Author: Andre Coleman

Intersectionality is defined as the relationships among multiple dimensions of identities and modalities of social relations and experiences of exclusion and subordination, including gender, class, race, ethnicity, nationality and sexuality (Collins 2000; McCall 2005; Davis 2008). It starts on the premise that everyone live multiple, layered identities. The theory attempts to expose the different types of discrimination and disadvantages that occur as a consequence of the combination of biological, social and cultural identities (AWID 2004).

Intersectionality, as coined by Crenshaw (1989) attempts to address the fact that the experiences and struggles of women of colour fell between the cracks of both feminist and anti-racist discourse (AWID 2004; Davis 2008). Subsequently, this concept had extended to the understanding of women holding different disadvantaged social identities. Such intersections indicate that oppression cannot be reduced to one fundamental type, and that oppressions intersect together in producing injustice and inequality, instead of multiplying around the different social identities (Collins 2000; Conanhan 2009; Yuval-Davis 2007). An understanding of intersectionality suggested the attainment of political and social equality of disadvantaged women and improving the global democratic system (Harjunen 2008).

This paper attempts to understand the intersection of social identities of Foreign Domestic Workers (FDWs) in Singapore. The number of women coming into Singapore to work as a FDW had increased over the years, and the increment of these ‘outsiders’ had created many negative stigmas towards them, discursively created by the State and the society. By understanding the intersectionality these women face, it will establish an understanding of what shapes their experiences and opportunities as an FDW in a foreign land.

Domain of study: Foreign Domestic Worker (FDW) in Singapore

As the temporary home to 196,000 Foreign Domestic Workers (FDWs) and an estimate of employment of one live-in domestic worker in every five households (Daipi 2010), Singapore was and is an immigrant society. The FDW performs various household and maintenance chores for the families, including cooking, cleaning and care-giving to the young and elderly. Evidently, many FDWs now are the caregiver for babies and toddlers while their mothers were obliged to put in long working hours in the ‘old male model’ and subordinate their family time for work demands. This may constitute more than mere care-giving, where many FDWs devote their love and emotional attachment to their ‘young employers’ as a response to what the FDWs cannot provide for her own child (Hochschild 2004). With the introduction of the Foreign Maid Scheme in 1978 [1] , labour mobilization of women was promoted by the government which prioritises economic development that brought about the significance of the Singapore female labour. FDWs have since been a visible feature of households in Singapore. This gradually led to the outlook of an ‘ideal’ family in the Singapore context that comprises not only the kin but also the fictive kin.

The ‘ideal’ family in Singapore is one that consists of two working parents, a foreign maid who looks after their child(ren) and an older relative – usually a grandmother – to supervise the domestic worker (Teo 2011).

According to Ochiai (2010), the model of Care Diamonds as proposed depicts patterns of care provision in each society in four different sectors, namely the State, the Market, the Family (and Relatives) and the Community.

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Figure . Care Diamonds in Singapore

In the Singapore context, we see that there is a good proportion of care responsibility of familialism falling onto the Market, which reflects “the bulk of welfare responsibility towards its members, in terms of both income distribution and care provision” (Ochiai 2010) falling from the Family into the hands of the foreign domestic and care workers from the Market. This signifies the importance and prevalence of FDW in Singapore families, in both child care and elder care. It also shows the trend where families are now more prone in outsourcing their filial piety, which is also known as ‘liberal familialism’ as the cost of purchasing care services is still borne by the family (Ochiai 2010). This is constituted as discussed from the increase participation of female labour into the workforce that displaces the natural caregiver role from the woman in the family to the woman from the market.

Outsourcing the domestic chores in the house to the FDWs living in, they may become not merely an employee but close to a ‘fictive kin’ through the constant interactions. This propels the assignment of kin relationships to non-family who embody the “special characteristics of family, and are those who provide caregiving and emotional attachment like family and are given the labour of kin with its attendant affection, rights, and obligations” (Gubruim and Buckholdt 1982; Tronto 1993; Karner 1998).

FDW and Singaporeans [2]

FDWs in Singapore are live-in domestic helpers (Ministry of Manpower 2013), and this establishes a close fictive kinship living under one roof. As a Singaporean who was raised by a kin (instead of a fictive kin) all my life, I decided to interview some employers of FDWs and learn about how they perceive these supposedly ‘fictive kin’.

In my understanding, the acknowledgement of the status of a fictive kin has to be conscious between the FDW and the employer like a two-way traffic. This contradicted with the literature definition (Tronto 1993) which only addresses fictive kin as a person who provides kin-like care. Though most of these employers deem the help of FDWs to ease their load in housework, some of them do not recognise the FDWs as a fictive kin, but as a mere ’employee who I hire with money’. For the employers who do not deem the FDWs as helpful, they made frequent complaints about the FDWs’ work including criticism such as ‘stupid’ and ‘clumsy’ towards the FDWs’ productivity in front of others in the presence of the FDW, lack of appreciation by saying ‘please’ or ‘thank you’ or blamed for mistakes that were not committed by the FDWs. This can adversely affect the psychological well-being of the FDW who are labelled as ‘quiet indignities’. Moreover, research shows that though there is a decrease in ‘maid abuse’ cases in Singapore for the past 10 years, there still possesses a great number of cases where FDWs were stripped of basic human rights, including not being allowed to go out of the house, not having enough time to rest and having a heavy workload (Transient Workers Count Too 2011). This affects the physical well-being of the FDWs. The psychologically and physical well-being of the FDWs tend to be jeopardised in Singapore because of the inferior-superior mentality held by the employers towards their FDWs.

A minute fraction of the employers acknowledged the FDWs as a great help in the house and a fictive kin, where these employers will buy new clothes for the FDWs, invites her to join in for dinners, and bring her along during family vacations.

FDW and Intersectionality

Figure . Intersectionality in FDWs in Singapore

As a FDW, some of the axes of social identities that she holds include the intersection of her gender, nationality and social class. Each of these axes contributes to inequality on its own facet, and a complete picture will be portrayed when these facets intersect. As a social construct, gender emphasises the biological and psychological differences between man and women, which had constituted to the inherent power relationships. Nationality is also a social construct that emphasises on the basis of the arbitrary division and belongingness towards geographical spaces. Social class as a social identity determines the access to resources, which then shapes the power and position of the individual and the family in the society.

Notably, these FDWs braved through obstacles to come to a foreign land alone to work in. The inherent power relations from different social identities differentiated the FDW and the employer, in an in-group-out-group context. This empowers employers to discriminate and oppress these FDWs which affect their opportunities and experiences as a FDW in Singapore, and it is tougher when she is helpless without the support of her community.

Gender and Social Class

In Singapore, FDWs had been portrayed as the lowest strata in the society. The society, constituted by the local policies [3] , associated an FDW to only the female gender. The legalization of the legislation that FDWs are strictly females also constitute to the internalization and naturalization of women occupying jobs in this sector. Comparatively, their female counterparts in Singapore were able to enjoy an overall increase in access to education, higher education, healthcare from the industrialization of the nation in the late 1960s, allowing Singapore to attain one of the highest standards of living amongst its neighbours in Southeast Asia. This improvement of status was not universal and not extended to the FDWs, who were mainly from Indonesia and Philippines (Humans Right Watch 2005; Arifin 2012). Despite both females being conformed in a patriarchal society in Singapore, the FDWs and the Singapore females were clearly distinct in their class status which is evident from the developments of the two groups of countries. This is despite that many FDWs were college graduates (International Labour Organisation 2007) but still segregated into the low-wage, low-prestige domestic work in Singapore. This instils a superior-inferior relationship between Singaporeans and FDWs. This hence led to negative stigmas from the Singapore women who were the employers, who acknowledged the FDWs as their assistance and also their inferior (Arifin 2012).

Gender and Nationality

As the policies [4] in Singapore discourage Singaporean women to participate in the domestic service sector, there is a synonym of women from the sending countries (predominantly Indonesia and Philippines) as ‘maids’ in Singapore (Human Rights Watch 2005; Law and Nadeau 2009). As the provision of domestic service is seen as ‘difficult, dirty and demeaning’, these FDWs are portrayed as unskilled labour. In the patriarchal society, these women are not duly respected for their contributions, yet perceived as inferior as of their gender as a female and their nationality recognised as sending countries for FDWs – both identities equating to the identity of maid. This created a discursive idea of FDWs as ‘Other’ in the society. They are held with sharp contrast with other foreigners who come to Singapore with better skills, commonly addressed as ‘foreign talent’ or expatriates. The call for ‘talent’ capital from places such as United Kingdom, Australia and North America had allowed Singapore to be ranked as the top expat destination in the world (HSBC 2012). Evidently, the economic and social development between the two groups of origin countries differs greatly. Though there are more FDWs than foreign expatriates in the country (National Population and Talent Division 2013), there is a huge disparity between, in their income, respect received, and inherent stigma since these foreign expatriates are the people with the ability to hire these FDWs despite both being foreigners in the country. Discourses by the State portray FDWs as a sexual and social threat that breaks up Singaporean families and portrays expatriates as ‘saviours’ of National Survival (Koh 2003; Human Rights Watch 2005). The demonization by the State further deepens the existing stereotypes towards FDWs.

Intersection of social identities

The intersection of gender, social class and nationality constructed the negative stigma of these FDWs in Singapore. It created a social hierarchy where FDWs were strained to the lowest strata without any mobility. Mobility is prohibited by the government through their policies that forbid FDWs to be covered under the Employment Act, or to be able to obtain citizenship from her length of stay and contribution to the economy (Human Rights Watch 2012; Ministry of Manpower 2013). In contrast, mobility is made available in countries like Canada where their live-in caregivers are permitted for permanent residence in Canada after two years of authorized live-in employment in Canadian households (Citizenship and Immigration Canada 2013).

Reduced as a commodity in the global labour market, the FDWs brought about seemly traces of slavery in the modern world. Without adequate social and legal recognition for paid domestic service, the commercialised employment relationship with these fictive-kin FDWs can only be confined in an oppressive, ‘family’-like hierarchy. FDWs often engages in a power struggle (and often lose out) as they are not in any position, financially or psychologically, to negotiate their working conditions even if they deem it over exhaustive (Ueno 2008).

With the improvement in social aspects in life including educational profile and healthcare for women, we see an increase of 10.3% in the women participating in the labour force in Singapore for the past 10 years (Ministry of Manpower 2011). With more women expected to participate in the economy in the future, there will be an increase in the care gap in families – which signifies the greater need for FDWs. However, this may also means there will be more opportunities for oppressions to take place that will further undermine the physical and psychological well-being of FDWs.

The next step: Recognition

The struggle of FDWs in Singapore exceeds more than what the intersectionality of social identities as discussed – they also have to struggle with their employers’ lack of appreciation of FDWs as a fictive kin. This can be problematic because a fictive kin relationship “improves the quality of care and retrieves personal meanings for both the provider and the recipient” (Lan 2003) and the oppression will be a hinder to the delivery of a kin-like care service. However, their social identities which are ascribed rather than achieved, confines them into a superior-inferior relationship with their female counterparts in Singapore.

It reciprocates if an employer is more understanding to the FDW – and evidently the appreciation will be mutual. Institutions such as the employer and the State can step in to improve the situation – where both the sending and receiving countries can include FDWs into Employment Acts to protect them from physical and psychological harm, and to provide them with basic rights extended to every employee. As employers, one has to be reflexive and mindful that the FDW is also another human being – with her own thoughts, feelings and behaviours, and hence behaving as a ‘proper’ employer who treats her FDW well, even to the extent of a fictive kin, will be a good capital for the family members. By being aware of how they understanding their own experience and how their social identities intersect, it is empathetic to relate to how these women struggle through oppressions, all by herself.

Appendix
Foreign Maid Scheme in Singapore

In 1978, Singapore introduced the Foreign Maid Scheme which permits the employment of women from selected Asian countries as live-in domestic workers (UNIFEM Singapore 2011). The scheme is introduced to encourage the participation of local women in the formal economy by introducing an extra helper to maintain the family. The high and steady rate of economic growth demanded massive number of labour in all sectors. The low population and low fertility rate of Singaporeans thus was not able to fulfil the demands of the labour market. Moreover, Singaporeans were not keen to work in the unskilled sectors including domestic work, as influenced by the rising socioeconomic conditions and educational level of Singaporeans.

According to the Ministry of Manpower, FDWs will be employed under strict regulations, including their source country, age and educational attainment, and subsequent regulations inbound which assures their transience. These regulations were set forth as the political leaders assume that the presence of unskilled migrant workers and domestic workers will disrupt the Singapore society if left unregulated (Yeoh and Annadhurai 2008).

Requirements for a Foreign Domestic Worker

The following summarises the FDWs requirements in Singapore (Ministry of Manpower 2013. The list of requirements can be found in: http://www.mom.gov.sg/foreign-manpower/passes-visas/work-permit-fdw/before-you-apply/Pages/basic-requirements-of-a-foreign-domestic-worker.aspx: C:UsersshiminDesktopPicture2.png

Intersectionality as a critique to Multiple Discrimination

Mentioned in the EU Report on the ‘Multiple Discrimination in EU Law’, EU initially had a sole definition of ‘multiple discrimination’ as an overarching notion, neutral notion for all instances of discrimination between multiple domains including ‘race, age, language, ethnicity, culture, religion or disability or because they are indigenous people’ (UN 1995).

