Author: Andre Coleman

Many people believe prejudice and discrimination mean the same thing .In fact there is a very important difference between them. Prejudice is an attitude, whereas discrimination refers to the behaviour or action. If someone dislikes a given minority, but does not allow this dislike to effect their behaviour then the person shows prejudice but not discrimination. According to Baron and Byrne (1991) prejudice is an attitude towards the member of some group based solely on their membership in that group. In contrast discrimination involves negative action directed at the member of the group. Allport (1954) argued that there are five different stages of discrimination.

Anti-location: Verbal attacks are directed against some other group.

Avoidance: the other group is systematically avoided.

Discrimination: the other group is deliberately treated less well than other groups in term of civil rights.

Physical attack: Membership of the other group are attacked and their property is destroyed.

Extermination: there are deliberate attempts to kill all members of the other group.

The word prejudice can be broken down in to pre (meaning before) and judice (meaning judgement). Therefore to be prejudice towards an individual or group shows a pre-judge of that individual or group. There are three elements to prejudice.

Cognitive element: This involves the beliefs held about the group. These beliefs will be in the form of stereotyping, common but over simple views of what particular groups of people are like.

The affective element: This involves the feelings experienced in response to the group. If we are prejudiced against a group we may experience anger, fear, hate or disgust when we encounter a member of that group.

The behavioural element: This consists of our actions toward the object of our prejudice. Behaving differently towards people based on their membership of a group is called discrimination. Our actions against members of a group against which we hold a prejudice can rang from avoidance and verbal criticism to mass extermination.

Psychological approach to explain prejudice falls in to two broad areas. Social approach centres on the social factors that contribute to prejudice in general. Whereas individual differences approaches centres on what factors make some people more prone to prejudice.

Tajel and Turner (1979) proposed the social identity theory. This theory is one of a group of theoryaˆ™s that share the assumption that prejudice can be explained by our tendency to identify ourselves as part of a group and to classify other people as either within or outside that group. Tajfel and Turner carried out a number of laboratory experiment called the minimal group

Tajfel (1970) carried out an experiment to look at intergroup discrimination. To test his theory sixty four schoolboys aged between 14 and 15 year old were selected. The participants were initially informed that the experiment was research investigating vision. The boys were shown clusters of dots on a screen and asked to estimate the number of dots on the picture. The participants were then divided in to two groups group A and group B. Group A was classified as boys that had underestimated the amount of dots and group B was those boys who had overestimated the amount of dots. The boys were then given a number of tasks in which they would allocate points to each other. Each boy did not know who they were allocating points to but they did know which group the boy belonged to three conditions were used as part of this experiment condition one the choice was between two boys from group A the second condition was two boys from group B and the last condition used one boy from each group. What Tajfel identified as part of this research was that the boys overwhelmingly chose to allocate points to the boys who had been indentified as in the same group as themselves. Despite the fact that there was no direct competition between the two groups the participants consistently displayed favouritism towards the boys from the same group.

Ellis and Fox (2001) also carried out research in to prejudice and discrimination looking effect of self-identification sexual orientation on helping behaviour. This research involves 235 British men and women were telephone at home. The caller explained that they had dialled the wrong number and that they had no more change to make a further call and asked if the participant would relay a message to the calleraˆ™s partner. In the experimental condition the callers partner was identified as the same sex as the caller, and in the controlled condition they were identified as the opposite sex. The finding shoed that overall both gay man and lesbians were less likely to receive help than heterosexuals. Women were also more to receive help than men. The final conclusion to the research showed that people were less likely to offer help to a gay men who found themselves in difficulty. This showed prejudice and discrimination towards gay men.

When discussing prejudice or discrimination, stereotyping also needs to be examined Stewart et al. (1979) described stereotyping as a process not only used to simplify environmental and social stimuli, but one that also aids the construction of meaning to those stimuli based on attribution expectations. Whereas Taguirs (1969) defined stereotyping as the tendency to place a person in a category according to some easily and quickly identifiable characteristic such as age, sex, ethic membership, nationality or occupation, and then to attribute to them qualities believed to be typical of a member of that category. Stereotypes seem to provide a simple and economical; way of perceiving the world.

In the late 1800s male Chinese immigrants were brought to the U.S. to work on the railroads and as agricultural labours on the West Coast many specialized in laundry services. Some came willingly others were basically kidnapped and brought forcibly. After the transcontinental railroad was completed and it occurred to white Americans that the Chinese workers were still around and might compete with them for jobs, a wave of anti-Chinese sentiment swept the U.S. Chinese men were stereotyped as degenerate heroin addicts whose presence encouraged prostitution, gambling, and other immoral activities. Since most Chinese immigrants were brought here specifically as workers, the vast majority were male few at that time were able to bring their wives. A number of cities on the West Coast experienced riots in which whites attacked Asians and destroyed Chinese sections of town. The Seattle riot resulted in practically the entire Chinese population being rounded up and forcibly sent to San Francisco. Similar situations in other towns encouraged Chinese workers scattered throughout the West to relocate, leading to the growth of Chinatowns in a few larger cities on the West Coast.

Ac cording to Buchanan (2007) many researchers have argued that prejudice is part of human nature and that the only by confronting our authentic nature can we gain real insight into the forces that drive group conflict and learn how we might better manage and defuse such urges.

Probable the first formal proposal of a set of social psychological principles for reducing prejudice was from Allportaˆ™s (1954) Contact hypothesis. Prejudice may be reduced by equal status contact between majority and the minority groups in the pursuit of common goals. When people are segregated they are more likely to experience autistic hostility, that is ignorance of other which in turn results in a failure to understand the reason for their actions Lack of contact means there is no reality testing against which to checking our own interpretation of others behaviour, and in turn can enforce negative stereotyping.

What is social protection and safety net?

Social protection is a broad set of public arrangements and instruments that help individuals, households and communities in managing risks and shocks well, assure a basic level of consumption to the extreme poor. Social protection includes: social insurance, social assistance, safety nets, social services, legal and regulatory protection. So that social protection should complement family, community, and market mechanisms for protect the vulnerable against livelihood risk, and enhance the social status and assisting the very poor.

Safety nets are basically income maintenance programs that protect a person or household against two adverse outcomes: a chronic incapacity to work and earn, and a decline in this capacity caused by imperfectly predictable lifecycle events (such as the sudden death of a bread winner), sharp shortfalls in aggregate demand or expenditure shocks (through economic recession or transition), or very bad harvests. Safety net programs serve two important redistribution (such as transfers to disadvantaged groups) and insurance (such as drought relief). (World Bank, 2003)

Social safety net is non-contributory, ex post intervention, it is paid for by the Government from general revenues includes taxation and development assistance, in order to deal with existing poverty or shocks that have already occurred and targeted to the poor and vulnerable. Well-designed safety net can protect the poor in the short term and it also can promote growth, for instance, it can enable the poor to engage in the economy by expanding their opportunities to take risks, diversify livelihoods, innovate, invest the human capital of their children etc.

Safety net instruments include: unconditional cash and near-cash transfers, for instance, non-contributory old age pensions and disability payments; conditional transfers includes conditional cash transfers such as scholarships and conditional in-kind transfers such as food rations and nutrition and feeding programs; unconditional food and other in-kind transfers; fee waivers for health, education and other basic services; general commodity price subsidies includes for food or energy; public workfare.

Social risk management concepts

Arrangements to manage risks can be made in advance, before a shock has occurred risk reduction and risk mitigation can be taken into account. Risk reduction is arrangements that make it less likely that shock will occur, and risk mitigation is arrangements that ensure that if a shock does occur, the effects are small rather than large. Moreover arrangements to manage risks also can be made after a shock has occurred, coping strategies to deal with the impact of the shock

Links between poverty, vulnerability and growth

The poor are the most vulnerable group, they are exposed to diverse risks, so are more likely to suffer a shock; they have fewer resources to deal with these risks, so when a shock does occur, the effects of a shock are more serious for the poor; the rich can afford insurance, or use savings to cope, but the poor generally can’t. High vulnerability makes the poor avoid risk, so they are unable or unwilling to engage in higher risk or higher return activities. Therefore reducing vulnerability is thus both a means and an end: as a means, reducing vulnerability expands opportunities and supports growth; as an end, reducing vulnerability reduces poverty, which is a goal in its own right.

Shocks can affect people as individuals or groups

Individuals
Groups(geographical communities, occupational groups)

Shocks

Accident, illness, old age, house burns down, robbery, family business fails etc

Macroeconomic and labor market shocks, war, riots, nature disasters, disease epidemic etc

Safety net plays multiple roles in national development policy

Safety net plays multiple roles in national development policy, such as reduce poverty and inequality directly by raising the living standards of those at the bottom of society; help households manage risk and vulnerability that experience a shock to keep their children in school, to continue eating enough, to avoid selling productive assets; enable households to make long-term investments; encourage households to innovate, take some risks, invest in their children’s education and health (human capital of the next generation); help Governments make policy reforms and ensure political support for reform by compensating those who suffer short-term losses due to reforms needed for long-term economic growth. Safety net is only one part of an overall poverty reduction strategy.

i??Sourcei?sKalanidhi Subbarao.” Social Safety Nets: Concepts and Definitions.” World Bank.i?‰

The figure above illustrate what safety nets contains and belongs, safety nets contains and also belongs a part of social protection, equity, social risk management and poverty reduction. Equity includes land redistribution, enforcement of contracts and property rights, universal education and safety nets. Poverty Reduction contains providing services and facilities to the poor, and safety nets provide security. Social risk management supplies insurance and safety nets.

Social insurance (social security)

These are ex ante, contributory schemes to mitigate risk that people pay small sums (contributions) in advance, generally on a regular basis. This entitles them to benefits when shocks or events occur, for instance health insurance, contributory old-age pensions and unemployment insurance.

Social insurance is most easily provided for non-poor groups in formal employment who can pay contributions; have a little spare cash left after buying food and other immediate needs; and have regular, stable wage incomes. Social insurance is very important in developed countries and middle-income developing countries, and typically plays a smaller role in low income countries. However, some low income countries are piloting insurance schemes for poor people, In Ethiopia and India, the rainfall index-based crop insurance programs have been done very successfully. The disaster insurance programs have been done very well in Bangladesh.

Steps in an overall strategy in developing a national safety nets system

Identify major risks and vulnerable groups by collecting and analyzing household data;

Review existing programs and identify gaps in coverage

Review options for instruments to address each of these gaps

Identify available financial envelope, such as raise taxes, reallocate existing public spending from inefficient and ineffective programs.

Review institutional capacity and weaknesses

Choose a combination of instruments to cover major risks and groups. “Weave” different programs and instruments together into a coherent system. In a poor country with limited capacity, likely to start with safety nets, but build up social insurance over time

Social safety net in Egypt

One out of every five people is poor in Egypt, and the poverty increased mildly between 2001 and 2005 from 18.36 percent to 19.63 percent. The government of Egypt has worked on reforms of economic, social and political transformation. This reform driven by the need to raise sustainable economic growth, and ensure that the poor benefit from it. The role of state also redefined, the state can no longer be seen as the job provider, goods and subsidies supplier. But the state is faced with the challenge of poverty reduction, and oversees the public interest and protects the poor and vulnerable. Furthermore, the Government must redefine the social safety net to improve people serves by expand programs in fighting poverty.

Poverty continues to be a major policy challenge

Poverty continues to be a major challenge in Egypt, with one out of every five people (about 13.6 million people) living below the poverty line. In order to attack poverty, a better understanding of who the poor are should be included initially. In Egypt, almost three quarters of the poor live in rural areas, in Upper Egypt, most of them working in agriculture and construction and with little education.

Strengthening the social safety net

In Egypt, while the social safety net provide assistance to the poor critically, benefit still many more non-poor individuals and group than poor, and do little to reduce overall poverty.

Egypt spends about 2 percent of its GDP on the core social safety net, a roughly stable level since 2000. It does not have every type of program above, but resources are devoted to:

General social protection (5 percent of GDP);

Consumer subsidies on food (1.7 percent of GDP);

SFD (Social Fund for Development) programs (0.18 percent of GDP); and

Social assistance cash transfers from MOISA (Ministry of Insurance and Social Affairs) (0.12 percent of GDP).

The largest share of resources, 8.1 percent of GDP, is spent on energy subsidies to producers and consumers which serve as an important safety net but also absorb resources that could be better directed to the poor. (World Bank, 2005) Those numbers is significantly below most European countries.

So that reform of the safety net is important for three reasons: firstly, the program often does not reach the poor and the fewer subsidies can not provide meaningful assistance. Secondly, programs are too expensive when subsidies taken into account. And thirdly, inefficient programs that with overlapping beneficiaries and objectives.

Administration of Social Assistance Programs in Egypt

Eligibility for MOISA (Ministry of Insurance and Social Affairs) social assistance cash-transfer programs require applicant supported with document including family birth certificates and salary records at a local MOISA office. This assistance program supply more subsidies to females than males. Application is followed up with a home visit by social workers and a decision is made within 60 days. Total expenditures for the programs were 1.1 billion of Egyptian Pound in 2004, this figure includes pension and social assistance functions.

Geographic targeting

The geographic target should aim in overall poverty reduction, but not reduces poverty in the poorest areas. If all the existing resource devoted to poorest area, no matter the resident is poor or not, the uniform distribution would decrease poverty in the Upper Rural areas. However, poverty will increase slightly in the other areas. Nowadays Egypt use basic poverty map to guide projects, which contains regularly household income, consumption and expenditure.

