thus is able to face the problems easily. Building social relationships begins as early as at birth. That is the relation of the child with the mother and the other family members. The process does not stop there but goes to the society as one grows up and becomes able to decide where he or she wants to belong.

In the past building social relationships was much easier because most of the properties were communally owned that is to say that they shared a lot and thus interaction was easy and regular. Newman (2009) observes that the 21st century time is challenging and strange when it comes to deciding the kind of relationships one should have in creating a foundation of ones social life. People may want to be in social relationships due to different reason. For example may be one want to benefit from the other and after getting what he or she wanted it comes to a time to withdraw. All the same it is important to note that building social relationships is very necessary to every individual.

When building social relationships one must have the social interaction skills. These are behavior that help one be able to stick to the social relationship because they keep you out of trouble and avoid conflicts. According to Bellini (2006) social skills are behavior that are learned and are socially accepted that help a person to be able to interact with other people without negative responses. He also notes that these skills the building blocks of a successful social relationships. This skills are usually taught by the parent to there children at a tender age. All the same as one grows into an adult basically the very skills are still applicable in building social relationship.

Another thing that comes along in building social relationships is the art of being friendly to all. Every day we meet different people with different personalities. It is therefore up to us to be able to fit and interact freely. We should have friendly skills like greeting people when we meet, be able to offer a sit to someone, shake hands, say words like thank you, am sorry, excuse me, please and many other ways that is friendly. Be able to treat people the same way you would want them to treat you. As the saying goes: “put yourself in one’s shoes”. In this way one is able to interact freely without many difficulties thus building social relationships.

The factor of age or we can also say peer group also is important in building social relationships. This will help connectivity to be much easier because people of the same age tend to think more alike. Meersman and Tari (2003) observe that communication between people of the same peer group is easy and they refer this to architecture of communication. Here what they simply mean is that the construction of communication in such a social group is well defined. These categories of people include; the children, teenagers, young adults, adults and the old. Social relationships are based in this age set and you find they all act in the same manor.

In the various societies that exit today we have social institutions and community organizations that play a major role in building social relationships. The family is usually seen as the most important social institution in the society because this is where one builds the foundation of his or her social life. We have other institutions like; religious institution for example the church, temple, and mosque. The school, hospital, peer groups, community based organizations, and not forgetting the working places. These are places where people from different back grounds meet and get to know each other thus interact. It is therefore important for people to always belong to one or as many as possible of any this groups.

We build social relationships to understand the knowledge of the mind. This helps us to continually monitor or check our own behavior and also be able to predict the behavior of those that we interact with. Bellini (2006) notes that the theory of the mind was coined by Permack and Woodruff (1978).this refers to the ability of one to understand and explain the things that are not seen I a person directly. These include feelings, thoughts, beliefs, desire, and intentions. He continues to say that knowledge of the mind is a successful component of building social relationships.

In building social relationship the element of trust is necessary. Once an individual decides to get involved with a particular social group it automatically means that he or she trusts the people they are interacting with and they too trust them. This is so because when one gets a problem for example, it will need someone trust worthy to talk to. One who will keep your talk confidential. These kinds of people are the people we interact with daily and we have had enough time together so we are so familiar with them.

Language is an aspect that is of value in that people look at in building social relationships. People can only interact well when a common language is used. This enhances good communication and understanding in the group. Gee (2005) also sees language as an important aspect in social relationships. He further notes that in the interaction process people need to use the same social language. Different social groups have different social language. For example, children, adolescents, adults and the old all have different social languages that they use.

In building social relationships people also base in there social values. These social values include things like sex, beliefs, roles, and even structures. Depending on these values different social groups are formed. One would want to fit in a group that he or she will feel comfortable and proud to be there. It will help them to be constructive and optimistic. These values also help shape there daily life to there own interest thus happy people.

Social relationships are also built basing on the family origin, unconscious motives, one’s habits, personality, and relationships and life experiences. For the sake of a social relation lasting there is need to match this concepts to each person. This will ensure stability of the group by avoiding constant movement of members in search of a group where they best fit or that they find suitable to them.

Change is inevitable in life and we as human beings should be able to adapt to the daily changes of life. When building social relationships people are expected to witness a lot of change in the social group. It can either be the members or that group itself changes. When this happens it is up to the social group to accept and adjust to the change rather than moving to another new social group. It does not have to be the same through out and that is why the members of a particular social group have to be always flexible.

According to Young (1990) the social life of morality is not found in an individual person because it is comprised of a small structure of the self. He instead say that social morality is found in the relationship between individuals and the society. Here is where things like belief, trust and faith are found. It is also believe to shape human behavior so as to know good and evil. One will stay away from evil so as to belong to the society.

Transparency is an important element in building social relationships. Because there is the element of trust people should be open in with they are doing in life. The issue of ‘you cannot judge a book by its cover’ should not arise. Openness should be evident. Let the people know you as you are both in the inner self and outside and this should be the same. Activities of the group should also be carried out in a transparent manner as well, without having anything to hide.

The need for human relation is also the reason for building social relationships. Every human being was created in such a way that they always have a sense of wanting to relate in any way. They a want to belong in a particular group or with other people apart from the self. These relations are a basic to every individual in life.

The importance / advantages

The study of Newnan (2009) shows that building social relationships plays an important role in group ties in people’s daily life. He gives an example of Japan and India where people consider duty and sacrifice more than individual achievement or personal success. they believe that group connections is the best foundation for any individual wellbeing because it come along with things like loyalty, connection with people , responsibility of one self and other people as well and it also creates a sense of belonging.

Building social relationships bring come with a lot of changes in the society. These changes include both individual development and the community at large. Rosenberg and Rehr (1983) say that the involvement of one in institutions like self help groups, social work, church, school and being close to your family helps reduce conflicts and they bring about development. This is through coming together to do social work or fund raising contributions and even come together to advocate for changes in health care policies. Through this development the people are assured of a better living.

Building social relationships also promote peace love harmony and unity in the society. This is true because people living together and there social life is well build up will not have conflicts. They appreciate each other and offer moral support to one another. Such a society will always it together as one and solve issues that may arise in a more organize way.

Building social relationships is important in everyone’s life. This is because in times of depression and stress one always needs someone to talk to and relieve the burden. This now where the people you have been interacting with come in to offer that moral support. Just as we know that this an important factor both in physical and mental health of a person. Frumkin, Frank, & Jackson (2004) note that social bond known to be a very important component of good health. They further state that isolation and loneliness are toxic while on the other hand social relationships are healthy.

The 21st centaury has come along with diseases that are complicated. Some of these diseases include, stomach ulcers depression and many others. These diseases are not diseases that one can say that you go to the hospital and get treatment then you are cured. Doctors recommend that these diseases are controlled by the individual. The way one interacts with other people really matters. To avoid these kinds of diseases researchers indicate that one should build up as many social relationships as possible. This helps one to be able to avoid these diseases by sharing out there problems. As we know that a problem shared is a problem half solved.

Building social relationships also help people get to know each other well and lead to marriages. People get to find there perfect pairs and choose to spend the rest of there life with them. This leads to the creation of happy marriages and also happy families. Getting a life time partner is not an easy task as we all know but as one builds his or her social relationship in a good way, there potentials are noticed and they attract someone thus they propose and marry. Making them live happily ever after.

Building social relationships help a person to have good problem solving abilities. It also helps one to think in a more flexible manor. This is basically important in the early stages of life and the parents have the task of ensuring that there children’s social life is good. The kind of games that a child plays and with who becomes the main issue that a parent should look at with keenness. This kind of interaction is what the child will live to adopt even as he grows older.

People with stronger social network live longer. Research show that the mortality rate is determined by the social network of people in a place. This is true as social net work improves the health status of an individual. That togetherness gives an individual a reason for living. Research also indicate that in looking at two different sets of people, That is one in a marriage life and one who is single, they found that people in marriage live longer than people who are single. This is because in a marriage there is sharing of problems and also constant moral support.

All human beings emotions are believed to be able to change another person’s motives and feelings. In the process of building social relationships important factors such as this arises. Emotions are inter-personal and con not therefore be separated from the process of relating. These relationships change the feelings of a person in a positive direction. Bad people change and become good people with moral. The society is always there to encourage people to do good for the benefit of both the society and most importantly to the individual as a person.

Building social relationships also come with some form of organization. The relationship it self shows that there was cooperation that triggered it. When we look at it in terms of a society we find that things are done in a systematic way. There is order of the way issues are handled and a systematic way of doing thing. These in the long run avoid conflicts and the wastage of resources in the social group.

Employment is created by building a social relation ships. This is mostly through net working or it can as well be through the formation of self help groups or social work. Employment means that one has a source of earning a living thus assured of daily bread. This promotes the living standards of an individual as well as the society at large. It reduces the problem of unemployment in the society.

Building social relationships also reduce the aspects of immorality, theft, murder and all other devices that one can think of. This is true because social relationships in a society are meant to shape the morals of every individual. People become responsible for their own actions in life

In conclusion therefore we can say that building social relationships is an inevitable process in the life of every person. This is so because it begins from birth. When a child is born that is when it begins to build its social relationship. At this point it is limited to the family level mostly influenced by the mother. This is the foundation and parents are careful. As one grow he or she now able to look at which social relation group he best fits. This as we have seen shape the personality of the individual into a better being. Going to social institutions such as the school, church and others also ply a major role in the individual. Social relationships cannot be avoided in whatever way and people should always be ready to be involved in them with a positive attitude.

The researcher has used both types of methods qualitative and quantitative research. Quantitative approach will be used to gather and investigate numeric data to represent the various facts available. In this research qualitative approach seems more flexible and realistic. Hence the belief is that qualitative approach can satisfy the aforementioned objectives.

SOURCE OF DATA: The researcher has primarily referred to secondary sources. The secondary literature will constitute newspapers, books, journals and internet materials to discuss the above mentioned issues

INTRODUCTION
Untouchability Today: A Background

Untouchability today outlines the context in which untouchability is practiced in the current scenario. India emerges as the world’s largest democracy and fastest growing economy yet the practice of untouchability remains in stark contrast to the image of progress that the Indian government seeks to promote to the international community. The issue of untouchability is one of the most divisive issues in the country’s history and a lived experience of all people in India, including the Dalits who number over 164 million, and non-Dalit perpetrators and witnesses. Despite growing domestic and international concern, Constitutional prohibition, and a legal enforcement regime as well as international human rights protections, the daily life of many Dalits stills remain unchanged till date.

Untouchability is an ancient form of discrimination based upon caste which is a complex and pervasive problem in India, although its practice is not limited to India alone. For millennia, the practice of untouchability has marginalized, terrorized, and relegated a sector of Indian society to a life marked by violence, humiliation, and indignity. The discrimination is so pervasive that many Dalits come to believe that they are responsible for their own suffering and exclusion. Thus believing it to be there faith and in turn perpetuate the practice of untouchability. Like a shameful secret, a “hidden apartheid,” untouchability remains an extremely sensitive issue in India. Its practice is never fully defined, never fully explored and, thus, never fully understood. Thus this research paper is an attempt to understand the problems and issues underlining the practice of untouchability in the Indian context

What is untouchability?

Untouchability is a direct product of the caste system. It is not merely the inability to touch a human being of a certain caste or sub-caste. It is an attitude on the part of a whole group of people that relates to a deeper psychological process of thought and belief, invisible to the naked eye, translated into various physical acts and behaviours, norms and practices. [1]

Untouchability is the product of casteism and the belief in purity of so called upper castes. It is generally taken for granted that Dalits are considered polluted people at the lowest end of the caste order. All the menial tasks were to done by the low caste, like removing human waste (known as “manual scavenging”), dragging away and skinning animal carcasses, tanning leather, making and fixing shoes. They are supposed to reside outside the village so that their physical presence does not pollute the “real” village. They are restricted in terms of space and their houses were to be of inferior quality and devoid of any facilities like water and electricity.

Identifying Conditions and Practices Associated with Untouchability

1) Water for drinking,

2) Food and beverage,

3) Religion,

4) Touch,

5) Access to public facilities and institutions,

6) Caste-based occupations,

7) Prohibitions and social sanctions

8) Private sector discrimination.

Untouchability is present in nearly every sphere of life and practiced in an infinite number of forms. At the village level Dalits are barred from using wells used by non-Dalits, forbidden from going to the barber shop and entering temples, while at the level of job recruitment and employment Dalits are systematically paid less, ordered to do the most menial work, and rarely promoted. Even at school, Dalit children may be asked to clean toilets and to eat separately. [2]

As an instrument of casteism, Untouchability also serves to instill caste status to Dalit children from the moment they are born. For e.g. some of the names given to Dalit boys in Gujarat are Kachro (filth), Melo (dirty), Dhudiyo (dusty), Gandy (mad), Ghelo (stupid), Punjo (waste).This is deliberately done so that a child becomes conscious of his caste or sub-caste identity. The person treated as untouchable submits himself or herself to untouchability practices because of a generational belief that it is right, justified, religious and natural. Untouchability in this sense is directly related to the caste system, and the only way to get rid of it is to get rid of the caste system itself.

Who are Dalits?

The word “Dalit” comes from the Sanskrit root dal- and means “broken, ground-down, downtrodden, or oppressed.” Those previously known as Untouchables, Depressed Classes, and Harijans are today increasingly adopting the term “Dalit” as a name for themselves. “Dalit” refers to one’s caste rather than class; it applies to members of those menial castes which have born the stigma of “untouchability” because of the extreme impurity and pollution connected with their traditional occupations. Dalits are ‘outcastes’ falling outside the traditional four-fold caste system consisting of the hereditary Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra classes; they are considered impure and polluting and are therefore physically and socially excluded and isolated from the rest of society.