The definition of ‘intersectionality’ debated the EU legal discourse and reinforces the importance of encompassing the notion of gender as an important domain when it discusses the discrimination suffered primarily by the intersection of domains in many instances of discrimination suffered especially by women. It criticises that the mathematical notion that may be conjured by multiplying around the separate strands of discrimination which in reality intersect (Conanhan 2009; Yuval-Davis 2007).

In many countries throughout the world, marriage is primarily an agreement between two families. An alliance through marriage between two successful families can enhance the power, prestige and well being of all the members in that family. Interracial marriage is a potential venue where both partners can enrich their world-view depending on one’s value and ability to accommodate cultural difference. The extent to which interracial marriages are accepted in our global society is a function of the cultural parameters within which these dynamics occur. It is apparent that the figurative shrinking of our globe seems to represent conditions that allow opportunity for the number of intercultural marriages to expand.

This paper seeks to provide an overview of interracial marriages, taking into consideration, its reasons, evolutionary historic nature and its importance to African immigrants.

History of Interracial Marriages

Before discussing how historical changes have influenced interracial relationships, it is imperative to examine how relationships have evolved throughout history. During Medieval times, the families of would be couple arranged their marriage. Much of society placed emphasis on wealth and land ownership. People did not often marry outside of their class. Therefore, it was the role of family to find a suitable partner to make the transition into matrimony (Amt, 1993:77). Also, love was not a factor in the decision making process (Stritof, 2001). In the middle Ages, marriage was seen as a sacrament. Therefore, the transition into marriage was made in order to prevent sin and to procreate as the Bible dictates (Shahar, 1983:15). However, during colonial times, the role of the family was altered. The transition into marriage shifted from the parent’s control to the individual’s control. In spite of this shift, though, the family did still largely influence whom the individual chose to marry. Children were guided and taught on how to choose the most suitable partner. During this time, romance became part of the marriage interest; it was an opportunity to love (Wilkins, 1998:502).

Interracial relationships are historically determined. Interracial marriage started in the United State of America. Laws against interracial marriages date back to 1661. These laws were enacted to prevent whites from marrying outside their race. Individuals who married cross-culturally could be arrested (Schwalbe, 2001:23). These laws were not limited to African Americans, for example in Arizona whites and Native Americans were prohibited from marrying each other, on the other hand, in Montana whites could not marry Asian Americans (Schwartz, 2000:114).Similarly, in colonial Mexico, sexuality, marriage, and “superstitious” love and fertility rituals were subject to control by the Spanish inquisition (Stoler, 1989:134). Moran (2001:29), argued that anti-miscegenation laws established racial boundaries, racial purity, contained ambiguity, and preserved public recognition of sexual decency. Bardaglio (1999) holds that the anti-miscegenation law sought not so much to eliminate interracial sexual contact as to channel them. The main purpose of this law was to keep the black and white race apart. And it is for this reason that Stoler (1994:199) argued that the metissage (mixed blood) was conceived as a dangerous source of subversion, it was seen as a threat to white prestige, an embodiment of European degeneration and moral decay and represented, not only the dangers of foreign enemies at national borders, but the more pressing affront for European nation-states. This is what the German philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1962:149) so aptly defined as undermining the essence of the nation, and its “interior frontiers”. Therefore, sexual meanings and intimacy are social and cultural constructs which are the main forces conditioning human relationships. It is in this light that, Zelizer in Purchase of Intimacy (2005:1) holds that taboo against romantic affaire in workplace and sex for hire both rests on the twinned belief that intimacy corrupts the economy and economy corrupt intimacy, intermarriage should be forbidden.

In addition to the above, Roger (1990:315), holds that the “United States is the only country in the New world which has carried its law against interracial marriage from its colonial period into its national one”. In this light, Garrison questioned the state’s right to interfere with the private realm of marriage and he argued that “marriage is not a province, and does not belong to the power of legislative assembly, therefore it is a wrong approach for the republican government to decide on the complexional affinity of those who choose to be united together in wedlock, and it may as rationally decree that corpulent and lean, tall and short, strong and weak persons shall not be married to each other as that there must be an agreement in the complexion of the parties” ( cf Washington 1986:84). The right to select one’s mate is one of the most ancient, most sacred of individual rights, and when the state interferes in this, except in the case of the mentally unfit, it but adds humour to the witticism (Roger, 1988:80)

However, in 1967, the Supreme Court Case Loving v. Virginia declared laws against interracial marriages as unconstitutional (Schwalbe, 2001). This allowed individuals to explore other relationship opportunities and thus the rise of interracial marriages. These laws limited the pool of eligible mates and the transition into marriage was directly affected. These laws displayed the views of society; therefore, individuals wishing to make transition into marriage often followed these laws in order to gain society’s approval and to avoid adversity.

Reason for interracial Marriages

As seen above, interracial relationship during the colonial era was considered a taboo or an abominable practice. Association with a European, talk less of marriage or dating a European woman was perceived as a challenge to European supremacy. Europeans regulated social conduct between races, so as to maintain racial purity. In spite of these regulatory mechanisms that were put in place, African immigrants still engaged in interracial marriages. The reasons for interracial marriages among immigrants vary from one person to another.

For example, in some cases, the criteria for citizenship acquisition vary considerably between European states. Within the E U., the minimum residency; before aliens are eligible to apply for citizenship varies from three (Belgium), eight (Hungary) and ten (Austria and Hungary) years (Babcock, 2006:12-23).Some states requires shorter periods for applicants from states with whom they have cultural or historic ties. There are also variations in the requirements that states impose on those wishing to become their citizens. This is both natural and permissible. But, those requirements are nonetheless framed by moral considerations, which define their scope and limit (Caren, 1989:13-49).Many states exclude third country nationals from significant social and economic benefits such as employment benefits and health insurance, even if they have lived in their new state for several years. Citizenship, therefore, if only for instrumental reasons, is clearly a status worth having. But it is also an intrinsically valuable status position, important as it signifies a person’s equality under the law, full civic inclusion and ultimately immunity from deportation. As result, third country nationals have adopted various mechanisms to remain within EU member states. Examples of these mechanisms include commodification of sexuality, finding a shelter, or a job (in the formal or informal economy or as family labour), achieve legal status based on marriage terms (e.g. arranged or contract marriages).

For instance, irregular immigrants attempt to legalise their residence with the help of various strategies. For most, illegal migrants apprehended by the authorities, entering the asylum process is the major form of legalising their stay in Hungary. In 1999, there were 11,500 asylum applications, with 5,100 submitted by citizens of former Yugoslavia and 6,000 by non Europeans. Thus, Hungary is primarily a transit country for asylum. Economic condition prevailing in Hungary can offer only a partial explanation to this phenomenon. Another equally important factor is the lengthy asylum procedures, and scarce opportunities for integration. For these reason, asylum seekers generally seeks protection elsewhere, many in other member countries of the E.U. Therefore, the most common reason for terminating an asylum procedure is that the applicant “disappears” (Ejalu, 2008).

Similarly, Bledsoe and Sow (2008), carried out a study in Germany, and they argued that, Cameroonians in Germany, engaged in interracial relationship in order to maintain family reunification. Cameroonian women, who stay in Germany, are often those who gain residence rights by bearing a child for a German man, who is willing to recognise the child officially, irrespective of any long term paternal obligations. Using the German Federal Statistical office figures on the children of unmarried parents, Fleisher found that, in 2004, although there were about twice as many Cameroonian men than women in Germany, many more were born to Cameroonian women, than to Cameroonian men, that is, an equivalent of 240: 92, respectively. Among married partners, 49 children born to parents who were both Cameroonians but 169 were born to a Cameroonian and German conjugal pair. Again, there were considerably more, proportionately, children born to a Cameroonian German marriages who were born to Cameroonian women and their German husbands, than Cameroonian men and their German wives.

In addition to the above, for Cameroonian men, the pathway to legal residence in Germany is entirely different. Most German women who strike up relationships with Cameroonian men are substantially older than their partners, and are unwilling or unable to have a child. As well, the likelihood of becoming a parent of a German child, independently of its mother, is almost out of question, for a Cameroonian man. Claiming residence by producing a German child is thus much rarer for a Cameroonian man, than a woman from Cameroon. For a Cameroon man, without a job, the best route to acquire residence, is contracting and sustaining marriage with a German woman for at least three year, after which he can obtain residence, although authorities continue to exert surveillance, and may investigates cases of divorces after years. Fleisher found that, in 2004, there were 163 bi-national marriages between a Cameroonian and a German in Germany, most of them Cameroonian men marrying German women-but just six marriages between Cameroonian men and women. The further complexity is that, many Cameroonian men desire children and want to return home eventually. Confronted with the logic of singularity on which family reunification rules of marriage rest, some men quietly retain marriage with a woman back home by which they have borne children, or ask their families members to find a wife, whom they visit periodically before their final return. This is because, a Cameroonian man may come to see marriage to a German woman as a temporary necessity and look to Cameroon for his main “family future”, he may come to see “traditional” or at least Cameroonian marriages as the base, and “formal” marriage in the west as the temporary distortion. (Fleischer,2003).

African immigrants may feel inferior due to a mental, physical, social handicap and enter an interracial relationship after determing that acceptance will be found only outside of a culture of birth. A marriage based on this motive may be consciously considered to be a second best or stand-in marriage interracial may be an act of aggression toward another race. Deviance and revenge by one partner can humiliate the in-law. They will either complement this need by feeling personally inferior or angry and rebellious against parents, culture and society (Blau, 1977:31). Leon (1984), suggests that idealism may be a motive of”liberal” marrying inter-culturally. Identification with the underdog, an inferiority complex, rebellion, and rescue could be an outgrowth of this idealism.

Importance of Interracial Marriages.

Throughout history, the structure of interracial relationships has seen a drastic evolution. What once was seen as non-normative and forbidden practice is now seen as common. Specifically speaking, there has been an increase in heterogamous, cross-cultural, relationships. This rise in interracial relationships can be attributed to the reversal of anti-miscegenation laws, the lack of potential mates, the breakdown of segregation, immigration and advancements in technology. These changes in romantic relationships and the transition to marriage have allowed people to explore alternative lifestyles and relationships. Noticeably, interracial romantic relationships and marriages have become commonplace.

According to Schwartz (2000:17) an increase in interracial marriages is as a result of immigration, increases the chances of meeting people from different racial backgrounds. For instance, the United States of America is considered a melting pot. The U.S.A. has many different races enmeshed into one society (Schwartz, 2007:23). This has allowed African immigrants to have many different types of romantic relationships/interracial marriages. Immigration has effected the transition into marriage by providing mates from many different backgrounds. Also, immigration has affected many people’s views on marriage by introducing people to new cultures. Interracial marriages among African immigrant is advantageous because it is seem as a gate way to integration and assimilation especially on the part on those immigrants who are being excluded from their societies

The degree of social control and the institutionalised discrimination is a function of existing relationships between the majority(host country and minority. An increase in the number of primarily relationship (indicated by interracial marriage) between these groups signals a dissolutions of discriminatory and subordinating practices and less incumbered entrance of minority into social institution of the majority group (Gordon, 1964:35). On the other hand, interracial marriages may indicate a weakening of ethnic cohesion and a loss of highly value ethnic culture (Murguia, 1982). Beaumont (1958[1835]:245), suggests that intermarriages are certainly the best, if not the unique, means of fusing the white and the black races. They are also the most obvious index of equality. While the U.S court of 1873 considered interracial marriages as “immoral”, others saw it as a cultural betrayal .Opponents of interracial dating contend that those who date or marry outside of their race are betraying their families and abandoning their cultural heritage. Many African immigrants believe interracial marriage erodes the solidarity of the African community. Lawrence Otis Graham feels that “interracial marriage undermines [African] ability to introduce our children to black role models who accept their racial identity with pride.” Graham also fears that biracial children will turn their backs on their black heritage when they discover that it is easier to live as a white person (cf Sollors, 2000:23-58).

On the other hand, proponents of interracial relationships contend that interracial romance is a step towards eliminating racial hatred. According to Mitali Perkins (2007:50), “Where exploitation and anger have separated the races in society, an interracial family called by God is a compelling example of the gospel of reconciliation.” Yvette Walker believes that

“Racism . . . will have to be bred out. We can’t make policies to change it. And certainly, in an interracial relationship the children are raised in a climate of tolerance.” She and others contend that the rising incidence of interracial children will eventually lead to a society where race will no longer matter because everyone will blend into one race, the human race. More importantly, assert many supporters of interracial relationships, colour should not matter when it comes to love. They echo Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous sentiment that people should be judged not “by the colour of their skin but by the content of their characteraˆ¦” (cf Perkins 2007:206)

African immigrants believe that interracial marriages offer the best opportunities for couples and professionals to experience, learn, develop, and educate themselves. Empowerment traits for interracial marriage and intimacy are core ingredients in promoting positive relationships in order that each of the couples’ families might work towards achieving optimal interracial satisfaction and simultaneously cope with external forces such as nationality, community, family, and individual. (McFadden, 2002:220).

In the past, African immigrants were considered as inferior, Buirj (1993:176-179) argued that immigrants are lazy, incompetent, and inefficient because they lack both the cultural and symbolic capital. Michele Lamont (2000) recapitulates the negative feeling toward immigrants and reflects the continuing availability of cultural repertoires stressing the moral failure of immigrants. In the view of historian David Kennedy, in United States “on the one hand

“aˆ¦immigrants were judged to be noble soulsaˆ¦whose talents and genius and love of liberty account for the magnificent American character. On the other handaˆ¦ [they] were thought to be degraded, freeloading louts, a blight on the national character and a drain on the economyaˆ¦”(cf Lamont, 2000:105).