Smart Safety Net in Egypt

The project intends to create E-Government, which brings all information and services of government for citizens online, and make service more efficient. This project started in 2005, and it will be finished in 2010. The card itself contains a variety of information as the number of family members, birth, death and other eligibility criteria, which will automatically verify the rations and accurate amounts transferred. Government of Egypt expected the smart-card system will decrease the cost of providing subsidies by 10 percent, and amount of saving is 400 million Egyptian pounds annually. This is a pilot project, which will gradually be expanded nationally. (Ministry of State for Administrative Development, www.mcit.gov.eg )

Conditional Cash Transfer Programs (CCTs)

Conditional cash transfer programs (CCTs) are a relatively new instrument that seeks to foster human capital development. The cash helps reduce poverty in its own right, compensates families for the opportunity cost of changing behavior, and is expected to contribute to long-term human capital development for the young. (Rawlings and Rubio, 2004) The target more focuses on vulnerable families with children. So that cash transfer can be an important mechanism to alleviate poverty, such as education and basic health care must be available for the poor. CCTs had a great impact in some countries, for instance, Mexico provided additional equipment and medicines in order to meet increased health services demanded; Nicaragua provided teachers and pay for school materials; Honduras provided direct CCTs to schools and health centers.

CCTs become more popular in Latin America, Jamaica used CCT to replaced former food stamps and social assistance programs; Mexico used CCT to replaced the tortilla subsidy; Brazil created the largest CCT in the developing world by consolidating four cash transfer programs into the Bolsa Familla program.

Using Nicaragua as an example, CCTs have a great impact in education, health and consumption:

Nicaragua CCTs

Program Impact

Education

(primary school)

Health

(children under 2 years-old)

Consumption

(Per capita annual)

+ 21.7%

+18.3%

+N$ 753

CCTs have also been a means to consolidate disparate cash transfer programs into more efficient, effective targeted interventions to support human capital formation. (Ayala, 2003)

Conclusions

Social safety nets are the most important priority, which deal with existing poverty or shocks have already occurred and targeted to the poor and vulnerable. Before policy making and action implementing, several questions should be figure out initially: Who are the poor and vulnerable group? What kind of risk face now? What programs against what risks? What programs cover what kind of groups? Where is the gap? What is the new challenge?

For each program and instrument, the steps in developing national social safety nets can be: firstly set objects; secondly develop an implementation structure to clear define the institutional roles and responsibilities; thirdly, develop mechanisms for targeting, enrolment and payment, use technology to help policy making and action implementing, such as use poverty maps and smart cards in Egypt; finally, monitory and evaluate during the programs, which can be good experiences to learn. While getting better understanding of poverty causes and dynamics, however social protection and social safety nets still face many challenges, there is a need for a long-term strategy to fulfill a number of specific gaps in the future.

Arguably, since the spin of the 20th century there has been impossible demographic change in aging. Ageism is the abuse, discrimination, avoidance and stereotyping of the old people in the society (William & Julian, 2008). We are presently living in a society in which its population is growing tremendously, especially individuals over the age of 65. The modern world is probably characterized by a rapid rate of aging. Ageism comes up with different types of social problems. For example each year in America, a minimum of one million and a maximum of three million elderly people are exploited, injured and mistreated by those individuals whom they depend on for care and support. Furthermore they are set of attitudes, norms, beliefs and values which are used to justify time based discrimination, inequality and subordination. These situations are either consistent or occasional.

There exist lots of challenges facing the western societies. In the modern aging society, the circumstances affecting people and groups as they grow up are totally linked to the overall well-being of the society. In the community there is mounting facts that various effects of aging are neither inevitable nor irreversible. Age is one among many causes of social problems. This is because the pure older and the extremely young are more vulnerable than any other age groups in society. Problems related to the elderly include financial instability, poverty, victimization, isolation, dependency, lack of access to appropriate health care and inadequate housing (William & Julian, 2008).

Debatably, parts of the society do not work amicably as expected. Conflict is all what the society undergoes. The young and elderly are in constant competition for the limited resources. Despite the fact that the resources are abundant in the ground, competition that each an individual faces is so difficult hence conflict is always kept in check. Whether they perceive it or not, the elderly are suppose to compete with the young for health care and resources. As competition heats up, it leads to open conflict between the young and the senior thus throwing the society into turmoil. Actually the guiding opinion of any social life is conflict and disequilibrium.

On conflict perspective, social problems are inevitable and come naturally as result of social struggle. Actually at the base of any social problem there lies strong contest over supply of privilege and power (William & Julian, 2008) .For examples in America the elderly who have retired have fought for the resources through the formation of political lobbies. According to conflict theorists the social problems associated with the elderly come in two different forms. First concerns the elderly been oppressed by the powerful in the society. The other problem comes when the elderly resist oppression and appeal to moral values.

Conflict theorists believe that the primary source of social troubles come as a result of oppression and exploitation. They consider inequality in society as a wrong and unprincipled aspect of a society. Structural-functionalist view it in a different perspective in that they view the conflicts between the aged and other members of the society as an essential for the integration and smooth running of the society. Both theories though arguing on a different perspective, believe that discrimination and stereotyping strengthens the dominant groups and oppresses the elderly. Conflict theorists see social change as continuous, immediate and inevitable as the young groups seek to replace the old in social chain of command.

Aging in the modern society is a social problem on its own. The elderly individuals in the modern society have less power and lower social status, but they cannot accept ageing as a way in which cannot be avoided at all. It is a natural way in which the human body undergoes some deterioration. In United States an elderly generation is persistently increasing (William & Julian, 2008). This fact has significant impacts on lives of individuals and the social institutions that exist in society. The problems related to the aged are motivated by three significant factors: the notion of work as an individual value, economic hardship and labeling.

In the society each institution has a duty to fulfill. Aging has become a social problem because institutions in the modern society do not meet the needs of the elderly people who are weak. The elderly face stigmatization because they are not in a position to adapt to the society full of youth-oriented norms. Conflict theorist’s review the social problems of the elderly as stemming from lack of evidence to influence societal institutions to meet their needs.

The issue of modernization has changed almost all activities in the society. Many of the problems facing the aging generation in America recently emerge from the nature of modernization of the western society. The elderly face lots of challenges in the production sector. More of the work is carried out using machines which the elderly have no idea on how it operates. Ageism is not well defined in all sectors hence the elderly have no choice but to agree to negative branding that the society gives them. For example people believe that as individuals grow older their intellectual ability and capacity declines.

The society is dominated by youth and glamour therefore the actual role of the elderly has no value. Growing old implies that there is continuous deterioration of mental and physical mechanisms that are essential for effectual performance in the community. A capitalist nation such all in the world today, old age is significantly viewed as been a handicap. The youth does not appreciate the fabulous contribution and the high positions held by the so called the “handicapped”. The elderly should be held in particularly high esteem and idolized for their knowledge, contributions, wisdom and experiences.

Perhaps age stratification has affected the elderly tremendously. In the modern society people are mostly segregated on the basis of age. This segregation limits the type of roles in which members of each cluster can hold and work on. This scenario leaves the elderly in a worse off group, leading to conflict in the society. The elderly are in the recent past been discriminated (William & Julian, 2008).Stereotypes believe that the old people are intellectually rigid, asexual, unproductive, reclusive and ineffective. Furthermore discrimination causes emotional and psychological abuse to the elderly resulting to depression and low self-esteem. Continuity of discrimination makes the elderly grow apathetically and finally withdraw from the society. Additionally age discrimination erodes senior’s confidence and dignity, finally affecting their romance and love lifestyle.

Aging comes up with drastic health issues. In most cases they are prone to highly chronic diseases. These diseases associated to old age include the metabolism of glucose in the brain and cardiac disturbance. As individuals grow old they stop or reduce their workload, therefore affecting the general lifestyle and functioning of the body. The change in lifestyles activities and other social contacts affect morbidity and mortality. Health issues of the aging increase spending on health care programs which include medical expenses and nursing homes. This problem increases daily; this is so because the elderly face exceptionally high medical bills with decreasing or low incomes. In America the old spent twice as much on health care as their youthful counterparts, more than half of this goes to insurance (William & Julian, 2008).The elderly who are poor, women and the minority spend higher ratio of their total resources on health care.

Abuse and victimization has become part and parcel of the elderly in the 21st century. These abuses include financial exploitation, physical abuse, psychological abuse and the medical abuse. In America the elderly who are abused in one way or another is estimated to be 2.1 million or more. Those abused at home or institutions are mostly female, whites, individuals with low income and widows.

The elderly who retire have a problem adjusting to the new environment. Retiring puts much pressure on the elderly to adjust to their new status. In the society there are no role models in which the elderly can learn from. Retirement comes with reduction of income hence spending should be adjusted in order to guarantee survival .Now days policies have been put in place which makes retirement a mandatory at a certain age. They also face extra hardships such as discrimination when seeking new jobs. Most countries have no articulate policies that deal with housing; in addition the programs that deal with health care of the elderly are inadequate and costly. Hence it is difficult for the old to enjoy their short life .The social security systems have also faced lots of criticism; it discriminates against those elderly who are still working and women. The payments from the systems are extremely minimal to offer support to the elderly who have no other supply of income (William & Julian, 2008).

The baby boomers age group consists of individuals who were born between the years 1946-1964. Due to the shifting needs and steep statistics baby boomers will still influence the society in different ways. The world has improved on the health care to its people therefore life expectancy has increased and individual don’t want to bear children hence there is a total demographic shift. Baby boomers are currently at their 40s and 50s. They have fully affected the overall age structure of society. In addition, they are the barriers to the employment of the young, this is because they have increased the average age of those who are working and the general size of labor force. Arguably, the World will still feel the impact of baby boomers in the labor sector for more years to come. Recently baby boomers have the highest percentage of labor force. With a continuous increase of baby boomers in the work force will imply that the percentage of the unemployed youth increases each and every day. The number of old people in the work place will also be increasing. The youth too will be growing old and when they are employed they will be of an older age. The trend will persist for many years.

Baby boomers when compared financially to their parents they are at better off. The households’ real median income of baby boomers is 35-53 percent higher than what their parents had. In every society, not all people in the same class achieve the same things; some baby boomers did not perform well economically hence most of them remained poor. As the baby boomers generations ages, lots of policies should be put in place so as to help the elderly in the future. The baby boomers too faced different conditions of the economy because of variances in their cohorts (William & Julian, 2008).Some enjoyed economic boom while others were born during economic recession. This scenario caused differences in age distribution of the economically disadvantaged and the poor in society.

The society should go beyond aging and learn more about the concept of aging. In fact we should do away with the erroneous thinking and beliefs that are associated to aging. The old have their rights and freedoms that should be respected. They are human beings hence they have sexual feelings and emotions. The elderly should not be blamed for the persistent increase in social and health care costs. The increase of health and social costs are caused by global economic crisis. The youth need to stop the stereotype thinking and listen to seniors who have wisdom and experience. The media too need to change the ways in which they portrayed the elderly in society. Media reaches many people therefore the perception of ageing can be changed easily by them.

In conclusion we expect that the society changes its negative view of the elderly. Otherwise in the meantime we should comprehend and accept that there is something inherently erroneous with the way the old in society are viewed. Very little research has been carried out to determine the causes of ageism. Therefore more concern should be put on the causes of ageism. We should not be stereotypes and only believe that it is nature taking its course. Mostly the problems of the elderly in society are compounded by a deficiency of interaction, inactivity and loneliness. The old are segregated and left alone either in retirement institutions or nursing homes away from friends and family members. Furthermore they are isolated from schools and flow of work. This should not be the case, the elderly should be made active and interacted with family members and friends.

“We define social problems as the activities of individuals or groups making assertions of grievances and claims with respect to some putative conditions.” Malcolm Spector and John I. Kitsuse.

Writers above show that the social problem is an activity that bring harmful more than the benefit to the personal, family, country, especially the today’s modern world. The social problem became more and more serious in the entire world which shows that the social problem is increasing in anywhere and anytime. As the third world country, Malaysia, the country’s growth influenced by the social problem seriously. We need to find out how do these problems affect our country’s growth and discuss the step to prevent the issues.

Illegal immigration can be defined as person immigration to a country or state in offence of the immigration laws and empire of that country or state. The illegal immigrants occupy substantial portion of the Malaysia population, numbering as many as two million. Most of the illegal immigrants came from Indonesia, Philippines, Cambodia, Vietnam and so on. They came to Malaysia to take odd job unpopularity to the local populace, which are agricultural sectors, human trafficking or prostitution. The illegal immigrants came to Malaysia working harder for the little amount of family income monthly, but some of these create some social problem after unemployed.

Illegal immigration increase many political, economic and social issues and affects the growth of developed countries and the more successful developing countries. First, they make our country poverty. Illegal immigrants normally entered the country in search of higher wages that cannot achievable in their home countries. The local people is lost the work opportunity when these illegal immigrants have fulfilled the working sector. The poverty will increase, when rate of unemployment increases.

Secondly, those illegal immigrants make our country overpopulation which is population growth that exceeds the carrying capacity of an area or environment results. Overpopulation can cause problems such as pollution, water crisis, and poverty because the government cannot control the illegal immigrant. They misuse the water and cause the water crisis.

Third are they prostitution in our country. It is someone especially a women, who earned money by having sex with other people. Someone forced into sexual slavery because they need to pay the charges of illegal immigrants or need to face the stress of the live. The rate of death will increase because of the HIV virus This is also will lead to HIV virus in other hand it will increase the amount of death in our country.

The illegal immigration brings many affect to our country’s growth and it needs the solution to prevent these issues. In year 2011, the government put the Legalization Program into practice to allow the 1.8 million illegal to be either legalized or allow to be deported back to their home country without any form of punishment. Employers who have been employing illegal workers will also be granted amnesty and allow to legalize their worker, subjected to the rules and regulation of Ministry of Manpower. All illegal workers are allowed to register under the 6P program. All illegal will be allow to get a valid work permit, insurance and other benefits after registrant to be approved to work in Malaysia. Those illegal immigrate who’s registration has been rejected would be granted amnesty from any prosecution or any fine and be allow to return to their home country freely.

