Author: Andre Coleman

Women participation in sports has a history marked by division and inequity. However, women have experiences major accomplishments by female athletes helping to make significant progress for gender equality and the empowerment of women. The essay will explain some of the historical developments with reference to different theoretical perspective of feminism such as liberal, radical and socialist feminisms. It will also critically discuss feminisms and how female are exploited by patriarchy society.

Feminism is a dynamic, diverse and often conflicting collection of social theories and moral philosophies (Burke, 2008). It is similar to Marxism because both are political theories that were develop to solve the inequality, exploitation and poverty in society. While Marxism is largely motivated by the struggle of social class, feminism focuses on the experiences of women, particularly in terms of their political, social and economical inequalities. One prospective of feminism focuses on seeking no particular privileges but merely demand that everyone receive equal political, economical and social consideration without discrimination on the basis of sex (Adkins, 2004). Another opposing type of modern feminism, opposes existing political and social institution in general because it’s tied to a male dominated society. Thus, feminism has no single, universal form that represents all feminists.

The rise of feminism movement can be divided into three “waves”. The first wave began in the late 1800s to early 1900s referring mainly to the statue of women in family and allowing women’s right to vote known as the suffrage movement. The second wave refers to the action of the women’s liberation movement beginning in the early 1950s which campaigned for social and legal equality for women. The third wave feminism began in the 1990s and embraced conflict, contradictions and accommodated diversity and change.

Waves of Feminism

The waves of feminism are a historical progression in each waves has bringing a swelling of momentum that carried women closer to equality in society. The early movement has come to known as the first wave which was established in United States and United Kingdom around the late 1800s to early 1900s. They major concerned was to help promote women equality in education, employment and property rights. However, by the end of the nineteenth century, many feminist such as Susan B. Anthony and Lucy Stone fought to gain more political power for women; particularly the right of women’s suffrage. Woman did have success as a result of the 1st World War occur meaning women replaced men in civilian work-force and also served in the military support roles. Feminist also had significant success in reforms in education, and broadening access to different profession and in healthcare. It is considered that the first-wave came to end when the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution was passed enabling women the right to vote (Lee & Ling, 2001). The progression of first-wave feminism was significant; however, without the continuation of the second-wave, feminisms would not be as advance as it is in current times (can u think of another way can say that), for each wave is interrelated and dependent on each other’s history.

In the early 1960s Second Wave of feminism emerged. Second-wave focuses was broader than the first-wave. It was concerned on inequalities such as the economic freedom, the rights for female to have abortion, equal and accessibility to certain male dominated institution such as sports. It also began to challenge the domination of patriarchy society and gender inequality in all aspects. In 1963 A Feminist named Betty Friedan publicised a landmark book called The Feminine Mystique. This book would be a pivotal moment in the history of second wave feminism. The book give an insight on how upper to middle class women felt discontented about their restricted opportunity in life (Changfoot, 2002). Friedan soon became one of the leading feminist in the Second wave, and eventually helped establish the National Organization for Women, whose purpose was to promote gender equality and to protect and support women rights. Perhaps one of the biggest achievements of Second Wave Feminism was in the United States by the passage of Title IX (Ackerly & Attanasi, 2006). This enabled women to have access to education, particularly in university and professional schools. In addition, the work of these feminists allow employment opportunities that before had been confined to men accessible to women.

The Third Wave of feminism that emerged in the 1990s and is still current to this day. Like all feminism, the third wave focuses on the social, economic, political and personal empowerment of women, but this differ to pervious waves because it concerns were more on the individual empowerment of women and less on activism. Ferguson (2002) commented on the third wave as a “new direction for feminism to celebrates women’s voyage to build meaningful identities in a complex contemporary world” (p2). Third wave feminists celebrate diversity unlike previous waves and the Women’s Liberation Movement; it was often criticized for focusing too narrowly on the events of middle-class, Caucasian and heterosexual women. Third wave feminists do not reject political activism, but the emphasis relies more on women personal empowerment as an initial point for societal change. Zinn and Dill (2005) propose there are multiple systems of domination that create inequality for women known as a matrix of domination.

Feminist theories

Feminism is not a unified or a simple philosophy. Many women and man consider themselves feminists; most of their ideology may vary considerably. The feminist theories aim to understand the nature of gender inequality, promoting women’s rights, while generally providing a critique of social relations. This essay will focus on looking a liberal, socialist and radical feminism.

Liberal feminism is characterized on the emphasis of wanting both genders to be equal within society. According to the theory, society itself does not need a major revolution, but rather propose that laws need to be changed and opportunities which enable more accessibly for women to become equal in society. To a liberal feminist, evidence of progress occurs when a number of women gain more positions previous occupied by men, particularly high end positions. In the United Kingdom and the major of the Western world, liberal feminism is the most common form of feminism. Gale, (2009) argues that even if women are no longer reliant upon men, they will still need to be governed by a patriarchal state. Radical Feminist argues institutional changes such as the introduction of women’s suffrage are inadequate to emancipate women.

In contrast socialist feminism emphasizes that equality for women will not be achieve without a significant change within society mainly economic change also socialist feminists focus on collective change and empowerment. Similar to Marxism, socialist feminists argue that there are basic inequalities built in to a capitalist society because capital and power are shared unequally. Thus, it not sufficient enough for women to achieve powerful positions in society, but power and capital need to be distributed equally (Fleck, 2004). Critic argues that socialist feminism neither is revolutionary nor radical enough to generate a solution to the difficulty for women economic and social exploitation. Another argument is not all male and female relationships are characterised by exploitation and oppression.

Radical feminism is focuses on patriarchy and the system of power that organizes society. It is similar to socialist feminism in the sense that it emphasizes the need for severe social change for women to truly have equality. Radical feminists believe that society is very largely patriarchal, and as a result founds that women are oppressed. A criticism for radical feminism is it focuses much on the patriarchy society and need to consider the concepts such as ethnicity, religion and social class. Another criticism is reverse discrimination when women pushed unfairly into senior position.

Feminism in sports

Women’s participation in sports has risen significantly in the twentieth century, particularly in the last quarter. It this partly due to the changes in modern societies that encourage gender parity. While the level of participation and performance still alters depending on the country and by sport. Although there has been many improvement in the accessibility in sport many feminist argue, that sports has been socially constructed hyper masculine, thus it has been more limited to men. Vale, (1998) found evidence to support this by looking at the incredible resistance to included women in certain men’s institutions. Augusta National is the golf club which is also home to the Masters Tournament which does not allow women members to join. When women have tried to join the club or have made protest outside the parameter, the reaction from the club has boarded on hostility. As a results Vale, (1996) question if sport is so beneficial for men, why do men and institution, hold such resistant to offer all that is good in sport to women. Radical feminism have criticised the patriarchy society on how they portray women in sports. For example Sports Illustrated portrays women by presents demeaning stereotypes of female sexuality, encouraging men to view women as sex objects and by turning voyeurism into a sport.

Gender studies is an interdisciplinary study which investigate different aspects of gender. Sport is one of the aspects that researchers in these years are trying to analyse in a gender perspective. It is believed that sport is socially conditioned based on many researches. This essay will examine sport contributing to the construction of masculinity by several ways, they are: gender stratification in tradition, homophobia in sport, sport as male bonding ritual, biased opportunities towards men and media influence. Further examples and elaborations will follow in each point to demonstrate sport is indeed a social constitution constructing masculinity.

Sport has long been instituted as male dominated and masculine in orientation by a couple of reasons. First, the historical gender stratification throughout a century has established that sport is an institution constructing masculinity. We are living in a patriarchal society that male are always in superior status than female, from economic status to daily life. The society has embedded a concept that the role of women is to give birth and their only obligation is to take care of children. But in 20th century, women are no longer highly dependent on men, as more and more women have become labours in the market. It has shortened the distance between two sexes, but obviously gender inequality cannot be eliminated so easily. Bilrell and Cole (1990) have mentioned that superiority of physical fitness is the key factor of winning in sport, and sport is the main activities emphasis on the sexual differentiation. Since sport emphasizes a lot on strength and bravery, male are thought to perform well innately than women (Klein 1990). As a result, the male participating rate in sport in general is higher than women. It is no wonder that Zane Grey (1992) in his book wrote “All boys love baseball. If they don’t they’re not real boys.” This concept was passed on from generation to generation and eventually sport becomes a site constructing masculinity.

Second, homophobia is another factor constructing masculinity in sport. As mentioned in the previous paragraph, sport has somehow developed into a male hegemonic activity. Male who does not participate in sports are not regarded as ‘real’ man, and female participating in sports are thought to be manlike. They may, therefore, be treated as homosexuals. In fact, in the traditional socialization process, men in the early age had learnt that male who does not perform in manly way may see as homosexual (Messner 1992). Athletics, no matter male or female, may sometimes make apparent or even exaggerated movement to show their masculinity and femininity, just because they are afraid of people confusing their gender identity. Ordinarily, male’s characteristics are tough, aggressive, competitive, physically strong, whereas women tend to show attractive appearance, to do make-up and wearing feminine clothing. The traditional association of physical strength, power and athleticism with masculinity causes many people to question the sexuality of women athletes. Former tennis star Chris Evert paid great attention to whether or not she acted like a woman in the court, and almost the end of her tennis career she finally willing to admit that she is an athlete (Woolum 1998). Though she is a tennis player, she tried to act like a woman so as to maintain her feminine image. When Evert evaluated on her early stage of career, she said she never feel like an athlete, she was just a person playing tennis (Woolum 1998). She would like to be a ‘complete’ woman such as having nail polish and wearing fancy hair band, rather than a ‘freak’ in others’ eyes. From this example, we have seen that sport is thought to be male-oriented. Since female athletes challenge traditional notions of femininity and their abilities are seen as stereotypically masculine, female athletes are always contending with homophobia so that they will not be labelled as lesbian. It, in turns, lessens female’s willingness to participate in sport. As for men, they tend to participating in sport in order to show their manhood and avoid categorized as gay. It is, therefore, understandable that sports is a site for the embodiment of masculinity because of its nature of male-oriented.

Third, sports play an important role in masculinity because sport is constructed as male bonding ritual. Similar to fraternity and military, sport helps young boys making connections in their life (Fine 2000). As we all know, sport focuses a lot of competitiveness and aggression, or sometimes, even involves physical contact and collision in between athletes. These are the elements that enable the notion of masculinity and the hegemonic ideal to construct a boy into a real man. Burstyn (1999) believed that sport “provided the kind of rituals of conquest and aggression that men with a weak sense of masculinity needed to symbolize, to make physical and palpable, the difference between a ‘man’s man’ and a ‘mama’s boy’ “, which means sport is “succeeded in socializing boys into manhood despite the absence of the family father…” (Burstyn 1999). Here we realize that sport is in fact served as an embodied ritual of confirming and strengthening men’s gender identity. Even if some children may live in single-parent families, they are still able to achieve manliness as sport can be a replacement of father for them to obtain masculinity. All men can group together to retain their manhood and to reassert their gender privilege via sport. Thus, we can conclude that sport is a bonding ritual for men to construct their masculinity.

In addition, biased opportunity towards men is a way to gradually construct masculinity in sport. Traditionally we are told that girls are only suitable for activities which are related to the aesthetic side of sports such as ice cheerleading and skating. Females are not recommended to engage in high physical contact activities such as rugby, boxing and soccer. In the schooling stage, gender socialization and gender typing shaped teenagers how they should act based on their gender. Plausibly, self-fulfilling prophecy has occurred and these norms have shaped individuals’ behavior, which in turn shapes future expectations. This cycle has shaped our society into a male supremacy culture, and sport is an embodiment of this notion. The opportununties bias can be seen particularly in the professional ranks. Women’s sport would never be at the top of the pirority when business companies looking to use sports to market their product (Person 2009). They concerned with earning money from the advertsing and they believed that the money return will not be as much if they invest in women’s sport (Person 2009). The average salary can obviously indicate the inequality of opportunities within two sexes, men are able to earn 4 millions in average whereas women can only earn approximately 1.4% of men, around $55,000 in average. Without social and economical motivation, girls devote less time to the sport. As a result, sport become male domain and a site for constrcuting masculinity.

Finally, media influence is a factor contributing to the masculine construction in sport. The Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles has done a research (Wilson 1999) claiming that over 90% of American teenagers consume sports media. Since sports are mostly dominated by men, from the athletes and coaches to the commentators and reporters, media is definitely influential enough to transmit ideas about masculinity and maleness. And when it comes to reporting sport news, the newsworthiness is the main point reporters are focusing on. Men’s sport is generally believed to have more attention and enthusiasm from the public, compared with women’s sport. Sometimes after a match has finished, reporters are able to immediately interview male athletes in the changing room, it is, however, impossible to do the same thing on women. It is, therefore, clear that there are lots of bias and limitations on sports media which ultimately contribute to the construction of masculinity in our society.

