Author: Andre Coleman

Why is the concept of social facts so significant for Durkheims work? This essay will set out to explore Durkheims concept of social facts, and will seek to explain the importance of these facts in relation to his work. Durkheim identified a group phenomena within society which he claimed could be studied independently. These phenomena referred to the different acts that we all engage in within society, such as values, beliefs, and laws that we follow, he referred to these as social facts. (Giddens, 1971)

Durkheim called social facts things as they acted outside of the individual, they emit pressure upon an individual to act in a particular, predictable way. As Durkheim put it: A social fact is identifiable through the power of external coercion which it exerts or is capable of exerting upon individuals (Durkheim, 1938) Durkheim saw this as being passed on through socialisation in children. These beliefs are what can govern our behaviour within society, and ensure that all within it behave in well established ways in order to maintain social order.

A social fact is defined in two ways; first is that they are external to the individual, and secondly they have some sort of control over the individual, such as a law that the individual knows exists and therefore certain behaviour will result in some sort of penalty.

Social facts were an important aspect of Durkheims work, as he was attempting to see a role for the social which was distinguished from the psychological and biological aspect of life and the individual. He identified that these facts are rooted within society in group beliefs and values; they are not something that affects us in a psychological or biological way, such as eating and sleeping, as although these are done by all within society they are a natural biological process. (Morrison, 1995)

Durkheim identified two different types of social fact; material and non-material. Durkheim saw material social facts as stemming from institutions such as religion, the governments, and law institutions. These are the physical structures within society that exert influence on individuals within society. The nonmaterial social facts come from areas that form our moral codes, beliefs and values which do not have a physical presence. Durkheims view was that sociologists should study these social facts in an attempt to find the cause and also the functions of them; whether they are used to pass on values to children to maintain social order, or as a form of control for the institutions. (Durkheim, 1938)

Durkheims theory of social facts was initially a breakthrough, as it gave way to study entire societies rather than just the individual. Durkheim developed the idea of studying social facts thorough many studies of his own.

Durkheim theorised that through the study of statistical data it would be possible to view society in an objective manner. One of Durkheims most famous studies was the study of Suicide. He sought to explore this as a social fact, and not one which most consider to be a very personal, if not very anti-social act.

He saw suicide as being a social current which are characteristics of society, but may not be as stable as other social facts such as citizenship and work.

The social currents in the case of suicide are shown as suicide rates, a statistical representation of social facts according to Durkheim.

Durkheims study showed that there was a pattern within suicide rates amongst different societies and different groups within those societies. This pattern was clear amongst different societies and although the pattern changed, it stayed apparent across all societies that he studied. (Durkheim, 1951)

One of the main patterns that emerged was in religion. Durkheim saw religion as a social fact, which was a controlling factor amongst those who followed it. Therefore to have a pattern amongst suicide emerge due to this control was a breakthrough in terms of his research within social facts.

Durkheims research illustrated that there was difference in suicide rates within Protestant and Catholic countries and communities. There were a higher number of suicides within Protestant society then Catholic ones. All branches of religion have a negative view of suicide and condemn it in various ways, therefore Durkheim theorised that there must be some other factor within these two that causes the difference in suicide rates, such as social organisation and family structure. In further studies Durkheim finds that when a family is more integrated the suicide rates drop. (Durkheim, 1951)

Durkheims studies led him to believe that differences in suicide rates can be attributed to the degree of integration into society and the regulation of society. Durkheim considers the degree to which collective sentiments are shared (Ritzer, 1992) to be the key to the level of integration. As Catholics have a more integrated society and family then Protestants this can be the key attribute as to why Protestants have a higher suicide rate; the main difference being the social organisation between the two religions and how this differs greatly. Durkheim also acknowledged that those who have larger families are less likely to commit suicide then those in smaller families. As Catholics are renowned for having large family organisations this can be seen as another cause for the differences in suicide rates.

The conclusion that Durkheim came to from this study is that the social suicide rate can be explained sociologically. He argued that different groups within society have different consciousness and it is these that can produce different social currents which lead to a difference in suicide rates. Durkheim claims that by studying these different groups within society some of the differences can be analysed which then means the effect on suicide rates can be seen, and also changes within the society in the collective conscious can lead to a change within these currents in society, which again can lead to a difference in the suicide rate patterns within these different groups. (Durkheim, 1951)

Durkheims Suicide study was groundbreaking in the sense that it showed how social aspects of life can be used in order to explain the actions of individuals as opposed to the psychological and biological causes. The study illustrated Durkheims ideas behind social facts and showed how suicide rates can be an expression of the social currents that can affect the social facts that occur within society.

Durkheims method was seen as radical at the time as it made sociology a standalone subject amongst the social sciences. With his method of research and his theories he managed to distance the social from the psychological and biological and be seen as a true subject in its own right. The empirical studies that he did showed that social facts based on the collective conscious couldnt be categorised within psychological or biological as they existed outside of the individual conscience.

The work he did was important for anthropological studies as well as sociological ones as many researchers after him gathered empirical research of social facts in order to explain different social phenomena.

Durkheims work and method of analysis paved the way for analysis today as his method is still used. Social causes are now recognised within causes of suicide and are often used in new studies of suicide rates. Durkheims work helped researchers in understanding the social factors that can help explain the phenomena of social facts, and how a social explanation now needs to be found when studying different aspect of society.

Durkheim had created a theory based around the collective conscious which he had reinforced with his social facts, and with this he had created a way to study the effect of these social facts on social phenomena. The methods he had created had completely revolutionised the way in which research could be conducted, and the theories could interpret the behaviour seen in difference societies. He had made way for different thinking in regards to anthropological research and made it possible to study entire societies instead of an individual lost within a society. Many theorists since Durkheim have developed further his ideas in their own research into social facts and explaining the difference causes for behaviour within our society.

What particular significance do media systems have for the construction of national identities? How far, if at all, is it possible to have a (sense of) National Identity without the media?” The link between the news media and national identity regularly focuses “on explicit, stereotypical representations of nationalism in news coverage of appropriate subjects such as international politics, sport and war” (Brookes, 1999, Abstract, para, 1). However, changes in cultural and structural levels have resulted in dramatic shifts in national identity which makes “the study of nationalism and identity become an important topic in social science” (Javadi and Javadi, 2008, p. 112). The focus of such studies is often how the media contributes to the development and/or reshaping of such identity.

This essay will attempt to define the terms ‘nation’ and ‘national identity’ and discuss how far these concepts relate directly to geographical location and/or political boundaries. It will look at the relationship between the media and national identity and explore its extensiveness and what it means for the concept of national identity itself. Additionally, the issue of whether national identities are ‘real’ or ‘perceived’ will be addressed as well as whether the concept, or indeed, the ‘experience’ of national identity is a media-dependent phenomenon. Other issues that will be discusses include the elements that may contribute to an individual’s sense of national identity and what an absence of (national) media would mean for the concept of national identity and the sense of belonging to a particular nation.

Concepts of ‘nation’, ‘nationality’ and ‘nationalism’ have all proved difficult to define and analyse. Anderson (1991) notes while nationalism has had noteworthy persuasion on the modern world, “plausible theory about it is conspicuously meagre” (p.3, cited in Berhe, 1993, p. 2). Seton-Watson (1997) concludes that while “no ‘scientific definition’ of the nation can be devised; […] the phenomenon has existed and exists” (p.5, cited in Hoyle, 2001, p. 6). Hadley (2004) adds that even thought there is no agreement on its evolution “most [theorists] on nationalism believe it to be an essentially modern phenomenon, appearing in the late eighteenth century in Europe and North America” (National Identity, para, 1). According to Hadley (2004) the debate over nationalism is dominated by three theorists – Hobsbawm, Gellner and Anderson.

The recognition of political rights in a sovereign state was the basis for Hobsbawm’s definition. He explained that the masses were connected to state region which “was embodied through a centralised government. If nationalism was a modern invention, so were nations: the nation-state was the result, rather than the origin, of a nationalist discourse” (Hobsbawm, 1990, p.28, cited in Hadley, 2004, para, 2). Gellner’s definition was rooted in his belief that nationalism was an essential function of industry. He argued that “because industry required skilled labour, a common vernacular, and high rates of literacy, the need developed for a national ‘high culture’ promoted by a state run educational system” (Gellner, 1983, cited in Hadley, 2004, para, 2). Hadley (2004) explains “like Hobsbawm, Gellner sought to dispel teleological notions of the nation as eternal [and reiterated that] nationalism was a modern invention, created in response to the needs of a new economic system, even it represented itself as a natural, historical phenomenon” (para, 2).

Anderson (1983) advanced the theory of the nation as an ‘invention’, and saw “nationalism as a process of ‘imagining communities’” (Hadley, 2004, para, 3). “Nation-states are imagined because members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-members, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each live the image of their communion’ (Anderson, 1983, p.15, cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 6). Anderson (1983) explained that “the decline of universal religious paradigms and the rise in print capitalism allowed for this ‘cultural construction’ to flourish in […] eighteenth century. The mass consumption of newspapers and novels enforced a common vernacular, linked a populace to urban centres, and encouraged common participation in a shared (imagined) culture” (cited in Hadley, 2004, para, 3). Additionally, Anderson (1983) implied that printing press improvements did more than industrialisation to promote nationalism. But as Hadley (2004) notes “despite their differences, all three of these prominent theoreticians identified nationalism, and by association the nation-state, as a phenomenon of the last few centuries” (para, 3).

However, it has been suggested that time may not be the most practical indicator for classifying nationalism or national identity (Hadley, 2004). He explains that this is because nationalism is dependent on a varied number of past factors. Further national identity cannot be labelled as ’embryonic nationalism’ because “not all national identities function within nations” (Hadley, 2004, para, 6).

Estel (2002) describes national identity as a special case of collective identity:

This does not mean an objective, i.e. systemic, connection built by human beings, but its interpretation by the members of that collective – hence it must be socially shared, the binding knowledge being the key factor. National identity then means a socially shared and binding knowledge in the form of an officially prevailing conception of itself in a certain nation being imparted through certain institutions (p. 108, cited in Javadi and Javadi, 2008, p. 113).

Smith (1991) argues that identity operates on two levels, the individual and the collective which are often confused in discussions of ethnic and national identity. He adds that the broadest subtype of collective cultural identities is the ethnie or ethnic community (cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 11). Connor (1993) agrees:

If we look at today’s countries, many of them seem to build their perceived internal similarity on a premise of shared ethnicity. A subconscious belief in the group’s separate origin and evolution is an important ingredient of national psychology (p.377, cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 10).

Eriksen (1993) explains that characteristics such as perceived likeness while at the same time being different from other groups (ethnic) are central to ethnic communities (cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, p.10). “[They] have a common collective name, a collective historical memory, common cultural traits, a ‘homeland,’ a myth of common descent, and a strong sense of internal solidarity. This element of fictive kinship, which is at the heart of ethnic affiliation, is also at the heart of feelings of nationhood” (Smith, 1991, pp. 21-22, cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, pp. 10-11). National feeling according to Connor (1993) is not effected by “‘what is’ but ‘what people perceive as is’” (p. 377, cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 11). “The nation-as-a-family metaphor is not a rational feeling, but rather an emotive one; it is a bond beyond reason appealing ‘not to the brain but to the blood’” (Connor, 1993, p.384, cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 11).

National identity and the extent of its existence is also said to be composed of strong linked history and joint choices (Parekh, 1994, cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 15). “It is a dynamic structure of affiliation, with strong foundations in the past but susceptible to change in the present” (Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 15). Additionally “nations base their claim to statehood on assumptions of a shared cultural heritage, which are in turn most often based on assumptions of shared ethnicity. The latter assumption has less to do with a reality of common ethnicity than with a myth of common ethnicity which is cast over multi-ethnic communities to turn them into politicised ‘national’ communities” (Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 12). The multi-ethnic composition of present nation states has made it hard, among all constituents to characterise one joint notion of national identity.

Nation states according to Das and Harindranath (2006) were developed in Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth century. Using economic, legal, armed forces and processes that were administrative in nature, nations fused “often disparate populations into a single ethnic community based on the cultural heritage of the dominant core’ (Smith, 1991, p.68, cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 14). This is an example of Smith’s dominant ethnie model which is present in countries like Burma where “the dominant Burmese ethnic community has heavily influenced the formation and the nature of the state of Burma (now known as Myanmar), rather than the Karen, Shan or Mon ethnic groups” (Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 13). Smith (1991) goes on to say that “other cultures continue to flourish…[but]… the identity of the emerging political community is shaped by the historic culture of its dominant ethnie. […] reconstructing the ethnic core and integrating the culture with the requirements of the modern state and with the aspirations of minority communities (pp. 110-111, cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 13). Marginal or minority cultures are then formed with the remaining ‘non-dominant cultures’ (Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 13).

Smith (1991) also notes that “there are some multi-ethnic states where discrepancy in inter-ethnic power is marginal enough to allow for a state along the lines of the supra-ethnic model, where the emphasis is on political rather cultural unity” (p. 112, cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 13). However, Das and Harindranath (2006) states that because examples of this are limited, this achievements of such a framework is questionable. An examples of this is Nigeria where efforts to construct a supra-ethnic states resulted in power residing with three major ethnic groups (out of 250) (Das and Harindranath, 2006). Connor (1993) argues that “a people who are politically and culturally pre-eminent in a state (even though other groups are present in significant numbers) tend to equate the entire country with their own ethnic homeland, and … to perceive the state as an extension of their particular ethnic group” (p. 375, cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 13). Oommen (1990) suggests “once a multi-ethnic or poly-ethnic state emerges it becomes a reality-in-itself. The coexistence and interaction between the different nations or ethnic groups produce certain emergent properties which give a new meaning and a collective self-identification to the constituent units” (p.35, cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 13). National identity, according to Das and Harindranath (2006) is born out of this “collective self-identification of a people with a nation-state” (p. 15).

Elements of “unity and permanence” are said to be involved in the development of such of recognition formation of such identification (Melucci, in Schlesinger, 1991, p.154, cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 17). The latter suggests “that the nation has to be seen as persisting through time, well into the past and future; it has to be seen as beyond time” (Connor, 1993, p.382, cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, pp. 17-18). But Das and Harindranath (2006) argues that “such an imagining of the nation as beyond time takes national identity partly into the realm of non-rational, making it an emotional identification rather than an intellectual one” (p. 18).

The issue of building definite ‘sameness’ within nation-states and the development of nation-building then comes to the forefront and most nations look to the media to play its part in the creation of a ‘national’ culture and a ‘national’ community (Das and Harindranath, 2006). Herein lies the question, why the media? Das and Harindranath (2006) explains:

Considering how much of our knowledge of the world comes from mediated communication, either through people or through the mass media, this is likely to be a primary source of influence on our structures of identification since we cannot accomplish very abstract levels of identification (as with a nation-state) by exclusive reliance on our own direct lived experience or face to face communication of others (p. 18).

Anderson (1983) notes that “media have typically been institutional products of nations and, as such, play a fundamental role in their maintenance” (pp. 24-25, cited in Terzis, 2005, p. 1). Terzis (2005) explains that “in most countries national broadcasting in its early forms (especially before its commercialisation, when it could not afford the stratification of its audience), has made possible the transformations of individual dramas, performances, activities, memories, into fictions of collective national life for millions of individuals who may never interact with one another” (p. 1).

According to Smith (1991) it is imperative that nation states have “a measure of common culture and civic ideology, a set of common understandings and aspirations, sentiments and ideas that bind the population together in their homeland. The major agencies through which this socialisation is carried out are the mass education system and the mass media” (p.11, cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 19).

But Melucci (1989) disagreed with this suggestion and noted that “to simply be aware of something is not to identify with it; identification comes from the making of an emotional investment” (1989, p. 35, cited in Das and Harindranath, p. 17) where individuals see themselves in others. Further, Das and Harindranath (2006) go on to say that “in addition to being aware of the existence of nation-states therefore, I must also be aware that there are many of them, that the one I live in is different from the others, and that I belong to a particular one because of my similarity with others of that nation-state. I can then be said to possess a national identity. My identity is therefore not just ‘Indian’ but equally not French, not Thai” (p. 17).

Terzis (2005) suggests that present national media play a significant role in “two processes of national identity building – […] [firstly] as tellers of national myths [in the role of] […] ‘engravers’ of national symbols upon the nation’s memory and presenters of national rituals (elections, celebrations, etc)” (p. 1). Terzis (2005) notes that the work of the media is focused on the “similarities among the group members” (p. 1). “For media producers, the prominence of national identity in the media content is encouraged by the knowledge that they are constructing news for a national audience with which they share national membership” (Entman, 1991; Rivenburgh, 1997 and 1999, cited in Terzis, 2005, p. 1).

Secondly, the media constructs and strengthens the “relational opposition of ‘us’ and the ‘others’” (Terzis, 2005, p. 1). “One of the areas of media content to which such nationalist discourse today is very high, is news and especially the coverage of foreign affairs. Comparative international news research shows the significant role of the media in perpetuating a world view that consistently favours the home nation perspective on world affairs” (Rivenburgh, 1999; Sreberny-Mohammadi, 1985, cited in Terzis, 2005, p. 1).

Das and Harindranath (2006) note say that “one prominent pattern that emerges in the images of nationhood is the definition of ‘national’ and ‘anti-national’ by the media, the ‘normal’ and ‘abnormal’, the ‘good’ and the ‘bad’ (p. 19). This demarcation is key especially where diversity is synonymous with nation states (Das and Harindranath, 2006). An example of this is the British case in which Scannell and Cardiff (1991) identify how Scottish, Welsh and Irish music were basically treated as secondary to ‘British’ music which the BBC had associated with being ‘English’ music (cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 19) – a clear example of how the dominant ethnic group is promoted by the media in a multi-ethnic state (Das and Harindranath, 2006).