Another, the government needs to strengthen laws in the sea area, land area and sky area to prevent illegal immigration. Those illegal immigrate will through any way to reached our country for the higher monthly income. The authorities need to increase the quantity of the army, navy and airforce to prevent the illegal immigration in our country. The government need to border fence and heightened border security in Malaysia.

Furthermore, the ageing population also can be classifying as the issue problem today. The ageing population is a phenomenon when the increase rate of the old age people with any region or gender and the decreasing of the rate of birth in a country. The old age people occupy the major quantity in the country more than the young people. It can be prove with the investigate, the quantity people of Malaysians aged 60 years and above is estimated to be 1.4 million and is Expected to increase to 3.3 million in the year 2020. The percentage of the population that is 60 years and over has also increased over the years – 5.2% in 1970, 5.7% in 1990 and 6.3% in the year 2000. In the year 2020, this percentage is projected to be 9.8% of the population.

The issue of ageing population affected our country’s growth seriously. This process is taking place in any country in the world. Although a rising old age can have significant social and economic implications because of their experiment, but as the worker become progressive older, the efficiency will decrease. This will affect economic of the country of development, Malaysia. The elder age of the worker, will face the many problem when working such as health problem, IT problem and so on. Older people will take more sick leave than younger people because the physical situation. Another, elder people majority cannot keep places with the time and cause cannot use the IT product. These problems will affect the efficiency of the work in this modern world and slow down the economic growth.

Furthermore, the step to overcome the ageing problems is to increase the rate of birth in our country. The aged of married need shift to an earlier date. Every family need to plan a family planner to increase the family member in the right time. Then, we can decrease ageing problems and avoid happened another social problem such as abortion, child abuse, and so on.

Cruelty to animals, also called animal abuse or animal neglect, is the infliction of suffering or harm upon non-human animals, for purposes other than self-defense. If the master of animal not giving the animal of life essential like food or water, it can be said that animal abuse. The animal can be harm for specific gain such as medical traditional because human being believes that the animal specific part can treat diseases but no any scientific basis. Human being killing the animal only for the specific part such as fur to make bag or traditional medical for own benefit, it so cruelty to the animal.

Following that, human cannot continuous cruelty to animal. It will cause the endangered of that animal species. If the Apes endangered in our country, it will decrease the tourist come to Malaysia to see the special animal which is only in the Malaysia. It will directly affect the economics of our country. Animal abuse also can be said as the immoral activities which will affect the honorary of Malaysian. Another country will think that Malaysian is immoral and will not choose Malaysia as tourist place.

The way to prevent animal abuse problem is teach children cannot cruelty to animal since they were young. Parents play an important role in this issue to guide their children in a better path way because parents is the closest person to the children. If people know the seriousness of the animal abuse, they will not cruelty to animal. It can decrease the case of animal abuse in the future efficiency.

A drug is a chemical substance which may have medicinal, intoxicating, performance enhancing or other effects when taken or put into a human body or the body of another animal and is not considered a food or exclusively a food. The drug can be classify as benefit or harmful to the humans and animals. A drug is used as a medicine such as make human or animal sleepy or unconscious or used in a medicine in treatment, prevention disease or other condition. On the contrary, drug is a substance that affects the processes of mind or body and the central nervous system to do abnormal behavior. On drug can cause someone addition and appear druggies brings about more and more social problem in today’s modern world.

Following that, the case of drug abuse destroy the development country, Malaysia, to exploit social and human capital. This will degrade quality of life and cause the experienced worker leaves their position, as well as fear crime cause by the drug addiction. That may block the development to continue in the future. Crime can impede the possible employer and education opportunity, and it discourages the accumulation of asset in our country.

Furthermore, business is a sector which is sensitive to the crime and drug abuse problem. Both foreign and domestic investors think that drug abuse and crime as a social which is instability to make investment. This proves that the crime and drug abuse can drive away the business in our country. Drug abuse and crime can cause our country’s recession because of the investor get rid of our country to investment.

Prevention is better than cure. We need to prevent drug abuse before it occurs in our country. The school authorities are the important role in this issue. The school authorities need to start campaign which is related to prevent drug abuse and educate student about the harmful of drug. It can prevent teenager involved in the drug abuse and can ensure the best development of the country in the future. If not, how can the druggies develop the country in the future?

Nevertheless, the road accident as a social problem is increasing in today’s modern world. Accident can be definite as an unfortunate incident that happens unexpectedly and unintentionally, typically resulting in damage or injury or a crash involving road or other vehicles, typically one that causes serious damage or injury. We can find out the road accident in the newspaper every day. It shows that the how seriously road accident was happened in our daily life.

Malaysia is paying a high price to the road accident due to the careless of cars and motorcycles drives. This issue effects the population of Malaysia because of the rate of death increase. Following that, the rate of the death in the road accident increase from the year to year. If the rate of death of road accident increases, both family and country will effect by this factor seriously. Everyone life in the world has their own value. Anyone should protect their life to contribution in develop the country. We should exert 1Malaysia spirit to let our country in the shortest time not waste our life on the careless behavior.

Constantly, the road accidents cause the tangible and intangible costs of the economics of country damaged gravely. In the road accident, the tangible costs included the damaged of the vehicles such as replacement and repair fee, medical treatment fee, insurance fee. The intangible costs included pain, physiological trauma, and grief. With the more able the people to buy a car, the road accident increases and directly create more and more effect in this issue.

The government implement a operation called “OPS SIKAP” to decreases the road accident in the festival seasons such as Deepavali, Chinese New Year, Christmas day, and Hari Raya Aidilfitri. The “OPS SIKAP” operation can be defined as operation attitude in the English which is carried out by the Royal Malaysia Police to create a safety traffic. This operation began in year 2001 to monitor the area which had higher rate of road accident. Until today, the 26th “OPS SIKAP” operations were successful decrease the road accident and directly decrease the rate of death in our country.

Apart from that, personally played the important role in the road accident. According the investigate, personally neglect in service regularly, drive in the situation lack of sleep, or hypervelocity. The drivers should have the correct behavior to protect life in the road. Example, driver should service car regularly to ensure the function of car operated normally. The driver should engraft the correct concept in their mind to decrease the road accident.

Following that, gambling is the gambled of money or something of material value on an event with an uncertain outcome with the primary intent of winning additional money and/or material goods, it can be seen as an entertainment. The desired to gamble continually no matter the harmful negative consequent can be classify as the problem gambling, or ludomania. The opening of the casino in the Marina Bay Sands and Resort Word Sentosa in Singapore or the casino in Genting Highland increase the problem gambling in our country.

Furthermore, the gambling derivative more and more problems in the social. Constant indulgence in gambling brought about person ruin. If we indulgence in gambling, we will neglect other things except gambling. If one approaches gambling with the intent of winning and they initially end up losing, the only way for them to break even or win in the long run is to keep playing. The game will stop until the person bankrupt. There will affect the economics of the country because of the fund decrease and put in the wrong place.

The NGO or GO should created the hotline for pathological gambling to prevent the problem gambling increase. The pathological gambling can say out the problem they faced or teach the way to avoid gambling. The gamblers rehab centre should de build up to avoid gambling. The pathological gambling should use the correct way to overcome gambling because the pathological gambling is the one who indulge in the gambling seriously.

Last but not least, the social problems that I list down above are illegal immigration, ageing population, cruelty to animal, drug abuse, road accident which is increasing in today’s modern world. These problems affect our country’s growth in the aspect of social, politic, economic, education, and so on. All authorities should carry out the method to decreasing the social problem together.

1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_issues

2 http://main.socprobs.net/Week_1.htm

3 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegal_Immigration

4 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegal_immigrants_in_Malaysia

5 http://nazehan.blogspot.com/2008/10/did-you-noticed-about-case-of-illegal.html

6 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_ageing

7 Mafauzy Mohamed, (2000) The Problems and Challenges of the Aging Population of Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences, 7 (1). pp. 1-3. ISSN 1394195X

Full text not available from this repository.

Official URL: http://www.medic.usm.my/publication/mjms/

http://myais.fsktm.um.edu.my/954/

8 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruelty_to_animals

9 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug

10 http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/drug

11 http://www.un.org/en/ga/president/66/Issues/drugs/drugs-crime.shtml

12 http://www.rtsa.org.zm/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=59:impact-of-road-accidents-&catid=1:announcements&Itemid=67

13 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ops_Sikap

14 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_gambling

15 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambling

SOCIAL PROBLEMS FACED BY DEVELOPING COUNTRY

Social problems are biggest problem in our country. Social problems, also called social issue, like every society, great and small. Even in relatively isolated, sparsely populated areas, a group will suffering social problem, part of this due to fact that any member of the society living close area then we would free from every social problem but this is can`t impossible. It`s virtually impossible to avoid them, and even people who live together in the same house.They don`t get along seamlessly on problems that effect people living together in a society.

Not all social conditions become elevated to the status of social problem. Social problem are related to the febric of the community including conflicts among the interests of community.social issue has the part social problem. Social issue include poverty,violence,pollution,injustice,suppression of human right,gay marriage,gun contral.social problem also big problem in developing countries.For examplehere are some objective conditions”which exist today and as you will see no all of them are considered to be social problem

* SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF INDIA*

India is one of the developing nations in the modern world. It has because an independent country a republic, more than half of country ago. During this period the country has been effect to attain development and growth in various area such as building infrastructure,production of food grains, science and techonology and spreed of eduction.the life expectancy has increased and many disease have been controlled.However,there are many areas in which India society is experiencing a variety of problem.A large section of the Indian society is suffering from so many social problem like ….

*ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLME IN INDIA *

Are increase rapidly.The increasing economic developing and rapidly growing population that has taken the country from 300 million people in 1947 to more then one billion people today is putting a stain on the environment, infrastructure and the country`s natural resources. Industrial pollution,soil erosion,deforestation,rapid industrialization,urbanization, of the country`s resources be it land or water and the industrialization process has resulted environmental pollution is one of the most serious problem facing humanity and other life forms on our planet today

*EDUCATION PROBLEM IN INDIA*

The Indian eduction system has failed-what our eduction system strives to produce are creative and intelligent young who will take our country forward in to the golden age

*UNEMPLOYMENT PROBLEM IN INDIA*

India is progressing with an growth rate.Growth rate in India is the second highest in the world after that china.The youth force of India are contributing lot to the some .It is believed that principal reason behind Indian progress is its youth force,highest in under the world. However there is a problem.Hugse number of India youth are not only unemployed but unemplable large number of white collar jobs are waiting for suitable candidates.India is a leader in softeware and industries in India are continuity offering white collar jobs be side some blue collars.

*POVERTY (STARVATION, HOMELESSNESS)*

A large of the Indian society is suffering from poverty is a phenomenon poor people lack the necessary resources and capacity to satisfy basic need like food,shllter,health and education.There were only about 150 million abjectly poor people in India around 1950.Today about 50 years later , India has about 300 million,abjectly poor people.India still has the world`s largest number of poor people in a single country of its nearly 1 billion inhabilants an estimated 350-400 million are below the poverty line, 75 per cent of them in the rural areas. Some poor people are living on the street and do not buy a meal.

*CHILD LABOUR (ILLITERACY, BONDED LABOUR)*

The generall laws against child labor children younger thon nine wear not allowed to work and the word day of youth under the age of 18 was limted to twelve laders.The small hands of slervery bonded child labour in India.For exemple my friend sister is ten years old.Every morning at seven she goes to the bonded labour man every night at nine she comes home. He treats her badly, he hits her if he thinks She working slowly or if she talks to the other children, he yells at her, if she is sick and cannot go to work. I don`t care about school or playing. All I want is to bring my friend sister home from the bonded labour man for 600 rupees .we will never have 600 rupees. As a developing country India is facing a number of problems which need careful analysis.

*SATI, DOWRY, FEMALE INFANTICIDE*

Sati system according to which woman were also killed along with their husband on his death. Basically the custom of sati was belived to be a voluntary Hindu act in which the woman voluntary decides to end her life with her husband after his death. A few rules of India tried to ban it.

Dowry system is a hug problem in India and has been a source of great disturbance and embarrassment in our society. Dowry is acultur system where the parents of bride (girl) pay hug amount of money, expensive gift and jewellery to bride groom (boy) and his parents during marriage. Dowry is usually an unspoken requirement. Legelly, dowry is a banned practice in India but it still bride burning, murders and dowry pressure in India

Female infanticide is the intentional killing of baby girl due to preference for male babies and from the low value associated with the birth of female. Legelly, female infanticide is a banned in India but it still.

* SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF ENGIAND*

England is a most developing country of the modern world. It has an independent country. England still has the world`s largest number of modern rich country but some families were very poor then England also suffering from so many social problem like…

*COMMUNITY PROBLEM, FAMILY SOCIAL POLICYAND DRUG ABUSE*

Teenagers` community problem can be related to any thing that happens in this society. Teenagers` can be affected about anything. Social problem can be as simple as listening to loud music in a park.

If a child became an adult its did not get better. It was a terrible life. The family and parent`s are a totally change. Social problem can be as simple as caring and dependency. The adult has a disable age to work so her suffering from so many domestic violence problem.

There are three big reasons why teenager`s take drug: curiosity, peer pressure and availability. Legally drug is a banned under 18 year but teenagers has also take tobacco, alcohol drug and suffering from so many diseases. A series of biennial surveys begun in 1982 to estimate the prevalence of cigarette smoking among school children in Great Britain.

*ELECTION*

The UK elections are very problematic location. Thousand of people are deprived of the right of vote. The electoral commission said it would be conducting a through. The election chiefs told the time that the widespread failures to deal with high voter turnout may lead to re- runs.