Scientific opinion at present tends to admit that an African immigrant is not inferior in any essential character of mind; and is approximately equal to other races in his ability to acquire culture (Du Bois, 1899). Despite the long-entrenched, labels to racially categorise African population in history, a trend has emerged towards a more fluid view of racial identification. Schacht and Knox (2000:279) argued that due to an interracial marriage/dating relationship amongst immigrants, there has been a gradual, if not, socially recognised shift in how immigrants are perceived. They have gained recognition.

Moreover, interracial relationships are a step toward a more integrated and egalitarian society. For example, the future of Africans belongs to the person who is the product of many different cultures. Through interracial marriage, different cultures will develop their unique identities and come together in harmony. Benefits of interracial marriages would be that an African [immigrant] child would learn more tolerance and respect towards all races. Such children may be open to new ideas, and less hostile regarding one’s religious creed or nationality. Many wars are fought over both religion and patriotic fanaticism, and a child of mixed background is not going to really purely identify with either one of the other racial background, thus, the child is less susceptible to being nationalistic to a fanatical degree. (Innocent, Sirefman, 1992).

However, interracial marriages enable Africans immigrants to acquire citizenship and to engage in the political affairs of the host country. It is therefore a gateway for immigrants with citizenship status to shape and influence decisions at the national level. Thus, immigrants often view citizenship as crucial for the future prosperity of their children and their immediate relatives. The possibility of reuniting with family members is the major reason for acquiring citizenship. Citizenship also carries with it status and prestige among extended family members in the country of origin. Immigrants who have naturalised tell stories about how parents and relatives at home in Africa boast about their accomplishments. Praise and accolades are given to those who have become citizens’ (Arthur, 2000:24) Citizenship in other word, affects the shift in the cultural identities of immigrants (Afolabi, Falola, 2008: 49).

Furthermore, interracial marriage is seen as strategic for integration and a form of assimilation.

Park and Burgess (1969:735) define assimilation as a process of interpenetration and fusion in which person and groups acquire the memories, sentiments and aptitude of other groups and by sharing their experience and history, are incorporated with them in a common life ”the process of interpenetration” is arguably best examplied in intermarriage which is often seen as the final step in the assimilation process. For African immigrants, it is a gate way to better life. Intermarriage is a clear signal that minority groups have adopted the cultural patterns of the host or majority population, such as its language and customs. On the other hand, during the assimilation process, African immigrants tend to lose their distinctive characteristics as they pass through the stages of assimilation, eventually intermarrying with the majority population (Alba 2003; Gordon 1964: 89)

Theoretical Framework

Using the status exchange theory (Merton, 1941, Davis, 1941), I have argued that interracial marriages would frequently involve an exchange of status characteristics. Highly educated Africa immigrants would trade their educational status in order to reap the benefits associated with the racial status of a potential white spouse.’ Similarly, whites with low levels of education would trade their racial status for the educational status of a potential black spouse. Consequently, a black-white marriage is likely to involve a black spouse with greater education than the white spouse because these types of individuals would each have something to gain from the union. Interracial marriages involving white spouses with greater education than their black spouses would be much less likely because blacks would have nothing to offer their potential white spouse in return for the white spouse “marrying down” in terms of race. Both Merton and Davis believed that this process of status exchange was applicable only to black male-white female unions because a black man’s educational background would be more closely tied to future potential earnings and prestige than would a black woman’s education. Lacking empirical data to confirm this hypothesis, Merton provided the framework for a future test of the theory.

According to Merton, the correct procedure would be to compare the relative frequency of three types of interracial marriage: educationally homogamous unions (Group A), unions in which the white member marries “upward” (white hyper- gamy) in terms of education (Group B), and unions in which the white member marries “downward” (white hypogamy) in terms of education (Group C).2 Group B should be the most common type because it involves the expected exchange of status characteristics, and Group C should be the least common type. Numerous scholars have since shown that this test fails because most interracial marriages are educationally homogamous. Individuals have a strong tendency to marry partners of a similar educational background, and this tendency has been increasing over the last half-century (Schwartz and Mare 2005). Thus, to some extend educational status is not the only means used by African immigrants to engaged in interracial relationship but the desire to acquired integration through various means such as citizenship and resident permit is another reason for interracial marriages as already highlighted above.

To conclude, in spite some of the miscegenation laws put in placed in the past, the desire to acquired citizenship, resident permits are reason of the that have pushed Africans immigrants to engaged interracial marriages, in order to reap the benefits of the host country in which they find themselves.

Science and medicine are not immune from social influence, and as a result are not necessarily culturally universal. In regards to sex and gender, social construction plays a meaningful but often hidden role in medicine, producing significant biases (Hubbard 1996). For many clinicians and laypersons functioning within the traditions of biomedicine, gender is understood through sexual dimorphism: that only two sexes, male and female, possess distinct biological characteristics which form gender identity (Herdt 1990). According to the pervasive Western ideology, these sexes come with specific traits, such as genetic markers and physical attributes, and are consequently assigned behavioral gender roles. The notions of distinctive gender and sex are deeply ingrained in the medical community and reinforced in everyday social interactions, to the extent that the idea of ambiguity is not only foreign, but distressing. Perceptions of the qualities that differentiate sex, influence and are influenced by, the social constructs of gender through many avenues, for instance, science, religion, popular culture, and so on. Thus, an examination of the cultural influences on sex and gender, including those present in biomedicine, is necessary to conceptualize ??real?? differences. In exploring how village cultures in Papua New Guinea and the Dominican Republic respond to intersexuality, the constructs of the dimorphic approach on the intersex individual and society can be better understood.

Intersexuality, when used to categorize the physiological conditions which cause ??gender ambiguity?? of various kinds, may present in as many as 4 percent of live births (Fausto-Sterling 1993). These ambiguities include inappropriate virilization and variation in the presence and construction of inner and outer genitalia, varying in severity between and within the conditions that cause them (Kuhnle and Krahl 2002). In a biomedical system, the presence of sex-typed genitalia is used as the primary means to assign sex at birth, so infants with more visually apparent differences from the binary norm are recognized immediately and the assignment must wait for clinical intervention (Kuhnle and Krahl 2002). Individuals whose symptoms are less visually apparent at birth, for instance, an enlarged clitoris mistaken for a penis, atypical internal genitalia, or inappropriate virilization later in life, are subsequently not diagnosed at birth. Recognition of an abnormal condition comes much later for these patients, usually to the surprise of parents and practitioners.

It??s important to consider how biological reductionism as a social construct affects the understanding of sex and gender, because biological sex is not always cut and dry and is not necessarily clearly allocated to male or female by the presence, or lack, of certain hormones or the morphology of genitalia. How does a sexually dimorphic, biologically reductionist approach affect the treatment of intersex individuals? The reaction of the modern West has been to medicalize gender: to determine those attributes that seem to most clearly define one as male or female and, where nonnormative, to address the ambiguity through clinical means. Intersex becomes pathological, requiring diagnostic parameters and medical intervention. This medicalization suggests that there is a threshold for acceptable sex differentiation, but that an individual ought always to fit, as much as possible, into one category or the other. To this aim, research on intersexuality has produced a range of syndromes and attempts to accurately name them, a process which reinforces a medicalized view of gender and sex (Conrad 2007). When faced with anomalies in the biological determinants of sex, the clinician??s goal is to realize an ??optimal gender?? (Zucker 2002), which may or may not reflect an individual??s genetics or hormones. Assignment and treatment towards this ??optimal gender?? is determined using the following parameter: ??reproductive potential, good (i.e. heteronormative) sexual function, minimal medical procedures, an overall gender-appropriate appearance, a stable gender identity, and psychosocial well-being?? (Zucker 2002). It should be noted that popular science ideology stresses the ability of the patient to ??fit?? into either the male or female gender in regards to physical appearance as critical in achieving a ??stable gender identity?? and ??psychosocial wellbeing??, which negates the possibility that attempts to do so might in fact cause dysphoric gender identity. Using these considerations, invasive surgeries are performed in order to ??normalize?? external genitalia, typically accompanied by courses of hormone therapy in order to guide the physical development into the assigned gender (Berenbaum 2006). Since absence or underdevelopment of the phallic structure is typical of intersex genetic males, and it is more difficult to surgically create a functioning penis than a vagina, ??the majority of children born with ambiguous genitals are turned into girls?? (Hubbard 1996). Binary models of sex are reinforced, insisting on a definitive and unchanging view of sex and gender. Limiting notions of success in ??good sexual function??, a ??stable gender identity??, ??psychosocial well-being??, and insistence on genitalia that appears neatly masculine or feminine, serve to impose the Western cultural construct of sexual dimorphism upon the individual (Worthman 1995).

Not only are there variations in realization of the biological attributes assigned to sex differentiation, but also in the societal response to these sex differences, which serve to change and transform both gender and the concepts of it. It is here that the studies of intersex individuals in the Dominican Republic and New Guinea play an important part in understanding gender and sex conceptually and practically, by contrasting the lives of these individuals, who did not receive clinical diagnosis and care, with the binary Western convention of sex. Sexual dimorphism is called into question by the seeming presence of a third gender category (Herdt 1990). While first assumed to support popular applications of biological reductionism, the studies in fact offer documented flexibility between biological conditions and social environments in construction of gender identity (Herdt 1990). These studies are particularly appropriate to the discussion of medicalization because the affected individuals did not undergo permanent surgical alteration or hormone therapy, the two prevalent forms of treatment for the intersex in the West. Their life experiences reflect an opportunity to shift in and out of gender roles without contending with the irreversibility of these clinical methods.

The study conducted in the southwest Dominican Republic draws on narratives to form the sexual histories of 38 genetic males found to have steroid 5-alpha reductase hermaphroditism, a condition characterized by ??severe ambiguity?? (Imperato-McGinley, et. al. 1979). In cases of steroid 5-alpha reductase hermaphroditism, the development of the sex organs in utero is affected, resulting in underdeveloped external genitalia (Imperato-McGinley, et. al. 1979). However, increased presence of testosterone at puberty stimulates phallus growth, the presence of ejaculate, and, in many cases, descending of the testes (Imperato-McGinley, et. al. 1979). According to Imperato-McGinley, et. al., out of 18 cases of genetic males with steroid 5-alpha reductase hermaphroditism who were raised ??unambiguously?? as girls, 16 transitioned into ??a male-gender role?? after puberty (1979), although subsequent research has determined that in fact only 13 were ??observed to make a clear-cut sex role change?? (Herdt 1990).There was no medical intervention in early life, so the 16 males were able to physically and socially transform their gender role upon biological masculinization, more easily than if they had experienced feminizing surgeries and hormone therapy to supplement female-gendered rearing.

Surprisingly, there is little ethnographic data regarding the two subjects raised as girls who did not transition into a male gender role, or the 20 individuals who were raised as men (Herdt 1990). Subject 25 maintained her heterosexual female identity, denied sexual attraction to women, and expresses a strong desire for female assignment surgery (Imperato-McGinley, et. al. 1979). Likewise, Subject 4 continued to dress as a female, although researchers ultimately designate a male gender identity because the individual has the ??mannerisms of a man?? and engages in sexual relationships with women (Imperato-McGinley 1979). The social lives of the subjects reared male is largely underrepresented, although the assumption is relatively normative male development, which may not be accurate. The range of variety in the life experiences of these neglected subjects contradicts a strict interpretation of biological reductionism. While a majority of the genetic males did appear to assume a male-gender identity (regardless of rearing) there still persisted a strong female identity or conventional female behavioral roles in two out of thirty eight subjects, despite experiencing similar pubescent hormonal changes.

The village societies in which these individuals lived also provided an environment that allowed for transition. There is evidence that the condition, documented to span generations (Imperato-McGinley 1979), was not unfamiliar. Local vernacular contains a term for these males, guevedoche, or ??penis at twelve?? (Herdt 1990). This term suggests that the villagers were aware of not only the condition, but also the physical changes that seemed to blur gender confirmation. Although not noted by the authors of the study, this awareness and terminology seems to reflect an ideology that does not adhere to sexual dimorphism, using instead three categories to reference gender (Herdt 1990). There is not only male and female, but also guevedoche. Herdt??s examination of the narratives also indicates evidence that despite the claim that 18 subjects were raised ??unambiguously?? as girls, the villagers would have had sufficient knowledge of the condition to recognize the possibility for these individuals to undergo pubescent changes, for instance, several of the subjects were closely related to one another and functioned within the same family group (Herdt 1990). Therefore, they were assigned conceptually as guevedoche, not female. This is reinforced by another term adopted by the villagers to describe the males, machihembre, or ??first woman, then man??. (Herdt 1990) The dialect suggests a social construction of biological sex which allows for transition, sex classifications outside the binary, and an adaptation to the intersex individual without medicalizing gender.