Dalits represent a community of 170 million in India, constituting 17% of the population. One out of every six Indians is Dalit, yet due to their caste identity Dalits regularly face discrimination and violence which prevent them from enjoying the basic human rights and dignity promised to all citizens of India. Caste-based social organization extends beyond India, finding corollaries in Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh, as well as other countries outside of South Asia. More than 260 million people worldwide suffer from this “hidden apartheid” of segregation, exclusion, and discrimination.

Provisions for the safeguard of Dalits:

Article 17of the Indian constitution declares untouchability is abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden. The enforcement of any disability arising out of untouchability shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law.

The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 punishes the preaching and practice of Untouchability.

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989 criminalizes certain acts against members of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes such as traffic in human beings, ‘begar (free labor)’ and forced labor in any form.

Problem of Untouchability in India

When the constitution of India outlawed untouchability in 1950 many national leaders believed that a centuries old practice had been brought to an end. But now nearly 60 years later there is no total success of the statutory measure. Millions of Dalits across the country who account for roughly 1/5th of the population continue to suffer birth-based discrimination and humiliation. In states like Tamil Nadu which boasts a long history of reformist movements is no exception. In fact untouchability has not only survived the constitutional ban but taken new avatars in many parts of the state. Caste-based discrimination has often led to violence, leaving hundreds of the disadvantaged people in distress particularly in the 1990s.

The Segregation of Dalits is seen almost everywhere in Tamil Nadu’s villages. But nothing can perhaps beat the high wall 500 meters long that has been built at Uthapuram in Madurai district as a barrier between Dalits and caste Hindus.

While untouchability is still rampant and is taking new forms particularly in villages, the constitutional ban and compulsions of modernity and development have to some extent blunted its rigor. Rail transport has been unifying forces in society. Yet the Railways have been among the worst offenders in respect of the law against manual scavenging.Dalits constitute a significant portion of its workforce of manual scavengers along railway lines.

Although all state governments claim that they have abolished manual scavenging reports reveal that this practice is very much alive in many places. Postmen have also been found to practice untouchability.A study conducted in Tamil Nadu noted that in two villages in Madurai district postmen did not deliver postal articles to Dalit addressees.Dalits were required to collect the articles at the post office. There are also road transport related violations of the law against untouchability.Among them is the unwritten rule that gives caste Hindus priority over Dalits in boarding buses in many areas, buses not stopping in Dalit areas, transport employees picking quarrels with Dalit passengers without provocation and Dalits not being allowed to use bus shelters. State government still follows a traditional procedure of making announcements in villages by beating a drum and for that they deploy Dalits.

Worse still are the roles of schools and teachers in perpetuating untouchability and sowing the seeds of caste-related discrimination in young minds. The Dalit children are often discouraged by teachers and fellow students belonging to caste Hindu social groups. In many schools Dalit pupils were not allowed to share water with caste Hindus. To punish an erring or naughty Dalit boy teachers scold him by calling him by his caste name. If the teacher decides that the boy needed a beating as punishment the task was assigned to another Dalit boy. There is also systematic refusal of admission to Dalits in certain schools particularly at the plus two levels.

In some villages during the temple festivals Dalits are supposed to stay hidden from caste Hindus. The two-tumbler system under which Dalits and non-Dalits are served tea in different vessels is still prevalent in some teashops. In some eateries they are compelled to sit on the floor.

Caste and Untouchability

The caste system has been mainly criticized for its treatment of outcastes or untouchables. This group has been termed the panchama (the fifthvarna), collectively designating all who fall outside the regular four classes.

The notion of untouchability may have been present in the original varna system, though it is not clear precisely how it operated. Puranic texts mention untouchables, stating that they should be well-supported, but intimate connection with them avoided. They also state that those who fell from their status within the higher “twice-born” varnas were called dvija-bandhu (friends of the twice-born) and were accommodated within the shudraclass. In actual practice, some who abandoned key rituals or moral standards were altogether ostracised. Additionally, jobs deemed to be particularly contaminating were held only by outcastes. These include sweepers, leather workers ,and crematorium attendants. They were not allowed to live within the confines of regular village life, nor to share public facilities such as wells and temples.

Organised opposition to rigid caste practices began with the medieval bhakti movements. Some of them rejected both caste and its precursor, varnashrama-dharma. Others considered the original varnashrama-dharma to be the genuine system, though it usually took second place to a revitalised spiritual egalitarianism. Some contemporary bhakti traditions continue to initiate non-caste brahmanasfrom amongst communities normally considered untouchable. This liberal practice has met opposition, particularly from caste-consciousbrahmanas.

Gandhi called the outcastes Harijans – the children of God – and wanted to accommodate them within the fourth varna. Ranji Ambedkar, another important reformer, was a member of the untouchable caste who succeeded in attaining a scholarship to study law. He later disagreed with Gandhi over the future status of untouchables, and advocated instead a classless society. He was one of the main architects of the new Indian constitution of 1950, which outlawed untouchability and gave equal status to all citizens. In practice many rigid caste values continue, and former outcastes have organized themselves as Dalits (the oppressed), fighting for social and economic equality. The struggle continues today, and though “positive discrimination” is securing the outcastes equal opportunities, some claim that it is now displacing those who are actually more qualified.

Caste consciousness still continues, and is much debated amongst Hindu scholars and activists. Some advocate the mitigation of social injustice through the complete abolition of social divisions. Others attempt to redefine the ancient varnashrama-dharma in a way that is relevant to post-modern society.

Caste related violence in India

Phoolan Devi (1963 – 2001) was an Indian dacoit (bandit), who later turned politician. Born in a lower-caste Mallaah family, she was mistreated and abandoned by her husband. She was later kidnapped by a gang of dacoits. The upper-caste Thakur leader of the gang tried to rape her, but she was protected by the deputy leader Vikram, who belonged to her caste. Later, an upper-caste Thakur friend of Vikram killed him, abducted Phoolan, and locked her up in the Behmai village. Phoolan was raped in the village by Thakur men, until she managed to escape after three weeks.Phoolan Devi then formed a gang of Mallahs, which carried out a series of violent robberies in north and central India, mainly targeting upper-caste people. Some say that Phoolan Devi targeted only the upper-caste people and shared the loot with the lower-caste people, but the Indian authorities insist this is a myth[2]. Seventeen months after her escape from Behmai, Phoolan returned to the village, to take her revenge. On February 14, 1981, her gang massacred twenty-two Thakur men in the village, only two of which were involved in her kidnapping or rape. Phoolan Devi later surrendered and served eleven years in prison, after which she became a politician. During her election campaign, she was criticized by the women widowed in the Behmai massacre. Kshatriya Swabhimaan Andolan Samanvay Committee (KSASC), a Kshatriya organization, held a statewide campaign to protest against her. She was elected a Member of Parliament twice.

On July 25, 2001, Phoolan Devi was shot dead by unknown assassins. Later, a man called Sher Singh Rana confessed to the murder, saying he was avenging the deaths of 22 Kshatriyas at Behmai. Although the police were skeptical of his claims, he was arrested. Rana escaped from Tihar Jail in 2004. In 2006, KSASC decided to honor Rana for “upholding the dignity of the Thakur community” and “drying the tears of the widows of Behmai.”[3]

Andhra Pradesh

This state is considered to be one of the least caste-crime infested places of India which has not had many Dalit Massacres

Bihar

Ranvir Sena is an caste-supremacist fringe paramilitary group based in Bihar. The group is based amongst the forward-caste landlord, and carries out actions against the outlawed naxals in rural areas. It has committed violent acts against Dalits and other members of the scheduled caste community in an effort to scuttle reform movements aimed at their emancipation.

Tamil Nadu

The state of Tamil Nadu has witnessed several caste-based incidents both against Dalits and Brahmins .In 2000, three young men belonging to the Dalit under caste were killed in the Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu .This fuelled some localized violence in the caste-sensitive region, which has seen numerous caste-related incidents in which the majority of the victims have been Dalits. Six of the killings have been registered as murders under the Indian Penal Code and others as “Deaths under suspicious circumstances. No arrests have been made in these cases

However, several Dalits have been arrested as goondas (hoodlums). The Chief minister of Tamil-Nadu, M. Karunanidhi, has been accused of having an “anti-Dalit” bias by the radical organization “Dalit Panthers of India”. Theories concerning these crimes against Dalits range from “alcohol bootleggers opposing prohibition movements among Dalits” to “inter-caste relations between a Vanniya boy and a Dalit girl”. Political parties sympathetic to the Dalits have protested against these incidents[4] and have alleged systemic biases against Dalits in several parts of the country.

Bant Singh case of Punjab

On the evening of January 5, 2006 Bant Singh, a poor Sikh Dalit, was attacked by unknown assailants. His injuries necessitated medical amputation. He alleges that this was in retaliation for actively working to secure justice for his daughter, who was gang raped by upper caste members of his village in Punjab five years earlier.[5]

A 55-year-old Dalit Sikh woman, Sawinder Kaur has been tortured, stripped and tied to a tree in Ram Duali village of Punjab because her nephew eloped with a girl from the same community. The police arrested four persons for allegedly committing the crime on 9 September 2007.[7]

In January, 1999 four members of the village panchayat of Bhungar Khera village in Abohar paraded a handicapped Dalit woman naked through the village. No action was taken by the police, despite local Dalit protests. It was only on July 20 that the four pancha yat members were arrested, after the State Home Department was compelled to order an inquiry into the incident.[8]

A Dalit Sikh woman, Sukhwinder Kaur of Sumel Kheri village was molested and beaten up by an octroi contractor of Malaudh when she resisted his attempt to sexually exploit her.[9]

Kherlanji massacre

On September 29, 2006, four members of the Bhotmange family belonging to the Dalit underclass were slaughtered in Kherlanji, a small village in Bhandara district of Maharashtra. The women of the family, Surekha and Priyanka, were paraded naked in public, then allegedly gang-raped before being murdered [1]. Although initially ascribed by the media and by the Human Rights Watch to upper castes, the criminal act was actually carried out by Kunbi[10] caste (classified as Other Backward Classes[11] by Government of India) farmers for having opposed the requisition of the Dalit land to have a road built over it.

On November 23, 2006, several members of the Dalit community in the nearby district of Chandrapur staged a protest regarding this incident.The protesters allegedly turned violent and pelted stones. The police had to resort to baton charging to control the situation. Dalit leaders, however, denied that they had sparked the violence and that they were “protesting in peace”.

2006 Dalit protests in Maharashtra

In November-December 2006, the desecration of a Ambedkar statue in Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh) triggered off violent protests by Dalits in Maharashtra. Several people remarked that the protests were fueled by the Kherlanji Massacre[12]. During the violent protests, the Dalit protestors set three trains on fire, damaged over 100 buses and clashed with police[13]. At least four deaths and many more injuries were reported.

Later, the Kanpur Police arrested a Dalit youth Arun Kumar Balmiki for desecrating the Ambedkar statue. According to the police, the youth had “admitted to having damaged the statue in a drunken state along with two friends”[14]. Earlier in a similar case, a Dalit youth was held for desecrating an Ambedkar statue in Gulbarga, Karnataka[15].

In response to these protests, Raj Thackeray drew attention to another incident in Kherlanji, in which a Dalit allegedly raped a girl and killed her. Thackeray demanded action on those responsible for the rape and the subsequent death of the girl, and also remarked that nobody helped the girl’s family[16].

Rajasthan

In the Indian province of Rajasthan, between the years 1999 and 2002, crimes against Dalits average at about 5024 a year, with 46 killings and 138 cases of rape.[17]

Punjab

On 25 May 2009, violence and rioting broke out when thousands of protesters took to the streets in almost all major towns and cities in the Indian state of Punjab after a dalit preacher, Sant Ramanand, was attacked in a temple in Vienna, Austria. He was among 16 people injured, including another preacher Sant Nirajnan Dass, and later died in hospital. Both the preachers were from a low-caste Sikh sect which has a large following in parts of Punjab and had travelled to Vienna to conduct a special service. Several high-caste Sikh groups had apparently opposed his presence and threatened violence. This happened after the preacher had reportedly made remarks about the Sikh groups.

SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM

Gender inequality is not new in traditional African society. This is in fact, not very much than it is now asserted in different countries. At present, in Africa mostly violated and then comes the rest of the world where gender inequality is perceived to bloom. Injustice given to the women seems to be increasing. In Africa, the most commonly occurring of rape in each three to six seconds. Considering the U.S., women are physically abused every 9 second, whereas in India, five thousand women are murdered approximately each year through the ceremony of dowry murder. In any case, this tragic event is the top of iceberg. However, Customs such as female genital mutilation continues as to be devastating many communities of practice; the British medical authorities and doctors warned that the first few weeks, in a recent immigrant to look at it.

Gender Roles

The activities of gender responsibilities, roles, and rights in a society of normal men and women appropriately follow. In Africa there is no single model of gender roles. Different cultures on the African continent, the role of men and women, many different ideas, although in general women are subordinate in public life and family life of the man. Such as gender roles, sexual behavior and sexual attitudes of different standards of conduct extensive in Africa. For generations, however, regardless of gender roles in Africa and sexual attitudes have changed, especially in the cities and in the West’s influence have been the strongest region.

African traditional culture has been clear that men and women have different roles in society. Girls and boys grow up; they know what kind of society they are growing in. Because of their livestock to boys, girls will be responsible for the firewood and water, while children hunting, girls will improve the strength in mainly the cooking. Then coming towards the marriage, the young men finds himself into a husband’s placed one of the leader of the community. Same goes to the women. Therefore, their life will want to live in this old model is more based on social norms and less based on personal desire.