In conclusion, sport was demonstrated as being a dominant social institution which naturalized men’s power and privilege over women. It has marginalized and trivialized female athletes, which sequentially help reproducing the ideological of masculinity in sport.

Introduction

Due to the establish of modern enterprise system and thoroughly in structural reforms of market economy, there are lot of opportunities contained in the market, but it is also existing many unexpected risks, particularly for the small to medium-sized enterprise (SMEs) which has limited resources to resist in this treacherous environment. To survive and adapts to the environment for a SME is to maintain its advantage in meticulous daily management and even more important is to have a long-term view strategic thinking especially in financial strategy. ‘A good finance strategy can help SME to set up and expand their operations, development and also investment’ (OECD, 2006), further to get funds which make them competitively and can get well results they desired (Park, 2010). Making a finance strategy is very significant to a company; company has to consider both of internal condition and external environment problem and even more factors which are related to company. However, the SME has its particular characteristic, it is not suitable to adopt the same action with a large company; they better to create a strategy which fits to the company according to its demand. Finding a proper financial strategy for a developing SME, not only can help SME to reinforce its essence, the more important is the sustainability of its development.

Define company

There is no accurate definition for small to medium-sized enterprise (SMEs) and most of countries define it according to specific condition by their way. Nevertheless, there are some particular characteristics (Bank of England, 2001& Brookfield, 2001) about SMEs and they are:

The enterprises are not quoted

Ownership is often connected between family and shareholder and the business is typically restricted to few individuals.

Most of SMEs are small group’s business and always achieve self-employment effectively.

In the past, the definition for SME’s from European Commission was unequivocal, it was defined by individual country, for instance, Germany regulated the amount of employee under 250 was part of SME, but in Belgium, the number was became 100. However, in the recent years, the data from European Commission shows that the definition has adjusted and is qualified as a SME by some criteria (see figure 1-1) (European Commission, 2010) in headcount, turnover and balance sheet total.

definition of SME.JPG

Figure 1-1 the definition of a small firm from European Commission

Importance of finance

Nowadays, the enterprise’s finance is facing a dynamic, diversification and complicated managing environment. Managing finance is not only to provide a specific method or device for a firm; it is to assimilate the principle and manner from strategic management. Start from the view of adapting to the environment and using the vantage, to pay much attention in financial long-term problem and strategic problem. In the situation of lacking of the resources for SME, to create a suitable financial strategic and well dominate the limited resource is significant since a better financial systems can help to improve the probability of successful innovation and bring accelerate economic growth.

(King, et al., 1993)

The focus of enterprise’s financial strategy is the basic path on future development, goal and goal accomplishment for the financial action; this is the difference between financial strategy and other strategies. The master objective of enterprise’s financial strategy is reasonably to assemble, dominate and use its resources, tend to balance and flow enterprise’s capital, also to build the core competitive strength and to achieve the maximization of enterprise value in the end. Some aspects of this goal are related/ connected to each other; from the view of a long-term performance, to seek the enterprise’s sustainability growth in financial resource and capability, and furthermore to accomplish the rising of enterprise’s capital value and make enterprise’s financial capability can sustained, quick and healthily increase, conduce to maintain and develop enterprise’s competitive advantage.

While enterprise building the core competitive strength for their strategic management, they need the support from financial management. The financial management which treats capital management as a significant content, it needs to express the requirement for enterprise’s strategy and to guarantee its practice. The value of practicing the financial strategy is to retain a health condition in enterprise’s finance and also effectively in controlling the financial risk.

There are twelve types of financing and growth in SMEs and it can be very usefully and provided a great help if it is supplied properly according to SMEs particular requirement (Brookfield, 2001).

Initial owner financing (Equity finance)

Business angel financing

Trade credit

Leasing

Factoring

Venture capital

Short-term bank loans (Debt finance)

Medium term bank loans

Mezzanine finance

Private placements

Public equity

Public debt

A company should manage its financing structure in a way that its debt and equity are in balanced manner. This fact helps company to avoid insolvency. Excess of either debt or finance could result in loss of wealth. I will be explaining some of the important methods of financing in following section.

Equity finance

Equity financing is that the shareholder sells the part of corporate control to introduce the new shareholder by raising the capital (Watson, et al., 2007). The enterprise does not need to pay the interest on principal if the capital is received from equity financing and the new shareholder can share the profit from enterprise as well. Equity financing includes stock issuance, allotment and debt for equity swap. Some features of equity financing, are:

Stock equity is firm’s first right of its property, it is the base for enterprise to absorb the civil liability and to responsibility for firm’s own profits and losses; furthermore, it is also the base for investor to control the enterprise and to distribute the profit.

Equity financing is the base of deciding an enterprise to the outward debt.

Certainly, there are some advantages of equity financing that help enterprise in investment and management.

Equity financing builds a good system in corporate governance structure, which consists of shareholders meeting, board of directors, Board of supervisors and executives. It is effectively in decreasing the risk of management.

In the modern finance theory, stock market is also called open market; it means that the standardization financial products are dealing in a trading area with an extensively institutionalization. It has its criterion and processes it in the condition of information revelation and fare dealing. In financial translation, the more important is publicity and availability of information; and that is why the stock market is better than loan market in both competitiveness of capital price and publicity of information.

Venture capital

Venture capital is the fund which is collected by private placement and set as the type of organization; invest to unlisted small and medium-sized newly emerging enterprises and in the capital type of both high risk and high reciprocation. Venture capital is different from mutual fund, unit trust and securities investment fund; it has its features in operating of investment and collection, such as,

Venture capital absorbs the venture with enterprise; the venture capitalist needs to cooperate closely with entrepreneur and help the firm to make a plan. Management is part of investment.

Venture capital is an investment in long-term and poor flowability; venture capitalist and entrepreneur become a common destiny once they invest.

Venture capital is high risk and requires the venture capitalist with specialized skill, and need to achieve specialization and programmed in choosing the project, tend to avoid the risk.

Before inspect the financial index, the venture capitalist pays more attention in market prospect, development strategy and managing quality.

Sharing the bonus from enterprise is not the purpose of venture capital, they make it as a return by increasing the capital when they are exiting; the time for exiting is always when go on public or sell it.

Debt finance

Debt financing is also called bond financing, it is the way which the firm can raise money for enterprise’s external finance; and debt can also be conducted and fitted to the requirement of issuing companies and investors (Watson, et al., 2007). It is included long-term bank loans, short-term financing (such as bills, debt receivable, and letter of credit), enterprise Bond and short-term financial bonds, also long-term bond financing, finance lease, discount government loans, government loan, Loans from international financial organizations and private bond fund.

The first expense enterprise needs to pay is the interest of capital which receives from debt financing and the principal on the debt will be paid to creditor at maturity (Davis, et al., 1994). The feature of purpose for debt financing is to solve the problem of deficiency in working capital rather than the expenditure under the capital account. Debt financing can be described by two features,

The received capital from debt financing is only for using, it is not the property of the enterprise, and the firm needs to pay interest and the principal is repayable.

Compare to equity financing, except some specific situations that debt financing may bring creditor the problem of intervention or controlling, otherwise it is barely to have the problem of corporate control.

However, debt financing has its advantage for helping the firm in investment and management,

The lenders have ability to collect and analyze the states of investment, also can have long-term investigate and oversee the enterprise to avoid the moral hazard.

The function of the creditor’s right is when firm can pay off the debt, the firm will hold the corporate control, whereas of the enterprise cannot offer the debt, the corporate control will be turned to lender.

Why do SME’s find financing a problem?

Due to SME’s small size capital, the capability for defending the market risk is not as strong as a large firm, plus a faulty finance system, it causes the problem into SME’s finance management (Pissarides, 1999). The main reasons and problem are:

No criterion in SME’s finance accounting system

In application of finance system in SME exist some problems, which make loose financial control. A loose inventory control can lead to the stagnation of capital and excessive final inventory; the capital of final inventory always in a high proportion if compare to sale revenue. The firm usually loses a large number of assets due to focus on capital much more than assets and even wastes it seriously; moreover, to control the finished products, semi-manufactured goods and low-value expendable without a faultless system.

It is negligent in managing the cash and weakness in debt receivable

Some of enterprises think that it is good to hold cash (including bank deposit), and better to have more; the proportion of reserve is too high, it makes lot of capital cannot really run in operation, and also causes the capital idleness. In addition, some firms invest too much in real estate and lead to finance difficulty due to could not handle the emergent need of management. Also deficiency in managing working capital creates problems problem capital withdrawal.

Difficulty in funding, the capital is insufficient

It is not easy to run the SME in a practically environment, especially the unequal treatment in funding between SME and larger enterprise. The banks are not willing to loan to them, particularly the difficulty in guarantee and lack of the specialized agency to offer the assurance service is still the main problem for SME and it obviously happens in some huge investments.

Unrestraint in investment

The SME is lacking of the ability to analyze the investment accurately and to evaluate the effectiveness of operating the capital. The majority of investment in SME is from banking, due to the respectability of a SME is not as high as a large company, it is an obstacle in attracting the banking to invest or loan to the SME.

The mode of management is backward

Most of SME is running the business as a family workshop; they are operation the management in a backward way and an old-fashioned thinking way, do not understand and even not willing to understand or learn the modern financial management. The proprietor always treats the enterprise as an extension of family’s property; in order to control the business entirely without decentralize the ownership, it causes the lost of the opportunities in growing.

Conclusion

SMEs play an important role in the general macroeconomic environment, and provide the enormous opportunities for employment. However, due to the small size and limited source, usually SMEs has to face to the challenge in financing problem. For solving the problem, the major impact is from government and the law (Industrial Systems Research). In existing policy has to be adjusted by government; the government needs to reinforce the related law and regulation to implement SMEs development strategy and preferential clause. Furthermore, have to set up the institution for managing and supporting SMEs development. To increase the method for financing; SMEs need to respect the debt from bank and to pay back the debt on time; then to healthy the internal system and raise the handling of material. Lastly, to improve accountants’ structure and criterion of financial management; enhance the punishment for the illegality to makes they pay attention in financial system.

Rwanda is one of the smallest low income African countries and a post- conflict country that shares boundaries with Uganda in north, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in west, Burundi in south and Tanzania in east, Having emerged from the 1994 genocide and civil conflict and wars which claimed over one million people dead and left the socio-economic infrastructure completely smashed. The country suffered from harsh deficits which includes skilled human capital and this is largely for technical professions (RoR: 2008).

According to the 2002 census of Population and Housing, Rwanda`s Population was estimated at 10,4 million and with the population density of 321 persons per square kilometre. The country`s Population grew rapidly from a small size Population of 2 million in 1962 to over 10 million in 2010. The country has a relatively high rate population growth of 2.9% which could carry on the population to sixteen million in the year 2020, if this pace or speed is maintained. The population is predominately young with an average age of about 20 years of old with about 60% of the total population less than 19 years old with significant implications for young people `s unemployment (RoR:2002).

The young people in Rwanda represents hope for the future as a resource that holds a big reserve of human energy, and they can play a big role particularly in developing the economy.

Rwanda being one of the poorest countries in the world and much of her population is largely dependent on subsistence farming or agriculture in general. The formal industrial and employment is slightly developed and nearly non-existent outside the few larger urban areas basically Kigali main capital city, followed by smaller cities such as Huye, Cyangugu, Ruhengeri, Gisenyi, Gitarama, Kibuye and Rwamagana.

Over the past decades ,the youth in Rwanda have depended so much on employment generated by the Public Sector as the sole employer mainly due to ineffective policy framework that would facilitate the processes of generating employment ( RoR: 2005 ). Lack of active government input and facilitation has been one of the top most challenging factors among others. In the process of improving the lives and the standards of the population in Rwanda, the country has embarked on supporting and facilitating the informal sector as a means to generate more employment opportunities to vulnerable people especially the youth and has implemented policies to meet the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and other Rural Development Programmes like Vision “Umurenge”, Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS) and the Vision 2020 as a framework to achieve the overall development in Rwanda ( RoR: 1999).

Rwanda is trying to change from an aid dependent country into a middle income country by developing its human capital with skills in different capacities to enhance employment creation for the entire population which is dominated by the youth. The Government of Rwanda established five year action plan for youth employment promotion and the strategies which is meant to help in developing her human capital by empowering the young people in the labour market so as to get decent jobs (RoR:2008).