National identity has also been maintained for those living outside of their respective nations, through new and evolving forms of media and communications such as the internet. This tool can transmit information essential to maintain national identity, especially for those who have left their country of origin. Appadurai (1990) points to technology and highlights “the relatively globalising influence of electronic media” (p. 229, cited in Smith and Phillips, 2004, p, 4). Virtual national communities are created by the internet and have often provided people scattered around the globe with a way to maintain their national identity without having a physical nation state. However, Poster (1999) warns about “the technology-level effect of the Internet suggesting that it subverts national identity. By eliding national information boundaries and encouraging the more active, interpersonal and uncensored exchange of information, the Web arguably works to enhance both global and local identities within a post-national and cosmopolitan context” (cited in Smith and Phillips, p. 4). Smith and Phillips (2004) also suggest that if Poster (1999) is correct in his suggestion “then the internet will have an impact on national identity that is diametrically opposed to that of traditional media (print, radio, television). In other words internet use might be associated with lower levels of national pride and the endorsement of cultural frames that are critical of national identities based upon ‘the old ways’” (p. 4).

Nonetheless, Chaney (1986) points out that “the mass media […] engender a ‘we-feeling,’ a feeling of family, among the community, providing continual opportunities for identification with the nation […]” (p. 249, cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 20). Das and Harindranath (2006) agree and add that “the media enable entire populations to participate in the everyday life of a country-wide community, uniting individual members of the national family into a shared political and cultural rubric” (p. 20).

But Das and Harindranath (2006) also point out that the media as agencies of socialisation, “can also be harnessed to divisive purposes which might have the consequence of impeding the construction of a national identity […] or of undermining the force of one or more elements of the symbolic repertoire of nationalistic ideology” (p.19). Terzis (2005) notes “in some cases, nationalist views and provocative views have provoked some of the world’s worst massacres […]” (p. 1). One such example is major role the Hutu radio/television station in Rwanda, RTLM played in 1994 Rwanadan genocide where thousands of Tutsis were slaughtered by another tribe – the Hutu. Terzis (2004) explains that the RTLM repeatedly broadcasted messages which maligned Tutsis and called on Hutus to rid the country of them. Ethnic hate and xenophobia being spewed from national media has also contributed to brutal cultural conflicts in Yugoslavia (Terzis, 2005). While these may be extreme cases, Das and Harindranath (2006) states that “the simple fact of establishing the homogenising tendency of national media is not an adequate base from which to conclude that audiences are homogenised [since advocacy does not always mean acceptance]. [In cases where] the national image promoted by the media [is not accepted] it does meet with resistance from sections of the populations” (p. 21).

While some resistance is severe as in the cases of Rwanda and Yugoslavia other populations use organised forms of resistance where the marginalised groups in a nation state find peaceful ways of “[asserting’ their own identities” (Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 21). One such example is the Ernabella Video and Television (EVTV) project in Australia. This was a video project developed by leaders of the Ernabella aboriginal community in 1983 to counteract the slow disappearance of their own cultures and traditions which was being influenced by programming from ‘outside media’. The project became a television channel, which was furnished with programming developed by and for aboriginals that helped them to build their own identity among the scattered Australian aboriginal population. “Very few people today remain unaware of or free from the influence of the all-pervasive juggernaut of Western culture. It is encouraging then, that some groups at least have been able to meet this global force head on, and to produce as a result new and powerful forms of television which are uniquely their own,” (Batty, 1993, p. 125).

Another form of resistance is through readings where the concept here is that media audiences interact with media texts in extremely complex ways. Ang (1990) says that “studies have uncovered significant differences in the way audiences from different ethnic backgrounds produce diverse readings of an episode of a soap opera, suggesting that social identities affect interpretation of media messages” (cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 22).

Media texts can therefore no longer be thought of as binding each member of the audience evenly into a particular interpretation; the meaning of the text, rather, is open to negotiation between the text and the viewer. Differences in interpretation are not, however, the result of a failure of communication, but are rather the results of differences in the lived experiences and mental words of audiences. Where cultural realities are different, there is a likelihood of different interpretations (Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 22).

In conclusion, Smith and Phillips (2004) note that “although the established literature lacks firm evidence of individual level ‘media effects’ it nevertheless suggests with some confidence that there is a strong, positive tie between media consumption and individual level national belonging. Drawing largely on historical and textual analysis methods, the claim has been established that the media have been foundational over the past three centuries in the shaping, distribution and institutionalisation of identities. The classic texts on nationalism repeatedly argue that the media have played a key role in nation building” (p. 2). Additionally, Das and Harindranath (2006) state that “the idea of a one-culture-for-all does not work and attempts at enculturation of diverse people into a mainstream culture are inevitably resisted through social movements at the peripheries of the mainstream” (p.21). Martin- Barbero (1993) further suggests that the area of communications provides a forum where conflicts over identity can be fought (cited in Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 21). “The media is therefore the site where states explore routes to uniformity within their nations and are simultaneously the site which assists non-mainstream groups to explore and announce their distinctiveness” (Das and Harindranath, 2006, p. 21).

Sex-selection is the attempt to achieve a desired sex by controlling the gender of the offspring. The selection can be accomplished through pre- and post-implantation of an embryo, as well as at birth. Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD) and Microsort technique are two new technological methods used to achieve the embryonic sex selection. Prenatal sex discernment, a blood test to test the fetal DNA after the seventh week of pregnancy, is performed after implantation. Microsoft technique is the process where the sperm is sorted to increase the chance the egg is fertilized by a sperm which carrying the desired chromosome. A more precise and accurate, but also more expensive and invasive technique is PGD, a method where the embryos are created and analysed outside the female body or in test tubes before implanted into the female’s womb. The genetic disorders at the embryonic stage are screened using PGD. Unfortunately, many American clinics offer PGD as a way to choose their baby’s gender by implanting only the fertilized eggs of desired gender into the mother’s uterus. Unfortunately, sex selection is illegal in most parts of the world. Several countries like Canada, Australia and also the United Kingdom all have banned the use of PGD for sex selection for nonmedical purposes. In other words, PGD is only justified if a couple has the family history including any sex-linked genetic disorder.

Sex selection has raised a lot of arguments whether parents should allow to choose the gender of their future child or not. Before that, what is the factors causing gender selection? Most of the parents are hoping and praying for a baby of a particular gender. First, Male offspring is desired due to the cultural factors. There are a variety of factors causing males more economically and socially valuable than females. For example the property inheritance and the family name of the male heirs, and the workforce can contribute more to the income of once family.1 Women, on the other hand, require the expensive dowries and leave the family upon marriage which are unproductive investment. Since there are many arguments in gender selection, there also rise up the controversy regarding to the abortion or the female infanticide. Although sex-selective infanticide and sex-selective child abandonment is illegal in most parts of the world, they still exist in some countries. The development of ultrasound scanners which can use to determine the sex of unborn children in womb led to the sex-selective abortion, especially in China and India.2 Due to the cultural factors and also the single-child policy in the 1980s and 1990s, male is the only child that ensured or determined by most of the families. In 2000, 120 boys were born in every 100 Chinese girls. 3 Similarly in India, the illegal ultrasound scanning and also the sex selective abortion of female fetus are widespread.4 The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) study indicated that “there are 112 boys for every 100 girls born in Albania, while the figures stand at 110 and 109 boys per 100 girls in Kosovo and Montenegro, respectively”.5 Besides, the president of

1 Miller, B.D. (1997). The Endangered se: Neglect of female children in rural North India. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

2 Greenhalgh, S. (2008). Just one child: Science and policy in Deng’s China. University of California Press.

3 The Economist (2011, April 7). Add sugar and spice.

4 Lakshimi, R. (2013). Study: Sex-selective Practises May Be Common in Families of Indian Doctors. The Washington Post.

5 United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)

the population Research Institute, Steve Mosher also provided some important information on sex-selection abortions in the United States through an article at National Review.6 Dr. Sunita Puri who wanted to find the reason on why many immigrant Indian women in the United States were so eager to know the gender of unborn children and went through abortion if they found out it was not the gender they wanted. Surprisingly, 89% of the women conceiving girls wanted for abortion and nearly half had aborted girls before.7 Sex selection has raised a lot of arguments whether parents should allow to choose the gender of their future child. Another root problem led to the famous gender selection is from the couples with one or more particular gender of children, in which they has an intensified to have another gender of the child. There was a case of a Scottish couple, Mr and Mrs Masterton who had four sons and lost their only daughter in an accident. They were preparing to challenge the HFE Authority in judicial review due to its refusal in granting the fertility clinic the licence to select the right gender on their embryo to have a girl.8

There are some points and its corresponding argument in whether the parents should allow to choose their future child’s gender. First, the incidence of infanticide can be prevent through gender selection. Some of the cultural places still have high incidence although that it is important of having at least one of the particular gender of the child. So, we can prevent the trauma and stress of not having a desired gender of the child which might have negative cultural connotations. The advance of technology doesn’t enable us to find which gender the child is. Thus, some couples will be disappointed, then, they abort it and try to conceive again. So, wouldn’t it be perfect for the person to choose instead of aborting it until they get the right one? Furthermore, the abandon of children is the most common consequence of the gender selection.9 Some of the parents are willing to throw away their children or hating them because of the undesirable gender. In the past, infanticide was seen the only solution if the infants did not have the desired gender that the parents want. But, now, with the advanced medical technology, many parents are going to have an ultrasound scan to determine the sex of the baby. As the ultrasound test and abortion became more available, the trend toward more boys than girls accelerated steadily after 1986?.10 A former medical director from the country’s largest abortion provider had mentioned that it was common for the women to decide to terminate their pregnancies because of the gender of the baby.11 Besides, the Dr Vincent Argent had a same opinion and he believed that some of the doctor felt it is reasonable and had arranged the terminations relating to the gender of the foetus.12 The performance of the abortions for the purpose of sex selection is widespread, especially those in South and East Asia like China and India. In India, parents are often willing to pay for an abortion if

6 Mosher, S.W. (2011). Sex-selective Abortions Come Home. National Review Online.

7 Puri, S., Adams, V., Ivey, S., and Nachtigall, R.D. (2011). “There is such a thing as too many daughters. But not too many sons”: A qualitative study of son preference and fetal sex selection among Indian immigrants in the United States. Social Science & Medicine,72(7): 1169-1176.

8 London: HFEA, 2003; www.hfea.gov.uk/docs/final_sex_selection_main_report.pdf

9 Jha et al. (2006). Low female[corrected]-to-male [corrected] sex ratio of children born in India: national survey of 1.1 million households. Lancet, 367: 211-218.

10 Lafraniere, S. (2009). Chinese bias for baby boys creates a gap of 32 million. The New York Times.

11 Newell, C. and Watt, H. (2012). Sex-selection abortions are “widespread”. Telegraph.

12 Newell, C and Watt, H. (2012). Paragraph 2.

it is a girl. Although sex selection test and abortion have been banned for 15 years in India, the figures still state that there are 750,000 girls are aborted each year.13 From an article, Harsh reality of India’s unwanted girls, some Indians believe it is much better that a girl is killed before born rather after.14 Although they know it is a sin to abort, they still turn themselves as a blind eye to let the growing incidence of gender selection. Well, the counterpoint of this is the population of course might become imbalanced if most people just choose a particular gender. These imbalances are harmful because it will interrupt or damage the gene population. The imbalance is expected to steadily worsen among people of childbearing age over the next two decades and could trigger a slew of social problemsaˆ¦. “If you’ve got highly sexed young men, there is a concern that they will all get together and, with high levels of testosterone, there may be a real risk, that they will go out and commit crimes” says coauthor Therese Hesketh.15 An investigative research published in the British Medical Journal, attributed “the imbalance almost completely due to the decision of couples to terminate female fetuses. About a million female fetuses are terminated and 10 in thousands of girls are missing.16 Most of the Chinese families in China preferred sons which directly increased the rate of female fetus abortion due to the one-child policy. This policy not only increased the abortion rate, but it also led to a gender imbalance. A study has found that there are currently 32 million more boys than girls under the age 20.17 A similar situation is happening in India too.The data shown that 914 girls are aborted in every 1000 boys in India.18 The termination of female fetuses is not occurred because the parents do not want and love their daughters, but due to the social reasons making them prefer sons.19

Second, the parents should have their own freedom of choice. Why shouldn’t the parents to decide their own child’s gender, given that no harm is done to others in their decision? The article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that: ” Men and Women of full ageaˆ¦ have the right to marry and to found a family”. 20 With this right, it should understand and cover the right in making decision on how one family should be built up. Besides, why should a family having a large number of one gender be expropriated of the chance to have a different gender of a child if the technology exists? As the director of the Fertility Institute states: ” these are grown-up people expressing their reproductive choicesaˆ¦ are really happy when they get what they want”. 21

13 Prasad, A. (2007). Harsh Reality of India’s unwanted girls. BBC News.

14 Prasad, A (2007). Part 2: Dowry burden.

15 Strickland, E. (2009). Sex-selective Abortions in China have produced 32 Million extra boys. The Discover.

16 Leung, M. (2011). A structural model of sex selective abortion: the effect of one-child policy on sex ratio imbalance in china. University of Minnesota and Washington University in St Louis, p.1-49.

17 Zhu, P.W.X., Lu, P.L., and Hesketh, T. (2009). China’s excess males, sex selective abortion, and one child policy from 2005 national intercensus survey. BMJ, 338.

18 Lakshimi, R. (2013)

19 The Economist. (2011)

20 U.N General Assembly. (1948, December 10). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Retrieves from United Nations.

21 Stein, R. (2004). A Boy for You, a Girl for Me: Technology Allows Choice. The Washington Post.

Well, there is the argument where the freedom of choice is important but it should not be conferred at the unconditional love for one’s children. According to the Georgetown professor, the sex selection is a ” threat to the main value of parenthood that usually expressed by the commitment to unconditional love”.22 As Harvard professor Michael Sandel notes, “consider the father who wants a boy in hopes of having as a son the athlete he had never been. Suppose the son isn’t interested in sportsaˆ¦ what sorts of expectations will burden a child who has designed with certain purposes in mind?’ 23 So, the children should be loved whoever they are, not because they are who we wanted. For that reason, parents should be encouraged to love their children equally regardless of gender, and the freedom of choice should not be allowed in this regard.

Third, the other argument point regarding to the sex selection should be allowed is with sex-specific, the genetic diseases can be prevented. Some family are carriers of the known sex-specific diseases, it is obviously by gender determination can ensure that the disease will avoid from passing to the next generation or their child. Nearly most of the sex-linked diseases are either more serious among one gender or more common in one gender. For example, haemophilia, HIV, colour blindness, and muscular dystrophy are more common to a male suffering from one X chromosome.24 While, the disease of the immune system is most commonly affected by women.25 Therefore, the Microsoft technique used in sorting the sperm carrying the Y and double X chromosome to determine the gender as well as determining the genetic disorder is carried out. This technique is not harmful to the human genes. Statistical data has shown that over 1200 babies have been born using this advance technology.26 On the other hand, 100% accuracy is not happened for all technology in determining the genetic disease that carries on. Therefore, the medical costs should be considered together with medical benefits. Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis involved the embryo development outside the womb and then tested for gender. Only the desired gender is implanted in the womb and how about those are not of the desired gender? All the undesired embryo is destroyed. Over a dozen of embryos or human life has been created with the purpose of destroyed, it’s also a kind of abortion. The data shown that by using the gender selection technologies, the accuracy rate for choosing a girl is 93% and 82% go to the boys which inevitably most of the selections go for males.27 Thus, most of the couples are so keen to have a child with particular gender and unwilling to take the risk of having one of other gender. Although the Microsort technique is harmless to the parents, some scientists like Lord Winston expressed the fear that the technique will damage the sperm and genetic mutation might be more likely to occur.

22 Stein, R (2004). Page 4.

23 Stein, R (2004). Page 4.

24 Macnair, D.T. (2010). Fragile X syndrome. BBC Health.

25 Doe, J. (2000). Immune System Disorders. Time.

26 Genetics and IVF Institute. (2008). Microsort. Genetics and IVF Institute.

27 Genetics and IVF Institute. (2008).

However, one of the points against in sex selection is the pre-selection of sex uses costly medical care for frivolous purposes. The treatment required for gender pre-selection was initially designed to prevent the disease. But many of the patients using the treatment which is capable of conceiving healthy children. A director from the Genesis Genetics Institute said that “70% of patients would not have needed IVF, in other words healthy and fertile couples are choosing this higher risk, sometimes painful and also expensive treatment when they could conceive a baby naturally”.28 But, it still depends on the individuals to make decisions whether this treatment is worth or not. There is an evidence from parents who has gone through the treatment. They said that the sex selection of their children was not a frivolous or ridiculous purpose. Sharla Allen replied ” They are. They’re totally everything I could ever wantaˆ¦ but why aren’t having two daughters that will be just as wonderful as they are?” when she was asked whether her three boys had still not been enough for her.29 So, no-one is harmed in this treatment; thus, it should be the parent’s choice to have the treatment since they know the risks beforehand. On the other hand, the abortion rate can be reduced with this expensive medical technology. The abortion, especially sex selection, is illegal in most of the country. It’s same to India where most of the clinics doing illegal abortion were shut down. However, the reality is that sex-selective abortion is still happening behind the door. Thus, it is difficult to control and its not only restricted to the poor.30 There is an evidence that happened to Pooja who married to a multi-millionaire industrialist and had 10 years old twin girls. When she pregnanted another girl, his husband forced her to abort it even he was rich and afford to grow another daughter. She claimed that a girl would only take money with her to her-in-laws without bringing any wealth in.31 Due to the this negative mindset, sex-selective abortion becomes even worse from year to year.