Women’s and children’s vulnerability To HIV/AIDS

Worldwide, HIV / AIDS are the reason of death for many. The proportion of HIV and AIDS, led to women’s reproductive age. This caused by the change between the various regions of the world significantly. Women account for a lower proportion of people living with HIV. However, Caribbean and sub-Saharan Africa are the main regions, where this ratio is quite high.

Sub-Saharan Africa

1985 led the sub-Saharan Africa with most of the HIV-infected people, because of their female. However, infection rates increased over the years and HIV and AIDS has surpassed the number of women and infection is still more than men. In 2009, some 12 million in the sub-Saharan, most of the women infected with HIV and AIDS patients compare to about 8.2 million citizens. UNAIDS estimates, about three women of all the contaminated with HIV lives in sub-Saharan Africa.

Sub-Saharan Africa is the world where the majority of heterosexual HIV spread occurs during sexual contact areas. Since women are double, they are more likely to obtain than from a man of unprotected heterosexual intercourse in HIV-infected partner, women disproportionately infected in the region.

Women and children

Mother to child transmission (MTCT) is a problem, directly affecting women. Women when documents in pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding the baby of the virus. UNAIDS said that in the last of 2009, an estimation of two and a half million children (15 years old) infected with HIV, most of them will be infected if not treated their mothers. They could live up to maximum 27 years of age; the high numbers of children would possibly not live to their adult life.

Drugs can minimize a gain of about 40% of the HIV virus from mother to child less than 2% chance; they cannot be used in different areas of the world. In the ongoing years, pharmaceutical companies have been substantially lowered, such as AZT and nevirapine drug, which in developing countries to prevent mother to child spread of HIV to help prices. However, due to limited human resources and poor infrastructure, many women still do not get these drugs.

Women who are victims of sexual violence were at higher risk of HIV infection, and lack of condom use rape and forced nature means that more women vulnerable to HIV infection immediately. A South African study concluded that their partners who are beaten or dominated by women more vulnerable to HIV infection, a woman who was not. Another couples in India found that the spread of HIV, not only in a very abusive relationships largely occurs, but abusive husband. HIV infection is more likely than non-abusive husbands.

Social difference in Africa

Social and economic policies favored by the colonial state men generally. Since independence, the role differences in men and women, and even the laws as a result of greater. Thus, women lag behind others in education, literacy, and in getting good jobs.

In the current world women, the third world especially, has given an unfair treatment. No wonder the major international issue has been the gender inequality. In Africa, the gender inequality is worse than the previous few decades ago. Obviously, the West may bring a lot of benefits, but gender equality is not one of them.

Economists have generally focused on the per capita income as the main indicator. In mainstream economic theory, education is often represents a key aspect of human capital, with a positive factor into the production function. Men and women with lower education, lower level of human capital transformation. Therefore, in theory, have a direct impact on women’s education from the income (or growth). There are also some strong arguments to support economic growth beyond the direct impact of female education more positive impact. These measures include the mother’s health, children’s health and education, and fertility effects. In general, support the existence of such indirect effects, higher female education to make women more informed mothers, thus helping to reduce child mortality and malnutrition. Increasing the proportion of educated women may also help to reduce fertility. In general, female education is negatively related to low fertility and low birth rate is related to dependency ratio. Conversely, low dependency ratio is associated with higher income.

Power relations between men and women in Africa

In many of the African countries, men have been given the part to be the political and business leaders, community development and women at the forefront of the leadership of the family. Women’s groups, thousands of people scattered all over. These people have proven time to time, that unity is real power. Always being the sources of economic power, which in turn makes them much-needed self-esteem. In China, many people were unable to provide the leadership was mainly due to the requirements of professional and downright laziness and apathy. This has left de facto decision-makers in the home of the woman. However, women’s economic barriers greatly limit the decision to leave the economic power of the people as decision makers. Those who are decision-makers do not have time or inclination to make informed decisions.

Today, it is not uncommon for teenage girls to be married, widow inheritance by force and with other ‘property ‘ along. Wife-beating is a very part of our modern life too. The impact of this violence seems unstoppable. However, this is just despicable violence against women, many of the unjust. The United Nations estimates, in each of Africa’s farm sixty-six Eighty percent is borne by women. Many girls in these areas had to drop out of school, because priority is given to boys. Reason for its existence is that the meager resources should take care of children, because they are the ones who will always be with their parents.

Gender role effecting African women

Learn how the people of different gender are expected to act as a growth in any important part of society. In Africa as elsewhere, men and women have traditionally been in the family and the community and the work they do different roles.

Africa’s first economies were based on hunting and gathering wild food. Some societies, such as in the Kalahari Desert! Sai Kung and in the Congo (DRC) of tropical rain Linmubati, survived to modern times is almost entirely unchanged. Through them, scientists have been able to study the ancient hunting and gathering way of life. On the biological and the theory of the early development of human society and hunting meat emphasized the importance of the role of men. Today, however, researchers know that women in many of the early social major economic producers. Between 60 and 80 percent of the outcomes of the existing hunting and gathering societies, calories consumed by people, roots, grains, nuts, honey and other food collected by women.

This pattern did not change after caught agriculture, much of Africa. Today’s women about 60 to 80 percent contribute in agricultural labor. In most rural areas throughout Africa, the role of agriculture in different men, one is by a specific gender-related tools and methods that the truth. Ax is considered a tool for men, because men clear and ready to land. They also plow the fields. Hoe is reserved for women, who grow, harvest, processing and storage of crops. Women also used for the production of the family, including access to water and firewood, food is often involved in the most remote tasks, responsibilities.

Shift in the colonial period generally cash-based economy to benefit more men than women in Africa. In most cases, the colonial officials have acknowledged the authority of men, not women, they were men of business. Women are still an important producer, but often they are produced by her father, husband, brother or sale. The men enjoy women’s work from the belief that income has not completely disappeared in modern Africa.

As colonialism continues to consolidate its land in Africa, women’s contribution to family farming that is less important, because the importance of their role in food production is more lucrative cash crops controlled by men, cast a shadow. Second, by introducing the negative effects of colonialism, women’s labor wages directly affect women, because they must be legal in certain circumstances, for the European plantation economy of wage labor. While forced labor, physical and sexual abuse is often committed by African women for their crimes. Therefore, further damage to plantation work and the ability of the well-being of women, for productivity, because they previously had in the past.

It is clear that colonialism has led to women’s economic independence and their social and political decline in a certain social status. Colonialism in Africa, despite the successful pre-colonial men taught the centuries, this feeling is generally unfounded sense of superiority in non-Islamized women of African countries do not have a strange sense of superiority. Obviously, even today, in modern Africa, women still want to continue with the life of slavery and abuse, because they are women. However, I with great pleasure, once again, we have witnessed a rise in female consciousness and self-confidence for women to say no to social contempt and disrespect. Today’s women, as they have refused to accept the colonial era prison, regardless of their racial injustice.

Conclusion

As Africans strive to restore respect and dignity of African women’s position, even more than she enjoyed in the past, depending only when a country allows respecting the dignity of women and treated fairly. The real development, may occur when we consider women as mothers and primary caregivers in the human front. Therefore, they are nurturing and building, we are building throughout the country and continent.

There is a gap between men and women to fully appreciate the far-reaching; we must acknowledge this basic fact. Gender inequality is not a pain, but many women and men have different life on the range of the girls and boys. It also needs to revisit and closely scrutinize some of our lessons from past experience tend to work. There is no good reason to give up understanding that women’s empowerment to improve the impact of the voice and influence of women does help to reduce gender inequalities in many different types, can also reduce women to conquer men suffered from indirect punishment. However, the growing inequality in the birth rate, basically to ask questions, much more complex. When women in some areas like the boys and girls have their own strength, the resulting inequality on the correct call for the broader needs of the birth rate of women’s organizations comes it would be the addition to at least consider other possible effects.

Somehow in dealing with some of the new – “high tech” – face of gender difference, in the form of inequality, there is a need to go beyond just the agency of women, but to look also for more critical assessment of received values. When anti-female bias in action (such as sex-specific abortion) reflects the hold of traditional masculinity values from which mothers themselves may not be immune, what is needed is not just freedom of action but also freedom of thought – in women’s ability and willingness to question received values. Informed and critical agency is important in combating inequality of every kind. Gender inequality, including its many faces, is no exception.

In different countries of various beliefs and culture, people with homosexual behavior are often being subjected to prejudice and discrimination. In comparison with minority groups, who are one of the common topics of prejudice, this group of homosexual people are also subjected to stereotyping. ‘Social scientists have typically defined prejudice as a negative intergroup attitude’. [1] Sexuality orientation can be classified further into three main topics: Homosexuality, Bisexuality, and Heterosexuality.

Homosexuality refers to sexual behavior/actions or seductive attraction among people of the same sex. The word ‘gay’ is commonly being referred to a male homosexual, whereas ‘lesbian’ is designated for female homosexuals.

Right here in Singapore, majority of the public still have that prototypical mindset and misconstrue behavior which often leads to discrimination against this group of people. ‘This is extremely unhealthy because homosexuality has been declassified as a mental disorder by the American Psychiatric Association in the 1970s, and people in this day and age are still seeking to turn gay people straight, often resulting in negative effects on the subject.'[2]

Simple stereotyping can be thought as all gay are feminine and all lesbians contain machismo hormones within them. Some even have misconceptions and labeled the gay as the main culprit for transmission of sexually transmitted disease or AIDS, considering them having a higher chance of contracting these diseases. In this modernized and civil society, it will be of much appreciation if homosexuality is much understood better by the public. If this discrimination continues to cycle around, it will cause a deleterious effect on the homosexual person. This may eventually lead to escalation of suicidal cases or further deterioration on the mental health. This is a topic that we should pay attention to. Homosexual discrimination can be found in anywhere or in any working sector. A homosexual man who has a kind soul within, have no exceptions either, he may have to bear the brunt of discrimination from a high profile sector. Gays are banned from donating their ‘contaminated’ or ‘filthy’, some might criticized on that, blood out; a legislation set by the Food and Drug Administration. [3]

As mentioned, discrimination can be found in anywhere even in a small country like Singapore. A distinct proof which leads to discrimination being amplified in the country is where colonial legislation, Sections 377 and 377A of the Penal Code [4] are still brought into play. This shows that Singaporeans are too conservative to accept the fact of homosexual behavior coming into their existence. Discrimination against gay is being applied in various level of sector in the society. Achieved from a report, a highly educated personnel displaying out her ferocious attitude during a debate in Parliament in 2007 was shown that she compared anal sex as ‘shoving a straw up your nose to drink’.[5][6] The debater herself was a professor of law; specializing in international human rights law would present out such an outrageous quote on gay rights. Putting aside public discrimination, the power of media plays a strong part in this role. In a newspaper article, exaggerated from the fact by the journalist, the gays were believed to be involved in promiscuous sex or are drug addict which is solely stereotyping thinking from the journalist.[5][6]

The examples mentioned above are showing how typical people possess adverse thinking against homosexuality.

Prejudice and discrimination against homosexuality will bring a vicious cycle effect to the society as it can be commonly identified as a talking topic for adults, or it may be a mistaught lesson for a child. Basically, chances of stereotypically thinking and discriminating against homosexual persons can happen in everyday conversations between people. Living in this society, people only know how to discriminate homosexuality as they tend to follow the majority. This is similar to, giving a primary school student a complicated algebraic question where he/she only knows how to apply simple standard mathematics formulations. This society needs to be better educated about homosexuality just like the student needs to be taught on how to work out that algebraic question. By educating people about homosexuality does not mean that they will stop discriminating gays. However, providing positive and correct information about homosexuality to teenagers who are stepping into this society and understanding of their sexuality is important. They will feel less fearful in the future. An example can be taken, the author of an article has a niece who came home and shouted, “Gays are disgusting!” He knew that the niece learnt that hatred from a classmate, who in turn had this hatred digested from the parents. This shows that people allow this hatred to become an ongoing cycle, which in time it turns out to be a fear for some people but under the influential of people around them they have no choice but to accept it resentfully. Here is another down to earth reason why is it important to stop all there discriminations. Let’s ask ourselves this question, “Who are all these gays and lesbians?” These people are our very own Singaporeans. Living in a country, which does not give you the rights that belongs to you, is equivalent to pushing the gays and lesbians with no choice but to move out from this country to another, which will truly welcome them despite of their differences. A country without any natural resources cannot afford to drive out her gay sons and daughters. People always have the wrong comprehensive thinking that spreading of HIV and AIDS are associated with gays. They will think that as long as they perform safe sexual intercourse or preventing themselves to have sex with men will free them from contracting HIV or AIDS. They have shown an erroneous thinking which makes them believe that as long as they are not gay, they will be safe from diseases. A statistics result [7] shows that the number of people infected with the diseases through homosexual means is lesser than those of heterosexual means. When it comes to a serious stage, it will be death. Therefore, this myth has to be busted. People who are being discriminated might not have the courage to face it and the solution they will go for will be ‘death’. Sexuality based discrimination caused death in teens, a report shows. [8] In response to such incidents, Ellen DeGeneres speaks out, urging that we stop discriminating against gays, because “one death is tragic, four is a crisis” [8]

Be it homosexual or heterosexual, we still come together and live as one and everyone deserves the right to be treated equally. The homosexual citizens will not be pleased if they found out that they are not treated to the same benefits that heterosexual citizens are being treated as. We should not hesitate to open up our views on them or in another way we must learn to accept what they are. Penal code337a criminalizes those who have sexual act between two males [2] [4]. This is one of the main reasons why Singaporeans are still badly discriminating the homosexuals. In many other countries, homosexual were slowly being received and laws were executed to protect them similar to the laws which heterosexual have. Protecting homosexuals against violence and discrimination is important. As they are the minority group which makes them an easy target. As we know, all the male Singaporean has to go through National service. Even homosexuals have no exception to this. The worst case will be, they do a self declare that they are gay and they will go through a thorough psychiatric assessment which then they will be by default downgraded to Public Employment Status C (PES C) in regardless of their fitness[9] . Once a soldier declared that he’s gay, his army’s world will be totally different from others. From this example, we call recall on that; inequality being faced by them in this society was a result from prejudice and discrimination on homosexuals. In order to have a prominent result, one should draw back their attention to the society. We all know that the root cause of this problem came from the society who discriminates, as and when; like or dislike, as they want. Thus, a solution which deals directly to the root cause will be an ideal one to recede the problem. In this society, filled with excitement, it is still required to be better educating these people about homosexuality. As research has found out that there are two groups of people with the different attitudes on how they think gay are. The group with a positive attitude toward gay usually has a few friends around them who falls under this, being gay, category. In contrast, with those with negative attitudes believe that they do not have any gay friends around them, in actual fact they do. Their discrimination towards gays goes back to the being stereotypical and prejudice. [10]

We can conclude this by looking at simple theory. In order for a majority group to keep up its performance, it seeks cooperation from the minority group. To put in simpler words, a minority group like homosexuals can be influential to the majority group. Therefore, there is a need to bring prejudice and discrimination on homosexuals to a halt. Education on understanding one’s sexuality needs to be taught to young adults and teenagers. Negative remarks about the homosexual society should be reduced via this education.