It is in this regard that, the government has developed a number of vocational training institutions in all five Provinces (that makes up Rwanda) purposely to help the young people to gain certain level of skills to enable them become self-employed and make use of their effort in development. Nicola, (2005), argues that vocational education normally is projected to make young people become self reliant. This supports the argument that vocational education for young people is to become creative with necessary skills that enables them to start their own undertakings.

However, many studies in developing countries show numerous constraints in vocational training institutions, a situation whereby vocational training graduates hardly succeed when trying to seek economic activities or create employment, (Haan,2006).Yet the main goal of vocational training institutions is to prepare young people to fit in the labour market.

Based on the above views, this will necessitate the researcher to draw attention to the perceptions of the trainees from vocational institutions. The case of Rwanda`s vocational education system which lacks a sound and stable standard setting in place, this has created problems of low quality education that is somewhat not relevant to the current labour market which is competitive and tight as a result of large labour force supply in the country.

1.2 Statement of the problem

It is claimed that, young people always consider gaining skills as sole source of solving the unemployment problem for them and it is regarded as a form of transition for them to join the independent life style. Sen.(1997), argues that skills and knowledge can enhance human capability, a situation whereby young people can be able to make their own choices to lead lives they have reason to value. A recent initiative of the government of Rwanda to address the rampant unemployment trend in the labour market among the young people is the setting up of Workforce Development Authority (WDA). This institution was set up to improve the standards of vocational institutions in a country and play a regulatory role and working under the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Public Service and Labour but still a lot is missing due to; limited qualified personnel in training programmes, lack of experience for young people seeking employment, Inadequate skills to prepare the young people with enough capability upon the labour market standards , poor education system (RoR: 2010).

The high rate of unemployment in Rwanda is a result of poor education system which prepares young people basically for white collar jobs which have been declining across time.( RoR: 2002). The country`s formal unemployment rate is 15.5% and this impacts on nearly 696,260 persons (RoR:2005). The government of Rwanda has embarked on increasing expenditure on education sector and this has led to increased labour force supply from vocational training institutions. This has also led to increased demand for jobs within a tight labour market of Rwanda that is actually dependent on public jobs. This has led to a large crowd of unemployed young people based on the fact that the labour force supply exceeded the labour demands in the labour market and as a result of poor education system ,there is often smaller number of young graduates who are able to create their own employment.

In Rwanda, the private sector is mainly underdeveloped and this is also one of the major cause of a large crowd of unemployed young people in a country. In this case, the public sector remains the principal employer compared to the formal private sector (segment) yet public sector employs a small fraction of the employable inhabitants (RoR: 2007). The agricultural sector is the largest employer among the sectors in the country, but this sector is largely less productive and this is due to smaller range (size) of land share as per-person in the country, the land is often very small with less than 1 (one) hectare per-person/ inhabitant. This contributes to low output and low incomes to the rural dwellers, who are the majority of whom the young people and women, such people would be employed in other sectors ( RoR: 2002). The economically active and dynamic population that is active is estimated at 4,493,000 and among those 45% are men and 55% are women counter- parts. out of the above population, 2,334,000 are in the age bracket of young people in the country ranging from 15-29 years of age, where as 1,153,000 are under 20 years of age (RoR:2004).

Besides that, because of poor education and curriculum systems, the skills and competencies acquired by the young people from the vocational training institutions do not match with the requirements of labour market mainly because VET graduates often lack some confidence to stand on their own capabilities to start self-employment. The issue of self-employment has been worsened by the general lack of active labour market policies in place to facilitate the creation of employment for young people and active youth employment promotion policies in place which can also influence the decisions to avail credits and information pertaining job opportunities for unemployed young people from vocational training who may be troubled by the lack of initial capital to start the entrepreneurship businesses (RoR: 2008).

As it was suggested and adopted by UNESCO (1974) in a vital recommendation that, “technical and vocational education is an essential component of general education and as a system of preparing for occupational-workers and as a mechanism to shrink the mismatches involving trainings and employment”. Many young people are said to be trapped-up and hardly make it to start self-employment in the labour market. Thus, this study seeks to assess the effectiveness of vocational training institutions in building human capital as well as their capabilities in terms of giving the necessary skills and competencies required by young people to be self-employed in the labour market and the necessary strategies to alleviate the above constraints faced by the young people in the labour market.

1.3 Research objective and research questions
1.3.1 Main objective of the research

The objective of this research paper is to assess the labour market situation for the young people in Rwanda with reference of Gasabo District in Kigali-City. Emphasis is given to young people who graduate from vocational education and training going into self-employment. It tries to discover the mismatch between skills young people have and the desired competencies for self-employment in the current labour market.

1.3.2 Specific objectives of the research
To identify the journeys into self-employment taken by young people from vocational education and training in Rwanda,
To find out the perceptions of young people over the challenges they face during the course of training and how well education and training has prepared them for those challenges,
To analyse the major challenges the young people encounter when taking their journeys to self- employment,
To suggest policy recommendations to be adopted so as to improve the labour market situations for the young people in Rwanda.
1.3.3 Research Questions
What are the economic journeys taken by young people from vocational training into self-employment in Rwanda?
What are the perceptions of young people over the challenges they face during the course of training and how well education and training has prepared them for those challenges?
What are the major constraints the young people encounter when taking their journeys to self-employment?
What policy recommendations should be made to encourage an environment of adequate skills and capability desired in the labour market?
1.4 Relevance and justification of the research study

The research study is relevant as it tries to make a good understanding of the concepts of self-employment developed by training and a labour market concept which is rather weak among several vocational training institutions in Rwanda. This paper provides response to the common mismatch of skills acquired from vocational institutions that impinges so much on the position of young people in Rwanda`s current labour market. It will also enable the concerned parties to recognize whether self-employment policies and programmes in place are relevant towards addressing the high rate of unemployment among the young people in Rwanda.

It will create a platform to initiate debates on youth employment promotion policies which might be useful in addressing the unemployment problem which has affected the young people in Rwanda`s labour market and the world of work in a global perspective. Besides that, this research provides useful literature and knowledge for future reviews based on the theoretical views and opinions of several cited authors from the world of academia that are included in this research paper.

This research study is also relevant especially when it seeks to make policy recommendations as an aspect that will help in building institutional capacities and as well as building human capabilities.

1.5 Research Methodology and sources of data.

The research is based on both primary and secondary data. Primary data was collected from respondents from the chosen area of study comprising of the beneficiaries of training programmes. The researcher identified young individuals who are graduates from vocational training institutions. The total number of interviewee was thirty five (35) respondents from Gasabo District and Government officials. This helped the researcher to collect data on the quality of the education system provided by the vocational training education institutions in Rwanda and was able to capture information on the perceptions of young people on the standards of the education system provided to them, after they graduate and how it is helpful or inadequate in as far as labour market is concerned.

1.5.1 Sample size and sampling procedures

The ideal exercise in a research study is to find data from the whole population. This would guarantee maximum coverage/ treatment of population concerned in the research study. However, due to lack of resources, it was not feasible to study the whole population; In this case, a sample size was then deemed necessary and essential to satisfy the researcher`s study.

With the use of purposive sampling method, respondents presumed to have clear/understandable and enough information concerning the economic journeys of the young people into self-employment were consulted.

To get rich and enough information about young peoples’ transition into self employment, I purposively selected thirty (30) self-employed young respondents. For better understanding what the government is doing / planning to encourage self employment to young people in Rwanda, I selected 5 Government officials, two from the Ministry of Public Service and Labour, one official from the Ministry of Youth and two officials from the Ministry of Education and were interviewed. Thus, the sample size of the study totalled to 35 respondents. The selection of 30 young respondents that were interviewed fell in age range of 15-35 years old as being stipulated by Rwandan constitution of 2003-2004 determining who the youth are.

1.5.2 Research techniques
Interviews

To get primary data, it was decided to interview 35 respondents. Before holding interviews with respondents, the researcher had first to make contacts with the help of telephones calls. Using interview guide, the researcher interviewed 30 young self-employed people in Gasabo District. To know what the government is doing or planning for self employment for young people in Rwanda, 2 officials from the Ministry of Public Services and Labour, 2 officials from the Ministry of Education and 1 official from the Ministry of Youth were also interviewed. Semi-structured interviews each lasting for up 30-35 minutes were conducted. The interview questions varied in form and emphasis based on the interviewee but were based on the research questions mentioned above. In some cases, some prompts were incorporated, for example, around the nature of self-employment and the transition of young people as a starting point for informants giving their views about self-employment as a form of employment in the labour market.

With respect to the qualitative practice (Davies: 1997), a mostly unrestricted/open-ended interview timetable was used to guide the conversation and discussion. The interview calendar was purposefully considered to allow informants to articulate/express themselves unreservedly and to raise their personal issues and concerns relating to the transition of young people towards self- employment in the real world of work.

The interview schedules helped very the researcher to understand as well as studying the attitudes, values, beliefs and motives the young people have in as far as self-employment is concerned. The study interviews were conducted in English, but in some cases Kinyarwanda (local language) was used, with the interview transcripts which was translated into English afterwards.

Desk study

For the concern of secondary data collection, a desk study was used. The study concentrated on secondary data from diverse sources, but mainly from the ISS/Erasmus University library, official government publications/documents from Rwanda related to the issue of investigation, Internet sources was very crucial among other sources, Many reports and other relevant sources were also consulted during the research paper writing period.

1.6 Scope and limitations of the research study

This research study focuses on the young self-employed people, and who have above average levels of education in Rwanda taking Gasabo District in Kigali-City as a case study.

Due to time restriction and inadequate resources/funds, the research study could not cover the entire country, the research was conducted in Gasabo District in Kigali- City. Gasabo District being surrounded by the three Districts that constitute Kigali-City Mayor ship was considered because of the following reasons:

Gasabo District is situated in the centre of Kigali-city where most of the commercial activities and many businesses takes palace, and as well government administrative offices and none governmental organization offices are located. The district is presumed to be having somewhat/ fairly well developed infrastructures in place as well as road networks, water, electricity with the planned settlements and more easily reached communities and this can facilitate those who seek self-employment and as well as employment creation per se. In this case the young people after their training may decide to stay around with their relatives while trying to find what to do in their bid to seek self-employment in tight labour market.

Gasabo District was chosen because the district is presumed with a big number of young people that are self-employed relatively bigger compared to Nyarugenge and Kicukiro Districts that also make up Kigali-City. Gasabo Districts takes a bigger part of Kigali-city.

Pertaining to the limitations, the researcher came across quite a lot of challenges. Which created some unexpected inconvenience in the field during data collection and they may included; Bureaucratic tendencies from some of the selected interviewees especially government officials was the most problem that frustrated the researcher so much. The scheduling of appointments with the respondents was proved to be time consuming and took most of the researcher’s time. However, to overcome this, several appointments were made and this pro-longed the time of data collection than the earlier planned time. Further to that, with the introductory letter from ISS/Erasmus university stating the intention of the research, several respondents started welcoming the researcher and they could spare 20-35 minutes for discussion during interviews.

Language problem also delayed the progress of data collection in the field at several instances. This is mainly for the reason that most of the Official documents are prepared in French and the responses of the young people were given in Kinyarwanda Language. Irrespective of such difficulties and challenges the researcher encountered in the process of data collection, on the other hand, the data collection went well because some friends of mine helped me in translating a number of helpful related materials such as policy documents from French to English and some from Kinyarwanda into English.

Samer and Bennell (2001:7) pointed out that “there are generally serious inconveniences with the way in which persons are selected and traced,” This implies that, the samples size were biased and not really representative of the whole population size of the young self-employed people under investigation. In this case, there could be many other young people who might have come up with different views and responses during data collection.

1.7 The organization of the research paper

This research paper is structured into five chapters. Chapter 1 presents a general idea of what this research paper expected to find out and how to tackle it. It includes the general introduction of the research, problem statement of the research, the relevance and justification of the research study, objectives and research questions of the research study. It also highlights the scope and limitations of the research, the research methods and the research techniques that were used in collecting the desired data.

Chapter 2 is made up of the conceptual and theoretical framework of the research. This section presents in length and gives a discussion on the concepts used according to a number of scholars. Basically this chapter concentrates rigorously on the associated concepts like: youth, transition from school-to-work, self-employment, competencies, skills, determinants of self-employment, social networks, importance of self-employment and limitations/ barriers that self-employed young people are troubled with and employment search theory.