Another debate points against the gender selection is the children should not be designed or created to specifications. Children are not pets or toys. So, they are no meant to be designed to let their owner more convenient. Harvard philosopher Michael Sandel argued that ” it runs the risk of turning procreation and parenting into an extension of the consumer society and it is also one step forward in designing baby”.32 The selection of eye colour, hairy ears or hair colour soon will be requested by the parents if the gender selection is allowed. That is only the beginning. This is because we are encouraging the false ideas of perfection if we allowing sex selection. Moreover, there has been no justification for supporting such indulgence at public expense. The gap will grow even bigger between poor and rich people, as the rich designer will want both their design and the appearance of their children to reflect their property or wealth. Let say, if a gay gene is discovered, would parents be allowed to eliminate embryos containing it? We should follow the idea that we appreciate on everything what we are given. Otherwise, the people will reject their own child more likely when they did not get whatever they want.

28 Gajilan, C. (2005). Gender selection a reality, but is it ethical? CNN Health.

29 Gajilan, C. (2005).

30 Lakshimi, R. (2013)

31 Prasad, A. (2007), Part 3: Tolerated Abortion.

32 Stein,R (2004). Page 1.

In contrast, parents have their own right to choose the gender to build up of their family if the technology is available. This can improve the chances of the child to fit into the dream of their family and they are more likely to get loved. Every individual can choose their own partners, and also have their freedom to choose the time of getting pregnant according to their age, wealth or prosperity.33 Parents sacrifice so much for their children. They invest a huge mount of their wealth and years of their lives in growing up their children. So, Isn’t fair that in return, they get to choose their child with the gender that they want? This is also an extension of the rights of reproductive field. But, according to the report of Nuffield Council on Bioethnics, an attitude of natural humility, where the parents accept their children is an important feature of parental love. The love the parents owe their children and not dependent on the characteristics of a child.34

Besides, it is a wonder or surprise process in having a child. So, the childbirth should not interfere with human motives. Some people have an opinion that the time of conception is decided by God and do not attempt to play with God. Dr. Mark Hughes, who helped in pioneering the procedure, intended it in preventing the disease of the gender, unfortunately, is not a kind of disease which has no illness and no suffering.35 Furthermore, many people view that there is no morally difference between the new technologies and the abortion where a potential life is taken away. In 2011, there are 196,082 abortions in England and wales.36 How many cases is the consequence of gender selection? The recent news or articles published that the illegal abortion on the grounds of gender might take place in Britain within immigrant communities by analysing the birth statistics.37 As we know, the termination of pregnancy based on the gender is illegal in the UK. But, the abortions of fetuses up to 24 weeks are allowed if the pregnancy was on ground of physical and caused psychological risk to the mother, or in cases the child was severely physically or mentally abnormal.38 According to the recent article by Elena Ralli, there are also evidence shown that the sex-selective abortion is spreading in Europe and the U.S. too.39 If the sex selection is legalized, it will cause the selective abortion became more common and parents will simply kill a human life legally because they want to choose the desired gender of their child. While, there are some arguments stating that the mystery of childbirth is not easy to shatter. Sharla Miller, who go for gender selection, denies the suggestion that it is like playing God. She believed that it is just like every procedure that medical can do for us.40 For example, when the elder child suffers from spina bifida, they fixed it out. Were they playing with God? Moreover, the gender selection is important and helpful for parents to plan their child’s future like choosing the clothes, naming etc. The sex selection happened in many countries and cultured by abandonment of unwanted babies or selection abortion. Everyone felt that this is a cruel and terrible waste of human life and also very dangerous for the mother. Obviously, many people strongly object the abortion on moral grounds. The development of new technologies in determining the gender in the early stage of pregnancy will definitely reduce and eventually stop the use of selective abortion.

33 Meek, J. (2001). Baby Blues. The Guardian.

34 Nuffield Council on Bioethics, Genetics and Human Behaviour (2002). The ethical context, Para13.78

35 Leung, R. (2004). Choose the sex of Your Baby. CBS News.

36 Harker, R. (2012) Statistics on Abortions. Page 2.

37 Mason, R. (2013). The abortion of unwanted girls taking place in the UK. Telegraph.

38 HFE Act 1990, Schedule 2, para 1ZB.

39 Ralli, E. (2013). Alarming rise in abortion of female fetuses in Europe. New Europe Online.

40 Leung, R. (2004).

After stating the arguments arising in whether the sex selection should be permitted and the most serious effect- abortion because of gender selection. So, what is your opinion on sex-selection? Should the parents be permitted to pre-determine their future child’s gender? In my opinion, sex selection should not be permitted to the parents to choose the gender of their future child. From my perspectives, gender selection is extremely bad for women. In other words, girls are discriminated by the social. As mentioned above, the cultural preferences for boys led to the male children are more likely to be educated and employed in good jobs which can earn enough income to support a family. Besides, boys are also expected by the families to contribute to the family’s well-being and take care of aging parents. Unfortunately, the girls were not only treated as liabilities rather than assets, they also did not have the same treatment in education and employment.41 But, these ideas were no longer establish in 21st century global culture. We know, of course, that women can also success in education and workplace if there is no sex discrimination and they are given the same opportunities as men. Furthermore, women can be the one to help in raising their families and communities out of poverty. Therefore, we should not offer the sex-selection services that support false and outdated aristocracy system.

Next, again sex-selection is not fair to women and even to the baby girl. We know, of course, conceiving a baby need man and woman to work together. It is actually known that the male plays an important role to determine whether the baby conceive is boy or girl. In other words, man is the one who produces heterogametic sperm which containing either X chromosome or a Y chromosome to decide the gender of their child. Why I argued that it is not fair to women? This is because a huge number of husbands keep blaming his wife for not conceiving a boy. What’s wrong with the women? Women only provide an immotile egg to let sperms (which decide the sex) to fertilise. Unfortunately, many husbands still push this responsibility to women and give pressure to their wife. The reason why the women felt that they were unable to ‘save’ their daughter because many women became the victims of family violence when they were carrying girls. Some had been slapped, bumped and shoved around by aggressive husbands and in-laws, or even kicked in the stomach in an effort to let them miscarry.42 While, some denied food and water in order to coerce them to abort their unwanted girl babies.43 Most women, who come to the fertility clinic to ask for help in conceiving a boy, are likely under pressure from her husband or her husband’s families to avoid from any mishap happened to them. It is not fair to let a woman to undertake this heavy responsibility. Although the reproductive technology today is able to help women free from coercion or pressure, it is actually bringing to the severe problem later on. It will turn to the continuous controversial if gender selection services are allowed. After helping in relieving the pressure of women from their husband, it comes to other problems where the imbalance sex population occurs. Due to this imbalance population, again more and more problems happened.

41 Pande, R., and Malbotra, A. (2006). Son preference and daughter neglect in India: What happened to living girls? Washington, D.C.: International Center for Research on Women.

42 Raj et al. (2011). Abuse from in-laws during pregnancy and post-patrum: qualitative and quantitative findings from low=icome mothers of Infants in Mumbai, India. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 15(6):700-712.

43 Puri et al. (2011). Pg. 1174

If gender selection is permitted, it will bring to the social and economic consequences. Although not every family prefers son over daughter, but it sure will lead to the imbalance of population. For example, the one-child policy which has a limitation on the number of children in each couple, causing the couples with strong son preference.44 Consequently, the shortage of women in China has disastrous and serious social effect. . For example, in China and India, many young men are unable to find a partner, resulting in the rising of sexual violence, prostitution, kidnapping and forced marriage.45, 46 In addition, due to the selfishness of the parents to have a male heir and abort the girl fetuses, it may increase the mental health problems and severely abnormal social behaviour among men as well as leaving some men unable to get married and having their own family.47 The sex-selection problem might lead to the marriage squeeze problem which is happening now in China. This problem has commonly happened between the uneducated male in rural area. A study indicated that 15% of uneducated men at age 40 were still single, whereas there are only 0.5% among those were university-educated men in the early 1980s.48 The percentage keeps increasing from year to year. The Chinese officials predict that ” after 2030 some 30 million young men will be unable to find a marriage age”.49 Besides, the sex-ratio imbalance in one country not only increases the crime, but also the number of sex workers with HIV infection and other sexually transmitted diseases. There is evidence that young single men with HIV positive are more likely to pay for sex.50 There are many negative consequences of sex selection which we can clearly know from some of the country like China and India. So, should the gender selection permitted because of one’s individuality?

Moreover, gender selection reinforces in oppressing and false gender roles. This problem is most probably happened to the population which utilizes gender selection technology after having one or more same gender of children. An evidence from the Slate article ” How to Buy a Daughter,” profiled a woman named Megan Simpson who was grown up in a family of four sisters and like to sew, bake, make up and so on and she wished to share these interests with her girl who can dress in pink. 51 The problem, of course not every little girl like sewing, baking or even dressing up in pink. That’s same go to the boys, not every little boy like sports, blue colour shirt. So, the relationship between the gender of children and their preferences is unpredictable, changeable and not exactly like what we think. Why we need to have a thought that which things are suitable for girls and which one is for boys? Is that good to allow parents to engineer their children based on their interests or the purpose of achieving the cultural norms? The sex-selection should not be allowed due to this reason. The child will be the one to suffer if their interests are entirely opposite with their parent’s wish or cultural norms. In this situation, obviously either the child or the parents will disappoint with each other.

44 Leung, M. (2011). Pg 12.

45 Christakis, E. (2013). Rape in India: A Result of Sec Selection? Time.

46 Dagar, R. (2001). Life enhancing mechanisms, life depriving outcomes: case of female foeticide. Chandigard: Institute for Development and Communication.

47 Leung, M. (2011). Pg 12.

48 Wang, F. (2005). Asia Pacific Issues. East West Centre.

49 Vermeer, E.B. (2006). “Demographic Dimensions of China’s Development,” Population and Development Review, 32: 115-144.

50 South, S.J., and Trent, K. (2010). “Imbalanced Sex Ratios, Men’s Sexual Behaviour, and Risk of Sexually Transmitted Infection in China”. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 51 (4): 376-390.

51 Sidhu, J. (2012). How to Buy a Daughter. Slate.

In conclusion, so far we have discussed the use of sex selection in a reproductive field, where it is practiced for the purpose of preventing hereditary sex-linked disorders. We see no reason why, if a method to determine the sex of a child before fertilization is developed, this technology should not offer to a couple who have good medical reasons and purposely want to choose the gender of their child. But, if an easy and efficient technique of ensuring the conception of the particular sex of the child became available, some couples would obviously hope to make use of it for the purpose of social reasons.51 Such decision will affect the family and the children involved and somehow would bring the implications to society. It is actually hard to predict, either in the short or long term, this practice effect on the ratio of the males to females within society. Studies have shown that the majority of couples would choose the boy as their first child. If this happened, it again raises the controversy where there is considerable evidence that the first child may enjoy more advantages over the younger siblings. Since there are difficult to predict the outcome of any such practice, we have not found it possible to amend the laws and regulation in the sex selection.

52 Cmnd 9314, London: HMSO, 1984.

Homosexuality is a romantic or sexual fascination or natural behaviour between individuals having same sex. The word homosexual is a Greek and Latin mixture. As a sexual direction, homosexuality demotes to a continuing outline of or nature to feel sexual, care, or romantic attractions mainly to people of the same sex, it also states to an individual’s sense of personal and public individuality, originate on those attractions, performances conveying them, and devotion in a society of other people who share them. Homosexuality is solely consisted of the three main groups of sexual orientation, all along with bisexuality and heterosexuality, surrounded by the heterosexual-homosexual band. Presently, the most universal adjectives is use are lesbian for women and gay for men, however, gay can demote to either men or women. Many individual who recognize as gay or lesbian, and the ratio of people who have same sexual looks are hard and tricky for researcher to calculate consistently for a number of reasons. Gay, normally refers to affection and love between males. In the framework of sexuality, lesbian states only to female homosexuality. Homosexuality is also extensively come across in the animal kingdom. Homosexual relationships and actions have been approved in addition to condemned all through the proved history, depending on the type they took and the civilization in which they taken place. Homosexuals have made a decision to survive their lives with a person of the same sex. In the case, if it is man and man or woman and woman, they are cheerful with whom they are spending their life. Even though, many persons do not describe homosexuals as normal couples, they are capable to take care for a child only as any other couple is capable to. These citizens are also employed, working for the organization, love, fight, forgive and forget (Mucciaroni).

To discuss more about the topic, I have organized my paper into several sections. In the first section, I discuss about the basic concept, ‘should homosexual parents allow to adopting children.’ In the second section, I talk about the background and circumstances of homosexual adoption. In the third section, I converse about the disagreement to the homosexual adoption, will both parents are essential in the success of the family, misleading notion of challengers of homosexual adoption and there is no scientific proof and support which states that homosexual would be bad parent. Finally, in the last and fourth section, I talk about the rogerian discussion of solution.

For number of years, the entitlement of homosexual parents to adopt children has been an extremely disputed concern. Homosexual parents and the requirement to adopt children comes with great anxieties for the terror of probable emotional and/or psychological dysfunctions that child may tolerate. At the same time, the population of homosexual is attempting to get more identification in the concept of marriage, they are also making an effort more their privileges as parents. Parents, both homosexual and heterosexual have relates to the happiness and comfort of their children. Homosexual couples should have a right for adoption since, they can make dependable and responsible and affectionate parents as well as heterosexuals. A major issue for homosexual parents is whether the attendance of having two same sex parents will modify or discord the adopted children’s public life and sexual orientation. Sexual orientation is not a foundation on whether an individual will be fit to a parent. Many children have unsuitable parents of heterosexual orientation and those individuals are not considered by their sexual preference.

Sexual orientation states to a continuing outline of or disposition to feel sexual, sentimental or romantic appeal mainly to men, to women, or to both sexes. It also states to a significance sense of personal and social identity on the basis of those attractions, behaviours, expressing their feelings to others, sponsorship in a society of others who share them. Even though sexual orientation varies all along a continuum from completely heterosexual to absolutely homosexual, it is normally explained in the labels of three categories such as heterosexual, means having sexual and romantic relationship mainly to members of the other sex, homosexual, relates to having sexual and romantic relationship with mainly to individuals of the other sex, and third category is bisexual, which means having a important and major quantity of sexual and romantic attraction to both men and women. Sexual orientation is separate from other constituents of sex and sexuality, comprising biological sex, is the anatomical, physiological and hereditary features connected with being male or female, gender identity, is the psychological feeling of being male or female, and social gender role, and is the observance to social standards signifying feminine and masculine behaviour.

Sexual orientation is usually conferred as a quality of the individual, like biological sex, gender identity, or age of an individual. This viewpoint is partial because sexual orientation is at all times explained in relational terms and essentially includes relationship with other individuals. Sexual performs and romantic attractions are classified as homosexual or heterosexual as per the biological sex of the individual comprised in them, relation to each other. Certainly, it is by acting, or requesting to perform, with another person that individuals state their heterosexuality, homosexuality or bisexuality. This contains simple actions as holding hands with or kissing another individual. Therefore, sexual orientation is integrally connected to the close and personal relationships that human beings shape with others to meet their intensely believed essential for love, attachment and intimacy. Additionally to sexual behaviour, these relationships include nonsexual physical liking between partners, united objectives and values, joint support, and uncompleted commitment and dedication. As a result, sexual orientation is not just a personal feature that can be expressed in separation and loneliness. To a certain extent, an individual’s sexual orientation describes the world of individuals with whom one is possibly to discover the satisfying and rewarding relationships that, for many persons, include an important section of personal identity (American Psychological Association, Sexual orientation, homosexuality, and bisexuality).

American Psychological Association supports mental health professionals to ignore pretending the effectiveness of sexual orientation change efforts by sponsoring or promising modification in sexual orientation when offering assistance to individual’s concerned by their own or others’ sexual orientation and decides that the profits stated by participants in sexual orientation change efforts can be added all through methodologies that do not make an effort to changes sexual orientation. The American Psychiatric Association (APA) has described, some people think that sexual orientation is natural and fixed, though, and sexual orientation expands across an individual’s lifetime. The American Psychiatric Association also explains that, most people feel little or no sense of selection about their sexual orientation. In a combined statement with other main American medical organizations, the APA talks about that different people understand at different positions in their lives that they are heterosexual, gay, lesbian, or bisexual. A description from the Center for Addiction and Mental Health declares that, for some people, sexual orientation is permanent and fixed all through their lives. For other individuals, sexual orientation may be solution and change over the period of time. One experiment, has explained that substantial variability in bisexual unlabeled, and lesbian women’s appeal and attractions, behaviours and identities. In a recent study conducted in 2004, the female themes, both gay and straight women, became sexually produced when they pictured heterosexual and also lesbian erotic films. Along with the male subjects, though, the straight men were turned out on just erotic films with women, the gay are the ones by those with men. The experiments senior associate explained that women’s sexual wishes is less strictly directed in the direction of a particular sex, as compared with men’s, and it is more inconstant and unreliable from time to time (American Psychological Association, Resolution on appropriate affirmative responses to sexual orientation distress and change efforts).