Even parents need to be taught that being homosexual is not a crime nor is it wrong, and that it is a part of life.

The Industrial Revolution started in Britain during the late 1700’s. It made its way to America in the 18th and 19th century. It brought about a remarkable change from hand tools and handmade items to products produced by machines. The increase of production resulted in high profits for factory owners. In Britain the machines improved the work of talented artisans, and in America the machines assisted the entrepreneur’s productivity. The Industrial Revolution benefited the middle class more significantly, but impacted all lives through American history. (2) It created a demand for laborers and a production of mass products. It transpired from the inventions of machines and the production of new things. If society had missed out on the Industrial revolution, life would lack technology, transportation, the need for education, and other modern conveniences. (3) Therefore, the Industrial Revolution had a positive effect on American society.

The revolution made way for inventors. There were many inventions which were introduced during this time. Each of these had a huge effect on the changing of American society. Inventions became alive with newer and faster ways to produce products and transport goods. People’s lives opened up to new functions, and a commerce system was born. James Watt improved the steam engine during the second half of the 18th century, which facilitated factory growth by introducing a transportation system. In essence, the starting force of the industrial revolution was the steam engine. (9) An article published by the North American Reviewstates that “Five great causes enter into, and combine to create, the wonderful development of the century’s commerce. They may be stated in five words: steam, electricity, invention, finance, peace.” (6) Each of these items had an effect on the society from the cities to the mountains. In The Strength of the Hills, Frank P. Woodbury stated that “in the presence of these forces life will be transformed.” He wrote about the demand for the mountain people to supply labor to work on the railways, mines and factories. He mentioned the changes and power that the industrial revolution would bring to the mountain people. (5) These same ideas would bring about similar effects to all of society.

With the inventions of the loom, cotton gin, and sewing machine, there was an increase of production in the textile industry. (3) In the article A Century of International Commerce it is stated that the machines in the factories produced many more times the items a single man could make with his hands. Due to the production of more goods, other requirements became necessary; the factory system, the need for labor, transportation, communication, and financial systems. All of these are examples of what started a domino effect. Without each one of these, the US would not have gotten to the next level within the industrial revolution. (6)

The birth of the factory system brought about the need for labor, which in turn provided society with options. More jobs were needed to operate the machinery in order to produce the products. The options provided to the people were location, different ways to earn a living, and the way a life is lived. These options guided society to power and wealth. (4) Factories multiplied, which lead to competition and produced “the general spirit of enterprise”, as described by George S. White in The Benefits of the Factory System. White wrote that even though some employers abused their employees because they were allowed too much power, the employees or laborers were the real power. He articulates that the community has the right to complain, and the employers should expect protest if mistreatment is present. (4) The corrective actions of the employers will lead to universal advancement and benefit the society. In the article Effects of Machinery, the question is posed; is machinery an evil. The author responds with; “No doubt, like every other great power, machinery may be converted into an instrument of great oppression. But it is not such naturally. In itself it has been always, and, under well regulated Governments, it always will be a source of great good, of good almost unmixed. The evils necessarily incident to its introduction, are slight, partial, and transient. They reach only the surface of society, affect but small portions of the community, and speedily pass away.” The author then affirms that the positive impact of machinery surpasses the negative effects that are felt by society. (7)

As production began to increase, products needed to reach the consumers. The transportation system improved. Railroads and steamboats were built. The first steamboat built by Robert Fulton would help ship goods across the Atlantic Ocean. Lands across the ocean could possess America’s products. The locomotive was built by George Stephenson, which transported products to locations for many more people. (2) With the expansion of railways, commerce increased 40 percent by 1840 and continued to increase throughout the following years. (6) This allowed prices of goods to decrease. More goods were transported and sold; therefore, more people could afford to pay. The explosion of the railroad gave way to the movement of passengers and products to different destinations. (1) These transportation innovations provided shipping power on both land and sea; but also provided safety and accelerating speed. (6)

Inventions that aided the people to spread news quicker and more precisely presented another positive to society. The telegraph invented by Samuel F. B. Morse provided communication through a wire in the speed of light. In the Invention of the Telegraph by Alonzo B. Cornell, he states that after the National Democratic Convention in 1844, the event was telegraphed to Washington. People were shocked by how speedy and accurate the system worked. This event removed the doubts felt by the people. (8) Larger businesses previously went through many challenges to communicate across the organization. This invention allowed the business men to spread information faster about prices and markets. Workers could see machines were improving, and they could receive important news that previously had been delivered by a horse man. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone, creating a much better and faster way to communicate across America, which allowed managers to keep in contact. This led to new methods of management and an efficient production of methods in business. (3)

During this time a new development occurred which allowed electricity to be used effectively. Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction in 1831. His discovery was the driving force behind the electric motor. His thought on electricity, magnetic fields, and nature of fields inspired other inventors. (10) Thomas Edison later introduced the system of electric lighting. These inventions impacted society by allowing the first multinational companies to be established, which would later promote the electrification of cities. With the lighting of homes and workplaces, work and socialization could take place at different times, thus expanding and changing people’s schedules. This also led to improved household appliances, like the refrigerator and the microwave. Nationally and internationally, electricity became an improvement in people’s domestic lives, social lives, working routine, and productivity levels. (11)

The Industrial Revolution emerged from inventions that brought about a factory system, a commerce system, a transportation system, and a communication system. Each of these influenced a new way of life. These achievements encouraged human progress, which inspired the opportunity of individuality. It is best stated in an article written by Richard T. Ely, who writes: “Again, this material economic life of ours, this production of goods, this buying, selling, and getting gain, it must ever be remembered, is not an end in itself. It is but a means to an end. It is the basis of our higher life, and is to be valued merely as such.” When was this written? What is the source? I do not find a reference for Ely in your listing? He goes on to say that with this Industrial Revolution our society finds growth in eight areas which are divided into language, art, science and education, family life, social life, religious life, political life and economic life. Even though there were hardships during the industrial revolution society was impacted greatly by the individual’s inspirations for an advanced life. The individuality demanded changes to the social system. Abolition of child labor, improved working conditions for women, factory inspections and sanitary regulations were just a few of the improvements made by society. (12) Another affect on society was the interest of science. The people began to thrive for the knowledge of the unknown. This curiosity lead to stronger industries, but most importantly produced more questioning human beings.(3) In the Benefits of the Factory System it is stated that “the more he studies and understands the works of nature and Providence, the greater will be his admiration of the display and application of wisdom and goodness.” (4) This quote gives a sense of strength, peace and intelligence which leads to the conclusion of an improved society. From this one can establish that the Industrial Revolution had a positive effect on the success of the American society.

Andrea Mewhinney

The Title of this research is ‘The Portrayal of Individualism: A study on Marvel Movies IRON MAN 1 (2008) and IRON MAN 2 (2010)’. In this chapter introduction is made on the Research Background, Research Problem, Research Objectives, Research Questions, Research Significance, Research Scope, Definition of Terms and Conclusion.

Research Background

This segment is to briefly introduce the Marvel Movies, IRON MAN 1 and 2, Individualism, and some manifestations of individualism. Individualism is one of the major dimension of researcher develop a study on culture. Several of research had developed to comparing individualism and collectivism.

Individualism

Western country, especially United States of American, is encouraging individualism as socializing climates. We can found a word from ‘United States Declaration of Independence’. In its second sentence:

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” (Constitution society 2012)

United States of American major ideology is everyone has the equal right and they have freedom to do what they want without force by other people. The liberty in the second sentences of ‘United states Declaration of Independence’ clearly state central idea of individualism: freedom as an individual. (Constitution society 2012)

Individualistic societies are described as emphasizing independence, freedom, and personal assertiveness as socializing climates in which a person’s self-esteem develops (Kagitcibasi, 1996; Triandis, 1989; 1995). A Western view of self-awareness is based on the idea that one’s “private self’ resides within each person consistent with such cultural themes as the separateness and distinctiveness of each person (Gecas & Burke,1995).Western country encouraging freedom of action, refraining from severe restrictiveness, and encouraging self-confidence for exploratory behaviour. Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that stresses “the moral worth of the individual”. Individualists promote the exercise of one’s goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance while opposing external interference upon one’s own interests by society or institutions such as the government.

Triandis (2000) states that cultural pattern of individualism is A) sample the individual self is conceived as independent of in-groups B) give priority to personal goals. C) Use attitudes much more than norms as determinants of their social behavior. D) Pay attention only to their own needs and abandon interpersonal relationships that are not optimally beneficial to them.

Triandis (1994) has suggested that individualism emerges in societies that are both complex and loose. For example, Hollywood stars live in a culture that is both complex and loose. This speculation has not been tested rigorously but the data seem to hang together reasonably well. He also use Japan as an example that the complex Japan nowadays is less collectivist than 19th century. He also mentioned that modern, industrial-urban, fast-changing cultures tend to be individualist.

Hofstede (1991) work was one of the earliest attempts to use extensive statistical data to examine cultural values. In carrying out his research, Hofstede ultimately surveyed more than one hundred thousand managers in a multinational organization, from fifty countries and three geographical regions. Each country was assigned rank 1 through 50 in each his studies, include individualism versus collectivism.

Andersen (2003) stated that individualistic cultures emphasize personal rights and responsibilities, privacy, voicing one’s own opinion, freedom, innovation, and self-expression. Triandis (1995) also discuss individualism with 4 points. First, the individual is the single most important unit in any social setting. Second, independence rather than interdependence is stressed. Third, individual achievement is rewarded. Lastly, the uniqueness of each individual is of paramount value. Goleman (1990) highlight that people’s personal goals take priority over their allegiance to groups like the family or the employer. The loyalty of individualists to a given group is very weak; they feel they belong to many groups and are apt to change their membership as it suits them, switching churches, for example, or leaving one employer for another.

Triandis (2001) writes that emphasize is placed on individuals goals over group goals. The self is promoted because each person is viewed as uniquely endowed and possessing distinctive talent and potential. Individuals are encouraged to pursue and develop their abilities and aptitudes. People taught to be creative, self-reliant, and assertive in many individualism cultures. Triandis emphasize on individual is emotionally disconnected from in groups such as the family because individual be taught to be independent. Social controls more on the personal guilt than on shame of other social norms or conformity. Individualist will belong to many groups but they not actually tie with it. Many groups that individualist belong to is to enhance self-worth, for example, self-help group, therapy group, or occupational group.

In the Geert Hofstede research on Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context (Neulips 2009) discusses the Differences between collectivist and individualist societies, in the table portrayal the individualism in 10 degree which is: Everyone is supposed to take care of him and his immediate family only, “I”-consciousness, Right of Privacy, Speaking one’s mind is healthy, Others classified as individuals, personal opinion expected: one person one vote, Transgression of norms leads to guilt feelings, Languages in which the world “I” is indispensable, purpose of education is learning how to learn, Task prevails over relationship. It is worth noting Kashima (1998) mentioned Individualist cultures have languages that require the use of “I” and”You”. English is a good example. It would be difficult to write a letter in English without using “I” and “You”. Top ranked country in the individualism country mostly using English. (Hofstede, 2001)

Markus and Kitayama (1991) introduced the concepts of independent self and interdependent self to distinguish between the different kinds of self found in cutures. They suggest that people in individualistic cultures such as western generally will have an independent self. People in collectivist cultures such as eastern have an interdependent self. The independent self is an autonomous entity with clear boundaries between self and others. Internal attributes, such as thought, feeling and abilities, are stable and largely invulnerable by social context. The behavior of the independent self is governed and constituted primarily according to one’s inner and dispositional characteristics.

Based on Fiske, Kitayama, Markus and Nisbett (1998), The independent person is 1) bounded, stable, autonomous 2) has personal attributes that guide action 3)is achievement-oriented 4)formulates personal goals 5)define life by successful goal achievement 6)is responsible for own behavior 7)is competitive 8)strives to feel good about the self. According to Feldman (2001), western are more apt to experience emotions that are related to their view of themselves as independent, unconnected individuals. People living in independent cultures see achievement in terms of personal gains, viewing themselves as better or worse achievers than others. They compare their salaries and their grades with those of their peers, and they seek and receive individual rewards for good performance. The self-concepts of people in independent cultures, then, are based on personal, individual successes and failures.