Chapter 3 presents an overview of VET programmes in the Rwandan context by giving the general picture of TVET education system pertaining to vocational education and training provided to the young people in Rwanda (TVET as an umbrella for VET programmes).

Chapter 4 presents research findings and interpretations. It starts by presenting the general profile and the structure of Gasabo District as the case study for this research. It evidently shows how the collected data was analysed in connection to research questions, the economic journeys young people take to become self-employed, perceptions and expectations of the young people, forms of economic activities being done by the young people in the context of Rwanda`s labour market, factors contributing to long duration of transition to self-employment among the young people in Gasabo District.

Chapter 5 offers some of the critical reflections on the research findings and recommendations and general conclusion that covers a summary of responses to the research questions and objectives of this research study.

Chapter 2: Conceptual and Theoretical Framework
2.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the conceptual and theoretical frameworks and which also provides a basis for this research. It covers concepts such as; “youth” in other words who are the young people?, Skills, competencies, self-employment, wage employment, determinants of self-employment, social-networks, importance of self-employment, limitations/ barriers of self-employment and that is also followed be the employment search theory.

2.2 Working concepts and definitions
2.2.1 Youth

The concept of youth/ young people varies from one community to another, depending on customs and traditions, social behaviour and location (Curtain: 2001). According to the United Nations (UN), the standard clarity of youth comprises of people aged between 15-24 years old. However, In Rwandan context, with reference to the current constitution version 2003-2004, it defines youth as a fraction of people aged between15-35 year old.

2.2.2 Skills

As cited by Awortwe-Abban (2009) in the words of Nelson and Winter in their perspective of evolutionary theory, they defined the concept of skill as “a capability for smooth progression of coordinated performance that is normally effective relatively to its objectives, given the context in which it often occurs” (Awortwe-Abban: 2009). In this case, individuals or young people may be able to engage themselves in different undertakings whereby, they can be able to discover, consider and at the same time evaluate possible likely changes in their ways of doing things. This concept of skill is applicable to this research study mainly because without provision of proper and adequate skills such as technical skills, business skills and many other skills to young people, entering the labour market could be difficult. This could also be a hindrance to labour supply in any labour market and self-employment opportunities per se. thus, many opportunities could remain idle and untapped mainly not because of restrictions but due of lack of skills desired in the labour market.

2.2.3 Competence

This concept of competence refers to a certain level of standardized requirement for an individual to practically perform a specific occupation or a task in a world of work. However, competencies are often judged as a combination of knowledge and skills required for an individual to perform a specific role adequately and professionally (Raven and Stephenson: 2001). This concept is applicable in this research study because, it is part of the training output acquired during the period of career training from vocational training institutions. And once young people are not given chance to learn some of the desired competences which would make them ready to be self-employed, they can always remain unemployed and dependants on the existing employers of the formal sector and informal sector.

According to Eraut (2003), competence is defined as; the ability of individuals to perform errands and roles necessary and obligatory to the expected standards while Mandon et al (1998) admittedly, pointed out that, competence refers to the capacity of a person to do something. It should however be noted that competence is viewed as being holistic because it is comprised of the subject matter of knowledge, abilities and qualities of doing work or any activity in a diverse manner. However, for purposes of this study, the concept of competence could imply as the capability to apply knowledge and skills in practice. In this case, lack of vocational based training competencies could hinder the economic journeys that young people make to start self-employment in a tight in labour market. In other words, why the very people who are prepared for self-employment find it so cumbersome join the labour market. In this case, the research findings will provide suitable answers to such alarming issues.

2.2.4 Self-employment

From economic perspective, self-employment is a form of economic activity that provides the opportunity for individuals to improve their quality of life and/or for exploring creative entrepreneurial opportunities (Bryson and White: 1996). They argue that self-employment especially among the young people is considered mostly to be economically vulnerable and this could be a result of lack of improved economic policies and programmes that promote and facilitate self- employment amongst the young people through the provision of access to credit and business development services, networking as well as other forms of support.

The young people consider self-employment as their best preference. This is based on the competencies they are given from the training which also allows them to venture into new small economic activities or entrepreneurial activities . There is also a range of motivating factors such as; the desire for self-expression and independence (Bryson and White: 1996 ). The purpose of self-employment as a concept in this study is to address the journeys and transitions that young people take in order to start their own employment that is related to their professions, skills and competences they possess as VET graduates. Despite the fact that, all VET young graduates are trained to be in specific occupations many fail to become self-employed rapidly. This will be evidenced in the subsequent chapters.

2.2.5 Wage employment

This is a form of employment where a person receives wages in return for selling his/her own labour. Wage employment also occurs in both the formal and informal economy. Blanchflower (2000) pointed out that, “many young people start out in wage employment and switch to self-employment at some point in their career.” this could be a reason of financial constraints and it happens when your entrepreneurs wants to build up savings in their first job/employment. The difference of wage employment and self-employment is that wage employment involves less risks than self-employment in the labour market.

2.3 Transition from school-to-work/ labour market

Conceptually, the transition from school-to-work is considered as a new development which is associated with change of life in development. In addition to that, it is also seen as a period where by individuals leave formal education and join the labour market. This form of transition takes place at any level of education. The school-to-work agenda gives chance to a number of long standing issues concerning schooling, employment creation and training programmes. These issues are now seen as part of a distinct practice and process.

According to (OECD, 1998) the transition from school to work is defined as that period between the end of compulsory education and accomplishment of steady employment opportunity.

The success of transition from school-to-work for young people highly depend on how such young people are able to secure economic activities and any other form of employment occupation in world of work that is gainful, which is the principal aim for young people when they finish formal education. For the case of developing countries like Rwanda respectively, the possibilities of employment opportunities are largely embedded in the informal sector, which is predominant in the labour market of Rwanda and this is because there are few opportunities in the formal sector of the economy (Nwuke: 2002). The young people often desire to be helped in taking helpful actions when they are to discover how to make satisfying lives on their own sake. In this case, the school-to-work transition for young people requires steady forms of mentoring and apprenticeship programs to become the core practices in the whole process which pertains school-to-work- transition in the labour market.

Active labour market policies can also play an essential role in facilitating the transition school to the world of work. These policies mainly include formal employment and self-employment policies (Higgins, 2001: 110). The relevance of such policies is that they play an imperative role by incorporating the needy young people who fails to be absorbed into the labour market with some skills which enables young people to be more active. Such policies would include individuals capabilities. Blackely, (1990) pointed out that, such policies can facilitate the process of economic journeys by leading to programmes which makes economic journeys for young people successful and productive.

2.4 Determinants of self-employment for the young people

Different factors determine self-employment outcomes for young people in both formal and informal sectors in developing countries. For self-employment to prevail in any economic situation, the following factors seem to be crucial: Access to credit and business development services such as basic business skills, business experience and availability of market opportunities play a fundamental role in the establishment and exploitation of gainful employment to young people (Chigunta et al. 2002: 25).

Access to finances is a decisive factor for the creation of self-employment to the young people. However, young men and women often faced with the general lack to access credit in order to start their own entrepreneurial businesses and often they do not have collateral securities to have access to credits from formal financial institutions. This has been the case in many countries including the common wealth

This study is a peer review of mental health nursing. We try to cover psychiatric-mental health nursing practice and the main theory, new practice challenges, its theories and changes in the laws according to these studies. This work suggests the need of specialization of modern day nurse in the particular field of mental health. Nurse should have a good knowledge of all social values of the society. This would facilitate in managing the mentally ill patients in much a better way.

In this study we talk about different theories of sociology and try to understand its significance for the mental health nurse. Sociological factors have been studied by different analysts in all ages. These analyses help in understanding the main concept of the work.

What is a Society?

Society is like an “organism”, which is a system of interdependent parts to work for the benefit of the whole. Society constitutes institutions and organizations that work independently for the survival of the society. Human social system comprises of many factors which contributes in developing a good society. These factors are the family, education, economy, politics, religion and culture of an individual. These all should be studied and examined carefully to comprehend the behavior of any society. This would assess the importance of sociology for the larger social system. This is the main concept of the sociological studies to understand how different institutions in a society work collectively. It can help in optimizing the performance of these organizations and regulate the productivity and efficiency of any society. This is the focal idea of macro level sociology and is very successful nowadays. These are said to be the predominant philosophy guides of any society.

Health and illness are complex terms to define, especially according to the culture and behavior of the society. Different societies classify these terms according to their own values. Things which appear abnormal or unacceptable to the society are usually labeled as a disease. Sociological studies show that different environmental, behavioral and political factors contribute in maintaining the health of the society. It is manifested from different studies that social class is an imperative factor in determining the health of the society.

Different studies show that gender disparity is a prominent discriminating factor in health issues of rural societies. Women seek medical advice more often then men, as in case of childbirth, reproduction and mental health but it is evident from different statistics that women have more susceptible to ill health then men. Women are more likely to be prescribed anti depressant drugs due to different mental problems. Peter Sedgwick found that: About 10% of all GPs prescriptions and 20% of annual expenditure goes on tranquillizers, anti- depressants or hypnotic drugs, mainly for women (class handout).

Mental Health:

Mental health is an enormous and neglected issue of our society. Different theoretical insights from psychiatrists and sociologists are under study to grow a better society. Why this might be is open to debate and many of the key sociological theories in relation to mental health have in fact as much to say about the prevailing viewpoints within society and within professional bodies towards mental health as they do about those who suffer from mental health related problems. (Cockerham, 1992).

The fundamentals of sociology are that people behave different in groups then they do as individuals. It is a common saying that groups have the lives of their own. Sociologists says that whole is better then the sum of its parts. The focal point in sociological studies is an “invisible hand of order” that guides economic relations, and “social forces” do guide social relations to develop a better society.

There are different theories to understand issue of mental health. Different developmental theories describe different types of changes in the concept of sociology. Two most radical of these theories are social reaction and social constructivism. These have been described according to the dominant medical and social views on mental health of a society and an individual. These differences can be located in broader trends which have occurred within the discipline of sociology itself as a shift in the major theoretical traditions within the discipline, (Delanty, 1999).

Social Reaction theory:

Social reaction theory or the labeling theory helps in defining mental illness and different ways to manage it. This theory emerged in 1960s and helps in evaluating broader critical standards of mental health in the society. It emphasizes on a strong relation between a person, his family, medical professionals and the whole society. This all would help in evaluating the levels of mental health of a person. This theory drew its framework from the symbolic interactionism school of sociology so at its root this theory sought to examine the ways in which roles and actors interacted and played out within the drama of mental illness (Pilgrim and Rogers, 1999).

This theory provokes a twin concept of primary deviance and a secondary deviance. Primary deviance is related to the things which might actually be wrong or actions or circumstances which involve actual rule breaking, (Pilgrim and Rogers, 1999). The most comprehensive study of the phenomenon of primary deviant was the work of Yarrow, Schwartz, Murphy and Deasy (1955).

Secondary deviance is more challenging in the two types of deviance. It has many critical aspects to study in detail. The typical symptoms of secondary deviance are not related to any actual physical happenings or incidence. Hence it is evaluated that the environmental or the social conditions of the individual are the major source of secondary deviance. Sometimes intrinsic factors within the individual itself can trigger this type of mental illness. As Rosenham (1973) states the question of whether to distinguish a sane from the insane is a simple matter of just a fact: do the salient characteristics that lead to diagnoses reside in the patients themselves or in the environments in which observers find them (250).

Persistent research and investigations provokes major criticisms regarding this theory. But this theory is still very popular with the same levels of relevance. In the case of Rosenham’s study it was found that the label of deviant though at first an uncomfortable and disturbing experience did not persist for a great length of time with the pseudo-patients in the experiment, (Pilgrim and Rogers, 1999).

Labeling theory with all the present criticisms gives distinctive values between physical disorders, primary deviance and subsequent reaction from society which leads to secondary deviance. Indeed lay perceptions to mental illness have been demonstrated only marginally to relate to the images associated with medical diagnosis, (Pilgrim and Rogers, 1999:18).

Social Constructivism:

A French theorist wrote in his book of “Birth of the Clinic” that insanity in a person comes from the classificatory concepts of medical knowledge. The objectification of insanity occurred after as well as in tandem with the development of psychiatric knowledge, the insane developed as a problematic group which in turn led to strategies being developed to manage them, (Foucault, 1976).

Both these theories are analogous to determine the critical role of an individual in the society in case of mental illness. Social constructivists mainly focus on the mental health related to social environment. It does this through utilizing the theoretical framework of discourses, thus the subjectivity of being mad is defined through the objectifying process of psychiatric or medical knowledge generally (Pilgrim and Rogers, 1999).