*UNWANTED PREGNANCY*

Another teenager social problem is unwanted pregnancy at the sixteen or seventeen year. Besides the fact the girl can end up pregnant if they don`t use protection, there is also the possibility of sexually transmitted disease. Teenager`s is not mainly ignorance a girl who is over sixteen can legally leave home so if school girl becomes pregnant she can claim benefits and the local authorities.

*POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION*

Most families were very poor. Even their children had to work and they often died because the jobs were very hard and dangerous. Men often did not become a job and so they were forced to steal. It was the only way they saw to get bread for them and their families.

Nearly 13 million people live in England -that`s 1 in 5 population.

70% of Bangladeshi children in the UK are poor.

Women are the also poorest group.

Landon has a higher proportion of people living in poverty than any other region in the UK. The UK has a higher proportion of its population living in relative poverty than most other EU countries.

*HEALTH AND UNEMPLAYMENT PROBLEM*

Depression anxiety and other forms of mental illness have taken over from unemployment as the greatest. Social problem in the UK, a health economist warns today. The government on mental health; advocates a network of 250 centres across the country to offer psychological therapies instead of the drug widely handed out by doctors in the absences of sufficient therapists.

CONCLUSION

Throughout history, philosophers have argued that the capacity to solve problems successfully, psychologists have since been looking to understand the nuances of problem solving specifically as it applies to the self-directed cognitive behavioural process by which an individual, couple or group attempt to identify discover effective solutions for problems encountered in everyday living and everybody given different idea about solving the social problem in world. Some people can learn to solve problems effectively and positively, but my view has it is very difficult this but can`t impossible then everybody and government can do it. Social problem solving as well as practical methods and training approaches. Because of the widespread. We as a society have made, and analyzes that works and doesn`t work regarding solution to today`s problem.

Introduction

Sociology seeks to discover, describe and explain the order which characterises the social life of man (Inkeles, 1964 cited in McNeil and Townley, p.21).Various attempts have been made to define social problems; however there is no adequate definition of social problems. Birenbaum and Sagarin defined social problems as, ‘’ A social problems exists when the collective society is rent by, at the very least a public recognition that there is a sector of society, represented by its practices, which threatens or prevents others or themselves from establishing or maintaining their claims to membership’’ (Birenbaum and Sagarin, p.16). Rubington and Weinberg, offers their own definition of social problem as, ‘’an alleged situation that is incompatible with the values of a significant number of people who agree that action is needed to alter the situation’’ (Rubington and Weinberg, 1989 p.4). The definition of any problem as a social problem, means that it is a problem that requires that affects society as a whole and needs society to come together to deal with the problem (May, et al eds 2001 p.17) Social problems are approached from a constructive perspective and a realist perspective. Saragu develops a social constructive approach to the intersection of social divisions and policy, Bucchi on the other hand develops an introduction to the post structuralist critique of problem and policy centred approach (May, et al eds (2001 p.13). Constructive perspective of social problems looks at social problems three main aspects; namely the society constructs as a problem, the contested character of social construction and the changing character of social construction (May, et al eds 2001 p.8) A realist perspective looks at social problems as real problems that exist and which everyone agrees to their existence and requires explanation. The constructive perspective on the other hand, looks at social problems as a construction of society. The question they ask is who says there is a social problem what sort of social problem, do they say it is (May, et al eds (2001). The main issue between the different perspectives of social problem is whether social problems are factual and objective for sociologists to investigate and explain.

This essay will look at social problems and the difficulty of solving them. I will start by looking at common factors relating to social problems.

Common factors relating to social problems

All social problems are prone to a number of different definitions and interpretations. The journalist looks at a social problem from a perspective different from that of a sociologist or a philosopher. The journalist may report a problem in a certain manner, there by actually exaggerating the real problem and causing further alarm in the society. Sociologist will interpret a social problem from a different perspective.

Different explanations of social problems are another common factor relating to all social problems. People usually do have different explanation why social problems occur. Society is always looking for whom to blame for a social problem. They always attribute the cause of a problem to the individual, family or the government.

How a problem is presented, is another common factor relating to social problems. The press do play a role in this regard. Journalists are interested in sensational news which they feel will interest the public. Issues are termed social problems, when they are brought to the knowledge of the public and they become part of the public discourse

Professional intervention is another fact common to social policies. Professionals in our society are quick to label people, that they believe do not conform to ‘standard normal behaviour’, they more often than not marginalise such people and segregate them, (e.g.) special schools, special needs.

The victims view point is another factor that is common in all social problems. There is a world of difference between the way a victim sees himself and the way society views him. Society stereotypes certain people. We all have our prejudices, knowingly or unknowingly. The way the society views homeless people is different from the way homeless people view themselves.

Finally, how to find the solution to social problems is an element that is common to all social problems. There is no generally accepted way, social problems can be solved. Some solutions can be very complex, while others appear straight forward. Anti Social Behaviour Order (ASBO) was introduced as a straight forward solution to deal with anti social behaviour. However, many young people now regard ASBO as a badge of honour (The Guardian, Monday November 6 2006). To tackle the issue of juvenile crimes and ethnic groups will require complex situations.

Causes of Social Problems

Generally speaking a perspective means a way of looking at things. I will now briefly look at the causes of social problems from different perspectives. I will first look at the individual perspective. Some commentators argue that criminals were abnormally conditioned by biological and environmental factors (Rubington and Weinberg, 1989 p.33). Others however argue that causes of social problems are due mainly to the society/ environment and not due to the physiological make up of individuals. However, certain actions of individuals or groups are so glaring that they causes of social problems are directly attributed to them.

Another reason why social problems occur is due to peer group or family pressure. Disagreement between individuals or groups in a society can also lead to social problems. This is called the interaction perspective.

Fall out between different cultures and religion in a society is a reason why social problems occur. People are usually influenced by their culture and religion. Some people are very fanatic in their views and believe and see some one of a different faith or race as different from them. This can to a lot of social problems.

Social structures are the very basic foundation of any society, and it is a major reason why social problems occur. Some individuals or group might feel excluded from the social, economic or political structures of society. The social structures of society might be designed in such a way that they shut off or marginalise certain segments of their society, usually minority groups. Added to this is that government interferences and policies, might cause social problems, as they may favour certain segments of the society while excluding others.

Examples of Social Problems
Poverty

Poverty has so many definitions. Poverty is powerlessness. It has so many faces and it is changing from place to place and across time (World health Organization, 2001). Absolute poverty is disenabling. It means that one can not afford the basic human requirement. By this, I mean that it robs one of many things in life, including his dignity and pride. Relative deprivation means that one is not keeping up with the standards in a given city. Poverty is one of the major reasons why people are excluded from the political, social and economic structures of society (Maxwell and Kenway, 2001). Poverty is usually constructed by a distinction between normal people, and those that are poor. The constructive perspective of poverty does not deny the existence of poverty, but that only some people at some time and in some place will be labelled as being in poverty May, et al eds 2001 p.7) A realist perspective will look at poverty as objectively describable and will attempt to offer an explanation.

Juvenile delinquency

Juvenile delinquency is a complex, serious problem. The cause of this problem includes peer pressure and the failure of our social structures, among others. However it is not a new phenomenon. In 1880, the penologist Enoch Wines, wrote, ‘’ Delinquent children, the criminals of the next generation, must be prevented from pursuing their criminal carers; they are born to it, brought up to it. They must be saved’’ (Wines, 1880, p.132 cited in McNeil and Townley, p.21-27). We can not overstate, the fact that Juvenile delinquency is a huge social problem today. The government have tried to deal with it, with legislation, cumulating in the crime and disorder Act 1998, Anti Social Behaviour Orders (ASBO) and parenting orders. However, the media seem to be giving a lot of attention to delinquent youths and portraying them as monsters and race and gender issues have not adequately been looked in to. There is also a difference of opinions on how the problem can be solved. The realist perspective will acknowledge the existence of the problem, while a constructive perspective, will view it as a construction of society.

Ethnicity and Social problems

Ethnicity generally refers to a group’s attachment to a particular area and sharing a peculiar way of life. Racism is when a group of people are treated differently because of their colour. There have been ethnic and racial problems in our society. The media have played a part in upping ethnic tension in the UK. Race riots have flared in some parts of the UK. There have also been reported increases in race attacks. Our institutions, particularly the police and the media have been branded institutionally racist. People from ethnic minority are more likely to be stopped and searched by the police and they are more likely to be socially, economically and politically excluded, more than white people. They are also more likely to be projected as social problems. The cause of ethnic tension is usually an unfounded fear that diversity is a threat to the dominant group in society. The realist perspective will acknowledge the existence of this problem and will seek an explanation for it. The constructive perspective will view the issue as a construction by society.

Single parents

Single parents are a social phenomenon now regarded as a social problem because they are believed to have an impact on our values. They tend to impact directly on society, socially, economically, and ideologically. Single parents become a problem, when they cost the state a lot. A good number of single parents depend on state benefits. Fathers are usually absent, and do not contribute towards the upkeep of the children. The social cost of absent fathers can not be overlooked (Dennis and Erdos, 1993). The government have put in place legislation namely the 1989 Children’s Act and the 1991 Child Support Act to deal with the problem.

Conclusion

Social problems are hard to solve. They seem to be ingrained in the complex web of unwanted state intervention, reckless forms of individual behaviour and economic factors. Social problems have no commonly accepted forms of definition, but they all have common factors that relate to them. In the problems that I listed above, they are all seen from different perspectives and given different explanations. It depends on who is viewing the problem. The media and the government also contribute to making social problems hard to solve. Some social problems might be downplayed and others blown out of proportion. Some times the intervention of the government and experts may worsen a problem as they tend to look at the problem form their own point of view, without taking the point of view of individual or groups suffering the problems directly in to consideration.

Individuals can also make social problems difficult to solve. They may mislead the government by providing incorrect data. Economic factors do play a part. The government might not see some social problems as a top priority for them to solve and thus will not earmark enough funds to tackle the problem. Sometimes, the government may not have the political will to solve certain social problems. Some social problems are interwoven in to our social, political and economic structure, that to solve them, we will need to dismantle our entire structure. Finally, there is no generally accepted way to solve social problems. Some solutions appear easy, while others appear complex, but you can not be certain, that the proffered solution will solve the problem.

Bibliography

Bilton et al eds (2002) Introduction to Sociology, Fourth Edition, Macmillan, London

Dennis, N and Erdos, N (1993) Families without fatherhood, Institute for the study of civil society, London

Downes, D & Rock, P (1995) Understanding Deviance, Oxford University Press, New-York

Fulcher, J & Scot, J (2006) Sociology, Third Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford

Levin, J, Innis, K, Carroll, W & Bourne, R (2000) Social Problems, causes, consequences, Interventions, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, new-York

Maxwell, S and Kenway, P (2001) The Challenge of Ending rural poverty, Oxford University Press, Oxford

May, et al eds (2001) Understanding Social problems, Blackwell Publishers,

McNeill, P & Townley, C (1986) Fundamentals of Sociology, Second Edition, Hutchinson, London

Raab, E & Selznick (1964), Major Social Problems, Paterson and Company, Evanston, Illinois

Rubington, E & Weinberg, (1989) The Study of Social Problems, Fourth Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford

Rubington, E and Weinberg, M (1989) The Study of Social Problems, Oxford University Press, New-York

Spector, M & Kitsuse, J (2000) Constructing Social Problems, Transaction, New-Jersey

Prepare a discussion of at least four substantial paragraphs answering the questions that follow. Use at least one source beyond the course text that supports your position (remember to cite your source in APA style). Respond to at least two of your classmates’ postings.

What would be the consequences for society if we could effectively halt the practice of prostitution?

Should we do this even if we could?

Could prostitution ever by organized such that it did not result in the exploitation of women?

My Response

There would be an increase in social problems; more rape, abuse, poverty, violence, trafficking, and underground prostitution if the practice of prostitution was effectively stopped. If we halted the practice of prostitution, we might as well halt the practice of pornography also. I am against legalizing prostitution but do not think it should be banned, because no matter what, prostitution will always be around. I believe prostitution is wrong, by legalizing it, some will think allowing sex outside of a marriage is ok, leading to more divorces, disease, and promote the approval of women’s degradation (Henslin 2008, p. 79). Women are not objects, and should not be for sale. I like this statement from former Swedish Deputy Prime Minister, Margareta Winberg (2002), Prostitution and trafficking causes, gender inequality, sex and racial discrimination, and economic deprivation, as well as the rule of law, crime control, law enforcement and corruption (Winberg 2002, Sweden as Chair section para.5 )

In my opinion, streetwalkers should be incorporated into a red zone, or red light district, by doing this would help keep the drug addicts, and disease inflicted people separate from others. They should have to pay taxes, and have a rule where there are no sex services provided after a certain A.M. hour, like individual state laws on bar closing hours. If prostitutes or clients are found outside of that area, or after hours, they should be arrested. All other prostitutes would work as an escort, call girl or in a brothel, be regulated, and have proof that all employees have been tested for diseases and all employees will be taxed like any other worker. Legalizing prostitution will still exploit women.

Searching for prostitution prevents law enforcement from responding to other victims and dangerous felons, and most of the time only the prostitutes are arrested, not the pimps, clients, or the strip club owners/managers, etcaˆ¦ By legalizing prostitution, laws could be enforced against people who abuse, or are violent against sex workers. Child sex, sex trade, forced labor, and kidnapping would be easier to target.

To try to lower or halt the practice of prostitution, we need to warn women against solicitors and stop them, in order to encounter the demand for prostitution. Men, are usually the buyers of commercial sex acts, and the biggest consumers, of trafficked and prostituted women and children. Men do not respect prostitutes, but use them for entertainment, sexual gratification, acts of violence, and use them to meet their emotional needs, not their physical needs. In order to reduce victims of prostitution, and encounter the exploitation of women, all the components of the demand need to be punished; the men who purchase the sex acts, the exploiters, traffickers, pimps, and the culture that lies about the nature of prostitution (Hughes 2004, pp. 3, 4, 7). Sex will sell as long as there are men.