Oyserman, Coon, and Kemmelmeier (2002) summarize behavioral traits that have been shown to be associated with individualism. individualism is 1) optimism, 2) high self-esteem, 3) Lower social anxiety, 4) Emotional expression, 5) Satisfaction with self, 6) Satisfaction with freedom, 7) Direct communication style, 8) Lower relational commitment, 9) Preference to work alone, 10) Ease of interacting with strangers.

According to Naomi and Mark (2005), American Movie always content ideology of their nation culture. Individualism as a part of American culture, it is exists in most of the American Movies. This argument obviously been emphasize in action movies, especially in those superhero movies, this research will examine two of the superhero movies, IRON MAN 1 (2008) and IRON MAN 2 (2010) to find out the portrayal of individualism.

MARVEL MOVIES

According to Marvel Studios official website (MARVEL OFFICIAL WEBSITE 2012), originally Marvel Films (1993-1996), is an American television and motion picture studio based in Manhattan Beach, California. Marvel Studios is a subsidiary of Marvel Entertainment, a self-contained part of The Walt Disney Company conglomerate.

Since 2008, the studio has released six produced films – Iron Man (2008), The Incredible Hulk (2008), Iron Man 2 (2010), Thor (2011), Captain America: The First Avenger (2011), and Marvel’s The Avengers (2012) – with shared timeline, cast and characters, making up the Marvel Cinematic Universe. (MARVEL OFFICIAL WEBSITE 2012)

The Marvel Movies is very influential to public of today, their productions are well known by most people in most place. Marvel Movies always have outstanding box office in various countries from west to east, inadvertently the values of those movies instill to audience around the world especially the youth generations. We can notice that the Marvel Movie did share the main value of US culture which is Individualism. And it becomes stronger in the portrayal of the character.

IRON MAN

Here is his introduction “before the Iron Mask” from Marvel official Website. Anthony “Tony” Stark was born to Howard Anthony Stark and Maria Collins Carbonell Stark, owners of the prominent US firm, Stark Industries. As a boy, Tony was fascinated with building and controlling machines. At the age of 15 Tony entered the undergraduate electrical engineering program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and graduated with two master’s degrees by age 19. Tony went to work for Stark Industries, but showed more interest in living a reckless playboy lifestyle than using his engineering skills. At the age of 21, Tony inherited Stark Enterprises when his parents were killed in a car accident secretly orchestrated by rival corporation Republic Oil (later ROXXON). Still lacking in business acumen, Tony promoted secretary Virginia “Pepper” Potts to be his executive assistant and left the majority of his workload on her so that he could avoid what he saw as a burden. (MARVEL OFFICIAL WEBSITE 2012)

MOVIE IRON MAN 1 (2008)

According to Marvel official website (MARVEL OFFICIAL WEBSITE 2012).Tony Stark is well-known as a playboy and genius which led the defence contractor Stark Industries after his father was death. The moment after Stark demonstrated the new missile called “Jericho” in Afghanistan; he is ambushed by the terrorist group, the Ten Rings and then imprisoned in a cave.

As Stark get seriously injured from the ambush, the fellow captive Yinsen save his life by installed an electromagnet into Stark’s chest so that can avoid the shrapnel which wounded his body to reach into his heart and cause him die. Raza, leader of Ten Rings, guarantees will set Stark free once Stark help them to build Jericho missile. However, Stark and Yinsen know that Raza will not release them eventually. Thus, in order to power Stark’s electromagnet, they secretly to construct a powerful electric generator named an arc reactor and a suit of armor for escape. Unfortunately, the Ten Rings discovered what they doing and Yinsen died because want to help Stark’s suit powers up.

Stark successful escape from the cave and flies away until his suit is destroyed and he crash in the desert. Once Stark get back to his country, he announces to public that the company will not produce weapons anymore although Tony’s father old partner, Obadiah Stane has try to persuade him to do not do so. Stark continues to improve his suit and arc reactor. Stark knows that Yinsen’s village, Gulmira will be attack by the Ten Rings using his company weapons. Stark wears up the new armor and flies to save Yinsen’s village.

On the way flying back home, Stark is chase by two F-22 Raptor fighter jets. To get rid of their shot, Stark tells his secret identity to his friend, Rhodes. The Ten Rings found the pieces of armor suit and meet with Stane. However, Stane used his sonic device to subdue Raza and killed all of them. By applying reverse engineering method, Stane capable produce a new suit from the wreckage.

Potts, who sent by Stark to hack into Stane’s office, has found the evidences about Stane supplying weapons to terrorists and employed the Ten Rings to kill Stark. Since Stane’s scientists unable to build an arc reactor, Stane attacks Stark by using a sonic device and take away his arc reactor. Luckily, Stark managed to plug in back his original reactor. Due to the original reactor cannot run his suit at full capacity, Stark lures Stane to the top of the Stark Industries building and guides Potts to overload the large arc reactor there. The huge electrical surge that knocks Stane unconscious, make him and his armor to fall into the exploding reactor, killing him. When Stark demands to explain the Stane’s death at a press conference, Stark announces that he is Iron Man. From this kind of action, it can be shown that Stark consist of strong individualism. It is because he cares a lot of his personal achievements, as he produced a powerful armor suit.

MOVIE IRON MAN 2 (2010)

According to Marvel official website (MARVEL OFFICIAL WEBSITE 2012).The news regards Stark Industries CEO, Tony Stark revealed himself as Iron Man had spread to Russia. While Anton Vanko is pass away, his son, Ivan Vanko starts to used the prototype given by his father to build an arc reactor which alike with Stark. In order to carry on his father legacy Stark strives to re-organize the Stark Expo in Flushing Meadows.

Meanwhile, Stark utilizes his armor to ensure world peace. When the senator Stern wants him to hand in the Iron Man technology to the government, Stark rejects, because he thinks that all the business rival around the world can’t duplicate his work, it is unique and considered as his property. Based on Stark’s statement, it can be seen that he is a self-centered person and doesn’t care who will afraid his armor threaten worldwide peace. Stark feels depressed when unable to find the new element to replace the palladium core in the arc reactor which can slowly poisoning him. Stark decide to keep his plight and substitutes Potts, who Stark Industries CEO with Natalie. By using an arc reactor as powering whip-like weapon, Vanko attacks Stark at the racing field. Starks able to subdued Vanko and get to know that he is the son of his father’s old partner. Vanko tells his desire to revenge on Stark family.

Justin Hammer, rival defense contractor, rescues Vanko and hires him to complete a line of armored. Due to intervene from Stark, Rhodes wears up Stark’s Mark II armor to fight with him. The battle end up huge explosion while both fire repulsor beam and Rhodes returns the armor to the military. From Nick Fury, director of SHIELD, Stark knows that his father formed a SHIELD and disclosure Natalie as undercover agent. Stark discovers an encrypted message from his father’s old material which given by Fury and finally found the new element to replace the palladium.

Hammer demonstrates Vanko’s armored drones and led by Rhodes, who wearing complete weaponries version of the Mark II armor. Stark flies with his new armor to stop Rhodes, however, all drones include Rhodes’s armor is control by Vanko used to attack Stark. Hammer is then arrested by Hogan and Romanoff try to catch Vanko but let him escapes. Besides, Romanoff allows Rhodes to control back his Mark II armor. Vanko is totally defected when Stark and Rhodes use fire repulsor rays at each other and create a huge explosion.

Vanko activates self-destruct mechanism on his suit along with all his drones, obviously killing himself as well. Stark capable to saves Potts before the drones going to explode. At the end, Stark promises to work as consultant if senator’s Stern awards Rhodes and him with medals for bravely, although Stern not willing to do so.

Research Problem

As state in the research background, studies have shown individualism level of people increasing with the growing of science and technology. Individualism is prevalent in most of development country. To address this phenomenon, scholars conduct numbers of research toward individualism from different perspectives. As most research found, generally western country practicing individualism while eastern country practicing collectivism. Malaysia as an eastern and developing country it stands in a subtle position. Historical factor make Malaysia one of the special existing country in the world which absorb multi culture. There have lack of studies of individualism in Malaysia context.

Compare with other developed country, Malaysia also lack of studies in teenager and youth behavior and thinking. Malaysia has lack of study to investigating humanity. It may one of the reason scholars in Malaysia unable to grasp the evolution of social behavior.

By conducting this research, the study will first aims to study the portrayal of individualism in the Marvel Movie. Through the study of the films, the research can help to continue investigate perception of youth toward the movie. The understanding of youth’s perception toward the portrayal of individualism is not to manipulate or influence the youth’s behavior. The research may be able to give people a clearer picture to individualism among youth in Malaysia.

Research Objectives

1. To examine the portrayal of individualism of Tony Stark, the main character in the Marvel Movie: IRON MAN 1 (2008) and IRON MAN 2 (2010).

2. To find out the perception of youth toward Tony Stark, the main character in the Marvel Movie: IRON MAN 1 (2008) and IRON MAN 2 (2010)

Research Questions

1. How was the main character portrayed in Marvel Movie: IRON MAN 1 (2008) and IRON MAN 2 (2010)?

2. What is the perception of youth toward Tony Stark, the main character in the Marvel Movie: IRON MAN 1 (2008) and IRON MAN 2 (2010) after they watched?

1.5 Research Significance

Film Industry has been producing quite a number of individualism movies. However, those movies will publish under different genres. Normally individualism can be found in action movie and superhero movie. People may confuse to differentiate the type of films and they are actually lack of awareness to identify individualism in the movie.

This research able to carried out so that we can help people to understand the behavior of individualism own by Marvel Movie Character, it can also call awareness of public toward individualism in media content. The objective of this research is not to change people perception but at least giving people a chance to have a clear picture toward individualism.

1.6 Research Scope

This research is done among Youth of Malaysia. The target audience limited to Malaysians who are 18 – 25 years old. Other than that, our target audiences focus to Malaysians who are currently staying in Klang Valley Area. Also, movies that study research on are only restricted to IRON MAN 1 (2008) and IRON MAN 2 (2010).

1.7 Definition of Terms
1.7.1 Portrayal

Conceptual Definition

A depiction of someone or something in a work of art or literature; a picture: A realistic portrayal of war. (Oxford Dictionaries 2010).A description of someone or something in a particular way; a representation: the media portrayal of immigration. An instance of an actor playing a part in a movie or play; a performance: his portrayal of the title character.

Operational Definition

The first objective of the research is to find out the portrayal of individualism. Therefore, to find out behavior shown by the character in the movie which demonstrate individualism. This research will define portrayal as how the movies figure the characteristic of individualism.

1.7.2 Individualism

Conceptual Definition

The habit or principle of being independent and self-reliant: a culture that celebrates individualism and wealth. (Oxford Dictionaries 2010) Self-centered feeling or conduct: egoism. A social theory favoring freedom of action for individuals over collective or state control: encouragement has been given to individualism, free enterprise, and the pursuit of profit. Individualism described bas emphasizing independence, freedom, and personal assertiveness as socializing climates in which a person’s self-esteem develops (Kagitcibasi, 1996; Triandis, 1989; 1995).

Operational Definition

In the research it will be use to explain those behavior displayed individualism: self-motivation, autonomy, freedom, and personal assertiveness, independent thinking and Self-actualization.

1.8 Conclusion

Marvel Movies is achieving excellent result in the worldwide. Marvel Movies almost be a guarantee of box office. It reaches most people of most places in the world. In unconsciously, the value in the movie actually influence how the people thinking, especially among children and youth. Contrast to public heard lot words about young generation now are egoism, lack of collaboration. Even without any evidence, the researcher believes it is some negative interpreting of individualism. But it is attracting to examine the portrayal of individualism in the action movie, especially from the Superhero movie. IRON MAN as one of the outstanding box office Superhero Movies, The research takes it as an example to examine portrayal of individualism. Hope the research can figure out the hypothesis or at least, attract more profession to do further research.

2.0 Literature Review
Introduction

This chapter reviews some of journals which discuss about individualism and dimensions of individualism. It also refers to some related discussion on culture, other explanation of individualism with terms independent culture. The similar research of individualism on media been mentioned to compare too.

2.1 Review of Previous Journals

In this part will discuss about the previous journal. The purpose of review the previous journal is to compare the studies that conduct by others scholars to improve the investigation for further study and to reduce the mislead of research questions

2.1.1 Self-Interest & Self-Values Expression

James M. Baldwin’s Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology (1902) defines “Individualism” in terms of political philosophy as the doctrine that the pursuit of self-interests and the exercise of individual initiative should be little or not at all restrained by the state and that the functions of government should be reduced to the lowest possible terms. As we notice that, people should be liberally practising in his works with lowest or not at all levels of restraints of the environment.

Based on the study of the Chen, Chen and Meindl (1998), the researchers had presented the cooperation mechanisms by culturally shaped motives in the culture of individualism and collectivism. Firstly, the super-ordinate goal of the individualism is goal interdependence. Goal sharing is collectivist’s super-ordinate goal. Secondly, the group identity of individualism is self enhancement, collectivism presumed the group identity as the group complements. Thirdly, cognition based is belonging to the trust associated with the individualism. On the opposite sides, affect based is along with the collectivism’s trust. Fourthly, accountability of the individualism is individual based but the collectivism is group based. Fifthly, the way to communicate of individualism is partial channel. On the other hand, collectivists use the full channel to communicate. Lastly, individualists and collectivists are also believed in equity based for the reward distribution. The research studied the cooperation mechanisms by culturally shaped motives in the culture of individualism and collectivism analysis correctly the advantages and disadvantages with people either they want to working alone or group working, although the contexts always have the good and bad conditions in it. Last but not least, self-interest might be explains people rather than accepts the individualism (self-based) is their only interest to pursuit or lives in collective society (group-based) also can be an interest of them.