Foucault’s works are considered to be the best viewpoints related to the mental health and the role of a society in that state. Foucault’s work is in particular concerned with how the shifting conceptions of what madness meant to society led to the development of a discrete set of knowledge which pathologise mental states according to a classificatory system related to madness and what were the strategies which developed as a result of this knowledge towards the control and management of the insane (Foucault, 1972, 1976).

The theoretical framework of the Foucault Book evaluates the errors in the psychiatric practice and psychiatric study and the way to handle such patients. This study has no prevailing principles to analyze the mentally ill patient. While the critique may be justifiable in saying that the social constructivist theories can be distinctly vague about resistances to the all powerful discourses which they describe and analyze. Similarly the ability to formulate social policies arising out of the critique may similarly be limited (Rogers and Pilgrim, 2001: 175). A secondary point and one which we have already made in relation to labeling theory is that perhaps social constructivism deconstructs too much certain incidences of mental illness, perhaps there are some illnesses which in their etiological sense reveal themselves to be indeed physical manifestations of what we might actually be able to call a disorder (Zinberg, 1970).

Role of a Mental Health Nurse:

Department of Health 1998-2000 has reformed the rules for the mental health nurse and made significant changes in the last fifty years piece of legislation. According to these rules the mental health nurse should be well trained and specialized in that particular field. They should be semi- autonomous workers and are quite competent to impart effective healthcare services in all aspects. Due to these evolutionary reforms in the schooling of the mental health nurse they becomes more professional and efficient They need to be trained out of the normal curriculum to be specialized in this field and be able to handle a mentally ill patient appropriately.

The mental health nurse should have psychiatric knowledge at specific degree to deal with their mentally ill patient. It should be the part of their schooling and experience. Their curriculum must have to be broadened in the perspective of sociology to deal with mental illnesses. They should have good knowledge of sociology, politics, religion, and economics. The Government has declared mental health as being one of its top three priorities in the Health Service partly, it could be argued, because of the general sense of lack of progress that is felt by the healthcare professionals throughout the service (Department of Health 1999b).

Reforms in Mental Health Act for Nurses:

Chan(2002) has discussed the legislations for the Mental Health Act with its reforms in 1998. Chan states that the way a society deals with the mentally ill, is the reflection of the society. The White Paper “Reforming the Mental Health” encapsulates this very important point. It revolves around the whole concept of the Paternalistic State in deciding what a patient’s “best interests” are, and these are also influenced by considerations of risk assessment and possible legal liabilities. Chan states these reforms as “who’s best interest”.

Nurse has to face ethical and moral issues in their day to day practice. Chan also focus his study on the free will of the mentally ill patients. Mental health act highlights the ethical dimensions of decision making for the health care professionals. The current guidelines of Mental Health Act states that the patient cannot be restrained against their will unless “they pose a danger to themselves or to others”. Nurses face ethical intricacy in dealing with the mentally poor patient. It is the part of their education to deal such patients and make solid decisions in management. In this respect this Act recognizes – some would argue, for the first time – that the mental health nurse has a social responsibility as well as the hitherto medical one.

Mental health nurse plays a imperative role in the whole process of treating and managing the mentally ill patients. Such patients have developed a strong association with the relevant nurse. So the mental health nurse are in better position to make any decision in regard to ethical, practical and professional position of the patient.

Symonds (1998) studies the sociological and philosophical aspects of the mental health reforms. He states that “We have touched upon the ethics of assessment “dangerousness” in a patient and the degree to which that allows a society to restrain them”. Symonds study evaluates that dangerousness of the patient state is an important factor in decision making. The relevant mental health nurse assists in such stage of decision making. Grounds (2001) produced a very illuminating abstract of the recent mental health reforms which is beyond the scope of this study but it underlines the need of our hypothetical mental health nurse to be fully apprised of the climate of change in the area.

Modern Mental Health Nurse:

The focal point of this study is to appraise the role of modern mental health nurse and to organize their services. Johnson et al (2001) provide an incisive insight into the current structure and functions of an Inner London Authority and then compare them with the provisions across the country as a whole. This article examines the sociological, political and the economic feature factors that are relevant to this issue. He spend a lot more time describing the evolution of the mental health service from Institution-based provision of the 60’s and 70’s to the comprehensive community-based services that are the mainstay of our current mechanism for the caring of mentally unwell.

Another important factor to mention is that the mentally ill patients are the socially excluded segments of the society. The whole topic of social exclusion is taken further by Repper and Perkins (2003). All mental health nurses should keep this in mind while managing such patients. Liaison Mental Health Services (LMHS) are very important but has overlooked the aspect of the treatment of the modern nursing system. Callaghan et al. (2003) reviewed the role of this “Cinderella service” and its contribution for the welfare of many mainstream ill patients. They mention its economic value in the current provision of the A&E departments of out DGH’s. The sociological impact of these services is assessed, emphasizing the value of the LMHS in helping clients to access mental health provision and the benefit for the community in both economic and social terms. The economical conditions of the patient are also a very eminent factor in their treatment.

Modern day nurse having a good knowledge of socioeconomic values can better help in decision making for the patient benefits. Usher and his colleagues (all mental health nurses) have constructed an excellent piece of work on the issue (2001), their particular exploration centered on the economics (and the ethics) of PRN prescribing which they found to be frequently ineffective, sub-optimal and wasteful. Given the fact that, in the field of mental health, drug prescribing is frequently a mental health nurse’s fairly autonomous role, the link between better understanding and enhanced performance could not be clearer.

Pinikahana (2003) wrote a thought provoking paper on the value of sociology for the modern-day mental health nurse and worked on the arguments on both sides of the debate. Pinikahana provocatively quotes Sharpe who argued that there is no need for the modern nurse to understand sociology as they have to operate within tight sociological confines that are already defined by modern practice. Edwards et al. (2000) looked at the wastage of this resource through stress and burn-out. One could argue that this point encapsulates elements of all three of our germinal issues for our mental health nurse.

Sociological study is hence of key importance in the modern day mental health nursing. Rogers and Pilgrim (1993, 2001) have produced an excellent series of books looking at this issue (and many others). Any modern appreciation for complete role of the mental health nurse would be unfinished without the understanding of the concepts of social responsibility. The title of this piece asks us to consider the enhancement of the role of the mental health nurse. We feel that it would be reasonable to argue that sociology is actually both pivotal and vital essential for this profession.

According to the sociological studies there are different levels of mental health services. Economical and social status of the patient is the important factors to determinate the level of mental health service provided. Drukker et a. quantified the issue in their recent paper (2004) . They discovered that the consumption of the mental health services was highest in neighborhoods that had the highest levels of informal social control and lowest in areas of socio-economic deprivation. Given the fact that higher levels of social control tend to be associated with higher degrees of contact, this is in further an evidence for the need of our hypothetical mental health nurse to be aware of sociological issues.

Sociologically mental health nurse should have notable political levels in the public. Davis (2002) consider this question in great detail going as far as to describe the politics of the nursing profession in general as immature in its views but equally acclaim to help bringing the profession out of the era of political neglect that it had been through in the past. We do not suppose to pass comment on the issue as there are clearly two sides to the argument but our hypothetical mental health nurse would be well advised to be politically aware in the current climate within the limits of the profession.

Summary:

This study facilitates in establishing the significance of specialized mental health nurse in the society. They should be specialized in their specific field of mental health. They should have a good knowledge of social, political, religious, cultural and economic values of the society. We worked out on numerous studies in which we try to weigh up the noteworthy position of mental health nurse in decision making. They can help the doctor in treating different problems of the patient’s. Modern reforms in the Mental Health Act strongly advocate the importance of specialized training for the mental health nurse. They should be so highly trained in mental health care that they can work as autonomous settings.

The family has been assumed by many sociologists as a basic unit of socialisation, which plays key function, such as socialising children. The functionalist view the family as a positive institution that has positive function, while feminists sees the family as negative and reproduces patriarchy. Marxism believes the family reproduce labour force while interactionists view families as different and unique.

Functionalists focus on nuclear family and see the latter as the basic building block of family socialisation. They believe that the family is a positive and beneficial institution in which family members receive nurturing and care. They look at the family on a macro scale. Functionalist believe that society is based on consensus, this means we are all socialised to agree on how to behave known as norms, and what is right and wrong known as values. For example when there is no crime, society benefits by maintaining social order .They believe that each part of society has a function to make sure that society runs smoothly and everything stays in harmony, for example, the family’s function is to socialise children and, education has a function to make sure that people are educated to be good at the job they will get after school. (Taylor and Richardson et al, 2002)

Murdock (1949) studied 250 different societies and concluded that the family is so functional to society, that it is unavoidable and universal that neither the individual nor society could survive without it. He argued that every nuclear family has these four essential functions without which society could not continue: sexual, reproductive, economic and education. Without sexual and reproductive, no member of society would be there. Life would stop if there was no economic function that is family providing for its members, and without education, socialisation would not be there hence absence of culture. Murdock has been criticised for not considering whether the functions of the family could be performed by other social institutions and he does not examine alternatives to the family. (Taylor and Richardson et al, 2002)

Parsons (1955) studied the modern American family in the 50s. He argued that there are two basic and irreducible functions of the family. The first is the primary socialisation of children, which Parsons sees as a responsibility of the family to shape the child’s personality to suite to the needs of society. The second function is the stabilisation of adult personalities. The adults gets emotional support from family necessary to cope with the stresses of everyday life. Parsons, as with Murdock, has been criticised for showing the picture of the family as attuned children and compassionate spouses caring for each other’s needs. (Taylor and Richardson et al, 2002).

There is a natural division of labour within the nuclear family, roles are segregated positively and everyone carry out different roles, for example the instrumental male, whose role is to provide for the family and thus the bread winner, and expressive female whose role is to provide warmth, love and care for children at home. Based on Biology the woman is the child bearer therefore has to look after the child. This role maintains social stability. Family patterns have changed with time such as cohabitation, rise of reconstituted families and increase in single or lone parent in western family life. Which has even made divorce easier to obtain.

Functionalist theory has been criticised to have concentrated on the family being positive and gives little attention to its weaknesses, while in feminism the nuclear family is oppressive to women due to gender distinctions in domestic duties. Functionalists argue that the family is of equal profit to everyone, however marxists argue that society was developed by the need of the capitalist economy. It is the bourgeoisie who benefits not the whole society. Functionalists focus too much on the significance that the family has in society and disregard the sense family life has for individual. (Haralambos and Holborn, 2008)

Radical psychiatric argue against functionalism for ignoring the negative aspect of the family like domestic violence. Functionalists also ignore different types of families by focussing mainly on nuclear family. Interactionist David Clark (1991) identified four types of marriage arguing against functionalist, saying not all families are the same. Functionalists depict everything as positive in the family while radical psychiatric looks at the negative side of the family.

Feminism is a conflict theory that sees the family as patriarchal. They believe that men gain more in a family than women. They view the family on a macro scale. Feminists shows how men dominate social relationships, thus symmetrical conjugal roles is seen as an allegory. Feminists argue that men oppress women through domestic violence, the economic involvement to society made by women’s domestic labour within the family.

Liberal feminist Wollstonecraft (1792) wanted equality for women in terms of rights, liberties and vote by the change of law and policy. A radical feminist like Millett (1970) argues that the organisation of society enables men to dominate women. They believed that gender distinctions are politically and socially constructed therefore wanted radical reforms and social change. Kate Millet invented the term “The personal is political” meaning everything in society is political. Radical feminists think not just patriarchal men that benefit from family but all men. (Haralambos and Holborn, 2008)

Marxists feminist believe that the destruction of the capitalist society brings equality to everything. Lesbian feminists believe society forces women into heterosexuality so that men can oppress them. They challenge heterosexuality as a means of male supremacy. Humanist feminists argue that society only allows men to self-develop not women, and that society distorts women’s human potential.

Marxist feminist Bentson (1972) argues that family responsibilities make male workers less likely to withdraw from labour, with wife and children to support. Ansley (1972) sees the emotional support in family, stabilises male workers thus making them less likely to take their frustration out on the system. Feeley (1972) sees the family as a dictatorial unit dominated by the husband. The family values teach obedience, children learn to accept hierarchy and their position in it. Greer (2000) is a radical feminist who believes that family life continues to disadvantage and oppress women. She points out Britain has very high divorce rate thus less stability in families. (Haralambos and Holborn, 2008)

Marxist feminist, like functionalist tend to ignore the diversity of modern family life, assuming everyone lives in heterosexual nuclear family. They paint a very negative picture of family life possibly exaggerated. Functionalists see male and female roles being different but equal, Marxist feminists believe that men dominate family relationships. Feminist theory discards functionalist view, that society as a whole is benefited by socialisation in the family but rather men benefits more. Women are portrayed as passive victims of exploitation. It does not take into account women who abuse men by fighting back. Functionalists believe that norms and values benefits society while for feminist they benefit men more. Feminists focus on nuclear family only and the negative aspect of it.