Although, based on the American Psychological Association (APA) homosexuals were categorized as mentally deficient as recently as 1973, same-sex couples adoption emerged in the society in the response to the lack of demand for adoptable children starting in 1987. Richard Bradley, Making a Mountain out of a Molehill “A Law and Economics Defense of Same Sex Foster Care Adoptions. (Jan. 2007).

Homosexual couples may only obtain legal rights to a child through the process of second-parent adoption. This is a judicially created process in which “the non marital partner of a child’s legal parent may adopt the child, without requiring the biological parents to relinquish parental rights and responsibilities.” (Bradley) However, many jurisdictions in United States do not allow homosexual couples to adopt and to circumvent this obstacle many homosexual couples resort to “alternative methods for adoption, such as international adoption, the use of artificial insemination procedures, and single parent adoption prior to entering into a homosexual relationship.” (Bradley)

The census data from 2000 from 594000 same-sex households shows that 27 percent of the households were raising children. (Bradley) Despite the fact that many argue that children getting raised by same sex couples will be affected emotionally or psychologically, the alternative would be to leave these children in foster cares which will not afford them any permanency or stability. Children will benefit from the permanence provided by an adoptive home, as opposed to the unstable life often provided by the foster care system. “Sociological studies show that there is no evidence that child of lesbian or gay parents are confused about their gender identity or that they more likely to be homosexual.” (Bradley) “In fact, the studies show that children, especially daughters, of lesbian parents are more accepting, have accepting attitudes toward various sexual identities, and are more willing to question their own sexuality.” In 2004 the APA, an authority on human behavior, gave the following report that “there is no scientific basis for concluding that lesbian mothers or gay fathers are unfit parents simply because of their sexual orientations and that homosexual parents are just as likely as heterosexual parents to provide healthy and supportive environments for their children.” (Bradley)

Homosexual parents or heterosexual parents will have the same concerns in raising their children. Parents, regardless of their sexual orientation want to make the right decisions for their child’s heath and well being. Parents are also concerned about the financial and life changes that will be imposed upon them through parenthood. In addition, to the normal parental concerns homosexuals have many other variables that they have to deal with such as, if they will adopt, have sperm donated or even get a surrogate mother to carry the child. They also have to deal with discrimination through this process since there are many social stereotypes that they will face on their journey to adopt a child. “Historically, gay men and lesbians have been prevented from becoming foster parents or adopting children and have been denied custody and rights of visitation of their children in the event of divorce on the grounds that they would not be effective parents.” Furthermore, they are denied legal rights because of fear that affects of “stigmatization, poor peer relationships, subsequent behavioural and emotional problems, and abnormal psychosexual development,” will damage their children. These ideologies have not been confirmed scientifically, such assumptions are too broad and vague because children of heterosexual parents still experience such problems as well.

There has been a spectacular increase in the percentage of homosexual couples seems interesting to adopt children. Although, there is the increase in percentage, there have been many obstructions and difficulties from them to adopt. Such complications are like adoption agencies and some specific rules and regulations restricting them from adopting, for instance, only a number of states permit homosexuals to adopt children. As a consequence of these difficulties, they have been looking for other methods to have children. From domestic adoption agencies to independent adoptions to international adoptions to now only public adoptions, homosexuals have a range of methods of adopting, but they are behaved very in a different manner from heterosexuals. Adoption agencies should permit homosexual couples to adopt children who want love, food and protection. For many years, this argument has been taken to courts and to adoption agencies. The query is, are they so capable to be fit as parents to raise a child? In recent times, there has been an unbelievable improvement in the number of homosexual couples seeking to adopt a child. The best interest of the child is at risk when it approaches to adoption. Adoption agencies have to make sure that proper care of child will be taken, all should be supported to child, and have good responsibility in their lives also. In the case, if homosexual couples have all the superiorities to meet the necessities, they should be permitted to adopt a child. Homosexual couples must be agreed to adopt a child so as to raise a child in a secure and affectionate atmosphere. Although, they are all human beings and understand and take breathes in the same manner as a normal person, homosexuals are poorly behaved because they select to live a life in different style.

There are numerous gay and lesbian people who want to become parents. Some of them bring children from their previous relationships or a number of couples permeate through artificial insemination. Other couples are looking for adoption to their favoured procedure of bringing a child into their family. Gay couples must give evidence that they have sufficient finances, good health, and emotional steadiness, proper motivation and parenting skills. These are outstanding qualifications that should be taken care of when a couple wants to adopt a child. The dilemma is, various couples are getting away with not successfully meeting with all of the given qualifications because they are heterosexual. There is a portion of preconceived propaganda about gay parenting. Such labels about gay parenting that they raise gay kids, children of gay parents have further troubles and that gay men are more possibly to sexually misuse children are inappropriate and not a true fact. In some latest studies performed on the sexuality of gay parents and their children, there has been no proof to recommend that the sexual orientation of adoptive parents have an effect on the sexuality of their children. There are several citizens who are in opposition to gay couples being permitted to raise children. Homosexuals are normal people who live in our culture. The basic dissimilarity is they have decided to be attracted to people of their same gender. Homosexuals would be capable to give the love and esteem any parent gives to their child. They worry about others also, if not they are un-human and have no emotions and sentiments (Cantor, and Cantor).

The gender uniqueness of preadolescent children raised by lesbian mothers has been discovered dependably to be in with their biologic sex. Having a child in a home with homosexual parents is not sufficient grounds for the child to become homosexual. There are no differences have been found in the plaything, game, or any activity, clothes, footwear’s, or friendship liking of boys or girls who had lesbian mother come with persons who had heterosexual mother. It is the communications and connections within the families that make the children build up their living habits instead of the sexual orientation of the parents. A rising body of scientific literature explains that children who grow up with one or two gay and/or lesbian parents and also in sentimental, cognitive, social and sexual performance as do children whose parents are heterosexual.

As state laws differ on adoption rights, not all gay and lesbian individual has the same capability to adopt. The United States has a lot of children waiting to be adopted. Older children and those with some exceptional needs and requirements are specifically hard to place. Children who fit this category are in foster homes at present with gay parents who wish to adopt them. It appears to be very unwarranted and deceitful to the children to reject them for permanent and stable safety homes. Most children in the United States do not reside with two married parents. As per the 2000 census, just 24% homes were arranged of a married mother and father with their kids living at home. There are only total four states, such as, Vermont, New Jersey, Massachusetts and California allows same sex couple adoption. Some states authorizes single parent to adopt, other people opposes it. The reason for that, the gays are not permitted to get married, it can be difficult for gay people to adopt a child in those mentioned states. Since, Vermont has civil unions; both parents have equivalent rights in adoption cases. The Florida court disagrees that children are better off taking care in a two-parent heterosexual household. Actually, systematic and methodical learning reveals that children who grow up in gay households are simply emotionally and socially as children whose parents are heterosexual. Researchers have proved that children are more inspired by their communications with their parents, as compared to sexual orientation. With this point keeping in mind, the American Association of Paediatrics encourages gay and lesbian couples adopting children. At last, there is no lawful reason that why gays should be rejected the right to adopt children. The rules only hurt children waiting to be adopted and withdraw loving parents who would be taking care for these children (Mucciaroni).

Other communal doubts that work as obstacles to entry for homosexual parents include the fear that homosexuals have a higher propensity to pedophilia and the fear that homosexuals are simply hedonistic and cannot engage in a durable and stable relationship. There is no empirical data to show that homosexual’s have higher tendencies to engage in pedophilia or child molestation. Result of a study conducted by Dr. A. Nicholas Groth shows, that there are practically no reports of sexual molestation of girls by lesbian parents and that the adult male who sexually molests young boys is not likely to be a homosexual. People are misled that the homosexual society is predisposed to sexual abuse but it is in fact heterosexual’s that have higher rates of sexual misconduct with children.

Furthermore, the statement that homosexual’s cannot engage in a durable and stable relationship is unfair. Homosexuals have not been privileged as heterosexuals to engage in a legal marriage. And it is apparent in today’s society that homosexuals still lack the recognition of a formal marriage with an exception of a few states. Many would choose to solidify their relationship through marriage and ensure stability, but are forced to cohabitate with their partner, their relationships are inherently unstable.

Following are the circumstances for Gay and Lesbian Adoptions:

The United States has many kids remaining to be adopted. Older children and those with particular requirements are specifically hard to place. Children who suit this group are in foster homes at present with gay and lesbian parents who want to adopt them. It is unsafe and dishonest to the children to reject them permanent protected homes.

Most of the children in the United States do not reside with two married parents. In the real fact, as per the 2000 census survey, only 24% homes were created of a married mother and father with children residing at home. The Florida court disagrees that children are better developing off raised in a two-parent heterosexual family. Actually, methodical experiments which have demonstrated that children who grow up in one or two-parent gay or lesbian families only as sensitively and communally as children whose parents are heterosexual. Learning’s have explained that children are more inspired by their interactions with their parents, other than by their sexual orientation. Keeping this is mind, the American Association of Pediatrics maintains gay and lesbian couples of adopting children.

There is no lawful purpose why gays and lesbians should be refused the right to adopt children. The rule only harms children coming up to be adopted and removes loving parents who would be concerned for these children.

If a couple has a child all through the artificial insemination, just the birth parent is acknowledged as the legal protector. All through the second-parent adoption, both parents can get hold of legal protection of the child. In the condition, that do not permit second-parent adoption, if somewhat takes place to the custodial parent, the remaining parent, still if they gave been raising the child for years, can be observed as a unfamiliar person in the sense of the law. The child may not be qualified for the non-custodial parent’s health insurance, social security or other insurance but that parent turns out to be debilitated. There is no other method which can be in the top attention of the child.

Following are the reasons against Gay and Lesbian Adoptions:

Florida disagrees that it has the right prohibition to gay adoptions since it is the state’s method of saying it criticizes of gay and lesbians becoming parents.

The Florida court states that children are develop in homes with a mother and a father, who are married.

A number of challengers fight that children of gay and lesbian parents will be the area under discussion to harassment and annoyance (Belge).

Finally, this is the last and fourth section discussing about the rogerian discussion of solution. Gay couples are becoming a more common element of American society. Gays have lobbied, and in some cases at least, been awarded many of the rights that are granted to heterosexual couples (David 966). There are still many issues, however, that need to be worked out as to how gay couples fit in society and as to what rights they should be awarded (David 966). Many of these issues surround the question of whether gay couples could be fit parents (Campaigns and Elections 17). Interestingly, several states have actually banned adoptions by homosexuals (Campaigns and Elections 17). The purpose of this paper is to explore the question of whether gays should be allowed to adopt in the format of a Rogerian argument, an argument which is complete in a review of both sides of the issues and an argument which certainly results in a somewhat modified view of the positives verses the negatives of homosexual adoption. To do so, however, the thesis will be presented up front that:

Although no scientific evidence exists that demonstrates gays would be bad parents, there are simply too many variables to be able to safely conclude they would not.

To complete the Rogerian argument on homosexual adoption, we must clearly explain our elements of argument and disclaimer while at the same time avoid logical fallacies. Many feel that homosexual couples simply cannot form a nutritious family unit. There is, however, no data supporting or refuting this argument. Others argue that gays are just as capable of providing for the needs of a child as are heterosexuals. Here too, however, there is no facts demonstrating this or refuting it. Very simply, because the concept of homosexuals adopting children is a relatively new idea, no scientific studies exist that either support gay adoption or condemn it.

While there is little to no facts available demonstrating that gays would be either good or bad parents, there is considerable facts showing the negative impacts of non-traditional parenting units. Consider, for example, the impacts that have been made in the name of feminism. This impact sometimes differs completely from our perceptions of the glitter and glory of modern feminism. Some of the women who have reached the peak of our quest for liberation from traditional responsibilities, responsibilities such as commitment, childrearing, and marriage, are often not really that happy or that successful. These women are more often characterized by high stress levels and emotional insecurity about whether they have really made the right life choices. The quality of parenting cannot help but be affected by this unhappiness. The point here is not that feminism is wrong but rather that immersing our children in a philosophical framework which so radically differed from the traditional framework of earlier generations had impacts which no one had anticipated. The same could very well be true of immersing children in homosexual families.

Single parent families are another example that can be used for guidance in understanding how non-traditional families can be less than optimum. These families face many unique problems related to the familial structure itself. Although the single parent structure itself does not make the single parent family inferior to traditional families, some problems ultimately result. Many more problems could be expected to result when that single parent lived a homosexual lifestyle. This is not to say that a homosexual couples in the role of the traditional mother/father unit would result in fewer problems for the child being raised in that environment, however. Problems would undoubtedly arise there as well. Among the more obvious are how would the child be accepted by its peers from heterosexual parents and how would the child form its view of gender roles?

Conclusion

In conclusion, the above research shows societies baseless fears against homosexual adoption. Most of these misconceptions are based on social stigmatization and stereotypes. Allowing homosexual couples to adopt will provide homes for orphans thus reducing the long-term use of foster care for children. Children flourish mentally and physically when they are afforded a stable and structured home. There is always a fear in the unknown but we cannot allow ourselves to keep the right of parenthood solely based on sexual orientation. “I want you to know that I think my family is great, so why don’t you people just stop all this hate? I know that love comes right from the heart. My parents taught me love from the start.” -Hannah Jurs-Allen, fifth-grader, daughter of lesbian parents (Quotes from Gay Parents and Their Children).

There is no exact and specific answer for the question of whether gays should be allowed to adopt a child. Certainly, there are more questions coming up than answers. Could the answer be one thing if the child being raised was intended as a subject matter of genetic makeup for homosexuality and an additional if that child were truthfully a heterosexual? The most relevant question, however is should we test with our children to find out? Logically says, no. The lack of research demonstrating that this would be in fact not unfavourably impact the child, says no.

In this report we will research, think creatively and critical about our topic: Should China move to a two-child policy. We will present an in-depth analysis on the consequences and benefits which could occur when china decides to move from their one-child policy and the negative consequences and losses which could occur when china moves to the suggested two child policy. Before we immediately start with our analysis, it is vital that we ask the following questions in order to fully understand the reasons why china decided to implement such a policy:

Who implemented the one child policy in China?
Why did China decide to implement the one child policy?
What where the consequences of this decision?

To answer these questions we are going to have a brief look on the history of China. After this we will look at the present situation of china and as closure the analysis.

History

In the beginning

In 1949 after the Japanese occupation of china was finally over, Mao Zedong the son of a wealthy farmer established the People’s Republic of China [1] . Also known as the communist party. Back in the 1930ties China was divided and did not have a ruler for the whole of china. Instead it had clans and war lords, each fighting for power and more land. Peasants and farmers were treated very cruel and left almost nothing to eat in a time of food scarcity because generals and other high warlords owned all the land and the Japanese occupation which dealt a severe strike on the people of China [2] . Mao Zedong was your typical robin hood and stole mostly land from the rich to give to the poor. This gave him the support of an almost overwhelming percentage of people within china, Thus began his move to unite all of china under one banner, the communist party’s one. Mao’s biggest competitor for rule over china was Chiang Kai Shek whom supported most of the wealthy land owners. This civil war left much destruction and made china weak to prevent for instance the occupation of the Japanese troops.

After the war

After 1949 Mao won the civil war and started unifying the whole of china. An accomplishment never seen before in the history of china. His party the People’s Republic of China became the government of China which we all know nowadays.

The devastation of the war and the occupation had caused birth rates to decline and death rates to increase [3] . Mao feared for what would happen if another country such as the United States and or the Soviet Union saw how weak China was and decided to invade just like the Japanese did. He devised a plan in the 1950ties [4] to encourage Chinese woman to reproduce and make as much children as possible. The propaganda he fed to the people of china was that it would encourage more labor power whilst his main reason was fear. Not knowing that this propaganda later on became a very important opportunity for foreign investors in china. Mao Zedong almost Doubled China’s population from an estimated 550 million to 900 million people [5] . As China grew larger more problems arose within the country. There was once again food scarcity. This time not caused by a war or an invasion but by the overwhelming and still growing population of china. In 1970 The People’s Republic of China came up with a propaganda family plan to battle the overpopulation and started encouraging the people to marry at a later age and only have two children, indicating the birth of the two-child policy. This however did not stop the growth and the people’s republic of china was forced to come up with another solution and fast. The people were growing restless after a horrible event took place under Mao’s leadership [6] . Losing many trust from his people. The only way for the People’s Republic of china to further reduce this problem was to make the two-child policy even stricter and reduce the number of children permitted from two to one. Deng Xiaoping was the one who gave the final order to issue this policy. Though it was supposed to be a temporary measure, it is still very much alive in China these days.

Present

The one child policy rule varies from rural and urban areas. In a substantial amount of rural areas, families are allowed to have a second child if there first born child is a girl or if there first born son has a disability, is mentally ill or is mentally retarded. The reason why families can have another child if their first one is a daughter is because of the birth ratio of 114 males to 100 females. This has become a clear problem for woman in the future. If there are more man than woman, then an increase in rape victims will be the result. In the other areas where the one-child policy is strictly enforced a huge disdain for female babies is present and this results in high abortion rates, children whom are being abandoned and even the murder of infants. It is said that since the implementation of the policy almost 400 million births from 1979 to 2011 were prevented [7] .

The rewards [8] which were given to parents consisted of a one-child glory certificate which gave them a little extra cash each month and increased your regular salary, improved health care, more priority during school enrollments and interest-free loans. Woman whom married after the age of 25 got an extended leave from work when pregnant.