Studies among the Sambia of Papua New Guinea also reveal an additional category in gender assignment for intersexuals with steroid 5-alpha reductase deficiency (Herdt 1990). The Sambia possessed an awareness and detailed knowledge of this syndrome, although this was more clearly documented than in the Dominican Republic. The most common term used for the intersex individual is kwolu-aatmwol, meaning ??female thing-transforming-into-male thing?? (Herdt 1990). As in the Dominican Republic, this terminology reflects a more fluid conception of gender and sex that is not static or binary. Even though the term draws an inherent comparison between male and female gender to define the intersex individual, the kwolu-aatmwol are not considered singularly male or female (Herdt 1990). According to Herdt, infants are ??carefully?? examined to determine sex assignment, only kwolu-aatmwol who are mistaken for normative females are assigned and reared as girls; when the condition is recognized the infant is assigned kwolu-aatmwol and ??reared in the direction of masculinity, but not ambiguously?? (1990). This observation communicates a cultural adaptation to intersexuality by the Sambia. The individuals were not raised exclusively masculine or feminine when ambiguity was determined, developing instead within a unique gender category.

The magnified ethnographic scope used in Papua New Guinea provides a closer insight into some of the particulars of the social response of the Sambia to intersexuality, as well as an interpretation of gender transition motives that focuses on social and cultural forces as opposed to the role of biology in identity development. Of the fourteen intersex subjects identified by Herdt, five were mistakenly assigned female and reared, sometimes ??ambiguously??, as girls (1990). One of the subjects lives as a female, although is considered a kwolu-aatmwol and is unmarried, the remaining four transitioned in varying degree toward a masculine gender role (Herdt 1990). However, in contrast to the guevedoche, the transitions came only after social forces exposed their biological differences. For example, one of the subjects was forced to move to a faraway town after she entered a marriage and was discovered to have a small penis. Relative prevented the furious husband from killing her, and she fled. It was then that he began using a masculine name, dressing in men??s clothes, and dating women, although Herdt notes that ??he seems uninterested in them?? (1990). It would seem that in the case of the Sambia, it was rather society??s dissatisfaction with the ??female-assigned hermaphrodite??s body?? and her ability ??to sexually and reproductively deliver what was necessary for her to fulfill her social destiny?? that brought on gender role change, not biological masculinization (Herdt 1990).

The incongruity between gender role and social expectation may be considered more problematic than intersexuality for the Sambia, whose culture provides a category other than male or female in language and social expectation. Within the Sambia, kwolu-aatmwol are typically regarded with pity, but included in ??normative?? society, and may even ??rise to distinction through special achievements?? (Herdt 1990). While the assignment comes with significant social stigma (it is a belief among the men that women may kill an intersex infant), many kwolu-aatmwol are known locally for being shamans or war leaders (Herdt 1990). The mythology of the Sambia contains a narrative with a ??hermaphroditic theme?? that tells the story of ??two persons, with small breasts and tiny penes, who began the world?? (Herdt 1990). These cultural aspects form a special societal, ??sacred?? role (Herdt 1990) for the intersex of the Sambia, instead of imposing the expectations to accommodate a sexual binary.

The studies of intersex individuals in the Dominican Republic and Papua, New Guinea present some significant contradictions to in regards to how gender is typically conceptualized by the Western medical community. From a social perspective, it would appear that the rural villages of the Dominican Republic and the Sambia have fostered and maintained a ??three-category sex code?? in response to the existence of intersex individuals over generations (Herdt 1990). In contrast, the Western medicalization of gender (resulting from reductionist perspectives of sex) has caused the intersex to be viewed as abnormal and ambiguous, requiring clinical treatment to satisfy the conditions of either the male or female sex. Intersexuality is considered incomplete or inconsistent male- or femaleness, which has influenced life-changing and often irreversible clinical ??corrections?? that, in the case of intersex infants, is done without patient consent. While these procedures are generally recommended in the interests of the infant, they also serve the interests of a sexually dimorphic society that frames healthy sex and gender development within a restrictive binary. Cultural examples from Papua New Guinea and the Dominican Republic contradict the assumed universalism of Western sexual dimorphism, and offer a clearer interpretation of the social forces that direct the treatment of the intersex.

References Cited

Berenbaum, Sheri A.

2006 ??Psychological Outcome in Children With Disorders of Sex Development: Implications for Treatment and Understanding Typical Development.?? Annual Review of Sex Research 17:1-32.

Conrad, Peter.

2007 ??The Medicalization of Society: On the Transformation of Human Conditions into Treatable Disorders.?? John Hopkins University Press 23-45.

Fausto-Sterling, Anne.

1992 ??The Five Sexes: Why Male and Female Are Not Enough.?? The Sciences. http://frank.mtsu.edu/~phollowa/5sexes.html

Herdt, Gilbert.

1990 ??Mistaken Gender: 5-Alpha Reductase Hermaphroditism and Biological Reductionism in Sexual Identity Reconsidered.?? American Anthropologist. 92(2):433-446

Hubbard, Ruth.

1996 ??Gender and Genitals: Constructs of Sex and Gender.?? Social Text 46(47): 157-165. JSTOR. http://www.jstor.org/stable/466851

Kuhnle, Ursula, and Krahl, Wolfgang.

2002 ??The Impact of Culture on Sex Assignment and Gender Development in Intersex Patients.?? Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 45(1): 85-103. http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/pbm/summary/v045/45.1kuhnle.html

Worthman, Carol M.

1995 ??Hormones, Sex, and Gender.?? Annual Review of Anthropology 24: 593-617. JSTOR. http://jstor.org/stable/2155951

Zucker, Kenneth J.

2002 ??Intersexuality and Gender Identity Differentiation.?? North American Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology 15:3-13

Boester 5

The first of these themes that Elder suggested was the interplay of human lives and historical time. As social historians and sociologists began to study individual and family pathways, they observed that individuals born in different generations faced different possibilities and limitations within their different historical worlds or generations. Based on research and observation they suggested that as social change occurs, it will affect one group or generation differently than it will affect following groups and generations. An example of this is Elder’s (1974) research on the Great Depression and how that effected young and middle aged children. He found that the life course of the younger children, when compared with the middle aged children, were more seriously affected by family hardship. Others have provided evidence for Elder’s research as well (Elder, 1986; Rindfuss, Swicegood, & Rosenfeld, 1987; Shanahan et al., 1998).

Timing of Lives

In this theme, specific life events and transitions were studied by researchers to see at what ages they occurred. In looking at the different studies there were many ways to classify entrances and exits from certain statuses and roles. In B. George’s (1993) study he classified these entrances and exits as either “on-time” or “off-time” based on the social norms of transitions (George, 1993). For, example, childbearing in adolesence is considered off-time in industrial countries such as the U.S., but in many preindustrial countries it can be seen as on-time. ()

Another way researchers look at the timing is by age-graded differences (formal social organizations based on age). In looking at what influences these social organization differences in roles and behaviors, researchers linked it to the influence of biological, psychological, social, and spiritual processes. However, it should be noted that life course scholars and researchers have not directly addressed the issue of spiritual age. So, in the life course perspective age is usually considered from a biopsychosocial framework (Cavanaugh, 1996; Kimmel,1990;Settersten & Mayer,1997).

B. George also looked at the order in which life events and transitions occurred to gain a better understanding of age regularities and irregularities (George, 1993). Most of the studies that have been performed focus on children completing school and their entrance into adulthood (Modell, Furstenberg, & Hershberg, 1976; Settersten, 1998; Shanahan,Miech,& Elder,1998). Along with the age regularities and irregularities, researchers are interested in the length of time that an individual or family spend in a particular area without changes in their status or roles. In general, some researchers, such a B. George, are concluding that the longer we experience certain environments and conditions, the more likely it is that our behavior will be affected (George, 1996).

The final interest of scholars and researchers is the pace of transitions. In their studies they have found that the transition into young adulthood (completing school, leaving home, getting married) appears to be timed more rapidly than middle and late adulthood transitions (retiring or losing parents) (Hareven, 1978, 2000).

Linked or Interdependent Lives

Elder’s (1993) third theme emphasizes how the interdependence of human relationships both support and control. In this area (support and control) researchers have paid particular attention to the family as a source for this.

Links Between Family Members. Elder’s 1974 longitudinal research of children raised during the Great Depression is the base for the assumption of interdependence between family members. In his research he found that as greater economic pressures were experienced by parents, the risk for depressed feelings and marital conflict increased. As a result of this, the parents’ ability to care for their children decreased, and their children had an increased likelihood of showing signs of emotional distress, academic trouble, and behavior problems (Elder, 1974). This connection between hardship, nurturance, and child behaviors is now well established (e.g. Conger, Elder, Lorenz, Simons, & Whibeck, 1992; Conger et al., 1993). It should also be noted that parents’ lives are interdependent with the pathways of their children’s lives as well. As the children mature into adults there is a pattern of mutual support that is formed through life events and transitions (Harevan, 1996). This link and support is also changed in families through historical disruptions such as wars or major economic downturns. In immigrant families this disruption happens when the children pick up a new language and cultural norms faster than the adults and become interpreters for parents and grandparents (Hernandez & McGoldrick, 1999).

Links with the Wider World. At this point researchers know a lot more about how individuals and their families are interdependent than how individuals and families are interdependent to other groups. However, it has been shown that work has a great effect on families and their transitions (George, 1993). In 1997 Cooksey and his group of researches used data from the National Longitundinal Survey of Youth for ages 6 and 7 to look at the effects of emotions and behavior of children and work. They found that the children’s depression and aggressive behavior were not associated with whether their mothers were employed but rather with the type of work those mothers did (Cooksey et al., 1997). In other words, mothers who had occupations that required complex skills found that their children were less likely to be depressed and exhibit aggressive behavior than those children who mothers were in less skilled occupations (Cooksey et al., 1997).

In other research regarding links with the wider world, researchers concluded that family seemed to have significantly more influence on children’s behavior than the neighborhood did (Elder,1998; Furstenberg, Cook, Eccles, Elder, & Sameroff, 1999; Klebanov, Brooks-Gunn, Gordon, & Chase-Lansdale,1997). In another study done the research found that there were more differences in the behavior of children and adolescents among families in a particular neighborhood than when comparing families in one neighborhood to another. However, it should be noted that there is evidence to support that effects may be greater for children living in high poverty areas (Kats, Kling, & Liebman, 1999).

Human Agency in Making Decisions

Social historians have attempted to correct the traditional focus on lives of elites by studying the lives of common people (Hareven, 2000). By doing so, they discovered that many groups once considered passive victims,for example, working-class people, actually took independent action to cope with the difficulties imposed by the rich and powerful. Historical research now shows that slaves were often ingenious in their struggles to hold their families together (Gutman,1976),and that factory workers used informal networks and kinship ties to manage,and sometimes resist, pressures for efficiency (Hareven, 1982).

However, human agency has limits. These limits include an individual’s choice being restrained by structural and cultural arrangements of a historical era and unequal opportunities that may give others ore options than some. Elder (1998) notes in his research that the emphasis on human agency in this particular perspective has been assisted by Albert Bandura’s work on the two concepts of self-efficacy and the expectation that one can personally accomplish a goal.

Diversity in Life Course Trajectories

Ronald Rindfuss and colleagues are often cited for their study on the diversity of life course pathways. They studied the sequencing of five roles: work, education, homemaking, military, and other in 6,700 men and 7,000 women for 8 years following their 1972 high school graduation. The results suggested that men’s life course pathways are more rigidly structured than women’s. Some researchers hypothesize that this gender difference is because women’s lives are more intertwined with the family domain, which tends to operate on nonlinear time with many irregularities (Sattersten & Lovegreen, 1998). Sattersten and Lovegreen go on to suggest that in contrast, men’s lives are rooted more outside the family (the work world) that operate in direct time. However, in recent years, men’s and women’s life pathways have become more similar due to the education of women and their work patterns becoming closer to men’s. This is in contrast to the thought that it is because men have become more involved in the family domain (Sattersten & Lovegreen, 1998).

Research on the family life pathways in minority groups in the United States suggests that they differ from the family life pathways of whites. For example, in part to the high value placed on “kinkeeping” in many minority cultures, minority youth tend to leave home to live independently later than white youth (Stack, 1974). Interestingly enough when questioned about the appropriate age for leaving home minority respondents gave earlier deadlines for leaving home than white respondents in a random sample of a major urban U.S. city–even though the minority respondents actually left home at a later age than the white respondents (Sattersten, 1998).

Another source of diversity for countries with a lot of immigration is the immigrants individual experience leading to the decision to immigrate, the journey itself, and resettlement period (Devore & Schlesinger, 1999; Hernandez & McGoldrick, 1999). The decision to immigrate can vary from social, to religious, to political persecution or oppression. However when they finally escape that they face new challenges in the resettlement period. They must establish new social networks, changes in socioeconomic status, and the pressures to assimilate to their new environment. To add to that, aspects such as gender, race, social class, etc. add to the difficulty of resettling. Family roles are often renegotiated as children out perform the older family members in learning the language (Fabelo-Alcover, 2001).

Developmental Risk and Protection

As the life course perspective has continued to evolve, it has more clearly emphasized the links between the life events and transitions of childhood, adolescence, and adulthood (Shanahan, 2000). Studies indicate that childhood events sometimes shape people’s lives 40 or 50 years later (George,1996).

In Glen Elder’s (1974) study of children from the Great Depression, the long-term impact of developmental experiences was the subject of the beginning of life course research. In his study he compared two groups: the Oakland children who were born in 1920 and 1921 and the Berkeley children, who were born in 1928 and 1929. At the conclusion of this study, Elder concluded that the Oakland children who were born before the Great Depression faired more favorably than the Berkeley children, even though they both experienced the economic hardship and later difficulties in life transitions (Hutchinson). Elder found that this was due to the Oakland children (who were born before the Great Depression) experiencing normal stability and a secure childhood before the economic crisis and making the transition to adulthood after the worst of the downturn. In contrast, the Berkeley children experienced the worst years of the Depressions during their early childhood and when they reached adolescence many fathers were away in military roles and many mothers were working long hours in industrial factories (Elder 1974).