Henslin, J. M. (2008). Seeing the social context. Boston, Ma: Allyn & Bacon.

Hughes, D. M. (2004). Prostitution causes and solutions (Adobe Digital), Retrieved from http://www.uri.edu/artsci/wms/hughes/prostitution_spain_july04.pdf

Winberg, M. (2002, November 28). Address by the swedish deputy prime minister, margareta winberg. Retrieved from http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/1105/a/6848

2/9/2010 8:54:09 PM

If we could effectively halt the practice of prostitution the consequences in society would be many. The rise in crime would be, in my opinion, almost immediate. Sexual crimes such as rape and sodomy would be but the tip of the iceberg; domestic violence would rise, more violence could ensue because sexually frustrated people are not necessarily the nicest. Also more poverty would be one outcome, because prostitution is a mean of income for many; therefore robbery, drug dealing, burglary and other illegal means of income would rise as well.

Should we do away with prostitution if we could? As I thought of my answer for this question, an interesting memory came back to me: when I was a teenager my parents would not allow me to wear loose fitting “baggy” clothes because they felt that a person should dress appropriately and that the baggy style looked “street” or like you had no home. In my mind I found my parents to be too stereotypical, they needed to Americanize; after all, we had left our fitted-jeans country a long time ago, who would judge me by my clothes? The more they denied me the right to dress like that, the more I wanted to; I would sneak my father’s t-shirts to school, I would borrow my friends X-L sweat pants and change in the bathroom at my school. I felt I was “cool”, I fit in with the rest of my peers; of course I was caught various times, but I didn’t care, I’d continue to do it. One day my parents sat me down and said, “OK, we get it, you want to dress like the rest to be cool, you’re allowed to do so, baggy outfits are added to the swear jar” I felt like I won, I dressed baggy almost every day for three weeks and paid a dollar to the swear jar, and thenaˆ¦ the magic wore off. I was no longer going against anyone; there was no thrill of getting caught, nothing; if anything I was losing money for my stubbornness. I went back to dressing appropriately. My parents were very smart when they did this, although they did not like it, they approved it and “taxed” it (which I later learned was the money we used for family outings), everyone got their way.

Where am I getting to? Well, I feel that we should play it smart. If we were able to successfully stop prostitution, the negative outcomes may outweigh the positive ones. Instead, I think that we should legalize prostitution, set guidelines for the practice – such as testing every week, no pimps, males allowed to “work” in this profession (EEO) – and best of all: tax it; right or wrong it could stimulate the economy. This could have positive outcomes in that, there would be less scandals, less sexual crimes, possibly less STDs going around and a monetary gain to the government.

Organizing prostitution so that it is not exploitation of women, I believe is possible. Exploitation by means of prostitution is a matter of perspective; one can argue that the woman is exploiting the men. The men exploit the women by satisfying his own needs and the women are exploiting the men because they know he has them and is willing to pay. With the exception of prostitutes who are “slaved” by their pimps, I don’t think anyone is exploiting the women. Perhaps if there were rights or laws protecting prostitution as a profession, such as no pimps, medical rights and protection from harassment, the perspective of exploitation could be done away with.

Henslin, J. M. (2008). Social problems: A down-to-Earth approach. 8th edition.

Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

The Larry Mahoney Case

Read “Issues in Social Problems” on page 121 of your text. Larry Mahoney served ten years in the Kentucky state prison at La Grange. In at least four paragraphs, prepare your discussion around the case questions: Do you think this was just? Instead of going to prison, do you think that he should have been fined and had his driver’s license revoked? Or should he have been given the death sentence, as some prosecutors demanded? What do you think would have been appropriate? Respond to at least two of your classmates’ postings.

I feel that the Larry Mahoney case was treated very lightly. I do not feel that his punishment was just. Yet I am forced to say it was well handled. The jury charged him with manslaughter and other “lesser” offenses and recommended 16 years of imprisonment, and under Kentucky law the judge could not add to the sentence. It is beyond me why the fact that he drove drunk and killed any amount of people didn’t get him his license revoked permanently!

Was the sentence just? Yesaˆ¦ to an extent. It is bizarre to me how some prosecutors throw the death penalty request around like it’s any other paper request in an office. It’s supposed to be justice right? How is it fair that a man who killed 27 people, gets to die and the family of the dead get to live with the pain, sorrow and hurt in their hearts, bodies and soul? No death penalty, let him live to face the consequences; and besides, how would justice for accidentally killing people be served by purposely killing someone else? That is like swatting your child’s hand and yelling “hitting people is wrong, don’t do it!” I am FOR the death penalty when it comes to serial anything, killer, rapist, et al. They pose an extreme danger to society, we cannot teach them a lesson, we cannot “re-wire” their brains, they are not remorseful…

Fining him and revoking his license should have been done regardless of him going to jail or not, regardless of him killing people or not; it should have been done regardless of any outcome when he was found drunk behind the wheel. Spending 16 years in jail seems to me to be a bit fair, because that is what the jury delivered; I was not there, I am not aware of how the law worked back then and I believe that if 12 complete strangers all come to the same agreement of justice, then justice was served for them. I do not, however, agree with the fact that his license was not revoked, or that he was eligible for parole; good conduct or not, he should have served the full sentence.

The sentence I would consider fair, would be:

54 years imprisonment

No eligibility for parole

Permanent revocation of all driving privileges

We can sit here and argue all day on this subject, but the truth is that our judicial system is far better now than it was back then. Justice was served for that time, not ours.

Henslin, J. M. (2008). Social problems: A down-to-Earth approach. 8th edition.

Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

This essay seeks to answer the social problem of homophobia in today’s Canadian society. Four scholarly sources were consulted and made reference to in this essay regarding homophobia and the conflict theory. The textbook, Sociology your Compass for a New World written by Robert J. Brym, John Lie and Steven Rytina explores the topic of the conflict theory. The conflict theory explains the class struggle in society; the conflict theory can be used to show how homophobes, the upper class people, use their so called power to take advantage of the less powered, homosexuals. Upon reading this essay the reader will be educated on the social problem of homophobia, types of homophobic manifestation, movements against homophobia and how the conflict theory learnt about in chapter one of the textbook, Sociology your Compass for a New World can help us better understand the social conflict created by homophobia.

Homophobia in Today’s Canadian Society

The social problem of homophobia is defined as the fear or hatred towards homosexuals or homosexuality. This fear has negative consequences towards the Canadian society, especially towards the gays, the lesbians and the bisexuals. Homophobia in Canada today can be manifested internally, externally, institutionally, socially and culturally. Homophobia has rapidly increased in the Canadian society, in most part, many not even aware of being homophobic. When one refuses to take part in a social activity because they might be perceived as guy or lesbian is considered a type of homophobia. This type of homophobia is when one is afraid of being supposed as gay or lesbian. The Canadian government has no control over the decision one takes to be homophobic, what they can do is educate the uninformed and reach out to the younger generations, the main source of this social problem comes from the primary agent of socialization, the family. Homophobia is often passed on from generation to generation; children are being raised to believe that homosexuals are not wanted in our society. On May 17th 1993, homosexuality was removed from the International Classification of Diseases of the World Health Organization (WHO). Today Canadians celebrate this movement as the International Day against Homophobia and Transphobia.

Homophobia may be seen as a class struggle because homophobes associate the gay community as less important than themselves or the “normal” community. The conflict theory as read about in the textbook, “generally focuses on large, macrolevel structures, such as “class relations” or patterns of domination, submission, and struggle between people of high and low standing.” (Robert J. Brym, 2007) The conflict theory explains how homophobes use their power, vulgar words or acts of discrimination, to take advantage of homosexuals who to them, have less power. The conflict theory helps better understand the class struggle homosexuals go through as well as the class inequality. “Gay and lesbian adolescents and youth are disproportionately homeless (Health Canada, 1996; Hellquist, 1996). Sexual orientation is a major precipitating factor leading youth to being and staying on the streets (Canadian Public Health Association, 1998), characterized by poverty and often survival conditions.” (Ryan, 2003) This conflict created by homophobes has increasingly negative consequences on the gay community. Many homosexuals feel the need to leave their homes and home towns in fear of rejection. This just goes to show how powerful homophobes can be in regards to homosexuals.

External, internal, institutional, social and cultural are all different ways in which homophobia can manifest itself. In the most part, homophobic people act negatively towards the gay community by either socially avoiding them, by verbally attacking them or by discriminating against them, also known as external homophobia. Homophobes act this way because they are afraid; they are afraid that homosexuals can convert people to their “kind” and feel the need to protect their children or their own identity. Homosexuals are discriminated against everyday of their lives, whether it is at school, in the street or at work. There is no getting away from homophobia because of all the norms and policies the Canadian society has created. The society of today is constantly surrounded by homophobic manipulation, most not even aware of it. The general population sees ads on a daily basis, watches the television and reads magazines all of which give off the same impression on homosexuals, which is, that they do not exist. Rarely, will TV shows have a gay couple as the main characters of the sitcom. Cultural homophobia is when one is thought to believe that heterosexuality is better than homosexuality; people are being influenced to believe this every single day of their lives. “There is an absence of accurate and positive portrayals of GLB in mainstream media (O’Hanlan, 1995). There is also a lack of positive GLB role models in society (Morrow, 1993).” (Banks, 2004)

Most homophobes deny that they are even homophobic. In most cases, homophobes are uninformed on the homosexual community and base their fear on stereotypes, beliefs and myths. In other words, they are afraid of the unknown. Studies have shown that people who are personally involved with homosexuals either as a friend or just a mutual acquaintance demonstrate little to no hatred towards them. Homophobia is still a social problem today because the population has no accurate information on the subject, some religions are against homosexuality, children are not educated on the subject and the consequence of discrimination towards homosexuals is minimal. The reason in which homophobia has increased is due to the coming out of most homosexuals. Before, homosexuals were afraid to admit their sexual orientation because of the consequences they would have to face. Today, more and more homosexuals are coming out making the homophobic community increase. Both may be seen as parallel lines moving as one. The homophobic line has been showing a slight decrease due to national movements such as the International Day against Homophobia and Transphobia.

To conclude, the social problem of homophobia has impacted the Canadian society, in the most part, negatively. Canada has done a great job in trying to put an end to this social problem and discrimination, by participating in the International Day against Homophobia and Transphobia. This is a day not to show off your gay pride, but a day to try and silence the homophobes and speak up against them. Too many people are being hurt by homophobes and most of the time it goes unheard. According to statistic Canada in 2006 police data reported that, “More than one-half (56%) of incidents driven by hatred towards a particular sexual orientation were violent, higher than the proportion of incidents motivated by race/ethnicity (38%) or religion (26%). Common assault was the most frequent type of violent offence.” (Study: Hate-motivated crime , 2008) It is time for Canada to silence this social problem and become a more united country.

Social Networking Relation1.0 Introduction

“Social networking is really recommendation between people about the things that they are interested in and they like… this has stimulated people’s attention in terms of the importance of public relation. The people who are going on these sites didn’t want to be monetised, they didn’t want to be advertised to, so again editorial communication is so powerful, they would rather be communities that can exchange views that are untarnished.” – Sir Martin Sorrell

Social media is a global phenomenon in which old demographics no longer apply. Conversations happen at the click of a button. New communities are born every day and brands need to be involved; in the first instance to listen, and then to participate. Social media is booming.

Every day new statistics, white papers and articles appear discussing its continued growth. Independent market analyst Datamonitor (2008) has revealed how quickly the number of people participating in online social networking is growing: the United Kingdom currently leads Europe, in terms of membership, and is expected to reach 27 million users – a threefold increase on today’s figures – by 2012 (www.datamonitor.com).

“Social networking sites are the reality television of the Internet,” said Jon Gibs (Senior Director of Media, Nielsen//NetRatings). “The content is relatively inexpensive for publishers to produce, and social networking is not a fad that will disappear. If anything, it will become more ingrained in mainstream sites, just as reality TV programming has become ubiquitous in network programming,” Gibs continued (www.acnielsen.com). “However, again like reality programming, the concept of ‘reality’ alone, or in this case ‘social networking,’ is not enough. In this competitive marketplace, sites also have to provide consumers with distinct content they can identify with.”

A new survey reveals that almost 50 percent of attorneys are members of online social networks and over 40 percent of attorneys believe professional networking has the potential to change the business and practice of law over the next five years. “Online professional networking is a growing area of importance in the legal industry,” said Ralph Calistri, Chief Executive Officer of Martindale Hubbell and senior vice president of Global Client Development at LexisNexis. “As we develop a global network for the legal community through Martindale-Hubbell, objective research such as this survey by Leader Networks serves as an important way for us to listen to clients and guide our efforts.”

Table: United States: Top 10 Social Networking Sites (March 2008)

Source: AC Nielsen

The Internet has broadened the area of word of mouth influences from interpersonal communication among acquaintances to online communication to general public (e.g. posting reviews). Harrison-Walker (2001) defined word of mouth as “informal person-to-person communication between a perceived non-commercial communicator and a receiver regarding a brand, a product, an organization, or a service.” Marketing practitioners try to encourage such “informal” communication in a positive manner, and several approaches such as “viral marketing” (Wilson 2000) and “buzz marketing” (Rosen 2000) have been developed.

Facebook was created in February 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg, a student at Harvard University. According to Zuckerberg, “The idea for the website was motivated by a social need at Harvard to be able to identify people in other residential houses” (Moyle, 2004). Today Facebook has more than 7.5 million registered members at over 2,000 U.S. colleges and is the seventh-most-popular site on the entire Web with respect to total page views (Cassidy, 2006).