Marxism view family on a macro scale. The Marxist perspective is a conflict theory, which sees socialisation process of the family, results in the spread of a ruling class philosophy. Whereby individuals are misled into accepting the capitalist system and the hegemony of the capitalist class thus hegemony.Bourgoisie benefits by creating a labour force and proletariat continue to be exploited. Engel (1972) argued that bourgeois nuclear family is an institution which oppresses women. They were seen mainly as children bearers, economically dependent to their husbands and remain faithful to them. According to Engels the family is designed to control women and protect property, thus men needed to know their children in order to pass on their property. (Taylor and Richardson et al, 2002)

Marxists say the family serves capitalism in four ways. The family acts as a safety valve for the stress and frustration of working class men, the family plays as a unit of consumption, purchases the goods and services provided by capitalism. Women domestic work is unpaid which benefits capitalism and lastly the family socialises children thereby reproducing both labour power and acceptance of capitalism false consciousness. Zaretsky (1976) analysed that the family is one place where male workers can feel they have power and control. This helps them accept their oppression in wider society. Furthermore Zaretsky sees the family as a main prop to the capitalist economy. Marxists view of divorce in families is seen by increased economic pressure from unemployment, this may place added strain. Family members living longer could increase pressure on relationships. (Taylor and Richardson et al, 2002)

Marxists decline the functionalist view that society is based on value consensus, and thus benefits all. Instead they see the welfare of powerful groups influencing the way society is controlled. Marxists view ignores family diversity. It sees the nuclear family as being simply determined by the economy. This theory reproduces conflict between classes, bourgeoisie and proletariat, while a functionalist family operates as united, everything benefits society. Capitalist system is dominated both economically by rich at the expense of the poor, but seen as a fair system by functionalists that works together in the interest of all members causing limited conflict in society. Anthropologists have suggested that the emergence of the nuclear family did not actually coincide with emergence of capitalism. Somerville (2000) argues that Zaretsky exaggerates the importance of the family as a protection from life in capitalist society. Contrary to functionalist marxists focus on the negative aspect of the family and ignores the positive function. (Taylor and Richardson et al, 2002)

Interactionism also known as interpretive humans are seen as symbolic creatures, meaning we define what is around us through signs and language. They study families on a micro scale instead of generalising the whole population. They also look at what family life is actually like, rather than how it should be or how it is assumed to be.Interactionists view families as different and unique thus there is no one way of family life, like other perspectives would suggest. The way a family behaves and interacts is based on interpretation of meanings and roles. We are products of our culture what we take as common sense or reality varies according to the culture we live in. (Taylor and Richardson et al, 2002)

Goffman (1969) compares life to drama, we are actors who take on roles and act them out as public performances. Each role has its own script which tells us how to act and what cues to expect from other members involved in our interaction. Bauman (1990) argues that roles and relationships learnt in the family are essential to shaping our future. Not all families are close and warm family metaphors are often used to represent closeness, for example using the term brother and sister amongst members of political organisations. (Haralambos and Holborn, 2008)

Berger and Kellner (1964) looked at socially constructed roles in a marriage, argues that the reality of marriage is an ongoing construction which needs to be reaffirmed, negotiated and renegotiated. Clark (1991) conducted a study of how couples constructed a meaningful marriage. He identified four types of marriage. Drifting marriages, where meanings and ideas of the future are unclear, surfacing marriages often made up of people who have been married before, establishing marriages which newly wed couple plan for long term future, and lastly struggling marriages, with financial problems often from unemployment, which causes tension and anxiety. The conjugal roles in interactionism show that the roles of husband and wife are constantly evolving. For example both husband and wife working and sharing domestic tasks. (Haralambos and Holborn, 2008)

Interactionist view families on a micro scale, discovering how individuals make family life based on interactions with each other. They are not interested in generalisations about family life but seek to understand how families are unique. They go further than the common sense view of families that functionalism believes in and look at the meanings of what family life is actually like. Unlike functionalism, Marxism and feminism, where there is a set function of the family, interactionism is different for there is no one set function of the family. Families can differ based on their interactions, meanings, roles and culture. The discovery of four different types of marriage offers an opposing argument to functionalism, not an ideal nuclear family. (Haralambos and Holborn, 2008)

It has been criticised while concentrating on meanings, motives and action it ignores the wider structures in which families operate and are shaped. Sometimes generalisations of families are useful as they allow the development of political social policy. Interpretive approaches try to comprehend the family from the perspective of its members.

This research has shown from different sociologist and approaches that the family life has evolved as modernity is progressing. The changes involved have made the family better suited to meeting the needs of society, and of family members. Theoretical approaches to the family, such as difference feminism and postmodernism, have emphasized the variety of family types and living arrangements that exist in contemporary society.

Throughout history society and families have undergone huge changes and these have been argued by many different sociological perspectives. The reasons for the argued changes are as diverse as the theories themselves. In this essay I aim to raise, evaluate and analyse the arguments raised by Functionalist, Marxist and Feminist theories with regards to why and when these changes occurred and their impact on the family and society in general. Economic factors, war, changes in women’s rights, reduction in religious beliefs and increase in divorce and a more recent era of technology are just some of the factors that have affected society and thus changed the structure of the family as was previously known. All of these could be said to have being responsible for what is seen as a breakdown in the family unit as it was known but in this essay I will be looking at the effects of industrialisation on the family.

Families have always been the foundation blocks from which we grow and learn, a means of support, who’s components can change differently over time depending on where the families exist. The extended family included three generations of kin. The members didn’t only share a household but also an important economic role which was to work together as a collective group, the purpose was to help keep the family alive and well, for example, the men would do more intensive labour such as subsistence farming, hunting and gathering, whilst the women would do crafts trades and domestic duties like cooking, brewing, caring for the offspring as well as perfecting the role of a successful wife and mother, which kept their husband happier and motivated to work hard for his family.

Eventually, the era of technology was introduced to society. This made a vast alteration in history by replacing most manual and animal labour in many countries across the world, which eventually forced the agriculture industry into an industrial working society.

In the 18th Century, industrialisation hit Britain and small industries started to rapidly grow across the country, specializing from metal production and mining to spinning, weaving and food production e.g. slaughter houses. More additional opportunities for employment were offered, altering the family structure dramatically, from as little as the age four, they were capable of working in factories. The growth of industrialisation resulted in more work for the unemployed. Wages were low, yet the house rent, food and living expenses increased. Many workers had no intentions of limiting their family size as their infant children continued to contribute to the family economy. Eventually the small cottage business’s started to grow into proto-industrial business’ and families started hiring more workers other than kin.

Functionalism was the main branch in society up until the early 1960s, since then it has been increasingly criticized by other sociologists who favoured different sociology perspectives (Martin Holborn and Liz Steel -Collins Publications). Institutions such as schools and churches played a big part in society according to Functionalists and these institutions were functional for societies as a whole.

The first main functionalists were G P Murdock and Talcott Parsons. Firstly, Murdock argued that the society was held together by four functions; Sexual, Reproduction, Economy and Education. Later on, Parsons’ theory (which was widely criticised by historical evidence, notably studies by Laslett and Anderson) was to study nuclear and heterosexual families, Parsons’ Fit Thesis states that the Modern Nuclear family evolved to meet the needs of an industrial society, Feminists argued that tradition roles of the family restricted opportunities in employment. They also argued that although women were employed, that they were also expected to carry out the triple shift at home, which consisted of housework, child care and emotional work. Marxists argued that family helped a lot of children accept authorities without questioning which prepared them to accept capitalist authorities in work places. Another Marxism argument was that without the growing population of the family, the demand for products would decrease capitalist profits.

Marxist feminists agreed with these arguments but also pointed out that it was the women who were exploited most of all, they explained that the tradition role of the mother and housewife figure wasn’t fair, but as they are prepared for this role, it provided help to their husbands at low prices which resulted to male workers being employed at low wages.

Marxists assumed the family had many roles which were beneficial to the Capitalist society, they belived that the family helped capitalism by being the major consumers of paid goods, this helped the bourgeoisie a great deal and proved that whilst the family exists, then the bourgeoisie would resume to make more profit. They also believed that the next proletariat generation were created by housewives, as more children were produced, more jobs were filled which were currently left open by the retired. They believed that the family helped the main income provider, which was usually the husband by relieving pressure from the previous evening allowing him to attend work the next day working and allowing the bourgeoisie to obligate a guaranteed workforce resulting in a beneficial outcome, the proletariat were less likely to rebel against the system due to little stress.

To Marxists, education was considered the main source of socialisation, this was also beneficial to the bourgeoisie since the family and education system would teach the children how the society they live in is precise. Education made the proletariat believe the ideology of Capitalism which encouraged children to believe in the myth of meritocracy.

Marxists believed that the bourgeoisie discouraged the proletariat extended family that once existed. Marxists believe that the proletariat had a mutual support system and acted communally as a support unit, which lead to many people becoming aware of which class they were in. This lead to the proletariat protesting against the capitalist ruling class for power, but as this was brought about by the extended family, the bourgeoisie taught the extended family to be immoral.

Engels saw industrialisation negatively as it increased exploitation of the workers, but also in a positive light as it would eventually cause a communist revolution.

The Marxist theories I have raised suggest that while Marx’s theory makes sense, it has also been disproven throughout history as almost all of the countries that were introduced to the communist revolution eventually collapsed and became capitalist governments

Communists didn’t lead to freedom for the workers, but only to exploitive tyrannies that abused the proletariat more inferior than any bourgeoisie ever did, which concludes that although communism may well have been a great theory, it was never a practical one. ‘

Historically the feminist approach is primarily aimed at men, there view on the family has an economic system which encompasses an array of labour relation in which men benefit from the exploitation of women.

“Marriage has existed for the benefit of men; and has been a legally sanctioned method of control over women … We must work to destroy it. The end of the institution of marriage is a necessary condition for the liberation of women. Therefore it is important for us to encourage women to leave their husbands and not to live individually with men … All of history must be re-written in terms of oppression of women.” (“The Declaration of Feminism” November, 1971)

Many feminists came to the conclusion that when a member of the household worked, the income wasn’t to contribute towards the household, but to the man. They saw the family a way for the man to dominate the woman, as he would benefit from all the work the woman does to contribute towards the family e.g. cleaning, cooking, and bringing up the children and more.

Which also includes other view feminists had involving the 57 varieties of unpaid service.

Radical feminists believe that the main problem in society is patriarchy, they believe that a man’s point of view is dominance and power, that they aren’t respected like they should be.

A Marxist feminist believes capitalism is to blame for the problem, they believe that capitalism weakens the society ( mainly women ) , and if they eliminated capitalism and introduce communism.

A Liberal feminist believes that over time, sexism has started to diminish and society has started to improve.

In conclusion there are many arguments regarding the industrialisation of the family and its affects. Many factors come into play and the many combinations of these along with the diversity of what family means to different people, I feel it makes it hard for any theory to, on its own, explain how and why these changes happened or to know if they would have anyway and are possibly down to evolution. External influences affect us all differently dependant in class, financial, social and emotional factors within a family unit. There is no norm and so to claim any one theory alone correct would not take this in to account.

Sociology of food in USA

INTRODUCTION

Man and food have close association with one another and this association has also compelled the man to find new means and new forms of food, to bring diversity and sustainability in their food chain. Initially the food was only grown like vegetables and fruits or was got, in the form of meat, of hunting animals. With the progress in civilization and the technology, all phenomenon of production, distribution and consumption changed and with this change raised the issue like health, ethical, environmental, labor and the cultural. When these issues came into focus, the whole scenario brought the field of sociology of food. This field helps to study how the food is currently produced, then goes to the line of distribution and how the people around the country or the world consume it. Along with all other factors, this whole process of food chain also has the social impact and this impact can affect the society in a number of ways. Here, we will discuss the sociology of food in USA and how it is creating social problems.