Shanahan and Elder have stated that the idea of developmental risk and protection is a major theme of the life course perspective (Shanahan & Elder, 1997). Other life scholars have added to this saying that it is not only the timing and sequencing of hard times but also the duration and spacing that provide risk as youth make the transition into adulthood. Others have borrowed sociologist Robert Merton’s concept of cumulative advantage and disadvantage to explain the inequality within groups across the life course ((Bartley et al.,1997; O’Rand, 1996).

Researchers and scholars propose that cumulative advantage and disadvantage are socially constructed. This means that social institutions and structures have developed mechanisms that ensure increasing advantage for tose who succeed early in life and increasing disadvantage for those who struggle (Settersten & Lovegreen,1998).

The idea of cumulative disadvantage has started to influence the research of the the wide spread occurrence of disease across communities (e.g.,Brunner,1997; Kellam & Van Horn, 1997; Kuh & Ben-Shlomo, 1997). Researchers in this area are particularly interested in social and geographical inequalities of chronic disease. Many suggest that as individuals experience more illness, have exposure to unfavorable environments, and unsafe behaviors the risk for chronic disease gradually accumulates. Along with this, researchers are interested in how sme experiences may break this chain of risk (e.g.,Brunner,1997; Kellam & Van Horn, 1997).

The study of risk and protection has led to an interest in the idea of resilience. This specifically refers to the ability of some individuals to fare well in the face of risk factors. In studying resilient children Fraser (1997) is looking at the interaction between risk factors and protective factors in their lives. However this area of study is far behind the study of risk factors but it is hypothesized that a cumulative effect will also be found for protective factors

How effective is the internet as a means of meeting new people? Examine the successes and failures of internet dating.

Background History:
In recent years ‘internet dating’ has become very popular for a number of reasons, mainly due to its ease and convenience. In a world where single people often have little time to socialise and find it hard to meet like minded people the internet has provided a link to the world of dating and romance. The scope of people it appeals to is far reaching with men and women of all ages, backgrounds and ethnicities interested.

The number of internet dating sites is continually growing and has become a very successful and effective business. It is estimated that around 6 million people in Britain belong to an internet dating site. Certainly the stigma which was attached to internet dating a few years ago seems to have passed.
(University of Bath Study, 2005)

Statistics show that internet dating is big business with leading sites such as Yahoo Personals and Match.com drawing in 4.9 million visitors and 4.2 million visitors respectively in January 2004 alone. (Blazier, 2004)

Research:
So just how successful is internet dating as a means of meeting new people? Leading internet dating company match.com was launched in 1995 and estimates that through their site hundreds of thousands of relationships have been formed. Moreover, match.com estimates that over 200,000 members found the person they were seeking through the site. (match.com, 2005)

In 2004 a survey was set up by the Weddingchannel.com with results again indicating high success rates for internet dating. The study found that 12% of the 4743 couples registered had met on dating websites. The study also discovered than over 70% of those who had met their partners through internet dating sites were happy to openly admit this to friends and would recommend internet dating to the people around them. (match.com, 2005)
Furthermore, a recent and crucially, an independent research study has also concluded that internet dating is officially a successful way of meeting new people and forming friendships or romance attachments and summarises that online dating can indeed be a success for many people.

The University of Bath in conjunction with Dr Gavin, Dr Scott and Dr Duffield, carried out an online survey of 229 people aged between 18-65 who had previously used internet dating sites.

The study (2005) found that when couples who had spent time forming friendships through emailing or chatting online met for the first time, 94% of them went on to see one another again. Of these relationships formed, on average they lasted for approx 7 months, with 18% of them lasting for over a year. Such figures are in line with relationships formed in more traditional ways. (University of Bath Study, 2005)

The study also brought up a number of other interesting facts; the degree to which the couples interacted before meeting up seemed to play a vital role in the success of the relationship. For example, those who talked on the telephone before meeting up and those who chatted simultaneously online (as opposed to simply emailing) were found to have formed ‘deeper’ and more emotional attachments. Similarly, those couples who exchanged gifts before meeting up seemed to form deeper and more committed relationships. The study concluded that simultaneous communication forms more of an intimacy.

Interestingly, the research showed that men were generally more likely to be committed to the relationship than the women, and tended to be more dependent upon the women. One explanation for this was the fact that perhaps men felt more comfortable with the anonymity which writing brings as it gave them a chance to express their emotions more easily than they would have been able to face to face. It seems that likewise webcams were not viewed as desirable or successful with anonynimity being preferred. Dr Gavin (Author of Research Study) stated that;

“We also found people are shying away from using webcams because they feel its important not to see their partners for some time – there is something special about text-bases relationships.” (University of Bath Study, 2005)

Of all the relationships studied, 39% of the couples were still together at the time of the survey, and of these 24% of the couples had been together for at least a year, and 8% for at least 2 years. Of the relationships which had ended, 14% had lasted for over a year, and 4% had lasted over 2 years. (University of Bath Study, 2005)

Successes:
Invariably there are always going to be people who are more successful at meeting others than some. Many suggest there is a lot you can do to maximise the success of your internet dating experience. For example, the first thing you need to do is produce a great profile to post online. Dating websites such as the Singlescafe.net express the importance of posting a photo alongside your profile, preferable a happy one! This helps ensure people take the trouble to actually read your profile if they like the look of you. The information in your profile should be kept simple and honest. Good grammar and spelling is also a must. (Dr Black, 2003)

DatingDirect.com like many of its rivals offers advice on dating tips and how to find a successful relationship. They suggest that you become a ‘go-getter’ and don’t just wait for others to respond to your profile but actively seek out profiles of like minded members and beginning posting immediately. The theory obviously being that the more people you respond to, the more likely to are you find someone suitable. Obviously for the highest chances of success you should be contacting people who appeal to you, particularly in terms of their hobbies and interests as well as their location. Similarly, they advise that you should respond quickly to members who have contacted you. You should not worry about seeming to eager, good manners win out here. These tips they argue maximise your potential of successfully meeting people and forming a relationship through internet dating.

There are obviously many happy stories of both relationships and friendships formed through internet dating. It gives people an opportunity they may not have had otherwise for many reasons. For example some personal success stories follow:

“….I was very sceptical at first, not really thinking it would work. Anyway I decided ‘nothing ventured nothing gained’ and sent 6 emails, I received 4 replies, Becky was one of them…since I last contacted you Becky and I have got engaged, we are so happy…. meeting Becky has made my life complete.”
Graham (http://app6.datingdirect.com/public/success/feedback.asp)

“What a brilliant service, I have found the girl of my dreams and we are now going strong. Keep up the good work!”
Patrick (http://app6.datingdirect.com/public/success/feedback.asp)

“I met my wife on a dating website. We married last April and are expecting our first baby this April. We couldn’t be happier. I’ve met the love of my life. My soul mate. I would recommend dating websites to anyone. They do work.”
Adam Stevenson, Plaistow, West Sussex, England(BBC News Page, 2005)

Certainly for shy people or those who fear rejection the internet has opened up a new world. They can contact people who are in the same position as them without fear.

Failures:
Aswell as the success stories there also seem to be some failures. At the very least there are a number of common pitfalls to internet dating. While most subscribers will desire a large number of responses to their profile, this can actually backfire on you if you end up receiving far to many to cope with. Conway (from Askmen.com) discusses how he once received 56 responses to his profile and found this rather overwhelming, meaning he had to spend a huge amount of time replying to all the women and basically often repeating what he had said and asking the same questions over again as he couldn’t keep on top of the correspondence;

“I can’t tell you how many times I’ve been embarrassed because I asked a woman the same question four or five times.”
http://www.askmen.com/dating/dating_advice_100/102c_dating_tips.html)

Likewise, it can be a disappointment to some who do not receive as many responses to their profiles as expected.

On a more serious note its important to be aware of the dangers of internet dating as a means of meeting people. The main concern for the user is that the person they are contacting is not who he/she says they are and what they are telling you is not true. There is no way to monitor this and it is purely down to human judgement and experience. A bad experience may put you off internet dating for good. Dating sites urge a strong need for caution.

One of the biggest pitfalls of internet dating seems to be the issue of whether all of the users are infact single. It is very common that many people will claim to be divorced or single when infact they are not. The internet is an easy way to cheat for these people with little of the risks involved were they to meet someone in a more conventional sense. Jennifer describes her personal unhappy experience of internet dating:

“I tried it a long time ago, but the men I met were all, without exception. control-freaks, psychos and/or chauvinists, and usually married. From a personal point of view, I’d say avoid it like the plague, but if it is all you have got, be very, very careful. It is far too common an occurrence that women get caught in dangerous situations using the world wide web.”
Jennifer, UK (BBC News Page, 2005)

In agreement that internet dating is not a viable option to forming new relationships Sarah say;

“Internet dating never works. You can be sure that if a person says one thing to you, they are saying the exact same thing to someone else.”
Sarah UK (BBC News Page, 2005)

Sadly too, often many con artists will use internet dating sites in order to attract people who may be wealthy. Advice suggests you should never reveal anything financial about yourself and most certainly never offer to help someone out with money.

There is also the issue of age with the minimum age being 18; however, again there is no way to verify this. Similarly, there is no true way of knowing until you meet up whether that photo posted in the profile is really a genuine one. If you meet up with someone who has deliberately misled you the experience of internet dating is unlikely to be a successful one. (www.bol.ucla.edu/~jbred/Dangers.htm)

There are also risks involved when the internet dater takes the next step and decides to meet up with the person they have been chatting with. While most meetings will at the very least be harmless ones its important to be aware that the person you are meeting could be dangerous or unstable. The advice given is to always meet in a public place, maybe even bring along a friend. Never meet in a private place where you will be alone and never give out your home address to a stranger. The chances of meeting someone dangerous are not high but awareness is needed. (www.bol.ucla.edu/~jbred/Dangers.htm)

Conclusion:
Whilst it is clear that internet websites are becoming increasingly popular in a society where people find it difficult to socialise and date in a more conventional fashion, it is somewhat unclear just how successful internet dating is for meeting people, or more importantly, in meeting the ‘right’ person and forming long term attachments.

Whilst researching the information I have found that there are numerous stories and experiences which support the idea that internet dating in indeed a very successful way of meeting people, however, there are an awful lot of people who say it has been unsuccessful for them. I think it is important to consider the aspect of ‘luck’ in internet dating just as you would in traditional dating. Despite this, however, the internet obviously opens up a wide potential for meeting people and therefore logic would argue that with access to more potential partners it is more likely you may meet the one who is destined for you. Certainly for many people who otherwise would not have even been on the dating scene the internet opens up huge possibilities and success can definitely be found.

Infact I would conclude that whilst there are both successes and failures to be found, the majority of the somewhat slim available research on the topic does strongly suggest that the internet is a successful way of meeting people. Certainly all the internet dating sites will agree with this statement and offer and display numerous personal success stories, but more importantly, an independent study carried out by the University of Bath strongly indicated that many long lasting relationships were formed through this method of dating and that couples had as good a chance of staying together as relationships formed in more traditional settings. It must be noted again that the research on this topic is still slim and the study was not a major one but nevertheless evidence available overall strongly suggests that internet dating is a success.

Certainly there are ways in order to make internet dating more successful for you and I discussed these earlier. There are also pitfalls to internet dating again discussed earlier. The key seems to be to persevere just as you would in any other dating scenario and the outcome looks good.

Bibliography:

-Datingdirect.com, Dating Tips, available from
http://app6.datingdirect.com/public/help/datingtips.asp (accessed on 12/03/05)

-Datingdirect.com, Members Feedback, available from http://app6.datingdirect.com/public/success/feedback.asp (accessed on 12/03.05)

-University of Bath Study, 14th Feb 2005, available from http://www.bath.ac.uk/pr/releases/internet-dating.htm (accessed on 12/3/05)

-Jones, Techniques of successful internet daters, available from http://www.girl-dating-tips.com/articles/Techniques_of_Successful_Internet_Daters.shtml (accessed on 12/3/05)

– Dr Black, The Internet Cafe, Internet Dating: How to be successful and safe, 2003 available from http://www.singlescafe.net/internet_dating.html (accessed on 12/3/05)

-Blazier, Internet dating service blissfully successful in lasting relationships, March 6th 2004, available from http://www.eharmony.com/core/eharmony?cmd=community-internet-dating-service (accessed on 12/3/05)

-Ambit Gambit, Internet Dating: Looking for love in all the wrong places, April 30th 2004, available from http://ambit-gambit.nationalforum.com.au/archives/000254.html (accessed on 12/03.05)

-AskMen.com, Dating and love, available from
http://www.askmen.com/dating/dating_advice_100/102_dating_tips.html (accessed on 12/03/05)

-BBC News Page, Online dating good for romance, 14th February 2005, available from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/4250281.stm (accessed on 12/03/05)

-The dangers on internet dating, 21st March 2003, available from http://www.bol.ucla.edu/~jbred/Dangers.htm (accessed on 12/03/05)
-Match.com, More married and engaged couples meet on match.com than any other dating website, February 8th 2005, available from
http://biz.yahoo.com/prnews/050208/nytu177_1.html (accessed on 13/03/05)

Intergroup relations started to take form in understanding individual characteristics from the beginning of the twentieth century. The theory of intergroup relations for individual, group, intergroup, and organizational relations defines boundaries, power, cognition, and leadership behaviors. Intergroup relations can be examined from so many different angles. There is even a wide variety of areas of study that have theories into a multitude of issues concerning intergroup relations. However, with the array of research into intergroup relations, narrowing down the topic of research to social psychology, and studying the characteristic, and behavior will be sufficient enough to have a wide range of understanding into group and individual behavior. Certain perceptions can be developed toward a group member or members involving negative or positive intergroup relations, such as: social categorization, stereotypes, intergroup bias, motivations, prejudices, and the functional relationship process within a group.