Accordingly, Nayef RF (2008) has been stress that humankinds generally assumed self-interest is the most important things of life. In Nayef’s theory of human nature, which he has been termed human behaves as “Emotional Amoral Egoism”. After that, Nayef has argued that emotional self-interest primarily governed the human behaviour that can be focus initially on survival, achievement and domination. These facets of human nature are genetically coded survival instinct’s product modified by the totality of the environment and expressed as neurochemically-mediated emotions and actions. Reason, reflection and conscious morality are comparatively rare. The human mind is consequently a predisposed tabula rasa, for the purpose of survival and the environment, which is resulting from both an in-built genetic code. Therefore, once human’s basic needs been filled, they will be measured self-benefits on them. This may results the greater consequences between the individual and society. For example, Bill Gates has created Microsoft software afterward, billions of people have been benefits by this, relatively the globally business and economic markets were growth because of this.

In Nayef’s studied work (2008), he has been researched the most of the mankind are motivated by emotional self-interest and have the potential to be either moral or immoral. The conditions of circumstances will be determine the survival value of human being’s moral compass in that being highly moral in an immoral environment may be detrimental to one’s survival and vice versa. Indeed, people apparently seeking the gratification and “feel good” of the reason, they will behave altruistically to serves self-interest at some level. Obviously, individualism could be doing well in collectivist society on today’s era.

Nayef (2008) state that emphasized individuals is impossible completely escaped by the collectivist society although they were believed in individualism. This insight has profound implications for the re-ordering of governance mechanisms at all levels with a strong emphasis on the role of society and the global system in maximising the benefits of Professor Nayef term measured self-interest, when he has minimising its excesses. This is because human beings cannot be left to their own devices to do the “right thing”. The reformation offers the best opportunities of facilitating political and moral cooperation through the establishment of stringent normative frameworks and governance structures, which is best fulfilling the potential of human beings to exist and evolve in peace, security, prosperity and possible serenity.

Kagitcibasi (1997, 2005) and Schwartz (2004), according to them, by contrast, set the limits of the notion of individualism to autonomy and criticize the merging of autonomy and selfishness into individualism. In fact, both authors argue that individual autonomy can be altruistic, going together with social relatedness and concern for others. (Kagitcibasi 1997 & 2005; Schwartz 2004). According to the Etzioni (1993), this understanding mirrors the notion of a “communitarian spirit” in social philosophy, which defines as communitarian a social responsibility form of individualism, it is also explained the combined emphasis on individual autonomy and solidarity with others. Empirically, Schwartz (2007) finds self-direction and stimulation to be close individual-level correlates of participation in collective actions among European countries. The researcher also finds that country-level scores of self-direction and stimulation correlate closely with Inglehart and Welzel’s self-expression values index. (Schwartz 2007). Therefore, it could evidently research more about the evidences of individualisms are correlates with the collectivist’s society. And, this is feasible and trustable for research the individualisms due to the findings.

According to Christian Welzel (2009), the researcher pointed out the works from Schwartz (1992, 2007) developed an instrument to measure the most basic human values. Values are defined as “trans-situational goals” that people pursue in their lives. Referring to the goals of power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction, universalism, benevolence, tradition, conformity, and security, Schwartz identifies 10 quasi-universal values. In short, 8 of the 10 Schwartz values have been shown to reflect two overarching polarities (Fontaine, Poortinga, Delbeke, & Schwartz, 2008; Schwartz & Boehnke, 2004; Spini, 2003). Based on the Schwartz characterization of polarity of the values, this is shows that the humankinds achieve to their goals whereas the goals of benevolence and universalism describe general concerns that environment. People had adequately enhancing themselves meanwhile what they do also can bring about the benefits to society.

Based on the study of Welzel (2009), the researcher has been studied that the power is important to this person to be rich; to have a lot of money and expensive things. Self-Direction is important to this person to think up new ideas and be creative; to do things one’s own way. Hedonism is important to this person to have a good time; to “spoil” oneself. Security is important to this person; to avoid anything that might be dangerous. Achievement is being very successful is important to this person; to have people recognize one’s achievements. Benevolence is important to this person to help the people nearby; to care for their well-being. Conformity is important to this person to always behave properly; to avoid doing anything people would say is wrong. Adventure and taking risks are important to this person; to have an exciting life. Tradition is important to this person; to follow the customs handed down by one’s religion or family. Universalism is important to this person; to care for nature. (Welzel, C 2009)

Christian Welzel (2009), the researcher has been studied the Schwartz’s Values Spaces, the analysis on the basis of Schwartz-transformed value items after standardizing these items for their country means is shows that the power was finding as -0.8 in egoism/altruism and .0.0 in individualism/collectivism, the achievement that will be – 0.3 in egoism/altruism and 0.3 in individualism/collectivism. Next, the benevolence were finding as 0.4 in egoism/altruism and -0.1in individualism/collectivism, the universalism were considered as 0.3 in egoism/altruism and 0.0 in individualism/collectivism. Furthermore, the security that will be 0.0 in egoism/altruism and -0.8 in individualism/collectivism, the conformity were considered as 0.3 in egoism/altruism and -0.5 in individualism/collectivism. In a nutshell, the stimulation was finding as -0.3 in egoism/altruism and considered as 0.7 in individualism/collectivism. The self-direction was considered as 0.0 in egoism/altruism and was considered as 0.5 in individualism/collectivism.

On the opposite sides, Welzel (2009) researched the analysis on the basis of Schwartz-tran

Discuss whether the poor in the UK are to blame for their poverty and social exclusion?

The purpose of this essay is to discuss the question of whether the poor in the UK are to blame for their poverty and social exclusion. In order to do this, a variety of perspectives will be analysed, in particular looking at political and economic perspectives. We will also consider Levitas’ approaches in the area of social exclusion, looking at the three models of social discourse, and also a critical examination of Murray’s thesis concerning the underclass.

Definitions of poverty have traditionally been divided within two subcategories, absolute poverty or relative poverty. Each definition is based on different experiences of poverty. Absolute poverty sees there is a basic need for survival and this is measured objectively and comes in forms of statistics. This is mainly used in government statistics. Relative poverty is different in that it counts on an opinion of people in society. Relative poverty uses the idea of what society or a culture sees as the norm.

The earliest attempt to research poverty was by Rowntree, who conducted a study in York, in 1899. Rowntree adopted the measurement of absolute poverty in 1901 based on a minimum weekly income which was thought to be needed to survive. Therefore, a definition of absolute poverty is;

‘Absolute poverty occurs when people fail to receive sufficient resources to support a minimum of physical health and efficiency’ (2006 dictionary of sociology) p304

This absolute measure was not popular with the government as measuring poverty based on falling below a certain benefit level. When the benefits level increased so did the amount of people living in poverty. This problem was solved when the 1985 conservative government scrapped the Family Low Income Statistics in favour of the Household below Average Income (HBAI). This saw the decrease of poverty in terms of figures because of the change in the way poverty was measured. The term poverty is not mentioned in any of these official government terms, therefore shows that poverty is not acknowledge as a problem to the government.

The feminist argument on using this type of measurement is that it uses statistics taken from the household with a male breadwinner. Females appear invisible in these statistics and very much implies that women are dependent upon men. However, there is no suggestion that the male breadwinner equally shares his income with the household.

Scott (1994) discusses the strengths and weaknesses of absolute poverty. Firstly the strengths, the measurement of absolute poverty can be used universally across cultures and societies. It can be used to draw up comparisons so Policy makers can use this to assess and distribute the income that is needed to eliminate poverty. These policies can then be taken on by researchers to look at if what is being done and if it is helping to reduce poverty.

A Weakness of this measurement is that it is extreme. In today’s society it is dominated by consumption and a consumer lifestyle. Some cultures deem it necessary to be able to take part in the consumer society. The goods that can be bought often have several uses other than just to survive, for example a television is not an item of survival, however to function in society the television plays a major part and a sense of unity is formed in neighbourhoods if people can relate to and discuss items featured on television. The absolute measure ignores this social process as it cannot be scientifically measured as it involves some form of opinion. Poverty measurements need much more than just relying on saying how much money is needed to live.

Relative poverty can be defined as,

‘… comprehensive, should depend as much as possible on independent or external criteria of evaluation, should involve the ordering of a mass of factual data rational, orderly and informative fashion, and should limit, through not conceal, the part played by the value judgement’ (Townsend 1979:33)

This means that it can be measured statistically; however include some form of judgement. This relative measurement would include more than just income and look at consumer society and culture.

Townsend’s, who states

‘individuals, families and groups in the population can be said to be in poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the type of diet, participation in the activities and they have the living conditions and the amenities which are customary, or at least widely encouraged or approved in the societies to which they belong.’ (Townsend, 1979, p.31)

This definition covers adequately the link between poverty and social exclusion.

Townsend’s research of relative poverty conducted in 1968-9 could compare people based on the national average. An important result to come out of this research was the deprivation index which stated the 12 items essential for people in society, for example clothing, diet, fuel health and education. In 1985 more items were included such as a person’s taste, lifestyle, and economic social factors.

Using the measurement of relative poverty does come with strengths and weaknesses. It does acknowledge subjectively and are honest in that some form of opinion is needed. Knowledge of people’s culture can be explored in terms of what their standard of living is. It explores the kinds of feeling some people have that they may be deprived more than others. Weaknesses of this relative measurement is that if fails to acknowledge those people who chose to go without the items stated in the deprivation index. It does not address the issues of real poverty in that those living in absolute poverty do not having enough to survive. Comparisons with other countries are difficult as others still use the absolute measurement and use statistics rather than opinions.

Piachaud reviews Townsend’s deprivation index as a good measurement as it included people that make the lifestyle choices such as being a vegetarian. He claims that not having a fridge for instance is more significant than not having meat. However, this suggests that Townsend’s index is not as scientific as it claims. (Piachaud 1981)

There is not only one kind of poor people but many that are or could fall into poverty at any point in their life. The underclass is a term used to stigmatise people and was used in the 1980s early 1990s. Charles Murray worked on the concept of the underclass and characterised them by three things; illegitimacy, violent crime, and drop out from the labour market by young men (Murray 1990)

Murray wrote in 1990 that ‘Britain has a growing population of working-aged, healthy people who live in a different world from other Britons, who are raising their children to live in it, and whose values are now contaminating the life of entire neighbourhoods.’ (Murray, 1990, p.6) Murray spoke of those who chose not to work, and instead to rely on benefits as a means of survival, as opposed to joining the labour market. In Murray’s view, this reliance on benefits was considered as a superior option, not as a last resort.

A statement by Murray to describe the underclass using a very simple and stigmatising definition ‘by underclass, I do not mean people who are merely poor, but people at the margins of society, unsocialised and often violent.’ (Murray 2001). The term Underclass is a way of stigmatising a group and that Margaret Thatcher denied there being absolute poverty as there was no official government definition. Deprivation irresponsible underclass.

John Moore secretary state of social security relative poverty was simply another term for inequality he claimed that poverty had disappeared from Britain altogether. (John Moore 1989)

Conservative government at the time used the term underclass to categorise and deny there was absolute poverty in Britain. This view of the underclass supports the idea that the poor are to blame for their poverty and inequality than those structural inequalities at the time. With this negative concept the conservatives were set to cut welfare if the underclass did not change their ways. This widened the poverty gap and the conservatives were thought to be irresponsible and didn’t address the problem of poverty in society

‘Rather than seeing inequality as potentially damaging to the social fabric, the Thatcher governments saw it as an engine of enterprise, providing incentives for those at the bottom as well as those at the top.’ (Walker 1997:5)

This phenomenon of the underclass tries to address them as and actual class in society being at the other end of the scale such as the upper-class. However, to be compared with as a class it would suggest there are shared values that are unique to the underclass, there are no evidence of this and should not be a class. (Bagguley and Mann 1992). This underclass perspective draws attention away from the actual cause of poverty and tries to set the notion that this class is biological when there is no evidence.

Field 1989 viewed the underclass from a structuralist view and supported the view that the underclass did not stem from the individual, but from the ideologies that maintained and shaped inequality. These structural causes were stated as; record post war unemployment, widening class difference, exclusion of rapid widening living standards and public attitudes falling in Thatcher Britain.

Direct criticism of Murray’s underclass is that it fails to be proven by scientific methods and relies on opinions. The underclass cannot be measured accurately as the group is sometimes made to look huge or small depending on the outcome needed. The underclass perspective can be misleading and not address the real problem that poverty is causing to Britain. (Walker 1990:49)

However, many writers were critical of this view, including MacDonald, who asserts that ‘both young people and adults wanted work. They would fail with flying colours the test Murray sets to prove the underclass’s existence: ‘offer them jobs at a generous wage for unskilled labour and see what happens’.’ (MacDonald, 1997, p.195) Crompton has been even more dismissal in her criticism of Murray’s view, in that ‘much of Murray’s case…lay in his attempts to demonstrate the individual moral and cultural inferiority of the least well-off members of society.’ In some ways then, Murray’s underclass thesis, can be seen to be elitist and dismissive of those at the bottom end of the social ladder. Byrne (Byrne, 2005, p.1) notes the pejorative nature of the term ‘underclass’ and the much preferred and more commonly used in the UK term of social exclusion.

The term social exclusion was coined in the 1970s following research by French Civil servant, Rene Lenoir, who published The Excluded, which said that as much as 10% of the French population were excluded from mainstream society due to factors like mental illness, poverty and disability (Beland 2007). This definition of a broad category of people who, for a variety of reasons, don’t fit into the social mainstream was picked up by New Labour, which created a Social Exclusion Unit when it came to power in 1997. It was based on the idea that

‘Social exclusion is about more than income poverty. It is… what can happen when people or areas face a combination of linked problems such as unemployment, discrimination, poor skills, low incomes, poor housing, high crime, bad health and family breakdown’ (ODPM, 2004, p. 3).