Punishments varied per region. They mostly consisted of heavy fines for each extra child you produce, price depending on region. But in other regions people’s home were raided by the authorities, land was taken away, homes were destroyed, people get fired from their jobs for having too many children, mothers forced to sign sterilization papers and then forced to work in labor camps and even parents getting tortured. There have however been heavy debates about continuation of the policy and up until this moment they still are discussing and experimenting if they should remove this policy.

The analysis

China should move to a two-child policy

Economy

It will eventually have a big impact on the workforce, if China sticks to the one-child policy. This is because, by 2050, third of the population exists of old people. This will deeply affect the workforce in China. [9] After some time the youth will have to work harder to support the elderly. So the one-child policy has worsened the country’s aging crisis by limiting the size of the young labour pool that must support the large elderly population as it retires. It will lead into a never ending spiral, and that is not something positive for the economy of China.

Population

Nobody knew if the two-child policy was a good idea, so they selected a few parts in china were they appointed the two-child policy. Since 1985 they lifted the family planning controls, the one-child policy, in four experimental areas in the northern and central China. These areas had low population growth, and the birth rate has been shrinking since 2000. Furthermore, the gender balance in these areas is better, and so are the age distributions. To top that, there have been fewer conflicts between the government and the people. [10]

Politics

The policy should be changed because of the promise that has been made three decades ago, when the one-child policy was introduced. In the promise it states that if there were changes in circumstances, such as the change in leadership, the policy would also change. [11] The new government has to keep this promise or they will damage the trust of the people of China. And that is not something a new government wants to start with.

Chinese families

Chinese families made many sacrifices under the one-child policy. Such as the wish to have a second child. But also the case that many families abandon their child or even have an abortion because they know that they are going to have a girl. Because of the one-child policy, many families prefer a boy which results in many unwanted baby girls. But also a very unbalanced gender population, because half of the population exist of boys. [12]

This is mostly the error of the government because they encouraged families to abort baby girls, and preferring a baby boy. It is all about the perception that the Chinese families get from the government. Because of the government, child abandoning and death has been very high. [13] And they don’t seem to care much about these children. So the two-child policy should lower the child abandoning and death numbers, because parents can have two children. So the chance of abandoning and death could decrease massively.

Furthermore, many Chinese families were tortured/punished because they broke the one-child policy. Men and women, who have violated the policy, have been detained, beaten, fined and sacked from their jobs. And to make it worse, they have denied registration permits for their children to access government services such as education. [14] For children, of the families who have been punished, who don’t even have a chance to live their life because of their parent’s faults. So basically the government took away the chance for children to be healthy and educated.

China should not move to a two-child policy

Economy

The one-child policy has prevented overpopulation in China. Even when there is a slight uptick in population, it could put enormous pressure on the country’s health, infrastructure and educational resources. [15] Most of the population of China would fall into poverty. Plus the economy of China could collapse under the pressure.

Furthermore, many of the young generation of China would not consider getting a second child because of the additional costs. Mainly because of the soaring inflation on everyday goods and astronomical home prices in many of the Chinese cities. Every day is like a struggle for them because of the daunting costs of child-rearing and other modern societal pressures. So they think twice before having another child. [16]

Even if the two-child policy takes effect, the vast majority of the Chinese families will stick to the one-child per family rule. They do this because of the high cost that will incur if they want to have a second child. [17] If you look at financial factors, many families can’t even pay the large sum if they want to have a second child. This is because you have to pay the living costs and the social maintenance fee [18] , which is imposed by the authorities if you want to have a second child. This is of course the main reason why many Chinese people would not consider having a second child.

Population

The one-child policy has done many good things for the Chinese population. The measures of the policy have reduced China’s population anywhere between 100 to 400 million people since the 1985. This was to slow down the massive population growth. [19] If they didn’t slow down the population growth, most of the Chinese people would have lived in poverty. This is because the economy of China couldn’t handle the large population.

Politics

The policy shouldn’t be changed because of a promise made three decades ago. When changing such an important policy you have to look at the facts. Such as will it be profitable for the economy, would the number of abandoning children decrease and can the people handle this new policy. These are all things that should be looked at. Of course, it’s difficult when making a decision but you can’t make a decision based on a promise.

Chinese families

Even if the Chinese families made many sacrifices under the one-child policy, it would not count up to the benefits that the one-child policy brought. It has stopped the overpopulation in China. There is a big gender population gap, but can it really be fixed if you introduce the two-child policy? Chinese families will still have their culture of preferring a baby boy. This isn’t something that you can change easily with a policy. It is common in their culture that baby boys are preferred, because they can take over the company from their parents. And also support their parents in the future. Many believe that baby girls can’t provide this for their parents.

In our first few moments of life we begin our journey of judgement and distinction. As the doctor utters the words “it’s a …girl” or possibly “it’s a …boy” arrangements have started. In North American society we have established a term for this classification and assessment and it is stereotyping. Stereotyping are the organizational factors that virtually shape the way we think in the 21st century. They somehow manage to categorize some of life’s most complex matters into nice distinct sections. Classification and organization, at first glance seem to be extremely useful in distinguishing various aspects of modern life. However, these grouping methods can be inaccurate, leaving flawed ideas in the minds of citizens on a global level. Sexual stereotyping is very prevalent in today’s society and it has begun to dominate the scenario in almost all aspects of life. Whether the lack of female promotions, or the gay comments that are tossed at emotional men, sexual stereotypes are powerful in our world. Sexual stereotyping is a major social problem that exists within our society. In this paper I will explore what sexual stereotyping really is and why it is a social problem; the sociological theory attached with this issue, and finally create a possible solution to this epidemic on society.

Sexual stereotyping refers to the practice of assigning roles or activities to individuals purely on the basis of sex. It has become a social problem because many of us view it as harmful to not only specific members of society but society as a whole. The people affected by this social problem, or those who are involved in this social problems are basically all men and women who have experienced discrimination based on their sex, no matter their age. An example of this is sexual stereotyping is seen in the workplace normally through positional titles such as chair man, drafts man, and business man. (www.rcmp-learning.org,n.a., July 30, 1998) Sexual stereotyping can also be seen in sports. When men participate in any sort of physical activity they are praised and viewed in a positive light but for female athletes the same attitude is not always present. Female athletes are often termed with derogatory remarks such as dyke, butch, and masculine. This idea is also the same for men who participate in more delicate art forms such as dance, figure skating, and or synchronized swimming. (www.itha.edu, Kim Sebastio, n.d.). The problem is sexual stereotyping is not only role casting, but is also a change of attitude and treatment due to sex. Sexual stereotyping and prejudice can cause both men and women to be treated unequally by others, either because of hostility towards that specific sex or, less wittingly, because popular attitudes about women or men make it seem proper to treat them differently. Overt sexual prejudice is generally easier to recognize. An example is a female scientist or a businesswoman may find that she is not taken seriously, that her opinions are not as highly valued, and that her career is not considered important by those around her. (Bender, September-2004) For men it might be something as simple as disapproval for showing any sort of emotion. These examples are a clear view of what is wrong with our society. Any representation which perpetuates the thinking that men occupy certain kinds of positions or professions, while woman occupy others, constitutes sex-stereotyping “no matter if it is men or women, it is wrong for them to be judged or treated differently because of their sex” (Pasanen, 182, n.d.) Even though this sort of judgment is wrong it is still going on and that is why it has become a social problem faced by millions of Canadian’s every day.

The sociological theory attached with sexual stereotyping

In North America are society is influenced by many things one of them being gender roles. It is the distinction of men and women whom people and culture help prove the existence of these stereotypes. These sexual stereotypes come from a combination of the media, the influence of powerful people, and our past. This exact point brings me to the Theory on Gender Roles which relates specifically to this social problem, this same theory helps us as Canadians understand how gender inequality (sexual stereotyping) has become the social issue it is today. The structural functionalist view explains that society and more specifically institutions contribute to gender inequality because it argues that men work out of the home because they are physically stronger and can provide for us, and women stay at home because they are more nurturing and need to care for the children. An example of this is seen through how society instils this concept in the minds of children “children are taught gender stereotypes by their peers and adults- for example, girls learn to be nurturing and boys are expected to be aggressive. According to Rhode, these messages, international or otherwise, are widespread”. (Egendorf, pg 21, 1997) Another way this theory helps explain the issue of gender inequality (or sexual stereotyping) is through the past. This is explained in the conflict perspective which believes that women are inferior outside the home but this is also because they are more valuable in the home; they came to this conclusion after World War II. In the end the perspective that best help us understand this prevalent social issue is the Symbolic Interactions Perspective. This perspective talks about how females and males are taught the meanings that correlate with masculine and feminine. It explains how we conform to society’s definition of what is masculine and feminine, and how are these definitions getting stretched. This is seen through the media, which is a huge part of the reason why there are sexual stereotypes in our culture. An example of this is the usage of the term magazine itself, it first came about with the publication of ‘The gentlemen’s Magazine’ and the ‘The Lady’s Magazine’ in the 1720s by Edward Cave (1691-1754) (Connor, G 2001). Magazines are not the only avenues of media where sexual stereotyping exist either. The media is constantly reminding us of what role we should play as women and men, what is the definition of masculine and feminine.

Like almost everything in life this theory has its strengths and weaknesses when it comes to really understanding the social issue of sexual stereotyping. The weaknesses include the structural functionalist perspective and conflict perspective because even though at one time these ideals were functional for society, they no longer hold any relevance because women are now just as valuable outside the house as they are inside, and vice versa for men. Secondly some women today are just as strong as men and can participate in physically demanding jobs such as construction or firefighting. The strengths of this theory all come from the symbolic interactions perspective; this is because most of today’s sexual stereotyping comes from the idea of what is feminine and what is masculine, which is the key concept of this perspective.

Possible Solutions for Sexual Stereotyping

Like for all social problems we as a society are always looking for the remedy or the solution to the problem. Even though we probably won’t be able to fully eliminate gender stereotyping we can lessen it by acknowledging it. Even though our society has taken huge steps towards changing the traditional sexual stereotypes, we have also created new ones at the same time. We assume all men that have a higher pitch voice or groom themselves must be gay, and that all women who are very athletic, and enjoy watching football to soap’s must be into other women. Along with the new sexual stereotypes we have also tried to compensate for the past, but we are still not improving all these sexual stereotypes. We try to hire more female engineers, and more male nurses, but the fact of the matter is all we are doing is reversing the male/female roles instead of removing them. (Egendorf, pg 57-105, 1997) So until we stop over compensating, and really understand the dangers that gender stereotyping this social problem will never disappear.

The theory related to this social problem also has its own possible solution to this issue, which includes campaigns that advocate for men, and campaigns that empower women (Dove). Personally I agree with this solution because if we empower people rather than bring them down we can accomplish more as a society and dissolve this and many other social issues.

In today’s society, many homosexual individuals are dealing with harassment, threats, and violence on a daily basis. Homosexuals are far more likely to be victims of a violent hate crime than any other minority group in the United States, according to a new analysis of federal hate crime statistics (Southern Poverty Law Center, 2010). Research shows that almost two thirds of lesbian, gay and bisexual teens experience homophobic bullying in British schools (Equality and Human rights commission, 2007). Similarly, many homosexual teens in U.S. schools are often subjected to such intense bullying that they are unable to receive a satisfactory level of education (Chase, 2001), with 28% of gay students dropping out altogether (Bart, 1998).

Homophobic bullying is currently an issue of epidemic proportions in society today, so much so that both the British Prime Minister David Cameron, the U.S. President Barack Obama, and many more politicians, activists and celebrities have recorded personal messages for the ‘It gets better’ campaign, a project set up in September 2010 to inspire hope for gay youth facing harassment. This campaign came about as a response to the recent string of suicides among young homosexuals in the U.S.

I feel that the design of an intervention to tackle the problem of sexual orientation prejudice and homophobic bullying is of the upmost importance to society, as the benefits to society from reducing homophobic bullying would far outweigh the costs of funding this intervention in schools. The harm from bullying and the toll it takes – not only on young homosexual teens but also to society at large – is far greater than people realize. I feel it is less likely that a youngster will succeed in life and have the ability to fully contribute to society without an adequate level of education. Statistics show that anti-gay bullying truncates a child’s academic ability to excel – for example, 7 out of 10 pupils who experience homophobic bullying state this has an impact on their school work and also their attendance (Stonewall, 2007). And the cost, while initially about the child, is a greater cost to us as a society in the long run.

However, perhaps the most significant cause of concern to society is the grave issue of suicides committed by gay teens. In September 2010 alone, 5 young people, victims of homophobic bullying, committed suicide. One of these victims, 18-year-old Tyler Clementi, jumped off the George Washington Bridge in New York City after discovering classmates has posted videos of his sexual encounters on the internet. Another, thirteen-year-old Asher Brown, shot himself after severe harassment by fellow classmates. I feel that this snowball effect of teen suicides in the U.S. highlights the damaging effect of homophobic bullying to society, and I am proposing an intervention to prevent such occurrences from escalating.

Aims

The aim of this intervention is to reduce the incidences of homophobic bullying behaviour in the mainstream school setting by changing attitudes towards homophobic bullying. In order to do this I would suggest educating pupils on issues around sexual orientation and also on the severe negative consequences of bullying. I would introduce weekly classes in the curriculum designed to focus on these particular issues – for example, it could be taught in pastoral care classes, not only with the aim of educating the children and reducing the bullying, but also empowering pupils to report bullying. One recent study which has had major success with the introduction of a gay awareness class was Stoke Newington School in London. In one lesson, pupils were taught about significant gay historical figures who positively contributed to society, such as authors and playwrights James Baldwin and Oscar Wilde, artist Andy Warhol, and mathematician, computer science pioneer and war time code breaker Alan Turing. Elly Barnes, the teacher who runs the class in Stoke Newington School, stated that, four years on from when she initiated the scheme, homophobic bullying has been more or less eradicated in the school (Learner, 2010). I feel that this case is a positive and pioneering exemplar from which many schools could learn.

Design

As I feel a one-time lecture on homophobic bullying would have little impact on levels of bullying in the long-term, I am proposing a weekly class to be run in schools with the agenda of educating pupils on issues around sexual orientation and also on the severe negative consequences of bullying. I would introduce weekly classes in the curriculum designed to focus on these particular issues – for example, it could be taught in pastoral care classes, not only with the aim of educating the children and reducing the bullying, but also empowering pupils to report bullying. I am proposing that the intervention take place at the school setting, as bullying so often stems from within the school environment, and the aim is to eradicate this at the grass roots.

Methods

Before starting the intervention I would measure the pupils’ attitudes towards homosexuality using an affective questionnaire and a cognitive questionnaire – the Index of Homophobia (Hudson and Ricketts, 1980) and the Modified attitudes towards sexuality scale (Price, 1982), respectively. I would then ask students to fill out these questionnaires again at the end of the school year so as to measure whether attitudes have been improved following the intervention.

I would use a direct approach to reduce the sexual orientation prejudice by including a weekly pastoral care class into the school’s curriculum in which educators would promote diversity in multicultural societies, group equality, and teach pupils about the history of the Gay Rights Movement. I would also aim to get the pupils involved by having group discussions and role-plays to increase empathy for outgroups, and by bringing in gay guest speakers in order to improve understanding and attitudes, and to correct some misguided stereotypes and faulty generalisations that heterosexual pupils may hold against their homosexual classmates. I would also hope that having the chance to meet a positive role model from the gay community who does not conform to the negative stereotypes would create dissonance-induced attitude change. I would attempt to change the social norms of the school environment, by introducing a zero tolerance policy in the school, which states that no-one shall be discriminated against for their religion, race, disability, or sexual orientation, and educate the teachers so that they also must follow this policy.

Also, I would set aside a class to talk about the issue of derogatory phrases and how they could make gay students feel, as a recent study showed that 97% of gay pupils hear offensive phrases such as “dyke”, “bender” or “poof” used in school and 98% of gay pupils hear the phrases “that’s so gay” when people are referring to something they feel is rubbish or stupid (Stonewall, 2007). The intention would be to create perspective-taking (i.e. “How would you feel if you were gay and heard those derogatory phrases?”) and instil empathy for the outgroup.

One theoretical framework which supports this is the Intergroup Contact Theory (Allport, 1954). Allport proposed that intergroup contact between two groups should reduce prejudice as long as the following were present: common group goals, equal status, intergroup co-operation and support of authorities. Therefore in the intervention, I would set tasks which both groups would have to work on to achieve a superordinate goal, I would structure the task so as the groups must rely upon each other in order to achieve this superordinate goal, and I would make sure that equality of all sexual orientations is promoted. The school itself and its educators would constitute as the authority which supports both groups. I feel that this would work in either a real situation (whereby gay individuals have disclosed their sexuality to their classmates and feel confident to be categorized as homosexual) or in an imagined situation (for example, a role-play, as many pupils who are gay may not wish to disclose this information, nor would we force them to do so). I believe that the latter may well occur as in order to avoid social stigma many gay young people hide their sexuality. Therefore, in this instance I would use the theoretical framework of ‘Imagined Intergroup Contact’ (Crisp & Turner, 2009). This theory suggests that simply getting participants to conjure up a mental simulation of a positive intergroup encounter leads to improved attitudes towards the outgroup.

I would also use indirect approaches to reduce prejudice by educating pupils on moral reasoning, promote egalitarianism within the school setting, and promote respect, understanding and tolerance of others no matter what their background is. I would also incorporate modern media into the school environment, such as using examples from music, film and TV programs to teach pupils about other cultures and groups. This is supported by the ‘Parasocial contact hypothesis theory’ (Schiappa, Gregg and Hewes, 2005), which states that the illusion of face-to-face contact with interaction can change prejudices, as people process mass media relationships in the same way as they process real-life interpersonal interactions. Schiappa, Gregg and Hewes (2005) found that parasocial contact reduced prejudice toward the outgroup.