INTRODUCTION TO INTERGROUP RELATIONS

What is the meaning behind intergroup relations? Why is it so widely studied in social psychology? These are questions that are asked when analyzing the meaning of intergroup relations. To better understand intergroup relations you first have to dive into where it all began and how the term was discovered. In the 1960s and 1970s social psychologists began studying individuals and social interaction. The study of group dynamics proved to be unsuccessful and expensive, so they decided to research the dynamic on a smaller scale by breaking down individuals rather than placing them in larger social structures for their research. However, this setting failed and the setting became inaccurate. As time went on though, investigation of group dynamics was not a dead topic. The research into intergroup relations was yet again opened up for study in the 1980s and 1990s, but this time investigation into human behavior in a group setting (Johnson & Johnson, 2009). The numbers of issues found were: cooperation, conflict resolution, distributive justice, intergroup relations, and cross cultural interactions. This was a major step in research for group and individual behavior among a group setting. It was then a doorway to other fields for research that ultimately became one of the most dominated areas of study on group dynamics.

Intergroup relations in simpler terms can be described as feelings, evaluations, beliefs and behaviors that groups and members may have toward one another. It can have both positive and negative impacts among those individuals that are among the group or outside their group. The psychological process that is associated with intergroup relations among many is social categorization. This can be described as the personalities, motivations of group members, observations, and the practical relationship between groups and those outside groups.

SOCIAL CATEGORIZATION

Social Categorization is a fundamental part of intergroup relations. It involves identifying people that are within your group and those that our outside of your group members. The theory behind social categorization arises from the earlier work of Tajfel of social identity theory. By evaluating an individual’s self-image for which they perceive him or herself; these aspects can also contribute positively or negatively as well when defining their group identity with “we” or “us” as one would with “me” or “I”.

Social categorization is social perception that involves relating to those within your group and discriminating against those that are not in your group. This can cause conflict when one relates with their individual self image to their own group and then having to work with others that are outside of your group members. When relating yourself characteristic and building a trusting relationship with those within your group, members tend to view others more negatively when others from the outside are brought into your group; even if those from the outside have similar characteristics of your own. Once group membership has been established people distinguish individuals who are members as the in-group and those who are members of other group as the out-group (Dovidio, April 21, 1990).

When intergroup boundaries between out-group and in-group have been pronounced people tend to discriminate against the out-group than those in their in-group. People then attribute more strongly to their in-group, and then in turn favor and contribute more toward their group. This is because one’s self-esteem is more enhanced in their own group than in different group memberships. When different groups are not interdependent and group memberships are thrown together; intergroup biases are produced.

INTERGROUP BIAS

Intergroup bias generally defines the members (the in-group) to be more favorable to their own group than to the non-members (the out-group). Bias can cause such behavior such as: discrimination, stereo-typing, and prejudice. This essentially means that trust is turned over to the in-group and not given to the out-group. Individuals tend to give more to their own group than relinquishing those rewards to members of other groups. When social identity is developed among members in a group, it is hard for those members to be able to reach out and identify with outside group members. Once a trust line has been established it is difficult to create non derogation towards the out-group (Dovidio, April 21, 1990).

In order to decrease intergroup bias is to make group members aware of the consequences that surround this behavior. Or by placing groups with other groups on more of a daily basis in order to establish less competition and less trust issues among others. By taking out the element that can cause intergroup bias can help those participating in a group environment to see that each member, whether in their group or others, are key factors to being successful. Being able to observe other’s culture, style and individual character without discriminating from the beginning will help each member find balance in their group and other’s they become involved in. No one group is better than the other. Each has separate tools that can make the ease of intergroup relations work victoriously.

GROUP CULTURE

When evaluating group dynamics in intergroup relations one benefit, as stated, is the culture and style that each individual will bring such as: the history and common ancestry, as well as cultural characteristics. But when viewing culture as it relates to intergroup bias, groups that are involved in intercultural encounters tend to run into conflicts due to sociocultural adaptation. The more different the languages, family structures, religion, standard of living and values of the two groups, the more cultural distance there will be between these groups.

With these cultural characteristics and cultural distance that is placed in groups it can have a tendency to take shape as ethnocentrism where one ethnic group view’s their culture as better than another. When ethnocentrism is present we measure our culture based on others of different ethnicity. This is derived from the cultural conditioning that each individual has encountered as children. Children are typically raised to fit into particular cultures and sometimes when individuals are conditioned we see others ethnic background in a more negative light than positive (Messick & Mackie, 1989).

Groups tend to place distance between those that are of different in cultural background because they perceive them with dissimilarity to their own culture. Sometimes, it is difficult for groups to adapt to those with greater cultural dissimilarities. It is important for those placed in groups to be able to learn more about each individuals own interaction styles, and be able to set structure within those group to have a higher success rate in their groups. When structuring a groups interaction styles and applying everyone’s cultural differences; you can take those differences and use them to benefit a higher success rate. Being able to learn and understand others cultural beliefs and backgrounds can truly add benefit to each group established (Spielberger, 2004).

GROUP BEHAVIOR AND MEMBERSHIP

A group is a social system that involves interaction among members and a common group identity. When discussing group dynamics and how it correlates with intergroup relations, evaluating the conflicts, social categorization, and cultural differences; it is also important to evaluate the fundamental behaviors of group processes as a whole. Groups have a sense of we-ness that helps them to identify themselves as belonging to a certain entity. A group is an important part of sociological concept since it plays such a complex part in everyday life.

Group membership is part of an individual’s social identity. It is a key element of social control over individual’s social pressures towards having to conform. Especially when they can deviate risking their membership as a result of that risk. However, social consequences help establish an important understanding of social life as a whole. We live in a very physical and cognitive world and when discussing group membership and the social pressures, understanding the social influence and group behavior in group memberships is one of the most important keys to everyday life (Messick & Mackie, 1989).

There are several types of group environments that we encounter in a life time; from sports, school, work, family and peers. Every type of group contact comes with social influence and behaviors from each individual involved in the group setting. Individuals affect one another in several different ways depending on their experiences. Experiences that each individual has encountered in their lifetime; is the key tool in intergroup relations. It is what makes group behavior an important asset when discussing the theory behind intergroup contact and how they all in the end relate to one another. Ultimately, the individual’s experiences, needs, social influences and relationships are what make up how individuals approach group membership.

SUMMARY

Intergroup relations are essentially determined by how people relate to one another as well as how they categorize others. Perceptions is what shapes individuals personal needs and values, and by the behavior between groups. This process intermingles and works in sync with each other. With this categorization of people in groups it can sometimes cause the intergroup bias and conflict among the group members or members outside of the group (Dovidio, April 21, 1990). However, with conflict and social categorization come goals to help implement positive group membership. Different groups and culture can help organize and produce efforts to achieve a mutually desired outcome; as long as conditions and discipline is applied. Being able to work together and understand everyone’s individual needs and goals will help establish a positive intergroup dynamic.

Certain perceptions are developed toward a group member or members that are involved in a negative or positive intergroup relation. Social categorization, stereotypes, intergroup bias, motivations, prejudices, and the functional relationship process within a group. These basic processes are the fundamental interpretations of intergroup relations and the dynamics that in turn produce a group membership that can successfully be achieved with hard work, understanding and the basic desires to work as a group and overcome the biasness that can take place.

Many influences affect older people’s quality of life in the 21st century and there are changes in expectations both by and about older people in terms of identity and pressure to ‘age well’.

The following will discuss and evaluate the many influences, which affect older people’s quality of life in the 21^st century. The evaluation will also discuss the changes in expectations both by and about older people in terms of their identity and the pressure to age well. As will be demonstrated there are many diverse influences that affect older people’s quality of life ranging from government policies, non-governmental organisations representing their interests, prevailing demographic trends, as well as the provisions for retirement which the older people may or may not have made for themselves. The quality of life for older people is also influenced and to a large extent dependent upon the availability of health, housing, and social services. Non-governmental organisations have an important role in altering the expectations of older people in terms of their identity, and the pressure to age well. The value of occupational and state pensions as well as the potentially high costs of having to be cared for are as will be shown a significant concern for older people when it comes to their quality of life.

Government policies can and do have a major influence upon the quality of life of older people. The government could also alter the expectations that older people have in terms of their identities and any pressure to age well, which can be an integral part of government and public sector policies towards older people. This was a small document issued by the Better Government for Older People group to discuss the challenges that older people face. It is a good overview of the issues involved (Audit Commission / Better Government for Older People, p.2). Governments have to consider the cost of state pensions, other social security benefits, as well as the cost of health and social services (House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts, May 2004 p. 9). Demographic trends will also have a significant factor in the provision of government social security payments and public services to older people. The increasing numbers of older people within the population mean that people need to pay higher national insurance contributions and taxes whilst they are working to cover extra public expenditure caused by the higher costs that an ageing population brings with it (Vincent et al, 2006). As another way of reducing the strain on social security and public service budgets the government has also changed employment law to allow older people to carry on working past the state retirement age. Already the government has changed services and the help directed towards older people to improve their health and to reduce levels of poverty, i.e. the introduction of NHS Direct and Pension Credit. The whole of the House of Commons report contains very useful information concerning the policy decisions needed to help older people in Britain. The report provides analysis of the successes and the shortcomings of present public policies towards older people. On balance chapters 3 and 4 contained the most relevant information (House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts, May 2004 p. 9).

Ultimately the government would more than likely increase the state retirement age so that older people in the future have longer working lives to pay towards their state retirement pensions (Brooke and Taylor, 2005). Allowing older people to work longer also compensates for the declining number of young people in the population that are paying taxes and national insurance contributions to provide social security payments and public services. When it comes to social security and public service expenditure governments have attempted to save costs by rationing or restricting services, as well as making older people with greater levels of savings or their own homes pay for such services. For instance, older people who own their houses are liable to sell those homes to pay for long-term stays in residential care homes. That practice has now been reduced nationally due to devolution in Scotland and Wales. The Department of Health report is a useful analysis of the current provision of medical services to older people, as well as outlining the options for improving the level of healthcare provision in the future. There is also some useful information in the appendices (Department of Health, 2006). New Labour has attempted to reorganise government structures to target services towards older people more effectively. For instance the Department for Works and Pensions has made itself more responsive to the needs of older people via the creation of the Pension Service in 2002 (House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts, May 2004 p. 10).

For the government and the non-governmental organisations which are interested in improving or at least maintaining the quality of life for older people there are social as well as economic reasons for allowing and encouraging older people to carry on working past the state retirement age. Non-governmental organisations like Age Concern and Help the Aged regard the encouraging of older people to stay employed as an important means of maintaining a higher quality of life and helping older people to age well. Older people had varying degrees of access to public services and opportunities to voice their concerns or problems. Generally older people in socially and economically deprived areas have greater needs and less influence over public services. Riseborough and Jenkins provide useful explanations as to why older people find it harder to benefit from the regeneration of deprived areas than younger people do so. Sections 3 and 4 were probably the most informative parts of this report (Riseborough & Jenkins, April 2004 p. 6). As far as non-governmental organisations are convinced that working for longer enables older people to maintain or even improve their levels of self-esteem. Older people are more prone to been excluded from improvements to public services and employment opportunities in areas that have been regenerated. Another area of concern for non-governmental organisations is that the government’s consultations with older people are inconsistent nationally although it is improving on the whole (Riseborough & Jenkins, April 2004 p.13).

Working in either a paid or voluntary capacity is a valuable method of keeping older people mentally and physically active and therefore assists them to age well. For older people themselves staying employed could also have a significant influence upon their quality of life, as it facilitates their opportunities to socialise with other older people as well as younger people. Evandrou and Glaser contend that older people could increasingly face the choice of carrying on working due to the insufficient pension levels or caring for partners or other elderly relatives (Evandrou & Glaser, 2003). Contact with younger people allows those younger people the chance to meet and understand older people, and therefore increase respect for older generations. Both the government and the non-governmental organisations, that represent the interests of older people, have found evidence that older people find it difficult to remain employed or return to the active work force due to prejudices based on ageism against them. Aside from prejudice there might be other barriers to older people being involved in the labour market, such as a lack of training facilities or restricted access for older people with issues around their physical capabilities. To a large extent, physical barriers to older people should be significantly reduced by the requirements of the Disability Discrimination Act. That Act requires equal access to work places and the provision of public or private services irrespective of disability and of age (Audit Commission / Better Government for Older People, p.2).