New labour used many terms throughout their time, stakeholder society, communitarianism, third way and social exclusion. (Hindmoor, 2005). They can be accused of only selecting terms that would win elections (Stoker, 2004). The Labour government blamed three main causes for social exclusion: the dislocation caused by the breakdown of industry in Britain in the 1980s, the Conservative indifference to the social consequences of these economic changes and the failure of the welfare system to effectively address the needs of those who were affected by the downfall of coal, steel and other heavy industries (Davies, 2007).

Storrey and Childs have commented on the political agenda of the early 1990s, whereby ‘arguments came to a head over Britain’s high proportion of single-parent families when a government minister claimed that an over-generous state benefit system was encouraging young, single mothers to ‘marry the state’ and embark on a ‘benefit career’.’ (Storrey & Childs, 2002, p.126. These arguments were soon rebutted by organisations such as the Association of Single Parents, but it highlighted the way that discussions on social exclusion and poverty can be seen from a purely political perspective. Of the three models of social discourse to be discussed later, the MUD discourse is seen as largely right wing, while the other two are more centrist or to the left. One recent government minister has emphasised the SID view, claiming that ‘Work is the only way out of poverty… the benefit system will never pay of itself (enough to lift people out of poverty) and I don’t think it should’ (Alcock et al., 2008, p.335)

‘Social exclusion is seen in the growth of homelessness or urban slums, the declining hopes of the long-term unemployed, the lack of access to jobs and incomes of migrants and some ethnic minorities, the increasingly precarious nature of jobs on offer to new labour market entrants’. (Rodgers 1995:43)

Ruth Levitas, in her 1998 book, The Inclusive Society: Social Exclusion and New Labour, suggested three models of discourse in terms of how we look at the issue of social exclusion, and how those models are applied in politics in particular to economic and social policy, as well as sociological discourse in general. (Levitas, 1998)

RED. This is known as the Redistributionist’s Discourse. Pierson (2004) observes that ‘those holding this view argue that only through the redistribution of wealth across society as a whole, through taxation, benefits and services, will poverty and inequality be eradicated in Britain.’ (Pierson, 2004, p.5). This model rejects the idea that attitudes towards work or moral issues are responsible for social exclusion. Some have noted that a vital component in the RED model of social exclusion discourse is the raising of benefits to an adequate standard as one means of eradicating poverty. (Gordon & Townsend, 2000, p.359) This model is significantly different from the Moral/Underclass Discourse (MUD)
SID. This is known as the Social Integrationist Discourse. This model focuses on the value of importance of work. Paid work is seen as a key factor, with entrance into the labour market as the result, providing income, a boost to the economy, and social inclusion by way of paid employment. Levitas argues that this view differs from RED discourse in that ‘it tends to equate social exclusion with exclusion from the labour market.’ (Levitas 1998, Pierson, 2004, p.6)
MUD. This is known as the Moral/Underclass Discourse. The fundamental argument of the MUD discourse is that individuals or groups, through choices of their own choose a method of social exclusion. Such a method may be a deliberate choice not to try to enter the labour market but instead to rely on benefits solely as a means of income. Gordon & Townsend comment that ‘MUD tends to replay recurrent themes about ‘dangerous classes’…to focus on the consequences of social exclusion for social order, and to emphasise particular groups, such as unemployed and potentially criminal young men, and lone parents, especially young never-married mothers.’ (Gordon & Townsend, 2004, p.360)

We see therefore, three discourses with different answers to the question of whether the poor in the UK are to blame for their poverty and social exclusion. The RED discourse would point to the need to redistribute wealth to the poor in order to end their social exclusion. The SID discourse would like social exclusion and unemployment and would link employment to being the key to the end of poverty and social exclusion. The MUD approach would suggest for many poverty, or certainly social exclusion, are a choice that is made and then potentially taught to the next generation.

We have examined Levitas’ three models or approaches to social discourse, and we have critically examined Murray’s theory of the underclass in the context of the UK and of these three models. We have come to the conclusion that there are other factors to play in poverty and social exclusion than the choices of the poor in the UK or any blame that may be attached to them, and we have seen the elitist nature of Murray’s thesis.

Poverty about people social exclusion about structure of society

‘The UK government defines poverty as having an income of 60 per cent or less of the median: using this measure, 13.2 million people in the UK lives in poverty – that is 22 per cent of the population.’ (Oxfam)

Figure : Maslow’s hierarchy of needsMaslow’s hierarchy of needs, places housing as central to achieving health and well – being of people (Lester et al, 1983). JOURNAL on pc. Housing is defined as a “place of resistance, the home and place of homemaking, and can represent a significant source and store of wealth” (Alcock et al, 2003). It also involves the market, the voluntary sector, the process of production, the state, ownership, control and exchanges. Images of deprivation and affluence, social standing and status, stigmatization and issues of segregation, community integration and social exclusion are all strongly associated with housing (Alcock et al, 2003). D:EliaNa!!=pLJMU!! =)Health & Housing in Society (5060TEF)AssessmentsEssaymaslows-hierarchy.jpg

For those people who are in housing need, there is some housing available by the state. The social housing, as it is called, is specified as “housing that is let at low rents and on a secure basis to those people in housing need and it is generally provided by councils and not – for – profit organisations such as housing associations (Shelter, 2013). Text document on pc. The ownership of the social housing in England belongs to the Housing Associations and to the Local Authorities, which are often referred as ‘council housing’ as well (Fitzpatrick S. and Pawson H, 2007).

Nevertheless, housing is one of the main factors that influence tenants’ health. According to Ineichen (1994), some of the most important themes that stand out include the influence of housing on emotional and mental health; the influence of housing on physical activity; the association of housing and poverty; the changing role of the public health agencies; blurring distinction between the renters and the owners; and health related design features of housing.

In the late 1940’s, the level of the output of council housing was really high, their quality was good too and in the sense that the majority of new housing was in the form of two – storey and three – bedroomed houses of generous proportions. The total image of council housing was generally positive. Forty years later, the position of the council housing was totally different. The output was barely a tenth of the level which was achieved in 1948; there were serious problems of disrepair and the new buildings that came up were increasingly emphasised small, one – bedroomed flats. Due to these, the popular image of the council housing has become much less attractive than it was some years earlier (Malpass P, 2000)

Moreover, when the Thatcher government was in power, the Housing Act 1980 was introduced as an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which gave the ability to house tenants to buy their dwellings from Local Authorities in really attractive price (Greener I. and Powell M, 2008). The act came under Michael Heseltine’s remit who was an environment secretary at that time. Some board objectives for the Right to Buy were set by him in June 1979. His objectives were to increase the individual freedom of choice and sense of personal opportunities and continuing improvement in the quality of housing. He stated out that “it lays the foundations for one of the most important revolutions of the century” and he claimed that “dreams are going to come true for many more people” too (Balchin P, 2002)

The sale price of a council house was based generally on its valuation of market. It also includes a discount which reflects the rents paid by tenants and to encourage take – up. The discount of each household was depended on how long they have been living in the house. The act allowed tenants who have lived in their dwellings for at least three years to buy their house at 33% discount of the market price, or 44% off for a flat. If someone was a tenant for over twenty years, he or she got a 50% discount (Toynbee P, 2002). http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2002/oct/11/society.housing. The Right to Buy applies to anyone who has been a council tenant for a minimum of three years and those who occupy purpose – build dwellings for the elderly are excluded (Richards S, 2007).

The aim of the scheme was that for every additional dwelling sold, a new home would be built for affordable rent, which will increase the number of properties available for those on the waiting list. Home ownership grew from 55% of the population in 1980 to 64% in 1987 and to 67% in 1990, but the number of the public houses built was not increased as expected. They had been reduced from 170.000 in the mid 1970’s to just 35.000 in 1990 (Campbell J, 2003). So, whilst the government seems to be encouraging a new wave of house building by Local Authorities, it is unclear whether the system as a whole is actually working and whether it is providing support to those that most need it.

Because of that new policy that was legislated, the health of the tenants was influenced significantly. In accordance with the Radio 4 analysis about social housing on the 26th of February 2009, “there are psychological scars carried around by people who are perfectly aware of the fact that they are regarded by other people as inferiors”. This is because that legislation promotes and reinforces the division of the population in social classes which is already really strong in United Kingdom. This is linked to serious social stigmatisation and makes people feel depressed and more detached than ever, feelings that are associated with poor mental and emotional health. The Right to Buy is also related to the success and the progress of the people; those who did not own a property were deemed to be failures (Allen C, 2009).

Furthermore, the process of the Right to Buy is associated with the wider processes of physical well – being too. Since the government gave the opportunity to citizens to buy their house, they preferred to buy a high quality dwelling which is located at the best areas of the country. For instance, the built environment can play a key role on physical health of people. According to Marmot (2010), safe roads, cycle paths and parks; street lightening and good visibility in urban designs of the community; access to local shops and to public transport are some aspects that can improve the mental and physical well -being of people as well as the aesthetic and clear environment and good quality of air. The existence of a private entrance leads to a significant increase in privacy which in turn increases residents’ feeling of control (Gibson M. 2011). Thereby, people are possessed by a feeling of security and they move around carefree.

Although the Right to Buy had proved to be one of the most successful reforms undertaken by the Thatcher government because clearly the majority of people wish to own their own home, it seems like the Right to Buy was designed in order to pass the responsibility of the dwellings to the new homeowners (Greener I. and Powell M, 2008). This legislation cause several implications on housing as well such as the phenomenon of residualisation. The term ‘residualisation’ means a process in which a residue is created. Specifically, when people move in some number from a neighbourhood or community because they believe it is no longer a desirable place to live, then what they leave behind is a social residue of less enabled people (Malpass P, 1990).

As the Right to Buy gave the ability to people to buy their house, it tended to remove selectively the better – off tenants and the better parts of housing stock. So, the houses that remained for the other people were those of poor housing conditions; located at areas that are associated with crime, poor health, unemployment, educational underachievement, inadequate local services and public transport; dwellings that no one wants to buy, even at a discount (UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL POLICY 7TH ED.). Thus, residualisation of the social rented sector in the United Kingdom has been defined as “the tendency for the sector to become increasingly the preserve of the poorest in society” (Clarke A. and Monk S, 2011).

The social balance of the areas is disturbed by the departures and the people who remain are faced with concentrated poverty together with strengthening social stigmatisation and social exclusion. For example, families with low income are forced into dependency on housing benefit so, their choices of housing placement are restricted to the increasingly stigmatisation of social housing. They do not afford to pay for a high quality home, so their only choice is to select a dwelling that may be unhealthy to live in. Those feelings are particularly relevant during a period that there is increased evidence that housing circumstances relate to and contribute to problems of social disadvantage more generally. Those people who live deprived neighbourhoods are contributed to social exclusion. They are stigmatised by others and they do not have the feeling of belonging and being a part of the community; they condemn themselves to live in solitude and margin (Lee P. and Murie A, 1997).

Other than that, many people reported that “large blocks of flats discourage social interaction”, an aspect which is linked to poorer mental and physical health (Gibson M et al. 2011). Overcrowding, poor soundproofing and noise external are some conditions that are defined as unsuitable for people’s concentration. It is harder to concentrate, to study and to work; conditions that influence the performance at work, university or school. Moreover, stairwells (if there are any) “provide space for strangers to hang out, often taking drugs and drinking, littering and making excessive noise”. That can cause extreme stress and fear to residents as well as lack of safety and disturbances at the time of sleeping duration (Gibson M. 2011).

Apart from these, many of the houses that had been sold were built between 1950’s and 1960’s and today are referred to as ‘Non Traditional Housing’. Many of those dwellings were of poor quality, were designed defective and had serious structural defects (Somerville P. and Springings N, 2005). Many of the residents had to deal with damp and mould on the walls. A survey done by the English House Condition shows that in 2009 about 1.8 million houses had damp problems and around 6.7 million dwellings were non – decent. Damp was also more prevalent in poor households, where 12% lived with damp problems compared with just 7% of households not living in poverty. The mould on the walls originates from inadequate heating of the house. Damp and poor house heating have been linked with asthma, breathing problems and people’s concentration. If the room temperature is too cold is more difficult to keep your mind concentrated (Arblaster L. and Hawtin M, 1993). Other than that, indoor pollution may derive from loss of carbon dioxide; radon or fuel combustion products can cause many issues in the human body such as different types of cancer, including lung cancer (Darby S et al, 2004) JOURNAL PC.

Other than those mentioned above, a new legislation is going to take place from the 1st of April 2013 to tenants of working age which is expected to have a great impact on people’s health and well – being. As reported by the National Housing Federation, bedroom tax is “a part of welfare reform that will cut out the amount of benefit that people can get if they are considered to have a spare room”. As stated by the government, the cut will be set at 14% for one extra bedroom and 25% for two or more extra bedrooms. That means that, those affected will lose about ?14 per week and those who live in housing association are expected to lose about ?16 per week. This tax will affect an estimated 660,000 working – age social tenants. As figure 2 illustrates, many protests took place in England due to that new legislation.D:EliaNa!!=pLJMU!! =)Health & Housing in Society (5060TEF)AssessmentsEssay1362068338-bedroom-tax-demonstration-sweeps-across-bootle-merseyside_1834229.jpg

Figure 2: Bedroom Tax protest in Liverpool 06/03/2013

Pursuant to Butler (2013), the bedroom tax is “a policy that has no logic” and a reform that will cause disruption to the poorest social tenants. It is designed supposedly to tackle overcrowding by freeing up scarce larger social housing properties. At a press conference of Lord Freud, the welfare minister, stated out that spare council house bedrooms are a luxury that country can no longer afford. A lack of other housing option will result in entrapment of tenants in their houses. This will lead to financial penalty just to stay in their own home.