Although the intergroup contact theory can be used for many groups such as opposing ethnic minority groups, opposing religious groups, opposing sports teams and so on, research has shown that the theory has been particularly successful in reducing prejudice toward homosexuals. Applying the intergroup contact theory to sexual orientation groups, Herek (1987) found that heterosexuals who had experience of pleasant interactions with a homosexual tend to accept the homosexual community in general. It was also shown that increased contact with a homosexual was a better predictor of changed attitudes than any other factor, including gender, race, socioeconomic background and so on (Herek and Glunt, 1993).

I would also create a classroom discussion about why certain individuals may feel threatened by homosexuals, and address the issues as to why this symbolic threat may come about, such as perceiving that your ingroups moral values and religious beliefs are different from the outgroups. I would increase perceptions of similarity between hetersexuals and homosexuals by highlighting examples of gay individuals who are good role models, religious, and so on, to show that they are not so different from straight people.

One issue we must think about when introducing such curriculum into the school setting is whether parents will approve. I would propose sending letters home to parents detailing the intentions behind the sexual orientation awareness class and highlighting the need to reduce bullying within the school. However, I would ensure that children could withdraw from the class if they strongly wish to do so; as some of the pupils’ families or religious/cultural communities may be homophobic and may disapprove of their participation, and we would not want the pupils to suffer negatively from attending this class, for example, to become ostracised from their community. Therefore we would strongly encourage students to take part, but would not force it upon them. However, the teacher who pioneered the gay awareness class in the Stoke Newington School in London, Elly Barnes, stated that she has only ever received a few complaints – “A parent complained after her son told her he had seen a film at the school that showed two men kissing. I told her we are an inclusive school and it is part of the curriculum”(Learner, 2010).

In conclusion, I propose that a school-based intervention is essential to reduce sexual orientation prejudice and homophobic bullying amongst teens in schools. I would hope that a curriculum which promotes diversity, understanding, acceptance and equality will go a long way in reducing homophobic bullying and equally, I am optimistic that the introduction of an anti-discrimination policy which all students and teachers must follow will help protect the students.

Resources

Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books

Bart, M. (1998). Creating a safer school for gay students. Counseling Today.

Chase, A. (2001). Violent Reaction; What do Teen Killers have in Common? In these Times.

Crisp & Turner (2009). Can Imagined Interactions Produce Positive Perceptions? Reducing Prejudice Through Simulated Social Contact. American Psychologist, Vol 64, Issue 4, pg.231-240.

Herek, G. M. (1987) The instrumentality of attitudes: Toward a neofunctional theory. Journal of Social Issues, 42, 99-114.

Herek, G. M., & Glunt, E. K. (1993). Interpersonal contact and heterosexuals’ attitudes toward gay men: Results from a national survey. Journal of Sex Research, 30, 239-244.

Hudson, W.W. & Ricketts, W.A. (1980). A strategy for the measurement of homophobia. Journal of homosexuality, 5, 357-372.

Learner, S. Making homophobia history. In The Guardian, p5 of the EducationGuardian section, October 26th 2010 issue.

Price, J. H. (1982). High school students’ attitudes toward homosexuality. Journal of School Health 52: 469-474.

Schiappa, E., Gregg, P., & Hewes, D. (2005) The Parasocial Contact Hypothesis. Communication Monographs, 72, 92-115

The School Report – The experiences of young gay people in Britain’s schools. (2007) Stonewall.

Under attack (2010) The Intelligence Report, Southern Poverty Law centre, Issue 40.

Valentine, G. & Wood, N. (2010) The experiences of lesbian, gay and bisexual staff and students in higher education. Equality and Human rights commission, research summary 39.

Today’s organizations are becoming increasingly diversified in many ways. With respect to sexual orientation, gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) employees constitute one of the largest but least studied minority groups in the workforce. Although invisible, sexuality is at the core of each worker’s identity. Therefore, it poses a number of complex challenges towards organizations and their human resources department. The ‘Don’t ask don’t tell (DADT) policy of the U.S. Military presents a striking example of the silence surrounding their identity on the work floor.

In this paper, the impact of silencing as well as the ways in which the voice of LGBT employees and other invisible minorities can be heard is studied.

Introduction
Diversity

Diversity includes cultural factors such as race, gender, age, color, physical ability, national origin, etc. The broader definition of diversity additionally includes religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, education, language, lifestyle, beliefs, physical appearance and economic status (Wentling and PalmaRivas, 2000). The word diversity is not contained in any report or law; instead, it grew out of academic and popular press usage.

Diversity in the workforce

With respect to the workplace, diversity refers to the co-existence of employees from various socio-cultural backgrounds. Every human being is unique, but at the same time, every individual shares biological as well as environmental characteristics with any group of others. In this context, diversity can be generally defined as recognition of the people who share such common traits. These traits -the characteristics that make up a whole person- both unite and divide us. In the domain of human resources (HR), however, the term diversity can represent three major working definitions:

– the politically correct term for employment equity/affirmative action;

– the recruitment and selection of ethnic groups and women;

– the management of individuals sharing a broad range of common traits.

The first definition represents the most narrow view of diversity and is usually found in organizations without formal diversity policies or programs. The second definition reflects the reality of many diversity programs focusing on employment regulation concerns. And finally, the last definition is the broadest and generally used in organizations containing diversity programs (Grobler, Warnich et al., 2006).

Dimensions of diversity

When talking about diversity, one should keep in mind the differences between primary and secondary dimensions. Primary dimensions are those human differences that are innate and that have a drastic impact on us. Age, ethnicity, race, gender, physical abilities/qualities and sexual/affectional orientation are examples of primary dimensions at the heart of individual identities. Alternatively, secondary dimensions are more changeable and can be discarded or modified during our lifetime. Such dimensions add depth and individuality to our lives. Education, geographical location, marital status, income, military experience, religion, work experience and parental status are illustrations of secondary dimensions. The primary and secondary dimensions can be represented as a circle, with the primary dimensions at the centre and the secondary dimensions surrounding them. An illustration of both groups of dimensions can be found in Figure 1(Grobler, Warnich et al., 2006).

Figure 1: Primary and secondary dimensions of diversity

In any initial encounter, people identify by the primary dimensions that are most readily observed: age, gender, race and physical abilities/qualities. Since most individuals live in homogeneous communities, or at least in circumstances far less diverse than our society as a whole, their entry into the workplace may be a first encounter with a diverse population. During this kind of first encounter, phenomena such as stereotyping and prejudice might appear.

Stereotyping works against people’s individuality and limits their potential. Generally, if the stereotype is that the person is not competent, then people may not perform competently. This illustrates that, to a large extent, people perform in line with the expectations placed on them. Clinging to negative stereotypes about people other than ourselves leads to prejudice, which means processing our stereotypes such that one’s own sense of superiority to the members of that group is reinforced. It is the role of the appropriate institutions within a country to recognize and eradicate both stereotyping and prejudice (Grobler, Warnich et al., 2006).

Managing diversity

Managing diversity can be defined as:

“A planned systematic and comprehensive managerial process for developing an organizational environment in which all employees, with their similarities and differences, can contribute to the strategic and competitive advantage of the organization, and where no-one is excluded on the basis of factors unrelated to productivity” (Thomas, 1996).

On the work floor, managing diversity presents a key issue for governments as well as private organizations. Its importance has mainly been brought about by the free movement of labor due to globalization. The fight for human rights by certain minority groups, who feel excluded from the employment sector, discloses another impulse for the current significance of diversity management. Within the context of equal opportunities in the workplace, workforce diversity again plays a major role. This equal opportunity philosophy is aimed at ensuring that organizations make the most out of the uniqueness of a diverse workforce, which might assist the organization to be more efficient and effective, rather than losing talent. Broadly, diversity management is the systematic and planned commitment by the organizations to recruit, retain, reward and promote a heterogeneous mix of employees (Grobler, Warnich et al., 2006).

Valuing diversity

For organizations to fight discrimination, it is essential to value diversity. This valuing starts with recognizing the fundamental difference between valuing diversity on the one hand, and employment equity and/or affirmative action on the other. Employment equity is an officially authorized approach to workplace discrimination. For instance, it is against the law to reject a person a job or job advantage because of age, race, sexual orientation, gender or other primary characteristics. Affirmative action is a reaction to the under-use of protected groups in various job classes in which a business attempts to attract people from such groups because of their failure to do so in the past as a result of inequity. Valuing diversity surpasses both concepts and leads to management designed to reap the benefits offered by a diversified workforce (Grobler, Warnich et al., 2006).

Whereas affirmative action and employment equity are government-initiated, legally driven attempts to alter -from a quantitative standpoint- the composition of a company’s workforce, valuing diversity is a company-specific, necessity-driven effort to alter -from a qualitative standpoint- the utilization of the company’s workforce. In an organization that values diversity, managing diversity becomes a substitute for assimilation (Grobler, Warnich et al., 2006).

Sexual orientation

Within the framework of diversity management, sexual orientation represents a non-observable or underlying type of diversity, as opposed to more visible traits such as race or gender. The reason is that gay, lesbian, and bisexual employees can choose to what extent they reveal their sexual orientation in the workplace. Lately, sexual orientation has received a growing amount of attention, including through the prohibition of employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation for both private and public employees. Another indication of this increasing attention regards the mounting number of organizations that fight against this type of discrimination. For instance, in the United States, in many large organizations, Lesbian and Gay Employee Groups are demanding the exclusion of discrimination based on sexual orientation, the provision of guidance to enhance tolerance in the work environment, and the equal treatment of significant others (e.g. relating to health care benefits) (Van Hoye and Lievens, 2003).

Parallel to the social and societal developments, there has been an increase in scientific investigation on sexual orientation in the workforce (Van Hoye and Lievens, 2003).

Sexual orientation in the workforce: Literature overview

Three research streams can be clearly distinguished within the literature on sexual orientation in the workplace. The first research stream studies the discrimination and minority status experienced by lesbian, gay, and bisexual people in the workplace. A second strand of studies takes the issue of coming out at work as the focal point. In fact, one of the work-related decisions that all gay, lesbian, and bisexual people face, is to what extent they unveil their sexual orientation on the work floor.

The third and last research stream relates to the more specific work-related issues of gay, lesbian, and bisexual employees (as opposed to the general character of the studies belonging to the first research stream) (Van Hoye and Lievens, 2003).

Within the first research stream, it was found that the majority of gay, lesbian, and bisexual people have once experienced discrimination on the work floor (Croteau, 1996). Here, the construct of heterosexism seems to play a central role. Heterosexism can be defined as “an ideological system that denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes any non-heterosexual form of behavior, identity, relationship, or community” (Herek, 1990). Research has demonstrated that heterosexism in the organization can lead to a decrease in perceived productivity, job contentment, organizational commitment, career dedication, and organization-based self-esteem. In addition, it can lead to an increases in perceived health problems, psychological distress, and turnover intentions among gay, lesbian, and bisexual employees (Van Hoye and Lievens, 2003).

The outcome of the second research stream reveals that there are five different levels of coming out, namely acting, passing, covering, implicitly out and explicitly out (Chung, 2001). Nevertheless, other possible classifications do exist. The concealment of one’s sexual orientation has negative consequences at the individual level (depressing work attitudes, low job contentment, anxiety, etc.), group level (dysfunctional communication, low work team cohesion, etc.) as well as organizational level (higher turnover and lower productivity) (Van Hoye and Lievens, 2003).

To date, very few studies have taken the approach of the third research stream. An example of a scarcely studied topic within this field of research concerns the influence of the sexual orientation of job candidates on their evaluation by HR professionals. One of the motives that almost no research has specifically examined the consequences of sexual orientation on hiring decisions, is that it is very difficult to examine this issue in field settings with real candidates. Thus, although the outcomes of such studies are insightful, not enough research has been carried out so far to draw sound conclusions.

For an illustration of the sexual orientation policy of the SAC company (Scottish Agricultural College), see appendix. SAC is an innovative, knowledge-based organization supporting the development of rural communities and industries. (MOET IK NOG TOEVOEGEN)

Diversity policy worldwide
IEDEREEN Z’N STUKJE OVER CONTINENTEN KOMT HIER

The United States

We first introduce the general conditions for acceptance of sexual diversity in America since these have shaped the context for coping with sexual diversity, and more specific LGBT, on the work floor . LGBT rights are very complex in the Americas since acceptance of the phenomenon varies widely between Canada, the United States or the Southern Americas. We will here focus on the United States (U.S.). In the U.S., LGBT-related laws include amongst others: government recognition of same-sex relationships, LGBT adoption, sexual orientation and military service, immigration equality, anti-discrimination laws, hate crime laws regarding violence against LGBT people, sodomy laws, anti-lesbianism laws, and higher ages of consent for same-sex activities. Generally, it was not until 2003 that sexual acts between persons of the same sex became legal in the U.S. However, many other laws are still not recognized on federal level and a wide spread amongst states concerning the enabling of those laws exist. We will now discuss the policy concerning LGBT discrimination in the work environment in the U.S.

Legislative policy: the Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA)

Employment discrimination refers to discriminatory employment practices such as bias in hiring, promotion, job assignment, termination, and compensation, and various types of harassment. (Source) In general there is no common law that states that employment discrimination based on sexual orientation is wrong and discrimination against employees who are gay, or simply appear to be gay, is legal in many workplaces in the U.S. (Ragin, 2004)

The first bill on the subject of sexual orientation discrimination was introduced in Congress in 1974. However it was not until 1994 that the Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA), a proposed bill in the United States Congress that would prohibit discrimination against employees on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity by civilian, nonreligious employers with at least 15 employees, was introduced. [1] It failed in 1994 and 1995, though by 1996, missed passage in the Senate by a 49-50 vote. Until 2009, every proposal in the legislative history of introducing the law failed. Furthermore, many versions of the ENDA only concerned LGB and did not include provisions that protect transgender people from discrimination. Currently, only twenty-two states have laws that ban sexual orientation discrimination: California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, Washington and Wisconsin. As a result of the limited coverage of States that enabled the law, LGBT people face serious discrimination in employment, including being fired, being denied a promotion, and experiencing harassment on the job. [2]

Additional to the differentiation between the several states of the U.S., another distinction in employment discrimination based on sexual orientation that can be made involves the difference in coping with diversity between public and private sectors. [3] Extensive anti- discrimination legislation protecting public sector workers makes workers in the public sector less likely to be arbitrarily fired than workers at private companies. (Boris, 2010) As a result, the public sector in the United States is noticeably more racially diverse and gender balanced than the private sector. The more protective climate and diverse workforce in the public sector may result in LGBT individuals feeling more comfortable in openly expressing their sexual orientation at work. If this is the case, the public sector may employ more openly LGBT employees. (Boris, 2010)

Attitude of employers and employees towards LGBT in the workforce

Generally, American workplaces have undergone a partial revolution over the last quarter century when it comes to LGBT equality. Public attitudes toward homosexuality became more liberal during the 1970s, then increasingly conservative through the 1980s, and then more liberal since 1990. (Roberson, 2009) Today, sexual orientation diversity is a key part of workplaces in the U.S. An estimated 8.8 million gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals live in the United States. (Bell et al., 2011) While it is difficult to ascertain how many of these individuals are in the labor force, U.S. Census data reveal that more than 86% of men and women in same-sex couples are employed, and that employment probabilities for gay men and lesbians lie below those of married heterosexual men, but above those of heterosexual women (Leppel, 2009).