The concept of establishing identities and ageing well depends on more than just the prospects of older people wishing to work for longer. Estes et al are in parts highly critical of present public services for older people, whilst the first couple of chapters provide valuable insights into the way older people are generally inadequately catered for (Estes et al, 2003). The desire of older people to work and remain active for longer is influenced by what they want out life themselves as well as by the influence of the government and non-governmental organisations. Older people have an influence upon the ideas and the policies of the government and non-governmental organisations towards them. Older people are often an essential part of the non-governmental organisations that they belong to, and who represent their interests. Non-governmental organisations will attempt to help older people to establish their identity and advise them how to age well due to older people requesting such assistance in the first place. Older people will use non-governmental organisations to lobby the government to change governmental policies to suit their best interests when it comes to a high quality of life, an identity that enables self-esteem and enhances the prospects of ageing well. It is not governments that older people and their associated non-governmental organisations attempt to lobby, they frequently use the media to publicise their opinions or advice. Of course the influence that older people have upon government policy should logically increase throughout the 21^st century as the population continues to age and the government will need older people to work longer and stay healthy for longer. As older people will make up an ever-greater percentage of the electorate the political parties that do the most to improve the quality of life older people could have the best prospects of winning general elections. In return governments will have to assist older people by making it easier to remain employed and healthy for longer as well as reducing the incidence of ageism. Reducing the doubts that people have concerning the abilities of older people is vital if prejudices are not going to prevent the expectations of older people that the quality of their lives will be improved. The majority of the report by Bowers et al is critical of the failure of public policy to assist older people with mental health problems. The report frequently mentions the positive influence that non-governmental organisations do have upon the quality of life for older people and raising their expectations (Bowers et al, 2005 p. 25).

To conclude the quality of life of older people, with closely linked expectations of identity and ageing well will be and is currently influenced by government policy, the actions of the non-governmental organisations that are interested in older people, and the media. Governments will argue that the best way for older people to achieve a high quality of life is for them to help themselves by working as long as possible. Governments are encouraging people to plan for their own retirement in terms of adequate income levels, and advising them of the all public services, which are available to help them. Urging people to stay employed not only prevents older people from living in poverty it raises expectations of being identified as being useful and active members of society that have self-esteem and who are respected by younger people. Governments have an important influence by demonstrating to society as a whole the valuable contribution that older people make to the social and economic quality of life for every body and not just for older people. Non-governmental organisations that help older people also have a strong influence over the quality of life, plus the expectations of identity and ageing well for older people. In a sense non-governmental organisations are essential for older people to gain the help and the advice they need to have a high quality of life whilst advising governments of the social and economic policies which will improve the lives of older people.

Bibliography

Audit Commission / Better Government for Older People – Older People, independence and well-being: The challenge for public services, Public Sector Briefing

Bowers H, Eastman M, Harris J, & Macadam A (2005) Moving out of the Shadows – A report on mental health and wellbeing in later life, Health & Care Development Ltd, London

Brooke L and Taylor P, Older workers and employment: managing age relations, Ageing society 25, 2005, 415-429, Cambridge University Press

Department of Health, A Sure Start to later life, Ending inequalities for older people, January 2006

Estes, C.L. Biggs, S. and Phillipson, C. (2003), Social Theory, Social Policy and Ageing – A critical introduction, Open University Press, Maidenhead

Maria Evandrou and Karen Glaser, Combining work and family life: the pension penalty of care, Ageing and Society 23, 2003, 583-601, Cambridge University Press

House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts, – Improving Public Service for Older People, Twenty- Ninth Report of Session 2003-04 (May 2004)

Riseborough M & Jenkins C (April 2004), Now you see me…now you don’t – How are older citizens being included in regeneration? Age Concern, London

Vincent, J., Phillipson, C. & Downs M., (eds) (2006) The Futures of Old Age, Sage

This research paper analyses the impact of Bollywood movies and generated ideas of romance and love marriage within middle and upper-middle class urban Pakistani marriages. It especially focuses on the influence of this on the acceptability of love marriages. It looks at selected samples of youngsters falling in the age group 17-29 and parents. Exceptions looked at are those falling outside the age group who had love marriages. The similarity of Indian and Pakistani mindset is scrutinized with respect to love marriages. It explores the issue of unacceptability of love marriages in Pakistan and the gradual changing trend. The vital role played by fantasy within Indian marriages is explored and the focal point is commercial Hindi films watched by the middle class of Karachi which fall within the genre of ‘melodrama.’ Love marriages in bollywood are looked in depth. Finally the paper aims at exploring the factors responsible for the change in attitudes towards marriage and analysis of whether Bollywood movies influence is one of those factors which has considerably influenced the mindsets towards acceptance of love marriages in Pakistan.

Research Question

Have Bollywood movies influenced the increased acceptance of love marriages amongst the middle class of Karachi?

Research Hypothesis

Based on a review of literature as noted later in this proposal, there is one major hypothesis area that will guide the analysis of data i.e. Bollywood movies have influenced the increased acceptance of love marriages amongst the middle class of Karachi.

Secondary Research

Influence of Media on the public behavior

How Does the Media Influence the Way People Behave? The influence of media on public behavior is becoming more and more significant as time is passing. With the development and advancement of new technology, it is possible to distribute media content pervasively with minimal costs. Because of a high demand and supply of media content, producers engage in competitive behavior and come up with new ways to catch attention of consumers. The type of content free media shows is solely dependent on the demand for media content. However, numerous research studies on the topic have revealed that media content can shape our thoughts and alter our behavior in a number of ways. The following part of the literature review will focus on the effects of media on the behavior and perception of the general population. Furthermore, a critical analysis of the impact of media on the conception of love marriages will be discussed with reference to research studies.

Watching media content takes us into a different world or more specifically, a different level of consciousness. Media content not only arouses our cognitive neurons, but also changes our behavior if exposed frequently. The effect of media is not stopped even after exposure to media content is removed; instead it causes a lingering effect by initiating a gradual thought process that can lead to behavioral changes in many cases.

A good example of behavioral manipulation caused by media content is the impact of action films on children. Research on television shows, movies, music and video games which contain violent behavior shows unequivocal connection between media violence and violent behavior in both short and long term (Anderson, et al., 2003). Empirical evidence shows children emulate violent behavior portrayed by the heroes in the movies thinking that they would be able to achieve their desired outcome though violent behavior just like hero tends to be victorious in the end of the movie. Children tend to adopt some behavioral aspects from media content over a long period of time. Moreover, some behavioral changes might change throughout the whole population as children adopt those behaviors as adults, practice those behaviors over others and leave a mark on the future generations. This is the reason why media is able to change some social norms that existed previously and why some nations are afraid of cultural imperialism through media invasion.

Media consumers, whether they know it or not, are affected by what they watch and what they see over a long period of time will still shape what they perceive as normal, thanks to oft-repeated themes and images in the land of movie love (Hefner, 2011). And while movies are not intended or expected to be entirely realistic, scholars of communication theorize that exposure to media like romantic comedies, especially for young people, can shape expectations about both romance and marriage, shifting adolescent perceptions about what love is like, and how to show it (McLanahan, 2008).

Researchers followed 329 subjects over 15 years. They found that those who as children were exposed to violent TV shows were much more likely to later be convicted of crime. Researchers said that, “Media violence can affect any child from any family,” regardless of social class or parenting (Dispenza, 2011). All our actions are based on what we learn and what we know, and we as human beings learn by seeing and imitating. Following this trend of thought we can infer that as we see from movies, we tend to act accordingly, by the means of learning and practicing.

Marriages

When Frank Sinatra sang about love and marriage going together like a horse and carriage, he did not consider that to a great extent the cart is put before the ox. Marriages are arranged by parents in China, India and Indonesia – three countries with 40% of the world’s population – plus others that practice Buddhism, Islam and Hinduism. Pakistan is one such country where arranged marriages are practiced and dating is not permissible. Couples might get a 15-minute meeting followed in a few months by a wedding.

But sparks are flying, and love marriages are breaking out in India, the world’s largest democracy, with 1.1 billion people. CEO Raju Reddy of Sierra Atlantic in India, himself in an arranged marriage to childhood friend Neeraja, was surprised to learn at the Sierra Atlantic holiday party in December that about a dozen love marriages have germinated in recent years at the 13-year-old company. The Indian government does not differentiate in its marriage statistics. But young Indians interviewed say their observations suggest that 10% to 20% of their friends are having love marriages, and expert Poonam Barua, director of the Conference Board’s India Operations, says that is probably true in most of India’s cities. Bollywood movies such as Salaam Namaste are based on the old formula of boy meeting girl and eventually fall in love.

It will be decades, if ever, before love marriages dominate worldwide. In India, the trend is specific to the middle class of 350 million, not to the 70% of the country that remains rural. But the trend is undeniable, says Barua, whose niece began a love marriage on Feb. 2 with an Indian working for Citibank.

Chambravalli and Mishra say if they have children, they also will be allowed to search for true love. In the meantime, Mom and Dad will be on the lookout.

“Plan A and Plan B,” Mishra says.

It seems like the neighbouring country Pakistan has been much influenced with this breakout of love marriages too.

Similarity of Indian and Pakistani Mindset

This section of the literature review focuses on how the Pakistani society and its mindset is similar to that of India which has led us to use most of our secondary research with regard to the Indian population.

The fact that India and Pakistan have shared the same history coupled with the reality that both nations stand next to each other in the topographical location of the world map alone can point out how similar the thinking of these nations can be at one point in time and this section specifically focuses on the aspects through which the mindsets of the populations of these two nations can be hold similar.

Originally, Pakistan and India have been a part of the same Indus civilization which has led them to having similar experiences and influences across decades. Before separation, Pakistan and India shared the same goal of freedom against the colonial rule and they were united in their fight against the British. Because of the division, a multitude of issues occurred regarding the distribution of power and dominance over the new nations and these resulted in frustration which turned the countries bitter towards each other. (India and Pakistan – historic conflict and future outlooks, 2003).

India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, all comprised the sub-continent at that time and the people residing in Hindustan lived together except the religious and cultural differences that had led to extremely brutal reactions and vast bloodshed at times, but this is only one side of the story the other side sticks to the fact that before the arrival of east India company in 1600 a mental asylum was created which reflects the sense of hospitability among the population there to take care of the mentally ill people as well as their society (S Sharma, 10/1984 ). This sense of love and affection is still present in both Pakistani and Indian community when residents of both countries visit the one another [i] . Furthermore, the established fact that the people of Pakistan came from the subcontinent makes it likely that the mind set of both the nations is parallel.

Politically, both the countries have more or less a similar government structure consisting of the head of the country as the President, followed by the head of the government known as the prime minister and elected ministers who are answerable to the prime ministers. Despite the coups and political violations in both the countries, they manage to hold democratic elections. Due to all the similarities in their political framework, working alongside each other would be a lot less of a hassle as there are no starkly alien political systems to contend with.

The economic structures of both the countries also hold a lot of similarities. The rates of unemployment and inflation are around 6% in both the countries. India’s 63% of workforce is concentrated mainly in the production primary goods and is self sufficient in food grains and it also produces cotton, tea, sugarcane, tobacco for export. Similarly, Pakistan also has more than 50% of its population involved in agriculture and the rates of labor involved in secondary and tertiary activities in both the countries are also similar which indicate high success rates of free trade agreements if both the countries agree for it. [1]

As per the similarities among their cities, the two extreme ends of poverty and wealth in the city of Bombay bear a strange resemblance to that of the two extremes of living standards in Karachi. Bombay, like Karachi, is an industrial port city, plagued by over population, with colonial architecture dominating certain parts of town, and only the distance of 500 miles separating the two cities. The affinity between the two cities is not confined to the infrastructure and the living habitat, but even the afternoon breeze racing in from the sea at the verandah of the Bombay Gymkhana, is a de ja vu of the experience at the Karachi Gymkhana. Focusing on the differences between Bombay and Karachi, the most attention drawing aspect is the absence of statues in Karachi. We have monuments of fountains and swords and mountaintops in the middle of a landslide depicting Pakistan’s first successful nuclear test in 1998 but unlike Bombay, we have no statues of people. And then there is the city of Madras, which is a city that belongs clearly to the same region as Karachi and that is where their similarities end. The realization of being present in Southern India when in Madras is inevitable at all times, as Pakistanis, our association is stronger with the Northern India. For the students (of Stella Maris College), when asked which South Asian country they most strongly associated with, responded unanimously as Pakistan in complete contradiction to anyone’s expectations. When enquired as to why the students correlate with Pakistan, they replied that Pakistan had been a part of India. And when asked if they felt the same affinity towards Bangladesh, they declined profusely. (India and Pakistan – historic conflict and future outlooks, 2003)

To conclude, the mindset of both the nations can be attributed to be similar because of the sole reason that their forefathers have spent years together which has made their traditions, political systems, economic stances as being similar. It is the matter of self interest which has made the two countries apart like Kashmir issue is one where a conflict of interest between both the nations is seen. Apart from that religion has always been a major source of division and this is one subject where definitely no consensus can be reached as everybody has a right to religion.