Social networking sites are online spaces that allow individuals to present themselves, articulate their social networks, and establish or maintain connections with others. These sites can be oriented towards work-related contexts (e.g. LinkedIn.com), romantic relationship initiation, or connecting those with shared interests such as music or politics (e.g. MySpace.com). Users may use the sites’ communication tools to interact with those they know from offline contexts, such as school, or they may use the sites to meet new people.

The way in which these sites allow for new connections to be made between individuals has resulted in proposed legislation which would bar libraries and schools to block minors’ access to social networking sites such as MySpace and Facebook (McCullagh, 2006). MySpace in particular has generated public concern due to its large member base — 78 million registered accounts according to one source (Wright, 2006) – many of whom are teenagers.

There is little academic work examining online social networks. A 2005 survey of academic community members found that 90% of the undergraduates participated in a social network community, primarily Facebook, MySpace, and Friendster, and that many of them disclosed personal information such as email address (Stutzman, 2006). In her ethnographic work examining self-presentation and social connections among Friendster users, boyd (2004) notes that users have a variety of motivations for using the site, including connecting with old friends, meeting new acquaintances, dating, and furthering professional networks.

In one of the few pieces to examine this new breed of online fora, Donath and boyd (2004) point out that one of the chief hallmarks of these sites is that links between individuals are mutual, public, unnuanced and decontextualized. In the sites that Donath and boyd examine, public displays of connections serve to warrant, or signal the reliability of, one’s identity claims. Social networking sites are distinguished from the first wave of virtual community sites in that they allow for both maintenance of existing social ties and formation of new connections.

A hallmark of the early research on computer-mediated communication and virtual communities in particular is the assumption that individuals using these systems would be connecting with those outside their pre-existing social group or location, liberating individuals to form communities around shared interests, as opposed to shared geography (Wellman et al., 1996).

However, some online community researchers have explored how online communities present opportunities for people in a common offline community to extend their interaction. Such a theme is articulated by Wellman et al. (1996), who note that “Although CSSNs [computer supported social networks] do transcend time and space, not all ties are either totally on-line or off-line. Much on-line contact is between people who see each other in person and live locally” (p.222).

1.1 Research Question

This research studies the importance of social networking sites and aims to identify how motivations for using social networking sites influence the degree of interaction and the generation of word-of-mouth. Next, in order to study use patterns of social networking sites between users in United Kingdom and to explore the relationship between the degree of interaction and the generation of word-of-mouth, the following questions are generated.

Why / how often do people use social networking sites?
Are social networking sites users generating word-of-mouth? If so, what makes users generate word-of-mouth?
Do the motivations of using social networking sites influence on the degree of interaction or on the generation of word-of-mouth?

H1 – Exploring the relationship between the purpose of using social networking sites and the degree of users’ interaction

H2 – Exploring the relationship between the purpose of using social networking sites and the generation of word-of-mouth

H3 – Exploring the relationship between the degree of users’ interaction and the generation of word-of-mouth in social networking sites

Main Research Question: How effective are motivations for using social networking sites influencing degree of interaction and word of mouth in United Kingdom?

At the same time, the growing importance of word-of-mouth on social networking sites is understood and discussed by both marketing practitioners and academics, and online word-of-mouth communication is considered as a new marketing tool (Kozinets, 1999; Croteau, 2006; Peattie, 2007; McKinsey Quarterly, 2007).

Due to the similar characteristics between social networking sites and word-of-mouth communication, namely, relationship and interaction among people, a number of researchers tried to find out the connection between online communities and word-of-mouth, then, came up with various ways to measure word-of-mouth in the virtual world (Kozinets, 2002; Godes et al, 2005; Dwyer, 2007).

In addition, after their introduction, social networking sites brought in a new organisational framework for online communities. According to Boyd and Ellison (2008), early online communities were constructed as ‘communities of interest’, but social networking sites these days are constructed as personal. In other words, social networking sites are centred around people rather than topics or ‘topical hierarchies’.

2.0 Literature Review
2.1 General Overview

The study of personal influence and the idea that there are certain people who are especially influential over others has fascinated researchers, practitioners, and the general public for more than 60 years. Variously named in academic and popular circles, these people have been called opinion leaders (Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955), early adopters (Rogers, 1962/2003), influential (Weimann, 1994), and Influential Americans® (Keller & Berry, 2003), while the process of personal influence has been linked to, or synonymous with, various phenomena such as compliance gaining (strategic attempts to seek compliance from others in interpersonal settings; Wilson, 2002), the diffusion of innovations (how ideas spread in a culture; Rogers, 1962/2003), buzz (contagious word-of-mouth commentary about products, services, brands, and ideas; Walker, 2004), and tipping points (the point at which an idea, behavior, or product “tips,” crossing a threshold from being a minor phenomenon to a wild epidemic; Gladwell, 2000).

Numerous organizations, for-profit and not-for-profit, in an assortment of industries (consumer products, fashion, health care, law, higher education, etc.) have sought to capitalize on a renewed awareness and interest in the influential role that informal conversation and relational networks play internally to an organization (e.g., in terms of sharing knowledge within and across organizational units; Cross & Parker, 2004; May & Zorn, 2002) and especially to external audiences (e.g., in the case of viral and buzz marketing).

Thus, although the power of stimulating word-of-mouth and relational networks has been known for some time (Arndt, 1967; Whyte, 1954), a more recent phenomenon is when certain firms seek to consciously engineer buzz in relational networks (Balter & Butman, 2005; Dye, 2000; Godin, 2001; Ozcan, 2004; Rosen, 2000;Walker, 2004).

For example, some firms (such as Big Fat Inc.) pay people to go out and talk up a brand, either in face-toface or online settings, where the fact that they are employed by a marketing agency is not disclosed (a form of “undercover” marketing). Other firms (such as BzzAgent, Inc.) actively recruit volunteers who willingly participate in a campaign by going out and buzzing the product or service (oftentimes in exchange for points that can be redeemed for prizes or the knowledge that they are the first among their peers to have access to a new product) and then report back to the buzz marketing company their own and others’ feedback about the product (the company then compiles and analyzes these various reports from the field and presents them to the client). Still others (e.g., Proctor & Gamble’s Tremor program) form an extensive network of carefully selected teenagers to create buzz among peers for their clients’ brands and products (Wells, 2004).

These distinct kinds of organizational marketing practices have raised a number of ethical concerns, some more than others. In addition to whether or not the institutional identity of the agent is disclosed, whether or not the person buzzing the brand is doing so for some form of compensation, and whether or not agents involve minors younger than age 13 (Wells, 2004), a significant concern is that through buzz marketing marketers are better able to infiltrate everyday conversations and relationships (Walker, 2004), which might be regarded as further instantiation of corporate colonization of the lifeworld (Deetz, 1992).

With traditional forms of marketing and advertising efforts, consumer audiences can “tune out” or “turn off” the advertising. However, what happens when the marketing is your friend or family member, in online and offline conversations? Is society increasingly falling prey to the “commercialization of chit-chat?”(Walker, 2004). Although these concerns are not new— for example, marketing to known others has been well-documented and critiqued in terms of Tupperware parties (Frenzen & Davis, 1990; Taylor, 1978) and multilevel marketing companies (Biggart, 1989; Carl, 2004; Fitzpatrick & Reynolds, 1997)—the fact that increasing numbers of well-known, mainstream organizations seek to amplify buzz in social networks has elevated the concern (Vranica, 2005).

2.2 Word of mouth

Word-of-mouth has grown in popularity over the past several years as a marketing and research medium (BzzAgent, 2005). Marketers seeking to find new methods for reaching customers and communicating with them have wondered if word-of-mouth could provide a potential solution to the dwindling return of traditional marketing platforms. Since the beginning of organized marketing programs, marketers viewed word-of-mouth as an incredibly valuable, yet uncontrollable, result of effective marketing practices.

Many marketers have implemented plans to fool word of mouth into occurring, seeding the marketplace with shills (paid actors talking up products and services). They found the results effective but extremely risky, since consumers didn’t like being deceived. In recent years, a number of companies have formed, seeking to harness the power of authentic word of mouth (BzzAgent, 2005). By organizing real consumers, they train them to share their honest opinions more effectively.

Defining word of mouth can be tricky, especially in light of the Internet and recent emergence of buzz marketing firms. According to Buttle’s (1998) review of marketing research, Arndt (1967) discussed word of mouth as face-to-face communication about a brand, product, or service between people who are perceived as not having connections to a commercial entity. Bone’s (1992) definition is similar though she noted that word of mouth could be a group phenomenon:

“An exchange of comments, thoughts, and ideas among two or more individuals in which none of the individuals represent a marketing source” (p. 579).

Stern (1994) distinguished word of mouth from advertising in that word of mouth is face-to-face, interactive, ephemeral, spontaneous, and does not include such features as clever turns of phrases or jingles. Buttle (1998), however, found these definitions unsatisfactory because (a) Word of mouth can include talk about an organization (in addition to a brand, product, or service), (b) it can be electronically mediated (such as cell phone, chat rooms, e-mail, Web sites, “tell-a-friend” hyperlinks, etc.), and (c) more and more companies may offer incentives or rewards for consumers to spread word of mouth or make referrals (e.g., to refer friends and family members for a company’s services). Buttle concluded that currently the only distinguishing feature of word of mouth may be that “word of mouth is uttered by sources that are assumed by receivers to be independent of corporate influence” (p. 243).

In contrast to traditional word of mouth marketing research, research on buzz marketing is still in its infancy. Verlegh, Verkerk, Tuk, and Smidts (2004) mentioned, but did not study, buzz marketers in their experimental research on whether or not financial incentives used when stimulating customer referrals alter the meaning of the situation such that consumers would perceive the word of mouth episode to be “persuasive” rather than just friendly, peer advice.

Thomas (2004) represented an early conceptual piece on buzz marketing where it was defined as the “amplification of initial marketing efforts by third parties through their passive or active influence” (p. 64). An early empirical study that applied insights from existing word of mouth and social network research from a firm’s perspective was conducted by Godes and Mayzlin (2004).

Abundant research demonstrates that word of mouth (WOM) is one of the most influential channels of communication in the marketplace. The reasons for WOM’s power are evident: word of mouth is seen as more credible than marketer initiated communications because it is perceived as having passed through the unbiased filter of “people like me.” At a time of declining trust in institutions, research shows that its influence is growing stronger. In a recent national survey (Harris Interactive, 2006a), U.S. consumers were asked which information sources they find useful when deciding which products to buy in four common product categories.

WOM and “recommendations from friends/family/people at work/school” were by far the most influential sources for fast food, cold medicine, and breakfast cereal. For personal computers, a highly technical category, we saw a strong reliance on expert advice in the form of product reviews and websites, followed by WOM as the next most useful. The consumer marketplace in which any enterprise operates is a complex, dynamic system.

A study found that disinterested, ill-prepared and unwelcoming salespeople lead to more lost business and bad word-of-mouth than any other management challenge in retailing. “There are a variety of different triggers for having a bad shopping experience, including things like parking or how well the store is organized. Some of those things retailers can do something about and some of them they can’t. But frankly, a very important part of the retail experience is the interaction with the sales associate,” says Wharton marketing professor Stephen J. Hoch, director of the Baker Initiative.

In a telephone survey of 1,000 shoppers who were asked about their most recent retail experience, 33% reported they had been unable to find a salesperson to help them. Many of these shoppers were so annoyed by this one problem that they said they would not return to the store. According to the Wharton analysis, sales associates who are missing in action cost American retailers six percent of their customers. Add to that the 25% of consumers reporting they were ignored outright by sales associates – no greeting, no smile, not even eye contact (Arndt, 1967; Aaker et al, 1996; Reingen and Kernan, 1986).

This lack of engagement turned off three percent of customers to the point where they said they would permanently stay way from the store in which they encountered this behaviour. Hoch remains puzzled by sales associates who retreat from potential customers. “You would think that if these sales associates are spending the whole day interacting with people, they would be a lot happier in their own life if they were friendly. Instead, they pull into their shell (Brown and Reingen, 1987).

What’s wrong with saying, ‘Hi, how are you doing?’” According to Paula Courtney, president of the Verde Group, survey respondents were not frustrated by sales associates who seemed overworked or outmanned by shoppers. It’s the “conscious ignoring” that irritates them, she says. “Customers would walk into a store and the store representative would see them and continue to put items on the shelf or watch the cash register or do administrative work – absolutely ignoring the fact that an actual person was in the store (Cox, 1963, cited in Brown at el, 2007).”

In the above example, the degree of interaction was bad with consumers at a particular retail outlet. This provided bad word of mouth and hampered long term sustainability for the retailer. In other words, this forms the central part of the dissertation that degree of interaction and word of mouth are slightly interrelated.

2.3 Motives of Social networking

British anthropologist Robin Dunbar estimates that humans can only maintain stable relationships with around 150 people. That number refers to significant relationships like those in a family or tribe and other purposeful groups. Yet in today’s over-informed digital business world, where bloated data moves at the speed of thought, it’s not who you know that really counts, but who knows you (Kozinets, 1999; Boyd and Ellison, 2008).

Professional online social networking tools are invaluable in creating personal brand equity and raising awareness about who you are, especially beyond your 150 closest friends (BBC News, 2005). Online social networking software enables you to find quality people who may not be familiar with you, or with your organization, and creates an opportunity to connect with them and sell them on your opportunities (Boyd and Ellison, 2008). They may be unfamiliar with your company or business, or may not have even been looking for something.