The issue on employment discrimination based on sexual orientation has become more important for many employers, workplace diversity programs have been major initiatives in US corporations over the last several years. (Day & Schoenrade, 2000) An increase in share of LGBT in the workforce since was already reported by HR managers in the eighties. (Day & Schoenrade, 2000) In response, in May of 1993, the Board of the Society for Human Resource Management, the premiere national association of American human resource practitioners, passed a resolution to include sexual orientation in its statement acclaiming the value of a diverse workforce (HR News, 1993). (Day & Schoenrade, 2000)

However, several surveys demonstrate that LGBT on the work floor is far from an accepted concept, discriminating practices are laid out by several surveys. A first example appears from a 1990 U.S. census in where Allegretto and Arthur (2001) found that after controlling for differences associated with being married, gay men earned 2.4% less than their unmarried heterosexual counterparts. (Ragin, 2004) Another range of surveys that study behavior and acceptance concerning LGBT on the work floor is cited by Day & Schoenrade (2000) A first example is a survey reported by the National Defense Research Institute in 1993, which found through several national public opinion polls that a majority of heterosexual American workers report being uncomfortable with the idea of working with homosexuals. (Day & Schoenrade, 2000) When respondents were confronted with the issue of working with homosexuals, one study found that 27 percent said that they would “prefer not to” and 25 percent said that they would “strongly object”. A second example involves a survey from Wall street Journal in 1993, which found that 66 percent of surveyed CEOs reported being reluctant to include a homosexual on a management committee. Leppel (2009) proved that discrimination on the basis of sexual rientation appears to drive up the unemployment of same-sex partners relative to that of married partners. Similarly, probabilities of being out of the labor force for same-sex partners are greater than those of heterosexual men and less than those of heterosexual women. (Leppel, 2009)

Several reasons were sought for these discriminating behavior against LGBT. One persisting cause in the U.S. is the existence of strong religious believes. A survey of Kansas Citians found that 47 percent felt that their religious beliefs and morality strongly conflicted with homosexuality (Day, 2011). Other issues involving a negative attitude towards LGBT in the workforce are related to heterosexism and homophobia in organizational America today. (Gedro, 2010)

Human resource management and LGBT

An appropriate approach of human resource management to LGBT in the workforce is urgent because the trend in American society for more and more gay men and lesbians to make their sexual orientation known since this openness may create conflicts in the workplace (Day & Schoenrade, 2000) There is some evidence that human resource departments are not fully supporting this growing need. For example, a sample of human resource professionals found that even though most believe that sexual orientation must be formally addressed in the workplace, and that they would individually speak out against anti-gay acts, only 20 percent of their companies have diversity programs that specifically address gay and lesbian work issues. (Day & Schoenrade, 2000) This increased openness in sexual orientation may also be a reason for an increasing experiencing of LGB employees as a symbolic threat. Although a law has been approved, many Americans still oppose gay marriage. One consequence of this is that some heterosexual employees may experience symbolic threat when faced with LGB co-workers who are out at work and wish to bring their partners to company social events. Ragin (2004) already presumed that this symbolic threat of homosexuality could increase if gay marriages would be legalized in some states, and LGB workers could bring their spouses to workplace events. (Ragin, 2004)

Attitude of labor unions towards LGBT in the workforce

One interesting aspect is how labor unions U.S. are reacting to the recent discussions on sexual orientation in the workforce since unions, as democratic organizations , have a social obligation to represent the interests of all of their members. (Boris, 2010) However this can cause problems when the majority interest conflict with issues of inclusion and social justice for the minority such as LGBT employees. This might lead to the exclusion of minority interests or groups within unions. It should be noted that there is a strong differentiation between the several unions in their response to this minority group. As many research has pointed out, especially structural and demographic factors help to determine an American union’s level of responsiveness to sexual diversity with American unions. (Boris, 2010) Gender mattered as unions with a female majority were more likely to address the concerns of LGBT members. Other examples of factors playing a role in determining a union’s response to LGBT issues are the role of individual agency on the part of union leaders, activists, and rank-and-file union members. (Boris, 2010)

DADT policy in the U.S. military

An example frequently cited when discussing LGBT policies in the U.S. is the issue of gay policy in the U.S. military. In 1993, new laws and regulations pertaining to homosexuals and U.S. military service came into effect reflecting a compromise in policy. This compromise, colloquially referred to as “don’t ask, don’t tell,” holds that the presence in the armed forces of persons who demonstrate a propensity or intent to engage in homosexual acts would create an unacceptable risk to the high standards of morale, good order and discipline, and unit cohesion which are the essence of military capability. (Burelli & Feder, 2009) Service members are not to be asked about nor allowed to discuss their homosexuality. This compromise notwithstanding, the issue has remained politically contentious. (Burelli & Feder, 2009) While the decision to remain in the closet may be a functional and adaptive reaction to a hostile work environment, it also increases the risk and stress associated with losing control over the disclosure process. (Ragin, 2004)

Recent progress in enabling discrimination laws

In recent years, several members of Congress have expressed interest in amending “don’t ask, don’t tell.” At least one bill that would repeal the law and replace it with a policy of nondiscrimination on the basis of sexual orientation-H.R. 1283-has been introduced in the 111th Congress. (Burelli & Feder, 2009) An Act of Congress providing a mechanism to repeal “Don’t ask, don’t tell” was signed into law by President Obama on 22 December 2010. As of February 2011, the Pentagon has started starting to dismantle DADT.

Regarding the ENDA, we have to remain patient. In 2011, the U.S. Senate will reintroduce the Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA) in the 112th congress. In the meanwhile, hundreds of companies in U.S. have enacted policies protecting their lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender employees. As of March 2011, 433 (87 percent) of the Fortune 500 companies had implemented non-discrimination policies that include sexual orientation, and 229 (46 percent) had policies that include gender identity. [4]

Africa

The issue of workforce diversity has not been a key problem in Africa before as much as it is today. Together with globalization and the need for an increasing number of organizations to spread globally to reach customers worldwide, the concept of diversity management gained attention. Managers must recognize the need for understanding more about the diverse workforce, which is deeper than what we see at the surface level (Henry and Evans, 2007).

During the 1990s, the liberalization of economies and structural adjustment policies, brought about by the Brentwood institutions, opened the doors to free market economies, especially in Africa. These free market economies have stimulated the free movement of labor as a commodity, which in turn has resulted in an increasingly diversified workforce across the continent. Further, the privatization of most of the state-owned enterprises in Sub-Saharan Africa also created an open door for migration of labor from all over the world (Henry and Evans, 2007).

South Africa

To meet the challenges of the twenty-first century, as in many other countries, South African businesses must address the best and brightest employees. Moreover, managers should understand that they can only compete successfully if they recognize the emergence of the diversified workforce and find the means to harness its energies, talents and differences for tomorrow’s challenges (Grobler, Warnich et al., 2006).

The major groups providing diversity in the South African workforce are ethnic groups, women, younger workers, South Africans with disabilities and minority groups in the context of sexual orientation. With respect to the latter, it seems that at least 10% of the South African population is homosexual. This means that 10% of the men and women in the workforce, representing around one million people, are gay.

However, while the workforce is increasingly diversifying, discrimination still presents an enormous problem in South Africa. In fact, research demonstrates that discrimination still exists in organizations, and that many South African workers still suffer from employment discrimination. Within the organization, it’s up to the HR professionals to develop and enforce policies and measures that protect the diversified workforce against illicit discrimination.

To rectify the injustices of the past, the South African government has come to some actions. Amongst others, the following legislation has been introduced: the Labour Relations Act, No. 66 of 1995 (as amended); the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act, No. 108 of 1996; the Basic Conditions of Employment Act, No. 75 of 1997 (BCEA) (as amended); the Employment Equity Act, No. 55 of 1998 (EEA); the Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act, No. 4 of 2000; and a Code of Good Practice on the handling of sexual harassment included in the Labour Relations Act (Section 203(1)).

For example, Section 9 (2) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (No. 108 of 1996) states that: “The State may not unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds, including age, gender, sex, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orientation, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, language and birth” (Grobler, Warnich et al., 2006).

ANDERE INTERESSANTE ZAKEN DIE NOG KUNNEN GEBRUIKT WORDEN

LGBT military laws

Homosexuals allowed to serve in the military

Homosexuals banned from serving; repeal of policy underway

Homosexuals banned from serving (or homosexuality illegal)

Data not available

References

Bell, M. P., A-zbiligin, M. F., Beauregard, T. A., & Surgevil, O. (2011). Voice, silence, and diversity in 21st century organizations: strategies for inclusion of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender employees. HUman Resource Management, 50(1), 131 – 146. doi: 10.1002/hrm.

Boris, M. B. (2010). Identity at work : U.S. labor union efforts to address sexual diversity through policy and practice. Advances in Industrial and Labor Relations, 17, 185-205. Elsevier. doi: 10.1108/S0742-6186(2010)0000017009.

Burrelli, D. F., & Feder, J. (2009). Homosexuals and the U . S . Military : Current Issues.

Chung, Y. B. (2001). Work discrimination and coping strategies: Conceptual frameworks for counseling lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients. The Career Development Quarterly,50, 33-44.

Croteau, J. M. (1996). Research on the work experiences of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people: An integrative review of methodology and findings. Journal of Vocational Behavior,48, 195-209.

Day, N. E. (2011). US small company leadersE? religious motivation and other-directed organizational values. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 17(4).

Day, N. E., & Schoenrade, P. (2000). The relationship among reported disclosure of sexual orientation, anti-discrimination policies, top management support and work attitudes of gay and lesbian employees. Personnel Review, 29(3), 346-363. doi: 10.1108/00483480010324706.

Gedro, J. (2010). Lesbian presentations and representations of leadership, and the implications for HRD. Journal of European Industrial Training, 34(6), 552-564. doi: 10.1108/03090591011061220.

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Sexuality Men Women

Outline two or more different approaches to the study of sexuality.

Sexuality is mainly conceived as being a natural drive or instinct, which becomes inevitably part of the biological make-up of an individual, which only seeks fulfilment through sexual activity. Such a view of sexuality, which sees such as a natural entity, is most commonly referred to as essentialism. The majority of essentialist theories present today have presented sex as a natural instinct needed for the purpose of reproductive activity.

In such a way, Weeks (1986) outlines that in such an essentialist approach there is an apparent link between sexuality and biological sex/gender. “Modern culture has assumed an intimate connection between the fact of being biologically male or female (that is having appropriate sex organs and reproductive potentialities) and the correct form of erotic behaviour (usually genital intercourse between men and women)” (Weeks 1986 p.13)

In regards to an essentialist viewpoint, one is left to distinguish between men and women, in particular reference to their independent sexual desires and needs. It has been noted that women tend to have a natural tendency to promiscuity while men, on the other hand are described as having a much stronger sex drive.

Therefore, in reference to this particular discourse, human sexuality is heavily rooted in biological terms, whereby a heterosexual drive intended for the purpose of procreation would be considered “normal.” Thus, under such an approach, lesbian, gay and bisexual men and women have been largely considered deviant and unnatural, while any individuals who categorise themselves as any of these are subsequently not considered “real” men or women.

“We learn very early on from many sources that “natural” sex is what takes place with members of the “opposite” sex. “Sex” between people of the same “sex” is therefore, by definition, “unnatural.” (Weeks 1986 p.13) For both men and women, heterosexuality is clearly the norm under such an approach, while sex is ideally expressed in monogamous and marital relationships in an ideal world.

Jeffrey Weeks, who happens to be one of the key critics of essentialism has been known to reject any approach that fails to consider the historical and social forces that shape sexuality. Weeks suggests that the diversity of sexual identity and desire is also important to acknowledge. He rejects the notion that there is a true essence of sex, there is no “uniformed pattern” which is “ordained by nature itself” (Weeks 1986 p.15). The essentialist argument comes as simplistic to Weeks, as it reduces the nature of sexual relations and identities to biological factors.

Many other theorists have acknowledged the simplistic nature of essentialism, by agreeing that sexual desires may appear to be natural, but also acknowledging the idea that our sexual responses and identities may in fact be socially constructed. When we learn the patterns of our behaviour, we are subjected to the meanings attached to such behaviours as well. Such behaviours then become a product of certain social and historical forces; which can immediately be extended to include our sexual attitudes, feelings and the ways in which we feel about sexuality itself and hence our sexual identity.

It has been said that sexuality is very much shaped by the culture in which we live. The very factors that make up our society (laws, religious teachings, social policies, the media) all attach their own meaning to such meanings that are conveyed to us. This approach does not deem biology as insignificant; inevitably the body imposes some limits due to sheer distinction between being male or female i.e. we experience different things in regards to what genitalia we possess.

Yet having said this, anatomical structure and physiology do not directly influence what we do and the way we act, not does it determine the meaning we attach to the actions we choose to make. “All the constituent elements of sexuality have their source either in the body or the mind, and I am not attempting to deny the limits posed by biology or mental processes. But the capacities of the body are given meaning only by social relations”. (Weeks 1986 p.15).

In relation to social construction, the body is said to gain certain meaning in certain social contexts as different parts of the body can be defined in many different ways. For example, in the 1960s it was stated that a new cultural context emerged. It was at this point in time that the “G-spot” was discovered. Such a discovery led to the vast publication of books, with the added introduction of classes to help women explore their bodies and find their so-called “G-spot.” In such a way, the physical anatomy of women stayed the same as before but at this point it had a different social significance. This particular part of the body was given a particular and new social meaning, which was constructed to become an object of desire.

Foucault (1981) has been a very influential early theorist by shedding light on the social construction of sexuality. He argues that there is no one truth about sex. Hence various discourses, whether this be it law, religion, medicine or psychiatry have established their particular view of the body and its relative pleasures. Sexual desire is created through a set of bodily sensations, pleasures and feelings.

It is such desires which shape our sexual values and henceforth the meaning we attach to our bodies. Sex is therefore not some biological entity governed by natural laws (as suggested by essentialism) but is more like an idea specific to certain cultures and particular historical periods. The creation of definitions and in particular the categorisation such that of heterosexual, homosexual and lesbian etc becomes the ingredients of sex.

It is through this that we try to make sense of it. However, the work of Foucault, although recognised as very important has been criticised for not paying enough attention to the way gender influences sexual desire and identity.

In tangent with the work of Foucault, Weeks highlights that sexual identity is historically shaped. Weeks was apprehensive with the way in which sexuality and especially homosexuality has been embedded in an ever-changing and highly complex history over the past 100 years. With a number of influences, cited as being feminists, gay and lesbian activists and Foucault himself, Weeks developed the hypothesis that many sexual categories that we ultimately take for granted are actually the product of social and historical labels.

The distinction between the “natural” and secure are all subject to continuous labelling. Weeks felt it important to study the history of sexuality, in order to gain an understanding of the many forms of identities existent in society today, in terms of demographics such as class, ethnicity, gender and sexual preference. Again, he emphasises the point that it is reductionist to reduce the complexities of reality to essentialist biological truth. Sexual identity, therefore, according to Weeks is not achieved simply by an act of individual will but rather through social construction.

In addition to the above, “the ‘biological justification’ for heterosexuality as ‘normal’, it might be proposed, has fallen apart. What used to be called perversions are merely ways in which sexuality can legitimately be expressed and self-identity be defined.” (Giddens 1992 p.179). Giddens suggests that it is late modernity that has changed sexuality from being a single hegemony and replaced it with ‘sexual pluralism’. This significant shift brought on by the fact that sexuality as a term was largely replaced by “sexual identity,” which nonetheless is defined by individual choice, whereby sexual choice falls under one of the elements of an individual’s “lifestyle” choice.

In a historical sense, such a shift took place in a very short period of time. Sex and ways of thinking about it, provided a science of sex so to speak. These were accompanied by clear distinctions between the normal and abnormal. Such ways of thinking have produced a series of accounts of the way people behave sexually. Such accounts different to the work of the early sexologists such as Freud. Giddens introduces the notion of ‘institutional reflexivity’ to explain the shift. Through the process of reflexivity, it is the distinctions between the “normal us” and the “perverse them” that vanish. ‘Sexual diversity, although still regarded by many hostile groups as perversion, has moved out of Freud’s case-history notebooks into the everyday social world’ (Giddens 1992 p.33).

It has been found that there has been evidence to support the claim that the notion of perversion has been replaced by diversity, that our expressions of sexual desire rank alongside other expressions of self-identity, that sexual pluralism has replaced sexual monism. Some caution is necessary with this however, as Weeks points out (1986 p.81) “the admitted fact of diversity need not lead to a norm of diversity.” Such arguments and criticisms establishing the complex nature to the study of sexuality.

Amongst the essentialist/social constructionist debate, there has been a large amount of contribution from radical feminists. Radical feminists, (the assumed extreme ended form of feminism), has come under criticism for employing an essentialist viewpoint, whereby radical feminists themselves would claim to be following a social constructionist viewpoint. The essentialism that radical feminists are thought to applied to radical feminist thought is not the traditional biological sense, but a more social sense.

Radical feminists view the subordinate position of women as being universal and hence unchanging, therefore leading to a failure in acknowledging historical and cultural difference. As Ann Ferguson states “though these social constructionist theories may not technically be biologically essentialist, they are still a form of social essentialism: that is, they assume a social divide between male and female sexual natures which is unconvincingly universal, static and ahistorical.” (Ferguson 1989 p.54)

Typically, radical feminist thought on sexuality has pondered on the way in which patriarchy impacts women in particular social contexts. Radical feminists have not assumed sexuality to be universal and hence unchanging. A large part of the belief system of many radical feminists is the view that sexuality is socially constructed and therefore can be changed and reconstructed in many different ways; views on sexuality can change and be opposed.

Nonetheless, all preceding points have been ignored, as the view that radical feminists are essentialist has largely been adopted. IN addition to this, it appears that the recent that the influence of postmodernist ideas within feminism has re-instated this. For example, the words “patriarchy”, “woman” and “man” have been classifies as essentialist and problematic. Such issues and conceptions highlight the difficulty in theorising sexuality with one dominant approach.

It has been suggested that queer theory, as it emerged in the 1980s in the United States, was the distinctive factor that provided intellectual challenge to the categories that were established in the 19^th century. It was queer theory that opposed the idea that heterosexuality was the only natural and normal form of sexuality, in addition to challenging the idea that homosexuality was in fact a distinct category of people that act in a particular way.

All binary divisions that were imposed on sex and sexuality were rejected by such an approach. It was argued that the theoretical basis for the rejection of existing categories was due to the fact that such categories fails to reflect real differences, whether this be biological or otherwise, but instead reflected discourse. Such categories therefore, were part of the language of heterosexual dominance and hence had no truth outside it. (Stein & Plummer 1994).

Furthermore, queer theory also criticized the notion of distinct sexual identities. Similar to postmodern thought on sexuality, queer theory recognized that the conception of identity was made up of many different things. “Individuals can construct and reconstruct themselves through their choice of lifestyles, moving across categories and boundaries as they please” (Epstein 1994).

Queer theory not only provided a refreshing sociological analysis of the importance of social categories but also had a political aim as well. However, such a viewpoint is open to sociological criticism as some may argue that fails to recognize the sheer volume of social construction, hence leaving the approach fairly simplistic.

Judith Butler’s work (1990, 1991) represents a postmodern attempt to theorise sexuality. Butler challenges the assumed causal links between sex, gender and sexual desire. She emphasises that the person individuals’ desire is seen to lead from either being masculine or feminine, whereby the norm construction is for desire to be directed towards the opposite gender. Not only does Butler challenge such a notion, but further goes on to address the assumption that heterosexuality is the only valid form of sexual desire. To her, heterosexuality is simply one element of desire.