OBJECTIVE PRESENTATION OF THE SOCIAL CONDITION

In the countries like America, it is not an ancient thought that food used to be cooked at home and was considered as the item that connects the family together and helps them to sit together and interact with each other. It was once the preference that food should be prepared at home and the preparation of food itself required a lot of fresh ingredients and specially loves. After the industrial revolution, along with other concepts, the idea of food as the bonding force also changed. Industrial revolution not only increased the speed of progress in science and technology, but also, altered the pace of life. Industrial revolution also gave the opportunity to work, therefore, most of the members of the family started working. People became busy in earning money and cooking meals at home became difficult for the people and as a result the food industry progressed to an extent that it has taken the place in every home of United States. Food production, distribution and consumption have become one of the biggest industries not only in United States, but, all over the world.

SUBJECTIVE PRESENTATION OF WHY THE SOCIAL CONDITION IS A SOCIAL PROBLEM

Although we are now living in the society which revolves around becoming self-sufficient and economically stable, therefore, people have to spend more time at workplaces, thus, decreasing the time people used to spend their time. Most of that time was centered on making and feeding family members. The abundance of readymade food including: fast food drinks and junk food provided a lot of solutions for the people. Food is an important source to create connections and it is considered that cooking and serving proper meals reestablishes and reinforces the bond between different members of the family and helps them to send time with one another (Debevec and Tivadar). Taking, cooking of food out of our daily lives is causing a lot of social issues, that dominating our way of living and relationships.

Food Production

Five decades back, the production of food had never been an issue. Countries usually depended on their own main crops to meet the needs of their population, but, with the passes of time, transportation, technology, wealth and prosperity of some countries gave those changes to get more and better food for their population. One example is that Asian countries are acquiring land in African countries. This method of production, in foreign countries is to meet the increasing need of the Asian countries to fulfill the demand of the food, due to increase in population in urban areas. This will not only create social issue for the people of African countries, but, also in the countries this food is consumed because the excessive export of the crops of African countries will put pressure on the society because people will not be able to benefit from their own land, thus creating social distress. Also, the people in Asian countries, who will be consuming those products, will have to pay more for it due to increase in cost due to transportation. Thus, a social divide will occur because people of middle and lower classes will have to pay more, even beyond their means, to get the articles of basic need (Gunasekera and Finnigan). Secondly, with the advancement of technology, transgenic technology is used to genetically modified crops or the improved crops. This technology is used all over the world, but, still there are societies which consider them against their beliefs and system. There are societies who collectively thing that producing food by introducing foreign agent into the original form might have negative impact on the health of the people and the originality of the crops. People believe that since all the crops grown naturally are the best form of the food and it is not for the benefit of society to genetically enhance the food and increase production, which might compromise the health of the people, which will ultimately reflect on society (Akumo and Riedel). Thirdly, sustainability has also become an important issue in food production. With increase in population, demand of dietary products and meat has increased and in order to meet the needs several scientific methods are used. Eight hundred million people in the world are suffering from malnutrition, whereas, nearly four hundred million people are obese. The increase in prosperity and population has increased the demand of these products, but, in order to raise more meat giving animals, more water and food for them is needed. This causes an imbalance in the environment because there is already sacristy of the water and the food of these animals need to grow and this excessive requirement compels humans to use unnatural ways to grow food and even increase the speed of growth of animals. Demand of these food items has increased, but, so does their price and the prices of these products are getting out of reach of common people, especially in underdeveloped countries. This also crease social imbalance and the working class again has to suffer due to lack of finances. (Reisch and Eberle)

Food Distribution

Food distributions systems work as the network and distribute food products all over the country. The supply of food actually depends on the demand of the product in a certain area, but, certain food items are produced that may be demanded in different markets comprising of variety of social classes and this different in social status may also affect the availability of the product. The availability of these products is also dependent on the purchasing power of the customer. There the distribution is also affected by this, thus making these products unavailable to the lower class (FAO). The main issue associated with the distribution systems is that there are very less number of markets that sell their products locally. Since, these products are sent to other towns and cities, thus increasing the price of the product. The excessive spending on distribution and the money spent on advertising is received from the consumer, which again impacts the working class of the society (Martinez, Hand and Pra). The people who used to come at the churches pantry to get food have increased three times since 2008. But, the amount of food that was distributed to these services has decreased due to decrease in budget. Thus this uneven supply of food to these church services have put the pressure to the churches to feed the peed that are deserving and are dependent on them. Uneven distribution of food and makes people unable to purchase their own food (Greenberg, Greenberg and Mazza).

Food Consumption

The consumption of the food is greatly influenced by the income of the consumer. The families that have better income spend a lot of money on food and especially on fancy and expensive food items. Therefore, a social divide is also created and the food items are produced which can only be consumed by the people who are financially stable (Jappelli and Pistaferri). Due to busy lifestyles the eating out and consuming readymade food is increasing rapidly in the country. Although, research show that the food that is made and eaten at home has good health and social effects. At the dinner table, family get the chance to interact with each other, develop better relationship and come to know about lives of one another, thus creating better family bond and increasing harmony in the society (Eisenberg, Olson and Neumark-Sztainer). Since the people consume a lot of food outside, therefore, their choice of food is also affected by the people around them. People who eat at the public places usually eat unhealthy and fatty food and most of the times they spend more money, than their average spending, this results in compromised health and finances. The obese and financially unstable people further affects the balance of the society (Mcferran, Dahl and Fitzsimons).

SOCIAL CHANGE

Food production industry has changed its shaped since last eight decades and now everything that was considered the specialty of home foods come in packing. Income has increased the demand for expensive food items and the food market has become global. All these factors are affecting the society because transportation from far off places makes, even the most common things expensive, thus making it expensive for major portion of society. This problem can be reduced by introduced more local markets and by promoting local products. Moreover, alternative products to protein like second level protein should be encouraged and produced, to meet the needs of the people. Pulses can also serve as the alternative source for protein; therefore, producing this item can help in achieving sustainability in food chain.

Food distribution has always been the issue all over the world, but, now we come to see even the global distribution of food. Now even the food of Sydney can reach any part of the world. Still there are countries that are facing uneven distribution of food resulting on malnutrition. Uneven distribution is also due to the uneven incomes of different segments of the society. Also different markets have different prices of same item and even. This problem can be solved by introducing centralized distribution system and centralized pricing. These systems can even help the working class to afford all things and everything can become available to everyone, irrespective of the social class. Also, this centralized system will be helpful in ensuring that every member of the society is equally treaty and has access to everything he needs.

The consumption of food can only be controlled by the consumer. The most important should be the heath of the customer, for which customer should take balanced diet and this diet could help to give better and healthy people to the society. People should also, consider the effect of decrease in family meal on their social and family life.. There should be balance in work and family life and the increase in social distress can be caused if this balance is disturbed. Although, it is easier and simpler to get the food from restaurants, but, restaurants cannot compensate for the love of the family and communication with family members. Also, most of the times, the food consumed outside is unhealthy and unhygienic, that can result in a health issue, will demand money for seeing a physician and will put extra pressure on the finances. The government should also conduct awareness programs about the importance of meals made at home and the significance of balanced diet.

CONCLUSION

Sociology of food is an important topic and sociology of food in USA is also. Three different aspects of food chain: production, distribution and consumption. There are a number of social issues in all three aspects and the most prominent ones are due to uneven income of different segments of the society. So, in order to meet the most common needs of all the people, it is important to have if not centralized then controlled system that can ensure that all markets have same price. Moreover, the consumption of the food should also be according to the needs of the body and excessive or unbalanced. A lot work has to be done to the sociology of food in United States in all three areas i..e production, distribution and consumption.

Works Cited

Akumo, Divine Nkonyam and Heidi Riedel. “Social and Economic Issues – Genetically Modified Food.” Muzzalupo, Innocenzo. Food Industry. InTech, 2013. 221-229.

Debevec, Liza and Blanka Tivadar. “Making connections through foodways:contemporary issues in anthropological and sociological studies of food.” ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTEBOOKS, 12 (1) (2006): 5–16.

Eisenberg, M.E., et al. “Correlations between family meals and psychosocial well-being among adolescents.” The Archives of Pediatricsand Adolescent Medicine, 158 (2004): 792-796.

FAO. “Low-cost Urban Food Distribution Systems in Latin America.” FAO Agricultural Services Bulltin, 111 (1994): 40-48.

Greenberg, Michael, Gwendolyn Greenberg and Lauren Mazza. “Food Pantries, Poverty, and Social Justice.” American ournal of Public Health 100(11) (2010): 2021-2022.

Gunasekera, Don and John Finnigan. “Track social and economic impacts of food production.” Naure, 466(920 (2010): 558-560.

Jappelli, Tullio and Luigi Pistaferri. “The Consumption Response to Income Changes.” The Annual Review of Economics (2010): 476-506.

Martinez, Steve, Michael Hand and Michelle Da Pra. “Local Food Systems: Concepts, Impacts, and issues.” Research. 2010.

Mcferran, Brent, Darren W. Dahl and Gavan J. Fitzsimons. “I’ll Have What She’s Having: Effects of Social Influence and Body Type on the Food Choices of Others.” Journal of Consumer Research,36(6) (2009): 915-959.

Reisch, Lucia and Ulrike Eberle. “Sustainable food consumption: an overview of contemporary issues and policies.” Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy, 9(2) (2013): 7-25.

Functionalism is a structuralist theory. This means it sees the individual as less important as the social structure of society. It is a ‘top down’ theory. The family can be defined as an intimate domestic group composed of people related to each other by blood, sexual relations and legal ties. When assessing how useful functionalism is when looking at the family, other views/perspectives need to be taken into account before making an overall conclusion. Views from Talcott Parsons, George Murdock, Ann Oakley, Edmund Leach, R.D Laing, David Cooper and Friedrich Engels will be taken into account as well as perspectives from Marxism, feminism, family diversity and radical psychiatrists. This will help draw the final conclusion.

Functionalist sociologists suggest that the nuclear family is the norm in modern day industrial societies.

George Peter Murdock (1949) supports the idea of functionalism. After analysing 250 societies, Murdock argues that the family performs four basic functions; sexual, reproductive, economic and educational. These are the essentials for social life, since without sexual and reproductive functions there would be no members of society, without economic functions life would cease, and without education there would be no culture. Human society without culture could not function. Clearly, the family cannot perform these functions exclusively. However, it makes important contributions to them all and no other institution has yet been devised to match its efficiency in this respect. A weakness of Murdock’s view is that some sociologists may find his description of the family almost too good to be true. Some of his views on harmony and integration are not shared be other researchers. He also does not examine alternatives to the family, not considering whether its functions could be carried out by other social institutions. Murdock is criticised for being Euro-centric, as he is only concerned about the Western families. However, he is supported by anthropologists; Morris (1968) said the family was a result of biology and culture over generations (socio-biology). This could be a strength as it shows some researchers have the same view.

Talcott Parsons bases his ideas on the family in modern American society. However, despite this his ideas have more general application since he claims the American family has two ‘basic and irreducible’ functions which are common to the family in all societies, unlike Murdock who argued there were four. These were, the primary socialization of children, where culture is learned and accepted by children so they know the norms and values that allow society to exist. Secondly the stabilization of adult personalities, which is where a marriage relationship and emotional security a couple provide for each other keeps a personality stable, and acts as a counterweight to everyday stresses and strains that can make a personality unstable. This process is otherwise known as the ‘warm bath’ theory, where the family provide a relaxing environment for the male worker to immerse himself in after a hard day at work. A criticism of Parsons view would be that he idealises the family, much like Murdock, with his view of well adjusted children and sympathetic spouses caring for each others every need, when in reality not all families are like this. Also Parsons fails to explore the differences between working/middle class families, as his ideas are generally based on the American middle class family. Parsons perspective supports that of functionalism, that the nuclear family is the norm in society.

Ann Oakley has described the typical or ‘conventional’ family. She says conventional families are nuclear families composed of legally married couples, voluntarily choosing the parenthood of one or more children. This shows support for functionalism. Leach (1967) has called this the ‘cereal packet image of the family’. This image of a happily married couple with two children is prominent in advertising and the ‘family sized’ packets of cereal and other products are aimed at this group.

The family is functional for both its members and society as a whole. Increasingly this picture of the family is coming under strong criticism. Some observers are suggesting that on balance, the family may well be dysfunctional both for society and its individual members. This criticism has mainly been directed at the family in Western industrial society.