Because you already know someone who knows them, you can feel more comfortable that they are a quality prospect or at least can do some checking around (Boyd and Ellison, 2008). Also, because of that mutual connection, you can more easily overcome cumbersome barriers and begin a relationship with a little more trust and warmth than with a total stranger. Like “Six degrees of Kevin Bacon,” social networking sheds light on the contacts you never knew you had. For example, you can contact people in your network to:

Rekindle old connections
Maximize value in your weak connections
Build business relationships with clients or hiring managers
Find and meet prospective job-seekers
Grow a referral network
Heighten your corporate and personal brand
Make new connections and grow your sphere of influence
Open doors to future career opportunities, increased pay, or promotions
Increase visibility, which improves influence and effectiveness internally with your organization as well as externally

Social networking also helps you find new leads for networking into companies to:

Educate yourself and ask questions about other organizations
Conduct competitive intelligence on companies, industries, or individuals
Make fewer cold calls and better prepare for them
Leverage contacts you already have

With the help of existing literature, Ridings and Gefen (2004) categorised four reasons to join online communities: ‘information exchange’, ‘social support exchange’, ‘friendship, and ‘recreation’. Firstly, people choose to use online communities to access and exchange information. By using online communities, people can access a huge amount of information generated by other users since online community providers offer effective systems or technologies in order to make their users easily exchange, create, request and search information (Hagel and Armstrong, 1997).

The second reason why users participate in online communities is to obtain the social support. Wellman et al (1996) suggested that online communities give emotional support and sociability to their users by giving ‘a sense of belonging’. For instance, Mickelson (1997) gave examples of online communities which focus on recovering social problems such as alcohol and drug addicts in order to explain why the social support can be the motivation of using online communities.

Thirdly, people join online communities to manage relationships. To seek friendship or to generate social capital, which can be defined as the resources gathered through the relationships among people (Coleman, 1988), online community users interact with other users with the aim of establishing and continuing relationships. For example, offline social capital can be generated by means of online tools, especially using social networking sites when people want to expand or keep up their offline relationships. Lastly, recreation is another reason why people experience online communities.

In conclusion, how word-of-mouth affects consumer behaviour can be described by those three factors; tie strength, homophily, and source credibility. As mentioned above, Brown et al (2007) and other researchers (Silverman, 1997; Money et al, 1998; Bansal and Voyer, 2000) explored the nature of word-of-mouth in online communities. Finally, the summary of the research above is compared by Brown et al (2007) as the following Table 1.

Table 1: A Comparison between offline and online social network constructs

Offline

Online

Tie Strength

Definition

The intensity of a social relation between pairs of individuals

The intensity of an interactive and personalised relationship between an individual and a website

Homophily

Definition

The degree to which pairs of individuals are similar in terms of certain attributes

The congruence between a user’s psychological attributes and website content

Source Credibility

Definition

Perceived competence of the individual source providing information

Perceived competence of the website and its membership

Source: Brown et al, 2007, pp. 10 Table 1

Bottom line: It could be seen that different internet users have diverse motives to enter social networking sites. Fulfilment of motives can enhance positive word of mouth and higher degree of interaction of a particular website. As per previous academic literature there have been negligible cases that internet users have entered social networking with out motivations. This forms the foundation of dissertation.

3.0 Research Model
3.1 Research approach

The research strategy we intend to adopt is a combination of multi-methods, of deductive, inductive and exploratory. Quantitative data will be collected throughout the life cycle of the project, from secondary sources: journals, databases, past dissertations, newspapers and magazine articles etc. We propose to use the following secondary databases to conduct quantitative data research:

Emerald Full text
Emerald Reviews
Emerald Abstracts
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Primary research will be conducted, using a closed questionnaire designed to predict average behaviour of children in general (Saunders et al. 2003). The inductive approach takes to account interpretivism or social considerations, which enables to establish the intentions of the respondents more clearly.

Saunders et al (2003) says that data collected using open-ended questions allows individuals more flexibility in answering, which may confirm a hypothesis or other wise. The limitation or disadvantage of this approach is that it is subjective and can only be applied to a limited sample of participants (Saunders et el. 2003).

Exploratory research will be conducted on a pilot group consisting of young internet users (mainly with Orkut profiles) within the age group 15-20 who will participate in a discussion on the following; the influence of motivations for using social networking sites on degree of interaction and word of mouth in United Kingdom.

3.2 Research Design

A research design is a program that guides the investigator in the process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting observations. According to Nachmias & Nachmias (1987) it is logical model of proof that allows the researcher to draw inferences concerning causal relationships among the variables under investigation. Consequently, the appropriate research design will depend on the problem to be investigated (Churchill, 1991), the purpose of the research, the research questions, and the state of the knowledge existing prior to the research plan (Eisenhardt, 1989).

Research methods and data collection, form an elementary part of the research design. Typically, the research methods and the data collection techniques are functions of the purpose of the research design. The purpose of the research may be organized into three groups based on what the researcher is trying to accomplish: explore a new topic, describe social phenomena or explain why something occurs.

The three basic types of research designs are: Exploratory (Case Studies), Descriptive and Casual.

3.2.1 Case Study

The case study approach is the most widely used in management fraternity. A Case study is the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small group, frequently including the accounts of subjects themselves. It’s a form of qualitative descriptive research and it deals intensely at an individual or small participant pool, drawing conclusions only about that participant or group and only in that specific context.

This research design is not used to focus on topics such as discovery of a universal, general

Virtual CommunitiesAbstract

This article is to discuss the claim that new forms of computer mediated social networking sites have created virtual communities. Author analysed two specific examples – Facebook.com and Myspace.com to elaborate discussion. The article will include the analysis of the notion and the value of virtual community and followed by the features of social networking site by take a close look into two famous and successful social networking sites – Facebook.com and Myspace.com. The article will get conclusion by comparison the values and features between SNS and virtual community to identify the relationship between them. The privacy issue also been mentioned in the article.

Introduction

Updated information from Alexa.com – a information website calculate the web traffic metrics also count the ranking of popular website in the whole world shows that the facebook.com has achieved the second popular ranking website worldwide followed Google.com. In additional, many similar website such as windows live.com, Blogger.com, twitter.com, myspace.com etc. get the higher ranking on the list. It indicates the success of social networking sites and those social network sites has been a crucial part of our today’s virtual community. The aim of the essay is to discuss the claim of new forms of computer mediated social networking sites have created virtual communities by analysis two famous successful social networking sites, facebook.com and myspace.com.

A virtual community is a group of people that primarily interact via communication media such as newsletters, telephone, email, internet social network service or instant messages rather than face to face, for social, professional, educational or other purposes. There are many types of virtual community are varies on internet world. They may include applications such as instant message, email, chat room as well as internet site such as blogs, social networking sites, photo and video sharing sites YouTube.com, and virtual realit environments or online game environments such as Second Life. (Boneva, Quinn, Kraut, Kiesler, & Shklovski, 2006; Gross, 2004) Most of those websites and functions are taking advantage the newly technology – Web 2.0.

Web 2.0 and Virtual Community

We are in the midst of a digital revolution that is giving way to a “new information environment” (Bimber, 2003). The most important technology which may stimulate the development of virtual community is Web 2.0, As recently described by Pew, The advent of Web 2.0 – the ability of people to use a range of information and communication technology as a platform to express themselves online and participate in the commons of cyberspace – is often heralded as the next phase of the information society. (Pew, 2007, p.ii) It is the key technology to create a muti-user environment which is the centre to the idea of cyberspace. Although web 1.0 can hold some of online community in early stage like chatting room, they just focused on bringing people together to have a talk or chat while web 2.0 encourage more interactive between group of people with muti-functional tools. Web 2.0 has been defined as ‘a group of technologies which have become deeply associated with the term: blogs, wikis, podcasts, RSS feeds, etc., which facilitate a more socially connected Web where everyone is able to add to and edit the information space’ (Anderson, 2007). Christy M.K. Cheung and Matthew K.O. Lee (2009) stated that the proliferation of web 2.0 technologies made people easier to get involved in information exchange, and it made internet more interactive, customized, social and media intensive. The availability of create and publish online content is one of the most important feature of Web 2.0. It offers social spaces where people can share common interests and exchange information as they want. The feature made online environment create a virtual community.

By take a view into traditional community we can find there are some common features between real and virtual community. In biological terms, a community is a group of interacting organisms sharing an environment, internet offer this common space for internet user. In sociology, the concept of community has caused infinite debate, and sociologists are yet to reach agreement on a definition of the term. Traditionally a “community” has been defined as a group of interacting people living in a common location. Daniel Memmi argued, “though sage varies somewhat, it appears that in the most usual sense, a community refers to a particular kind of social group, defined by strong personal links” the dance community in Brunel University, the member of the community has been assemble together by their common interests and build strong personal link with each other by participate in the community activities. Sometimes the situations are the same with some online community like some fandom blog or online community. Members share their common interests with strong personal relationships. The real communities won’t be large since it is hard for member to know each other and build relationship with each other well in a huge community. Usually traditional community required face to face communication within members as they can share their information together and maintain relationship with others. Virtual Community is new type of community which keeps the main features of traditional community but some characteristics are different.

1. Location & time flexibility

There is no need for virtual community to assemble their members to come to a physical common location or place at same period of time together. ‘The World Wilde Web’ is the place for everyone in every virtual community. People from all over the world can join in any of virtual community and participate in the activities anytime they want. This feature is benefit from the characteristic of network society. Manuel Castells (1996: 445) introduces the concept of ‘timeless time’ which is a famous concept about time & space in the modern network society. He argued the network society endeavors to create a ‘forever universe’ in which the limits of time are pushed further and further back. Take youtube.com as an example, the website has cooperated with many cell phone maker companies to embed the function of upload video to youtube.com from the mobile phone directly, which means people can take a video clip by the mobile phone camera and publish on youtube.com immediately from anywhere they are.

2. Scales

Usually, successfully virtual communities have huge number of members such as facebook.com, the statistics from official website (statistic.facebook.com 2010) shows that they have more than 300million active users and 50% of active users log on to in any given day. And another statistic shows average user has 130 friends on the site. This feature is different from traditional community since the size of realistic community can’t be such huge. People in traditional community need to build relationship with other members and also need to keep in touch with them. It is impossible to achieve that with large number of people while it seems not compulsory for the member in some of virtual community.

3. Strong personal link or Impersonal link

As I mentioned before, traditional virtual community is based on strong personal link. However some types of virtual communities are based on more functional link like youtube.com or ebay.com. Memmi (2006) suggests that virtual community is often large, and show casual, impersonal relationships. People join in those communities for seeking some kind of value and profit. Member of ebay.com can buy or sell their product on this platform and member of youtube.com can get the latest news and update information about what they may interested in. Those types of communities are no difference with our real modern society. The motivations joining those virtual communities may be there are more convenience, more valuable and more democracy on this platform. Most importantly, they are going to exchange their information on internet. Knowledge and information are, in general, a valuable currency or social resource in virtual communities (Binik, Cantor, Ochs, & Meana, 1997; Hiltz & Wellman, 1997; Rheingold, 1993a; Sproull & Faraj, 1997). http://www.fixya.com/ is a virtual community which encourage their member to help other member in IT fix problem. Member of Fixya can either ask question about IT problem or help other member to solve their problem. Member of that website doesn’t even know who help and support you, that is those link are not strong personal link, The other way round, virtual community like facebook.com and online game are based on strong personal link and different like Memmi’s idea about impersonal nature about virtual community. As the high ranking of those social networking sites become more and more popular, SNS has became one of most important part in virtual community that is personal strong relationship maintains in huge part of today’s virtual community. U.M. Dholakia, R.P. Bagozzi and L.K. Pearo (2004: 224) stated 5 types of value offering by virtual community in the table of ‘the values of using a virtual community:

Purposive value

Just like article have mentioned above, information exchange, by information exchange online, people who has no information or knowledge in specific area can get the knowledge they need from the virtual community also they can share their information with other member to accomplish this virtual community.

Self-discovery

People who join in the virtual community may obtain access to social resources and facilitate the attainment of their own future goal; in addition, they may form clearly define and elaborate on their own preference based on interaction with others. (U.M. Dholakia, R.P. Bagozzi and L.K. Pearo 2004: 224)

Entertainment value

Facilitates like online game such as MMORPG or virtual world game like second life become a platform and offer chance for people to play and relaxing in it. Also many SNS websites have the same function with online game. ‘it is the value draw from fun and relaxation through playing otherwise interacting with others’ (U.M. Dholakia, R.P. Bagozzi and L.K. Pearo 2004: 224)

Social enhancement

This value is supported by most social networking sites. Most of them allow user and member to create a profile for themselves such as their interests, favorite book, and graduate university or whether you like to dating with strangers etc. The personal relevance information may help members gaining acceptance and approval of other members and enhanced their network social status in those virtual communities.

Maintain interpersonal relationship

We are in the modern Gesellschaft-type society. German sociologists such as To?nnies, Simmel, and Weber have proposed a fundamental distinction between traditional community (Gemeinschaft in German) and modern society (German Gesellschaft). (Tonnies 1963; Weber 1956; Simmel 1989) in modern Gesellschaft-type society, links are much more impersonal, temporary and functional (as is typical in city life). In larger modern associations, function and social roles replace personal relations as the basis of social status. The increasing size of these organizations makes it impossible anyway to know all other group members on a personal basis, and social functioning is guided by rules, regulations and contracts, rather than by traditional custom and personal obligations. Individual members may well belong to several groups and group identity is much weaker. (Daniel Memmi, 2006) Under this social structure, the emerging of loneliness is unavoidable. That’s why people are keen on express themselves and keep contact with their friend on facebook.com or play a virtual online game such as MMORPG. Join in this type of virtual communities can provide additional benefits beyond that of information exchange – The feeling of being together and being a member of a group and being part of a group, spending time together, companionship, socializing, and networking discussing the same topic with other people no matter how far the distance between members each other. Most people join in social networking sites to seek this kind of value support by virtual community. The article will analyse today’s social networking sites in following parts.