What is important to point out at this point is the fact that heterosexuality is the only form of desire that has come to be seen as natural. Butler highlights that once these notions and so called links are challenged then both gender and sexual desire will become “fluid” – something which is not extensively present today. Butler is one of the few theorists who contests all forms of sexual norms. “It is not just the norm of heterosexuality that is tenuous. It’s all sexual norms” (Butler in Osbourne and Segal 1994)

Going into further detail, Butler proposes that no gender is a “true” gender. Gender is a performance; it is more about what is done at particular times rather than a universally fixed notion. Butler sees heterosexuality as the “naturalized” original, while a binary model of sexual identity i.e. the “either/or” of hetero/homosexuality is unstable as each requires the other as a reference point. For Butler, “there is no ”proper” gender, a gender proper to one sex or the other, which is some way that sex’s cultural property’ (Butler 1991 p.21).

There are, rather, ‘illusions of continuity’, by which heterosexuality naturalises itself. Such an illusion is thought to depend on the idea that “there is first a sex which is expressed through a gender and then through a sexuality” (Ibid). However, Butler argues the opposite, stating that a “regime of sexuality mandates as compulsory performance of sex” (ibid p.29). We have already established that the performance relied on masculinity and femininity.

According to Butler, the linked chain of sex, gender and desire, which becomes the make-up of heterosexuality is thought to be required yet fragile at the same time. The claim of such a chain being fragile is addressed in Butler’s Gender Trouble (1996), whereby Butler outlines a fundamental interpretation of the “Oedipal struggle” as developed by psychologist Freud. Within this text, Butler chooses to focus on the original denial of same-sex desire.

She readily argues that it is homosexual incest that was the original taboo, as compared to heterosexual incest as was claimed. “The young boy and the young girl who enter into the Oedipal Drama with incestuous heterosexual aims have already been subject to prohibitions with dispose them in distinct sexual directions. Hence the dispositions that Freud assumes to be primary or constitutive facts of sexual life are effects of a law, which internalised, produces and regulates discrete gender identity and heterosexuality.” (Butler 1990 p.64)

Therefore, the gender identification within the oedipal struggle is one that is produced by the repression and denial of same-sex desire. Such a disposition is caused by the effects of laws that see same-sex desire negatively. Some may argue that such a statement supports the idea of social constructionism.

In regards to heterosexuality, there are certain expectations that are placed on the body which relate to gender performance in order to acquire sexuality. A “feminine” woman and a “masculine” man are expected to experience pleasure via penetration of their respective genitalia.

This nonetheless explains the problems faced by transsexuals and the belief that successful acquisition of gender identity is impossible without the appropriate genitalia. Therefore, the transsexual’s gain or loss of a particular body part to establish a certain desired identity is not a “subversive” act but rather an act that portrays the nature and existence of the link between sex, gender and desire have become “naturalized.”

Although the work of Butler has been highly influential in the discipline of gender studies, it appears that a number of criticisms have been attached to her work. A major critic to the work of Butler has been Nancy Fraser, who argues that the concept of performance in relation to gender and sexuality and Butler’s immediate focus on it is somewhat ignorant of “everyday ways of talking and thinking about ourselves.” Many others have also focused on such an issue in their criticism of Butler’s work. For example, Speer and Potter also argue that Butler’s work is difficult to apply to real-life situations, as the focus on language and meaning leads to problems relating to validity.

Generally, over the past couple of decades, it appears that there have been significant shifts in the understanding and acceptance of sexuality, especially homosexuality. There has clearly been an emergence of new sexual identities, with fundamental challenged to traditional frameworks. However, having examined a number of approaches to the study of sexuality and looking closely upon the basis of the arguments presented by many of the theorists addressed in this essay it appears as though their arguments are in a nutshell rooted within the essentialist/social constructionist argument.

While there are theorists who view sexuality as determined by a particular factor whether this be it biological or anything else, there are those that view that society and history have their part to play as well. I feel that such a construction and these same assumptions, in whatever form they may come, will always remain. Sexuality will perhaps always be subjected to such connotations. What I do find important, however, is the factor of gender and its relationship to sexuality. It appears that gender is in fact an integral part of sexuality and the understanding of it. However, even discourse on sexuality and gender are yet to clearly direct us to a definitive understanding of sexuality.

References

BUTLER, JUDITH (1990) “Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity”, London: Routledge, pp. 21-29

BUTLER, JUDITH (1991) “Imitation and gender subordination” in D. Fuss (ed.) “Inside/out Lesbian theories, Gay theories”, London: Routledge, pp 64-65

EPSTEIN, STEVEN (1987) “Gay politics, ethnic identity: the limits of social constructionism”, Socialist Review, 93/94: pp 9-54

FERGUSON, ANN (1989) “Blood at the Root: Motherhood, Sexuality and Male Dominance”, London: Pandora Press, pp 54-55

FOUCAULT, MICHEL (1981) “The History of Sexuality Volume 1: An Introduction”, Harmondsworth: Penguin

FRASER, NANCY (1994) “False Anthitheses” in “Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange”, London: Routledge, p 67

GIDDENS, ANTHONY (1992) “The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love and Eroticism in Modern Societies”, Cambridge: Polity Press, p 33 p 179

HAWKES, GAIL, (1996) “A sociology of sex and sexuality”, Buckingham: Open University Press, pp 134-141

MARSH, IAN (2000 ed) “Sociology making sense of society”, London: Prentice Hall, pp 327-380

OSBOURNE, PETER and SEGAL, LYNNE (1994) “Gender as performance: an interview with Judith Butler.” in MARSH, IAN (2^nd ed), “Sociology making sense of society”, London: Prentice Hall, pp 373

RICHARDSON, DIANE (2000) “Rethinking sexuality”, London: Sage, pp 19-67

SPEER, SUSAN and POTTER, JONATHAN (2002) “From Performatives to Practices” in McILVENNY, PAUL (ed) “Talking Gender and Sexuality”, Philadelphia: John Benjamins Company, pp 150-180

STEIN, ARLENE and PLUMMER, KEN (1996) “I can’t even think straight”: “queer” theory and the missing sexual revolution in sociology”, in SEIDMAN, STEVEN (ed.), “Queer Theory/Sociology”, Oxford: Blackwell.

WEEKS, JEFFREY (1986) “Sexuality”, London: Tavistock, pp. 13-81

Sexual Harassment WorkIntroduction

It is only in the past ten years or so that sexual behavior has been researched. The history of the term “sexual behavior” is thus short. Sexual harassment accounts for behavior that is socially, morally and verbally unacceptable at the work place. This leads to an antagonistic environment to work in. Physical and psychological health is worsened. The entire life of a person may be doomed after a horrific experience at the workplace.

Definition of Sexual Harassment: According to the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)

Sexual harassment is unwelcome advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature, when submission to or rejection of this conduct explicitly or implicitly affects a person’s employment or education, unreasonably interfered with a person’s work or educational performance, or creates an intimidating, hostile or offensive working or learning environment.

The United Stated Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) defines sexual harassment in the following way

When an individual is facing uninvited sexual advances, favors, or verbal or physical abuse, and his/her employment is being affected by this, it is termed sexual harassment. (EEOC).

Continuous pestering by team mates at work is becoming part of the norm nowadays. Sexual harassment involves sexual bias. The term can be defined as any unwelcome verbal, visual, or physical conduct of a sexual nature that is harsh and affects working conditions pessimistically. According to Fitzgerald,” Sexual harassment is difficult to measure and difficult to prove.” A variety of effects follow such behavior. Livingstone (1982) describes how cultural standards aggravate a woman’s feelings of coercion following sexual harassment since socialization seems to give men the right to practice sexual encounters, and women are the main victims of these unpleasant acts.

Sexual harassment can be distinguished as:

Quid pro quo: in which the employee is demoted or downgraded due to a refrain from sexual interaction.

Hostile working environment, in which undesirable conduct of a sexual character creates a painful work atmosphere for some employees.

Gender harassment is basically when a woman is treated differently because she is a woman. This includes general sexist remarks and behavior (Fitzgerald 1990). This creates a hostile environment for women. Gender harassment differs from quid pro quo, in that the latter constitutes a sexual activity which is specifically linked towards rewards or punishments.

There are four levels of factors affecting sexual harassment:

The individual,
The interpersonal,
The institutional and
The socio cultural

Some figures on Sexual Harassment in the Workplace:

The following table shows a record of sexual harassment cases:

Percentage of cases in companies:

Outline of sexual harassment

%

Insinuating remarks

55.2

Grabbing, deliberate touching

39.8

Insinuating gestures

30.3

Staring, meaningful glances

28.4

Seemingly accidental touching

25.4

Insinuating jokes

23.9

Stipulation for sexual action

20.4

Derogatory remarks

19.4

Insult after the rejection of an approach

12.4

Showing, distribution of pornography

11.9

Displaying pornography

10.4

Promise of pros for sexual sessions

8.0

Whistling at the back of a person

7.5

Physically violating to force sexual action

6.5

Fear of professional drawbacks in cases of rejection of advances

6.0

Threat of physical hostility to force sexual activity

3.0

Source: BMFSFJ, Beschaftigtenschutzgesetz in der Praxis, Berlin, 2005; the figures do not reflect the incidence but only the allocation of forms of sexual harassment in the cases reported.—provide complete source in the reference page

The following facts have been established by the Equal Rights Advocates:

Two thirds of sexual harassment cases are brought against a woman’s immediate supervisor.
95% of suffers have to undergo stress reactions, including depression, anxiety, sleep disorders, low feeling of dignity, sexual dysfunction.
95% of cases go unreported.
Sexual harassment can cost a Fortune 500 company approximately $6.7 million per year, due to absenteeism and low productivity.
Companies with proper policies against sexual harassment cases have lower reported incidents.

Source: Equal Rights Advocates, 2000. “Facts About Sexual Harassment in the Workplace.”

The Harasser and the Harassed

Sexual harassment can be amongst any coworkers, not necessarily between male bosses and female subordinates. These incidents may constitute:

Peer – Peer harassment.
Supervisor harassing subordinates.
Women harassing men.
Same gender harassment – men to men, women to women.
Third party abuse.

The victim of the harassment is not necessarily only the recipients of the behavior, but anyone who is affected by the misconduct, is considered to be harassed.

Sexual Harassment – Sex or Power?

Sexual harassment is linked with power and takes place in societies which often treat women as second-class citizens or are degraded.

Causes

It has been reported that throughout history women have suffered from some sort of sexual harassment or the other, but it was just considered to be usual behavior and a bitter part of the job market. Women working in coal mines in olden days had to face harsh cruelties of this world defined by men.

Sexual harassment in the workplace started gaining acknowledgement only in the 70’s. (Caroline Goette, NLA Review, n.d). More women started gaining education, and got better jobs. This was the time when women started demanding equal rights as men. Emphasis was being laid upon the factor of equality.

Behavior is the product of biological drive and symbolizes the expression of sexual pull in workplaces. Certain environments like open offices and overcrowding, generate unethical and strange, undesirable feelings.

Sexual harassment does not have to be explicitly sexual in nature; it may include any single or multiple continual displeasing acts. If the gender of an individual causes unwanted behavior, this case may be considered harassment.

Apparently it is not only the females who are victimized. Men may also be the fatality. Some instances of harassment may be when:

A tutor or teacher at school constantly favors one gender (male or female).
A medical officer examines a patient in a sexual manner.
A superior asks sex-related questions.
A trainer makes certain sexual advances like touching, grabbing, etc, whilst at work.

Approximately 15,000 cases of sexual abuse or pestering are brought to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) yearly. According to media and survey reports, 40-60% of women are sexually harassed each year. About 30-50% of them have faced some kind of sexual assault or redundant sexual behavior at work (European Women’s Lobby).

A major cause of such behavioral acts is that women or men both give confused signals to their colleagues when they approach them. Harassment through text messages has also risen due to instant responding on the reception of a text message.

Sexual harassment poses a cost to business as well. Work efficiency is badly affected.

Conditions

Despite the rising frequency of harassment, individuals are still reluctant to report such cases (Gottlieb, 1990). Victims are more likely to be younger than the harassers and the people working under their direction are the ones feared to be targeted. This was the result of a survey conducted by Tangri. This is indeed a matter of grievance. The term sexual harassment may be confused with “dual relationships”, but these two elements are different from each other, in that the latter requires the consent of both parties, whereas the former case with holds a forceful act from one side. It is a single-sided affair that is annoying and highly unwanted.

Psychologists who face sexual harassment cases or who are acquaintances of directly involved victims may take such measures of inadequacy to the employing institution, for appropriate action to be carried out. They may also take the case to the Society so that legal action is taken for unnecessary acts.

If any conduct is unwelcome, then it is considered sexual harassment. It is essential to let the harasser know about his unwanted attitude toward you.

Comments about clothing, behavior or body, sexual jokes, or even threatening a person, are attributes to sexual harassment.

Physical conditions such as hugging, stroking, patting are examples of bodily harassment.

Sexual stalking also includes a condition in which a person is rejected a promotion, is demoted, is given poor performance remarks because he/she rejects sexual advances of the supervisor.

The manner of the harasser must be intense enough because a single incident is insufficient to make such a judgment. It would violate criminal laws, if such an incident occurs.

Rigorousness and Frequency of Sexual Harassment

The purpose of pairing rigorousness and frequency of an incident is to ensure offensive comments are not made in the work environment. The employee is to be protected from liabilities of objectionable remarks. A single incident may comprise sexual harassment if it is extended, unpleasant and very serious in nature, as mentioned earlier.

A combination of event with varying amounts of harshness is also termed harassment. The EEOC states, “the more severe the harassment, the less the need to show a repetitive series of incidents.” (EEOC).

Consequences

Following are the collective aspects of sexual harassment:

The abusive experiences of sexual harassment have a terrible impact on deeply-held values and beliefs.
Sexual harassment leaves a long-term effect. They distress physiological and psychological health.
The impact of harassment on interpersonal relationships (Diane K.Shrier, n.d). Work performance is influenced for the worse.

Both genders face equal amount of harassment. There are laws designed against sexual harassment in the workplace, for protection from the boss, co-workers, or customer at work. The federal law ensures employers remain responsible for preventing sexual harassment that occurs at the workplace.

The California Fair Employment and Housing Act (FEHA) forbid any sexual harassment on the job. Most state laws make sexual harassment illegal.

Taking revenge against someone is also against the law. Even investigating a sexual harassment case can cause trouble.

Employers of companies usually have certain internal grievance procedures, which employees are to follow in case of any such encounters. The employer of the company should know of any misconduct that has occurred. Embarrassment may be felt on telling someone about the harassment, but it is essential to do so because that way the employer will be held responsible for stopping such behavior in the organization.

The consequences of harassment at work may include inefficiency of the affected person too. The worker may not be hundred percent in full swing, because of the uncomfortable environment created by such acts. Productivity may be affected negatively. Dedication and devotion to work may diminish. The employee may not even feel like going back to work due to circumstances he/she has to face there. Working will just be a compulsion so that he/she can remain the bread winner of the family. There will be no satisfaction, only necessity. Job satisfaction will not persist any longer and may even disappear eternally.

Most sexual harassment cases go unreported due to the following reasons:

Women fear their reputation being manipulated and distorted at work.
There is fear of being known as a trouble maker or a menace.
There is general apprehension about discrimination in the work place.
Employees may be afraid of termination, or retaliation of the harasser, so they avoid confrontation with the high authorities about such cases.
Solutions

Every situation differs. You will have to look for different solutions in different cases. Firstly, it is important to report the sexual harassment to your employer. You can then file a charge with the state or even go to court.

How women put up with sexual harassment:

Since not all severity of harassment is equal, the reactions to the harassment incidents also differ.
The supportiveness of the environment varies the reaction to harassment. In a more supportive environment, the victims of sexual harassment are likely to go to others with their problem.
Sexual harassment can have a variety of psychologically damaging effects on victims, such as reduced self-esteem and hopelessness (Kauppinen – Toropainen and Gruber, 1996), victims coping mechanism may be reduced just at the time they need them the most.
Most studies of victim’s responses are insensitive to the dynamism of harassment.
It consists of how long the harassment has been happening, how a victim responds to the situation.

Clearly say “No”:

You have to clearly let the person know that you are offended by his/her behavior. Refuse all invitations by showing a firm attitude.

Make a record of everything:

Write down everything as soon as the sexual harassment starts taking place. Note down the dates, places and events. Try to involve witnesses as well. Do not keep this record at work, though. It is a good idea to keep it in a safe place like home.

Report to the HR department:

Tell the human resource department about your issue; they can stop the harassment. No matter who the harasser is, you must report.

Make a proper trail:

Make a written record of your incident; write down exactly what the problem is and how you want it to be fixed. A written record always holds value in such cases.

Use the personnel policies:

Read through the grievance procedures / manuals of your company. You may find a solution through them.

File a lawsuit:

You can consider filing a lawsuit. The law will let you get your job back, all the money damages, and the court can also assure of no further recurrence.

References

Legal Aspects – Information on Sexual Harassment

http://www.de2.psu.edu/harassment/legal/

Accessed October 30, 2007

Know Your Rights: Sexual Harassment At Work

http://www.equalrights.org/publications/kyr/shwork.asp

Accessed October 31, 2007

A Briefing Paper on Sexual Harassment at Work and the Ethics of Dual Relationships

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