The Marxist view on the family opposes that of the functionalists. It is seen to challenge the idea that the family is universal or natural, but instead that it is human creation; a social invention that has served a specific economic purpose. The Marxist theory on the family emerged from the work of Friedrich Engels. It is argued by Marxists that the working-class extended family has been deliberately discouraged by the capitalist ruling class, because its emphasis on a mutual support system and collective action encourages its members to be aware of their social class position. It is believed that the nuclear family under capitalist law in an ‘anti-social’ family. It labels all other forms of family life as inferior and abnormal. However, a weakness of the Marxist view is that there is a tendency to talk about ‘the family’ in capitalist society without regard to possible variations in family life between social classes.

Family diversity supports the fact that the ‘conventional family’ no longer makes up the majority of households or families. For example, women no longer aspire exclusively to romantic love, marriage and children. There are now acceptable alternative life styles some people prefer, such as pre-marital sex, serial monogamy, cohabitation, single-sex relationships, childlessness etc. Men’s roles too are no longer clear in a postmodern society, and the resulting ‘crisis of masculinity’ has lead to man redefining both their sexuality and family commitments. Others disagree with this view. They argue that family diversity is exaggerated, and that the basic features of family life have remained largely unchanged for the majority of the population. Nuclear families are still very common – but alternate types of family are steadily increasing.

When looking at a critical view of the family, radical psychiatry mat be taken into account. Edmund Leach supported the idea in the family there is too much emotional pressure on each individual to live up to expectations. R.D Laing associated schizophrenia with the emotional pressure and anxiety of the nuclear family. David Cooper suggested the personality of the individual is controlled by the family, forcing them to conform to the rules of both the family, forcing them to conform to the rules of both the family and wider society. These three radical researchers all agree that the family is a dangerous place and mental illness could be the result of pressures laid down to the individual. From this angle it can be seen that the family has a negative, this view does not agree with the view of functionalism.

Friedrich Engels acknowledges that the position of women within the family is an important aspect of what the Marxists see as its harmful effects. However, he emphasizes the relationship between family and capitalism, and is less concerned with its effects on women. Feminism has broken itself down into different perspectives, Marxist feminists, liberal feminists and radical feminists. Friedrich Engels speaks for the Marxist feminist view. Liberal feminists believe that both sexes contribute to domestic chores in an atmosphere of mutual support and hegemony, and there is an equal division of labour. Radical feminist beliefs are that the nuclear family is based upon male power and serves to support that. Male power is often expressed in the home as domestic violence. It is seen that patriarchy is transhistorical; it is ever present in all societies and cultures. A weakness is that feminists often do not take into account the possible differences in family life, for example, social classes, ethnic groups, heterosexual and gay families etc. They just seem to assume every family is a nuclear family, so may exaggerate the effect of families to women. They therefore ignore the possibility of women fighting back against exploitation and do not see the positive side to the family.

Now that perspectives and ideas criticising and supporting functionalism have been illustrated. A conclusion can be made. If looking at Murdock and Parsons it can be seen that they both tend to only take into account Western societies, and tend to generalise. Apart from that they both have strong, similar ideas on what the family is. Oakley and Leach support their ideas on the nuclear family being the majority of society. However, although the argument supporting functionalism is sound, other views need to be taken into perspective. For example Marxism, questioning the idea of a universal/natural family. Family diversity offering different options to how people choose to live, feminists saying the family exploits women and radical psychiatry claiming the family is a dangerous place and causes mental illness

Sociology developed as an academic discipline throughout the 18^th and 19^th centuries. Provide an explanation of the historical and social context from which sociology developed.

Sociology has its roots in the changes within the society since the 18^th and 19^th centuries as there was the industrial revolution, the creation of empires, and the enlightenment of scientific reasoning ( Bauman and May 2001, p. 3). Furthermore, early practitioners developed the discipline as an attempt to understand the societal changes. During the 1960s, especially, it became a major social science subject. ( Do mention capitalism)

Moreover, sociology is determined as a new academic discipline as it emerged in the early 19^th century in response to the challenges of modernity (British sociology). Eventually, there was an increasing exposure of people to cultures and societies different from their own due to the increasing mobility and technological advancement. Throughout this exposure, there was variation in the way people would eventually accept the sociology as a discipline. However, for some people it included the breakdown of traditional norms and customs and warranted a nuanced understanding of how the world works.

Furthermore, the term Sociology was coined by Auguste Comte in 1838. Comte hoped to unify all the sciences under sociology he believed sociology held the potential to improve society and direct human activity. In addition, the development of sociology was first recognized in the mid-19^th century by the English philosopher Herbert Spencer as he had written a book with term Sociology in its title. In the United States, the first sociology course was taught at the University of Kansas, Lawrence in 1890 under the title Elements of Sociology.

In brief, sociology emerged in Comte’s vision; it eventually subsuming all other areas of scientific inquiry, sociology did not replace the other sciences. Indeed, in the past decades, sociological research focused on the organization of complex, industrial societies and their influence on individuals. Today, sociologists study a broad range of topics which can be structures that deals with the organization of the society such as race or ethnicity, social class and gender roles. This shows the development of sociology throughout the years.

Sociology involves a unique way of thinking. What are the features of sociological thinking and C. Wright Mills Sociological imagination?

Sociology involves a unique way of thinking as one should have a broad mind in order to see little difference in everyday routine (Johnson Bethany 03 June 2015). Indeed, the sociological imagination is a concept used by the American sociologist C. Wright Mills to describe the ability to “think yourself away from the familiar routines of everyday life” and look at them from an entirely new perspective (Johnson Bethany 03 June 2015). In order to develop such skills, one must be able to free yourself from one context and look at things from an alternative point of view (Johnson Bethany 03 June 2015).

Furthermore, Mills defined sociological imagination as “the vivid awareness of the relationship between experience and the wider society” (Johnson Bethany 03 June 2015). It is a way of thinking about things in society that have led to some sort of outcome, and understanding what causes led to that outcome. The sociological imagination is the ability to see things socially and how they interact an influence each other. According to the theorist C. Wright Mills who stated that to do this; one must use critical thinking skills, such as the use of the sociological thinking. In addition, the sociological thinking and sociological imagination are intertwined and works together.

In brief, Mills deduced that one of the key ways people understand society and social change is to apply the sociological imagination. This involves something called making the familiar strange, or questioning and critiquing the world around us. It is similar to putting on a new pair of glasses, in this case with sociological lenses, seeing our society and the everyday behaviors and interactions we usually take for granted in a different way. In this case of analyzing the society critical thinking is a mean of understanding the surroundings in different perspectives.

One way of using sociology to understand the relationship between the individual and society is to use different perspectives and models of society. Explain and contrast the key features of macro and micro models of society.

Sociology has helped to understand the process of relationship between the individual and society. The society has contributed to the interaction, cooperating, and acting with one another. Furthermore, the question that arises is how to behave in one’s society, what is right and what is wrong, all these things has to be learn in the society (Mondal, 2015). Indeed macrosociology involves the study of widespread social processes whereas microsociology involves the study of people in face to face interactions.

Firstly, macro and micro level studies each possess their own benefits and disadvantages. For instance, macrosociology allows observation of large-scale patterns and trends, but runs the risk of seeing these trends as abstract entities that exist outside of the individuals who enact them on the ground (Mondal, 2015). Beneath, examples can be objective or subjective in accordance with macro studies such as: society, law, bureaucracy, architecture, technology and language for objective aspects. In addition, subjective examples would be culture, norms and values (Mondal, 2015).

In contrast to macro level, microsociology allows for this on-the-ground analysis, but can fail to consider the larger forces that influence individual behavior. However, sociological analysis can take place at micro level, and can be subjective or objective. Classifying the objectives examples would be patterns of behavior, action, and interaction (Mondal Puja 02 June 2015). In addition, subjective examples would be perception, beliefs and the various facets of the social construction of reality (Mondal, 2015).

In brief, it can be deduced that macro and micro level studies plays an important role within the society. It helps in the process of integration of the individual and the sustainability of the society.

Using sociological concepts and theories, explain the relationship between the individual and society.
Answer should include explanations of the following: how the key sociological concepts of socialization, social order and social stratification can be applied to the analysis of the relationship between the individual and society.
How a theory of consensus, a theory of conflict and a theory of social action can be applied to an analysis of the relationship between the individual and society?

Sociologists develop theories to explain social phenomena. A theory is a proposed relationship between two or more concepts such as theory of consensus, a theory of conflict and a theory of social action and can be applied to an analysis of the relationship between the individual and society. In other words, a theory is explanation for why or how a phenomenon occurs (Putnam, Robert, 2001).In addition, the relationship between individual and society can be viewed from three angles that are functionalist, conflict and symbolic interaction perspective.

Secondly, functionalist perspective focuses upon the macro level as it takes into consideration the individual as formed by society through the influence of such institution as the family, school and workplace (Mondal,2015). Furthermore, functionalism draws its inspiration primarily from the ideas of Emilie Durkheim (Durkheim, and Lewis A. Coser. 1997). Indeed the functionalist deals up with rules and status that exists in society so as to provide social control or social order as it is necessary for survival. Durkheim pursued to explain social cohesion and stability through the concept of solidarity as the individual and the society would perform similar tasks that held the society together. Based on the metaphor of an organism in which many parts function together to sustain the whole, Durkheim argued that modern complex societies are held together by organic solidarity (think interdependent organs) (Durkheim, and Lewis A. Coser. 1997).

Thirdly, there is conflict theory maintains that society as a complex system striving for equilibrium in contrast to functionalist but rather as a competition. Society is made up of individuals competing for limited resources (e.g., money, leisure, sexual partners, etc.) (Smith, Christian. 2003). However, the conflict theory contributes to social change in contrast to the functional approach. In fact, there are primary assumptions of conflict theory that are; consensus is characteristic of human relationships rather than competition, individuals and groups that benefit from any particular structure strive to see it maintained (Smith, Christian. 2003).

Last but not the least, there is symbolic theory which may involves exchange of communication or symbols among individuals. Here, the symbolic plays a prominent role in relationship with the individual and the society as it involves interchanging of culture and teaching. Symbolic theory argues that people become selves by learning and internalizing the symbolic materials of the social and historical context and culture they are born into and raised within (e.g., the individual is formed by the society), and then act back upon and alter societies (e.g., norms, cultures and structures) by deploying the symbolic resources at their disposal throughout the course of their ongoing lives (e.g., the society is formed by the joint action of individuals) (Merton, Robert 1957).

Thus to conclude, the a theory of consensus, a theory of conflict and a theory of social action can be applied to an analysis of the relationship between the individual and society as it can be deduced that each theory plays an integral part within the society. Each theory has its own contribution to the upbringing, stability and continuous survival of the society.

References
Question 1

Bauman and May 2001 introduction(Bauman and May 2001, chapter 10, “Thinking Sociologically”)

http://studymore.org.uk/ybaumay.htm

http://www.britsoc.co.uk/what-is-sociology/origins-of-sociology.aspx Accessed on 1:57 PM 21 June 2105 NPTEL – Humanities and Social Sciences – Introduction to Sociology

http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/109103023/download/Lecture%201.pdf Accessed on 2:05 PM 21 June 2015

Question 2

Bethany Johnson C. Wright Mills and his view on the power elite and the sociological imagination. http://www.Study.com. Accessed on 11:52 am 03 June 2015

http://wps.prenhall.com/ca_ph_johns_ob_6/0,9429,1510150–1510152,00.html Accessed on 11:52 am 03 June 2015

Question 3

Boundless. “Levels of Analysis: Micro and Macro.” Boundless Sociology. Boundless, Assessed on 14:29 pm 27 Jun. 2015.

Mondal Puja 02 June 2015 https://www.google.com/search?q=One+way+of+using+sociology+to+understand+the+relationship+between+the+individual+and+society+is+to+use+different+perspectives+and+models+of+society&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8 Assessed on 09:00 am 26 June, 2015

www.123helpme.com/view.asp?id=107262 Assessed on 10:15 am 26 June, 2015

www.ukessays.com › Essays › Sociology Assessed on 11:00 am 26 June, 2015

Question 4

Durkheim, Emile, and Lewis A. Coser. 1997. The Division of Labor in Society. Free Press.

Mondal Puja 02 June 2015 https://www.google.com/search?q=One+way+of+using+sociology+to+understand+the+relationship+between+the+individual+and+society+is+to+use+different+perspectives+and+models+of+society&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8 Assessed on 09:00 am 26 June, 2015

Putnam, Robert D. 2001. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. 1st ed. Simon & Schuster.

Merton, Robert (1957). Social Theory and Social Structure, revised and enlarged. London: The Free Press of Glencoe.

Smith, Christian. 2003. The Secular Revolution: Power, Interests, and Conflict in the Secularization of American Public Life. 1st ed. University of California Press.