Divorced and single parents have to find additional money to pay the ‘extra charge’ of the rent or have to move into one bedroom properties. But this brings a problem to the surface; how will single parents be able to look after their children at one bedroom dwelling (Coffey S, 2012)? Evidence shows that more than 1 million children suffer in bad housing in England because houses are too small to have private space for reading and doing their homework; and enough space to sleep comfortably (Harker L, 2006). JOURNAL ON PC

In addition, many families have no saving or spare cash so, the only way left in order to cope with shortfall is to go without meals which will have large impact on the physical health of tenants because they will not eat healthy. The other option that is left, is to leave the dwellings they have lived for years (in some cases, they have spent thousands of pounds for its decoration, disability adaptation, maintenance etc.). It also can cause anxiety and fear for the future because they will be away from long established friends and family networks (Butler P, 2013).

Social Exchange Theory is a perspective of the field of social psychology and sociology to explain social change and stability, representing them as a process of negotiated exchanges between people. Social exchange theory can be described as the theory, according to which, human interaction is a unique transaction, which seeks to increase the “rewards” and to reduce the “costs”.

The social exchange theory advocates that all human relationships are formed by using a cost-benefit analysis and comparison with alternatives.A For example, when a person perceives the costs of a relationship over the profits made, the person, according to this theory, leaves the relationship.A This theory has its roots in economics, psychology and sociology. The social exchange theory is linked to the rational choice theory and structuralism, its major features.

Exchange theory arose as a reaction to functionalism, which focused on the impact of a phenomenon on the system.A This is not a single theory, but rather the band theory, describing the social world as a system of exchanges of goods (tangible and intangible) between individuals and social groups.A Social exchange theorists see every interaction as a transaction – “something for something.”A It is like a “theory of individual self-interest.”A If a person takes any action, it does so with the prospect of benefit for himself.A Often it is the intangible benefit, such as respect from others, obedience, satisfaction, etc.

Social exchange theory is a theory in social science which states that there are elements in social relations without discipline, sacrifice, and benefits that affect each other. This theory explains how humans view their relationships with others in accordance with the assumption of human self is to: the balance between what is given to the relationship and what is excluded from that relationship.

There is no unified sociology of exchange, but one can distinguish three main theoretical points of theories. Taking the example of the mutual exchange of between the bride and groom, so this could be either a civil contract between two different-actors to the mutual exclusive use of their bodies, or a mutually donated sacrament, by which ChristianityA continues, or view as an institutional and thus pacification a driver or will form.

Exchange of individuals.A Sociological theorists think consider the assumption that individuals always act when exchanged (individualistic, paired, antagonistic perspective).A No matter what they share in a particular case, there are always sociological “social sanctions”.A As “positive” sanctions, for example, congratulations or goods, but as “negative” there are insults or threats.A Often in the exchange theory only positive or ambivalent sanctions are treated, but include more general approaches and negative sanctions. In the distribution of conflict the “actors” face each other with conflicting interests. The one advantage is the other drawback: any one tried if it goes to positive sanctions, and spend as little as possible from the opponent to gain as much as possible.A In economics, this strategy, which it called only for positive sanctions (such as goods for money in markets), is the “minimax principle”.A And also, if people have antagonistic relations and negative social sanctions (for example acts of violence against violence, such as in war) taken into account, the exchange ends here trying to minimize its losses and maximize the opponent. Considering the criticism, critical is pointed out that this is based on Homans and Blau, Exchange Theory as a variant or mutation of the behaviorism. It had become a rational choice model, and this methodological simplification was achieved at a price, as compared toA classical and other approaches in sociology would be neglected by extra-economic motivations, norms and institutions and their history in general.

Durkheim or Mauss expected to behave in exchange for all social collectives (community, systemic view).A Controlled by the exchange, the consideration to the group received the actors (mostly positive) from each other sanction.A The players share a common interest in the welfare of the collective, which is the individual’s self-interest.A Each exchange includes the end and always a compromise in favor of the collective, even as a loyal member of a community and even with regard to his own advantage.A The Collective is always with a person, which is reflected in valid rituals (for example the handshake) or norms (such as the Commercial Law) that express stability.A Because of that, all exchange behavior is also spoken of as “amphibole” exchange. The theorist Clausen considers one of some forms of exchange that, in addition to the nature of man involves him into it with acting. Here, the parties conduct an exchange so that the survival of the human species will be encouraged to nature and other species.A So it is not only a sociological but also the anthropological institution.A This refers in particular to reproduction, child care and fighting prowess.A The most common example is the dyad between infant and caregiver time (usually, but not necessarily the mother), is expected to result that in the both the exchange is biologically supported and the happier they are, the better it is for others.

Exchange theory by Homans. According to George Homans, the social behavior is an exchange of material goods, and it is also intangible, such as the symbols of approval and prestige. Homans, George tried to explain the behavior defined in the broadest sense as a result of interaction in which individuals acquire, sell, or share resources. He tried to explain social behavior using fundamental concepts of behavior, developed by behavioral psychologists, and neoclassical economists.A Behavioral model of operant conditioning is based on the utilitarian principle that individuals will seek to maximize enjoying and to avoid or minimize the pain.A It is assumed that individuals will respond as expected to reward and punishment.A Any interaction provides an opportunity to share resources, in which each party tries to get resources, with a higher value in comparison with that which he or she gives or which refuses. “All social organizations were created on the basis of the network exchanges.A The organization needs the unit to be fulfilled by other bodies belonging to this organization.”A Homans has developed five general provisions relating to social behavior and resource sharing.A Three of them reproduce the model of behavioral psychologists. The first statement directly follows from the model of operant conditioning, and says: “In respect of any acts performed by people, the more often a person is rewarded for a particular action, the more that person will perform this action.A The second situation is linked to recognition of the role of past experience: “In the past, the emergence of a particular stimulus or set of incentives has created a situation in which human action is rewarded, the more the present-day incentives are similar to those past stimuli, the more that person will perform the same or similar toA his action in the present.”A However, the third provision states that “for their actions when a person does not receive the expected rewards or receive unexpected penalty, he goes berserk and can behave aggressively.”He created a series of allegations, among them are the claim of success, the assertion of deprivation and that there is saturation of aggression. These statements are a part of seven and, according to crowning this list is the assertion of rationality, which says that the body of the two alternative measures will choose the one which gives the most likely results to achieve greater benefits. The basic proposition is:

– success: the more action the individual is rewarded with, the more likely it is to take this action.

– the stimulus: if the past occurrence of a specific stimulus or combination of stimuli was a circumstance, in which individual action has been rewarded, the more likely it is that the unit would take this or a similar effect.

– value: the more the action is for the individual securities, the more likely that it will be demonstrated this action.

-saturation of deprivation: the more frequently in the recent past, the unit received a particular prize, the less valuable it becomes for each additional unit of the award.

– frustration-aggression: If the unit does not bring action to obtain a reward or punishment received by the entity, which they did not expect, it will react with anger, and anger aggressive behavior results will have a reward value.

Exchange Theory by Peter Blau. Peter Blau introduced the analysis of exchange, which processes the term “marginal utility”, which says that “the more the expected rewards entity obtains from a particular act, the less valuable this action is, and the less likely it will be”.A The idea is that if in a result of the exercise we get some action on the awards, you will have less value, which will be a new round of the award.A Another concept introduced by Blau is the concept of “standards for fair exchange”, which indicates what should be the ratio of rewards to costs in the exchange relationship.A If these standards are shaken, then the injured party may disclose to aggressive behavior. Blau concept differs from the concept of Homans that provides conflict situations. Balance in one relationship, which is impaired by homeostasis seen in another.A Blau has another concept, which is “social attraction” that is the perception of opportunities for reward.A This is according to sociologist factor, necessary for the existence of the exchange ratio, which is based on the belief that people who “give awards, in turn, you will receive the award as payment for the goods delivered”.A There are four types (classes): the prize money, social acceptance, respect (deference) and submission.A Of these, the greatest value is the submission, then the respect, acceptance, and the least appropriate reward in the relations of social exchange is money.

Submission is the most valuable prize because for Blau it is inherent in the relationship of power, and this in turn gives a possibility of denying rewards to those who do not want to comply with the standards.A Power is born when the value of services exceeds the value of services received in return.A If people have to choose only one or a few alternative sources of awards, then it also comes to forcing submission.A This is further facilitated if people are not giving to the possibility to use the coercion and opposition to a person providing services.A Inability to work around without data prizes also affects positively the opportunity to force the submission by the person in possession of these awards.

Exchange in social psychology. Social psychology also speaks about human relations as relations of exchange. These systems are based on the so-called rule of reciprocity, under which “we are committed to the future for favors, gifts, invitations and the goods that we have received.”A According to social psychologists one of the important principles is governing the human investigation.A This commitment to the rematch probably exists in all human societies.A Researchers say that this rule has developed in order to encourage people to contact, based on mutual exchange of services – without fear of giving something to another, and we lose it forever.A Another form of this rule is called reciprocal concessions, namely: if someone goes to hand us, we do it to him, too.A Thus we can safely take the first step to someone, as he will be obliged to give us a similar sacrifice.A This rule is valid according to social psychologists and it is an effective regulator of social relations.

The emergence of social exchange theory. In general, the social exchange theory consists of social relations rather than public. The societies have viewed the behavior influence of each other in the relationship; there are also elements of discipline, of sacrifice and gain that reflect social exchange.A The reward is all that through the sacrifice, when the sacrifice can be avoided, and the benefit is reduced by the rewards of sacrifice.A So the social behavior of the exchange at least between two people is based on the cost-benefit calculations.A For example, patterns of behavior in the workplace, romance, marriage and friendship. Analogy from the case, at some point people can feel in any of their friends, who, usually, are always trying to get something from you.A At that time you always give what a friend needs from you, but the opposite is actually happening when you need something from your friends.A Each individual course has a goal to be friends with each other.A These individuals would be expected to do something for others, help each other if needed, and provide mutual support.A However, maintaining friendly relations also requires the costs, such as the lost time and energy and other activities.A Although these costs are not seen as something that is expensive or burdensome when viewed from the point of reward obtained from these friendships.A However, these costs should be considered if we are to objectively analyze the relationships that exist in a friendly transaction.A If the cost seems not in accordance with the compensation, what happens is the uneasy feeling of a person who feels that the benefits received were too low compared to the cost or sacrifice that has been given.

An analysis of the social relationships that occur according to the cost and reward is one characteristic of the exchange theory.A This exchange theory has focused on micro-level analysis, particularly at the interpersonal level of social reality.A In this discussion the focus will be on the notion of exchange theory by Homans and Blau.A Homans in his analysis insisted on the necessity to use the principles of individual psychology to explain social behavior rather than merely describing it. But Blau, on the other hand, was trying to move from the level of interpersonal exchanges at the micro level to the macro level of social structure.A He attempted to show how larger are the social structures that emerged from the basic exchange processes.

Unlike the analysis described by the theory of symbolic interaction, exchange theory was mainly seen as the real behavior, not the processes that are purely subjective.A This was also adopted by Homans and Blau, who were not focused on the subjective level of consciousness or reciprocal relationships between the levels of dynamic interaction of subjective.A Homans further argued that scientific explanations should be focused on real behavior and then can be observed and measured empirically. The process of social exchange has also been expressed by the classical sociologists.A As expressed in the classical economic theory of the 18th and 19th century, the economists like Adam Smith have analyzed the economic market as a result of a comprehensive collection from a number of individual economic transactions.A He assumes that transactions will happen only if both parties can gain from these exchanges, and welfare of the community in general can be very well secured when the individuals are left to pursue personal interests through negotiated exchanges in private.

Conflicts of individualistic and social exchange in collectivism. Conflict that occurs is a result of the growing contradiction between the individualistic orientation and collectivism.A Homans is probably someone who was very stressed on an individualistic approach to the development of social theory.A This is certainly different from the explanation that the Levi-Strauss, a collectivist, in issues especially regarding to marriage and kinship patterns. Levi-Strauss is an anthropologist who comes from France. He developed a theoretical perspective of social exchange on the practice of marriage and kinship system of primitive societies. A general pattern of analysis is when a man marries his mother’s daughter.A A pattern that happens is that people rarely marry the daughter of his father’s brother. This latter pattern was analyzed further by Bronislaw Malinowski, who advanced by the exchange of nonmaterial. In explaining this, Levi-Strauss distinguishes two exchange systems, which include restricted and generalized exchange.A In restricted exchange, members of the dyad groups are directly involved in the exchange transaction, each member of the couple give each other a personal basis.A And in the generalized exchange, members of a group of triads or even larger accept something other than a dyad who gives something useful. In these exchanges the impact is on the integration and solidarity groups are inA a more effective manner.A The main purpose of this exchange process is not to allow couples who are involved in an exchange to meet the needs of individualization. An analysis of marriage and kinship behavior is a criticism of Sir James Frazer’s explanation of a British expert who studies the economic anthropology on patterns of exchange that occurs between mating pairs in primitive society.

The theory of exchange today does not represent a single school of thought.A Strictly speaking, there are several theories that share a common position that human interaction is a process of exchange.A In addition, each of them has their own views on human nature, society and social science. Theories of exchange have been and still are often criticized for the lack of freshness, the evidence of certain statements, ignoring the existence of a forced situation.A Most can be found with the view that this point of view narrows the social life and relations between people only to the physical assets. As a fact, social forms of exchange are perceived differently and communicated, as a sociological and anthropological analysis would be expected to.A As the question of justice, including equivalence of an exchange is directed according to dominant values, or it is judged differently from the representatives of warring values.