Social networking sites

Danah M. Boyd and Nicole B. Ellison (2007) defined social networking sites as ‘web-based services that allow individuals to construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system; articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection and view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the system. ‘Mike Thelwall (2008) argued very similar that social network websites are web servers that allow internet user to register for being a member of that website. The members can communicate with selected other people while they request being a friend with them by showing their own profile, the personal profile usually being created in advance – the same time register as a member. Members may edit their profile by uploading new picture, video clips or other relevant information. Only people who confirm the request by others for being a friend can gain the right to access to the full profile of your friend online. Most SNS offering many applications for members such as online instant message, blogging, photo sharing facility, online game apps etc. Theses applications enhanced the interaction with members. Actually members seem to using social networking site as a tool for maintaining previous relationship and meet strangers on internet. (Jennefer Hart, Ridlely, Faaisal Taher, Corina Sas, Alan Dix 2008) Many pervious scholarships identified that the concept of ‘friendship’ is the key to analyse the social network sites. Those sites are also benefited the strength of weak ties

Weak ties and Strong ties

The term of Weak ties raised by M. Ganovetter(1973). He suggested that there are two types of relationship between peoples – ‘weak ties and strong ties’. Weak ties are different from strong ties while the weak ties relationship usually being maintained between people from different background. Williams, D. (2006) mentioned that ‘weaker ties tend to be to those people less like the first person, they lead to more people in different life situations and thus to a broader set of information and opportunities.’ Social network sites are encouraging people to obtain those weak ties relationship all over the world. By join the SNS like Myspaces.com and Twitter.com, people can make new friend online and they may feel they been connect with the world and can know what happening outside. Weak ties relationship also can let people to know different perceptions towards current hot event from different background. When most social network focused on establishing weak ties relationship between members, Facebook also put much attention on building strong ties relationships. Facebook is encouraging people access to their offline friend rather than strangers on internet. Those friends may come from the same background such as university classmate. People with strong ties relation may be very close friend which may share important information. Members of Facebook.com may keep in touch with their offline friends on internet. The following part of the article will analyse the characteristics of social networking sites by compare two famous SNS – Facebook.com & Myspaces.com

Background information about Facebook.com & Myspaces.com

Facebook.com first introduced on Feb 2004 in USA. Jane Lewis and Anne West (2009) suggested that at the beginning of this website is for Harvard students only. Several months later, the website became also available for students in Stanford, Columbia and Yale. Gradually Facebook.com was reached most university in America for student to reach each other and find their friend on it. The website has been introduced in UK in Oct 2005. With the development of Facebook.com, this more traditional university student only online community became a social networking site which opens to everyone who has a valid email address in 2006. More than half of facebook.com users were non-universities students anymore in 2007 (Facebook.com, 2007b).

Myspace.com is also born in USA. The origin of myspace.com was a leading online storage and sharing site called YourZ.com until 2002 (YOLANDA VILLATE 2002). From 2002-2004, Myspace.com existed as a brand associated with YourZ.com, had made the transition from a virtual storage site to a social networking site. Nowadays myspace.com has become 5th most visited in USA and 23rd most visited website in UK. Different from Facebook.com, Myspace.com enhanced the relationship between members which from different background and never met before. Myspace.com also emphasis the fandom issue for members who is the fan of some celebrities. It becomes one of the most reasons for being success in world wide.

Online and offline friendship

As mentioned before, the concept of friendship is very important for social networking sites. It does being considered by both facebook.com and myspace.com. Pointed out by Mike Thelwall (2008) social network friendship has been explored most systematically. In terms of Facebook.com, facebook.com still as its favorite of student based social network site. In 2007’s research taken by Golder, Wilkinson, and Huberman, they states that most communication on facebook.com take place between students at same college or used to be in a same college that is their relationship or friendship has already been established. Jennefer Hart, Charlene Ridley, Fasial Taher, Corina Sas, Alan Dix (2008) argued that there is a particular aspect of Faceboook.com makes it distinctly with others social network sites is the trend of enhanced offline relationship with online relationship. Facebook.com members are using website to maintain relationships with their offline friends. They can also search their pervious friend in college even in high school. At that time, facebook.com becomes a ‘social search engine’. Many people are interested in what happened on their old friend and been access to them without the barrier of distance. McCartjy and Wright suggested that facebook.com members being more intensified wit offline relationships rather than meet new people. Myspace.com is different from Facebook.com; ‘it seems that there is a class divide, at least in the U.S., between education-oriented Facebook.com users and predominantly non college-educated MySpace users.’ (Boyd, 2007) Myspace.com is mainly focus on building weak ties relationship between members. It can be found obviously when register a new account. People who want to being a member of myspace.com need to chose what type of relationship they are looking for such as dating, serious relationship or friend etc. in addition, myspace.com encourage bands to join in the music.myspace.com while other members can register as a member of those bands or musicians. It made possible for members who are the fan of those musicians and bands to track their recent situation and activity. Moreover being a ‘friend’ with idols or celebrities is really attractive for members of myspace.com. Although myspace.com is a weak ties friendship social network sites, the result from recent research about friendship in myspace.com conduct by Thelwall (2008) shows more and more people brings their offline relationship to myspace.com like facebook.com. Also many celebrities has been registered on facebook.com which enable members of faceboo.com to following their speech and activities, that is those SNS has become more and more comprehensive rather than focus on one direction.

Reason and activities of people use social network sites

The article has mentioned above that friendship – maintain offline friendship or meet new friend on internet is the key reason people become member of social network sites. However what they do regularly on these SNS are not yet clearly. Research done by Kaveri Subrahmanyam, Stephanie M. Reich, Natalia Waechter, Guadalupe Espinoza (2008) gave us some suggestion about that.

The chart above shows that participants answered using social networking sites mainly for social reasons that involved people from their offline lives, the reason of keeping in touch with friends they do not see often ranked first (81%) followed by because all their friends had accounts (61%), keeping in touch with relatives and family (48%), and making plans with friends they see often (35%). As the trend mentioned above today’s Social networking site users in the samples are less frequently use social networking sites to look for new friendship online (29%). For most university students, the more popular social networking activities involved interacting with other known users rather than looking for new friends, new music, or finding groups to talk about specific issues. (Kaveri Subrahmanyam, Stephanie M. Reich, Natalia Waechter, Guadalupe Espinoza 2008)

This chart from the same research shows the activities of SNS member which they did most frequently on internet. the most common social networking activities that users did is reading/responding to notes/messages (77%) followed by reading comments/ posts on their profile page/wall (75%), browsing friends ‘pages/profiles/walls (66%), and writing comments on friends ‘pages/posting on other people’s walls/tagging photos (54%). They also put much time on search new friend, looked for profiles and edited/ updated their profile and status. The result also shows that member is more reluctant to create or join a new group. (Kaveri Subrahmanyam, Stephanie M. Reich, Natalia Waechter, Guadalupe Espinoza 2008) These data collect from research may help the article to identify in what extent whether social network sites have created virtual community by compare the value of virtual community and SNS member behavior. The two famous social network website – facebook.com and myspace.com will be discussed in the following part.

Value of virtual community and social network sites

The article discussed above which rose by Christy M.K. Cheung and Matthew K.O. Lee (2009) they pointed out R.P Bagozzi and U.M. Dholakia (2002)’s work about 5 different type of value people may gain from virtual community – purposive value, self discovery, entertainment value, social enhancement, and maintaining interpersonal relationship.

Purposive value

Although there is an application for Facebook.com called news feeds which allow members to share their recently to information about themselves. There is no other information members can get from the website or other member only if other member share their information with you. Myspace.com offering better purposive value compare with facebook.com. Members may link to musician and bands myspace.com account website to track their new released information or listen their new music or watch newly uploaded music video clips and most importantly all the music is free. Celebrities like USA president Obama also have the blog in myspace.com. Members may access to his recent announcement or speech on his blog. In some extent those information are purposive value, however still there are limitation on this type of value compare with other professional video or information sharing website such as youtube.com

Self-discovery value

Both facebook.com and myspace.com enable member to think more about recent hot issue by sharing their views on their blog. People may be influenced by other people by their comments or view towards specific event or issue. The twitter.com is the most powerful SNS in this field. When people open the twitter.com, there is even no need to register, people may search the topic they interested in and to see how people around world think about it. The home page of twitter.com also offers the hottest keyword for recommendations.

Entertainment value

Jennefer Hart, Chariene Ridley, Faisal Taher, Corina Sas, Alan Dix (2008) suggests that one of the most important reasons for both joining and engaging with SNS like facebook.com was the ‘social pleasure’. Social pleasure means that to have an enjoyable experience for using those social network sites. Facebook.com offers different facilities and applications for the members to interact with each other. Despite those common features, the ‘wall’ is really interesting idea which enable member’s friend writing or drawing a picture on their wall. In addition, facebook.com supports many online mini game apps which can be available for multiplayer like you and your friend. Most of those mini online games are quite interesting. Myspace.com share the same function with facebook.com in the part of online game apps, moreover, to build relationship with musician and band and watching music video can be fun for members of myspace.com. It indicates the data above that nearly 50% participants join in the social network sites for have fun and not be board.

Social enhancement

The result of the research shows majority of members of social network site keep adding profile and writing comments. It is a way for member to expressing themselves and also enhances their social status. ‘The aspect of representing oneself to other people in a social situation was a key feature within Facebook.com’ (Jennefer Hart, Chariene Ridley, Faisal Taher, Corina Sas, Alan Dix 2008) Sonia Livingston (2008) suggests similar that people on internet always devoted attention to the presentation of self. Creating and networking online content is becoming a crucial part of presenting one’s identity, lifestyle and social relations. Social network sites like facebook.com and myspace.com allows member to create their own profile to express themselves and share them with their friends. Facebook.com also offers different way for member to show them on the stage such as sharing photo and video with their friend. The process of sign up for being a member of myspace.com also proves that the personal profile may enhance their social status. Despite the basic personal information, myspace.com also request information more details such as Occupation, Ethnicity, seeking relationship choice from Dating, Serious Relationships, Friends, Network. In addition to the information link, following the Background & Lifestyle link gives more choices like Marital Status, Sexual Orientation, Religion, Children (attitudes towards whether to have a baby). Those complicated information may help better targeting by other people who are trying to find a specific type of people with clear aims. Members can be better identified by those complicated profiles. Jane Lewis and Anne West (2009) state that social network sites required members to construct profiles. they can have more to do with individual display and the presentation of self.

Maintain interpersonal relationship

Research data shows that the reason for people join in society networking sites such as Facebook.com is to stay in touch with those friends they can’t meet often. The reason matches the value of virtual community which indicated that people are more willing to keep in contact with others people. Nicole B. Ellison, Cliff Lampe, Charles Steinfield (2007) suggested that our generation become increased isolated because of the new technology of the days. People are getting busy and facing heavy stress from the society. It is more and more time-intensive for people to keep contact with their friend. Facebook.com may offer a opportunity to make new friends moreover to find old friends. It is not only helps people to reconnect with their old friend but also recalls the past memories. (Jennefer Hart, Chariene Ridley, Faisal Taher, Corina SAS, Alan Dix 2008) Facebook.com can give members suggestion about their potential friend by searching the common friend with existing friend. It is surprising to find out someone you know on the suggestion friend list. Updated myspace.com also has the similar function with facebook.com. The article has discussed that social network sites are bridging the relationship between online and offline.

It is not difficult to find out the relationship between social network sites and virtual communities. By analyse the value and feature of them, we may conclude that they shared majority of the value with the similar characteristics. This fact proves that social network sites create the part virtual community as some of the value SNS cannot support like technology and information exchange. Those parts of virtual community are being created by some website which hold more impersonal website like YouTube and Wikipedia.

Privacy issue of social network sites

Privacy issue has emerged regarding the use of virtual community and social network sites such as Facebook.com as a means of surveillance and data mining. It is important to mention this issue as many case studies can prove the threats towards user safety concer. Two MIT students were able to download over 70,000Facebook profiles from four schools (MIT, New York University, the University of Oklahoma, and Harvard University) using an automated shell script, as part of a research project on Facebook privacy published on December 14, 2005. The possibility of data mining remains open, as evidenced in May 2008, when the BBC technology program “Click” demonstrated that personal details of Facebook users and their friends could be stolen by submitting malicious applications. We are benefit from the new technology environment, however this technology also benefit those people who want to collecting personal information from the community. Acqiosti and Gross (2006) presented their idea about there is a disconnect between students’ desire to protect privacy and their behavior. The level of security may influences member of SNS whether to put real information on it such as facebook.com users expressed greater trust on Facebook rather than Myspace.com.

Conclusion

This article has analysed the relationship between virtual community and social network site. Firstly Virtual community has been identified as a new form of community based on internet technology which enables people to shared interests or goals for which electronic communication is a primary form of interaction. (Dennis, Pootheri, & Natarajan, 1998) It is different from traditional community such as there is no limitation on location, time and size of virtual community, also some of the virtual community based on functional link rather than personal link. Within site with strong personal link, the article discuss the social networking site, social networking site is web 2.0 based services which allow member of the sites create their own profile and communicate with friend they established relationship online. Facebook.com and Myspace.com being selected as two examples to analysis the characteristic of social network sites. Facebook.com established on strong ties relationship while Myspace.com encourage more weak ties relationship, that is meet new friend on internet from different background. However the recent trend that more and more members join in society is to maintain their offline relationship with their past friend or existing friend. The boundary of whether the relationship is weak ties or strong ties has been blurred. By review the existing research towards reason and motivation of people how use social networking site, the essay find out that most people join in the SNS for contacting their friend they don’t often get in touch with. Comparisons between the reasons for participate in SNS and value offered by virtual community has been conducted at the last part of the article. The result of comparison suggests the reason and value are very similar between SNS and virtual community that is the result proves the claim that social networking sites created the virtual community, at least a huge part of virtual community. The other impersona