Models of Marriage

Marriages can be put in four categories in Pakistan. There are:

Partially Arranged Marriages

Partially Love Marriages

Totally Arranged Marriages

Totally Love Marriages

Totally arranged marriages and totally love marriages are two extreme forms of marriages and between these two extremes are ‘Partially arranged and partially love marriages” in which parents may take their selection and give their children the option to accept or reject their choice. Broadly these can fall under the two types of marriages (in India and Pakistan): Arranged and Love, as explained by Kavita Ramdya in her book Bollywood Weddings. These models are diametrically opposed. Love marriage will often involve a whimsical and incidental meeting followed by months and often years of dating. The arranged marriage excludes dating altogether and rarely allows for more than one meeting before the wedding day. When the “boy” and “girl,” words used to describe prospective marriage candidates despite their age, profession, or education, meet for the ¬?rst time, it is usually in a highly-regulated environment where both sets of parents sit in the same room accompanied by supportive extended family members. A wedding follows shortly thereafter, making it the second time the “couple” is allowed to see each other and after which the husband and wife embark on years of “dating” or getting to know one another without the nagging possibility of rejection.

In the middle class, often family members stay on a lookout finding a suitable match, or a number of suitable matches. Then, the families meet to see if things work out. Long before this happens, though, the young men and women are carefully vetted for likes and dislikes, traits in common, complementary characteristics, and any other information that can be discovered and deemed relevant. Often, the process is much more informal, with the families in the community already knowing much about each other, and having already decided what could be potentially good pairings, and which may well be disastrous.

The two opposed models of marriage are negotiated by the present generation as observed by Kavita Ramdya. Her examination led her to discover a middle path, which she called “arranged meetings.”

“Arranged meetings” is an already negotiated and well-established third model for marrying. The second generation uses this method to ¬?lter out prospective marital candidates who do not have the “right” ethnic, religious, linguistic, and regional traits desired by their parents. In this way, neither arranged nor love marriage are excluded and the needs and desires of both generations are respected. The ¬?rst generation is still involved in ¬?nding a suitable partner for their child, whether through introductions by family and friends, or placing an ad on-line or in a newspaper. Additionally, candidates who do not come from the same religious sect, speak the desired dialect are cast away before a set of eligible prospects are considered. (Ramdya)

Prevalence of Arranged Marriages

Family forms the building block of a society. Human beings in turn follow the standards and norms set by the society to lead a perfect life. But everything is prone to change and so are the values and standards set by a society. In the same way, the ways of getting married are changing at a noticeable but slow pace. East is known for its traditions. Many countries in the East have been practicing arranged marriages since long.

It is a known fact that love marriages are more common in the west than in the eastern countries. In Pakistan, marriages are most of the time arranged by family members. The reason is that the Pakistani society preserves family continuity through arranged marriages. collectivist societies like Pakistan prefer group decision over an individual one so marriages are a family affair rather than an individual one, and children are brought up to expect arranged marriages. It is seen that children can have veto power in few families but normally it is expected that the parents and other family members should commence and settle on the matter. In this society, marriage is not merely based on love relationships but family economics and social needs play a great role.

Changing Trend of Marriages

A couple of decades ago arranged marriage was the only known way to get married. But today it is not so. We see many Pakistani girls and guys marrying by their own choice instead of that of their family. Love marriages are becoming more and more acceptable.

Most of the marriages are arranged in Pakistan but some of the marriages are also based on love. Love marriages have been taking place in Pakistan in the last few years with the influx of western cultures and invasion of electronic media. Due to family obligations the trends of compromising and striving to sustain relationships have become the hallmark of eastern culture. However, this fact could not be denied that these trends are eroding day by day. People realize that the traditional system of ‘totally arranged marriages’ needs to be adjusted. Partially arranged and partially love marriages are supported by the state religion. Today the exposure to various stimuli through the media has increased awareness.

The improved education system could also be held responsible for this change. As compared to the previous years, the literacy rate among the Pakistani Women has increased by leaps and bounds over the past couple of decades. Education gives exposure and a sense of enlightenment. Women have become opinionated and smart. Many young women are given the right to exercise their choice in choosing a partner and the family members accept and support their decision.

Dating agencies are emerging and proclaiming that although compatible partners inclined to marriage can’t be picked off a supermarket shelf, they can be found on a website. Most work on the false assertion that a good profile and an insignificant financial investment is the only obstacle standing between you and the love of your life. If they are to be believed, a couple of cheesy emails can determine your compatibility. In a typical electronic dating set-up, the average person role plays in a desperate bid to make an impression.

It seems that love marriages are trending but we cannot deny the fact that the practice of an arranged marriage still heavily prevails in our society. Many times, the young individuals prefer not to take the decision themselves and they rely upon the family to find the best match for them.

Gender Interaction

The gender interactions part focuses on the evolving nature of interactions between male and female students and the resultant effect of this change on their marriage choices.

Title: Student Attitude toward Mate selection in a Muslim Society: Pakistan
Author: Henry Korson
Journal: (Journal of Marriage and Family, Vol. 31, No. 1 (Feb., 1969), pp. 153-165)

The study was conducted on 765 participants in two universities of Pakistan (University of Karachi and University of Punjab) and provides a treasure trove of vital insights into how marriage was viewed by students in urban Pakistan 40 years ago.

The study results showed that atleast a quarter of respondents believed that the choice of life-partner should be left to them, while another quarter wanted their parents to consult them before making the final decision. This showed that over 50% of the respondents in that era wanted to have a say in the final decision of their life-partner.

Another question that was asked was if the respondents would make a completely independent choice when it comes to marriage to which only 3.8% respondents replied positively. 17.1% female respondents from Karachi and 16.7% female respondents from Lahore also believed that their parents would arrange their marriage without consulting them. This is in contrast to the 45% female respondents from Karachi and 52% female respondents from Lahore who said their families will accept their opinions on the life-partner. Keeping in mind that these are graduate students from the 1960s when education for women was still at a nascent stage in Pakistan, they can only be classified as a minority. The women belonged to wealthy, forward-thinking families who were amongst the first to educate their daughters and thus had a progressive mindset. They were open to the idea of their daughters having a say in their own marriage decision but were not yet willing to accept their daughters to have complete control over the decision. This is reflected by the fact that only 9.8% of female students from Karachi and 6.3% of female students from Lahore believed that their families would accept their decision of marriage if it was their own personal initiative.

One of the most interesting statistic provided by this study revealed that upto 30% of the sample believed that meeting one’s spouse before marriage was unnecessary. Females from Karachi (44%) and Lahore (47%) showed a great liking to this option – thus showing confidence in their parents’ ability to choose the right spouse for them. This mindset is unthinkable amongst most contemporary university students of Karachi and Lahore who are more independent compared to their counterparts of yesteryears. The combination of higher education, globalization and media – local, Bollywood and western – has resulted in a mindset where the choice of life partner is no more the sole domain of the individual’s parents. Moreover, the need to meet the prospective spouse whether alone, with mutual friends or with family has become paramount before the final decision is made. Students today believe that couples should have “understanding” and this can only be gauged if there is some level of interaction before the marriage.

The above mentioned statistic was further reinforced when the students were asked about the optimum length of time for knowing one’s future spouse before marriage. Although a quarter of the respondents did say that knowing one’s future spouse for about 6 months is necessary, the majority of these respondents were male. 34.5% of female respondents from Karachi and 27.1% of female respondents from Lahore were of the view that there was no need to know one’s spouse before marriage – again indicating confidence in their parents’ ability to choose a spouse who was appropriate for them.

The conclusions that Korson derives are insightful and can be used to explain today’s phenomena of how traditional arranged marriages are wearing away. Korson says that because most families live in extended households, the presence of senior members of the family prevent any young student from initiating any change which runs counter to the belief systems held by the senior members. Uncles, aunts, grand-parents ensure that the parents’ conservative view is supported and reinforced within the family. This is primarily because of the belief that if one person is given leeway in deciding their marriage decision, others in the family will follow suit, thus creating disorder and depriving the senior members of their authority.

Korson further states that male respondents showed greater “self-assurance” and liberality in their responses whereas majority of females favoured conservative options. This is probably because of both males and females already understanding their own personal situations. He believed their answers on what they believed will happen with them with respect to marriage were based on the experience of someone close (sibling, cousin, friend) who had already been married and the respondents belief that their marriage will be conducted in the same manner because they belonged to the same caste, class or family.

The last and most notable finding that Korson reveals is that the Pakistani university system is based on Western education and that in the race to achieving higher education (and resultant higher social standing), people are bound to be in touch with Western values and principles and to be influenced by them. The mindset of “collectivism” that is the root of traditional arranged marriages where it is popularly said that families marry each other will gradually and eventually be trumped by the Western ideal of individualism – students will begin to make their marriage decisions based on their own personal liking instead of following age-old conservative customs entrenched in their baradaries . Today this mindset of individualism has taken hold in the mindset of urban educated youth who are striving to ensure that their decision be respected and upheld when it comes to marriage. The Western education system in combination with media (primarily progressive and romantic Bollywood films of the last decade and a half) have led the youth to question the conservative practices that were previously held with much respect.

Title: Attitudes of University Students from India Toward Marriage and Family Life
Authors: Vicki T. Davis and Raghu N. Singh
Journal: International Journal of Sociology of the Family 1989, Vol. 19 (Autum) : 43-57

In this research, 83 Indian students in Texas Universities were asked about their opinions on marriage and family life. The report says that many social institutions in India have faced constant and gradual change. In India, the family is a very sacred institution and ranks second in importance after religion (Rao & Rao, 1975). Many researches have been conducted to explore the impact of higher education on family patterns. When people go abroad to study, they experience greater freedom to make their own decisions and are no more bound by the controls of their families, “and develop individuality, which may affect all family patterns of dwelling” (Ross, 1961).

In Rao & Rao’s study (1976), 65% college students preferred nuclear families as compared to 35% supporting joint families. A study by Sharma and Shriram (1979) surveyed 25 newly married Indian couples about their opinions on the selection of marriage partners. The importance of interaction with their future partners was stressed by 80% of the respondents. These couples believed it was necessary to meet, socialize with, and have the opportunity to truly get to know the potential marriage partner. The majority of the couples also thought that the main choice in the selection of the marital partner should be made by the individuals, with consent of the parents. When the same kind of questions were asked of graduate students in Pakistan in 1969, 65% believed it was important to meet and know one’s potential spouse before marriage. 30% of the respondents believed that there was no need to meet the future spouse, thus indicating their confidence in their parents’ ability to find them a suitable match (Korson, 1969)

Author: Lord, Keelin (2007)
Title: “Romantic Love vs. Marriage: A Psychoanalytic Approach,”
Journal: ESSAI: Vol. 5, Article 30.

The research by Keelin Lord questions and critcizes Western countries for promoting the concept of love marriage and explains the reasons behind the failure of love marriages and the rising number of divorces in America. Although there are many reasons why Pakistanis oppose the concept of love marriage including difference in social status between families, loss of parental authority and conservative mindset, the fact that love marriages lose their charm soon after the wedding is also an important factor.

The writer says that the vehicle for promoting romance in American culture is its cinema industry. Romantic love has been portrayed in visual arts of western culture for centuries, such as operas, plays, dramas, paintings and films. Although these arts directly influence culture, most view art as an illusion as well as an escape from reality. Yet Americans still believe that romantic love is tangible and serves as a solid base for marriage. The writer further goes on to say that instead of taking romantic love as granted, it should be questioned and its mistakes should be learned from otherwise it will continue to be the cause of failed marriages.

The writer conducted scientific tests on a number of participants to explain how the concept of love holds in an individual’s mind. The tests revealed that romantic love is associated with higher levels of dopamine being released to the brain resulting in increased energy, higher motivation to acquite rewards and feelings of ecstasy – things that people relate to romantic love. However, with time the feelings of romance fade away because of increased levels of the hormone oxytocin. Keeping these findings in mind, when romance is a base for marriage and attachment, the romance fades shortly after vows and the craving for a new romantic relationship evolves. In realizing this, one would begin to question why peoples now look for romance to provide them with a happy marriage.

Primary Research

Methodology
Focus Group
Interview
Survey

The survey sample was 66, with the age group being 17-26 years. 31 males were part of the survey and 35 females. This is the data that was obtained for whether the sample people thought there has been an increased acceptance of love marriages in our society.

Do you think there has been an acceptance of love marriages in our society?

Frequency

Percent

Cumulative Percent

Yes

55

83.3

83.3

No

11

16.7

100.0

Total

66

100.0

83.3% of the people (55 people) felt that there has been an increased acceptance of love marriages in our society and 16.6% (11 people) did not feel so. Of the 55 people who felt there was an increased acceptance, 28 were females and 27 males. And there was no correlation between gender and their opinion regarding acceptance of love marriages though, as analyzed by the Pearson correlation.

When asked about whether Bollywood has played a role in the increasing number of love marriages amongst youth in Pakistan, 71.2% of people felt that it has had a role to play (47 people). Of these 47 people, 22 were males and 25 were females.

Do you believe Bollywood movies have a role to play in the increasing number of love marriages amongst youth in Pakistan?

Frequency

Percent

Cumulative Percent

Valid

Yes

47

71.2

71.2

No

19

28.8

28.8

100.0

Total

66

100.0

One person said “As far as I have seen, Bollywood movies have created this fantasy-like image of love marriages in the minds of youth and lead to our youth to aspi

Public relations as a communication functions of management through which organization adapt to, alter, or maintain their environment for the purpose of achieving organization goals. Public relations in Malaysia began after World War II, the purpose of the public relation in the early years was characterized to government run. Then after, government took initiative the help of the public relations to create a shared values and common wills among its different ethnic groups to build up a national identity among its citizens (Culbertson, 1996). Throughout all these years, campaigns have been carrying out to promote the symbols of national culture with different ethnic groups with the help of public relations. Besides that, corporate group began to see the importance of the public relations where they help to disseminate the message to their audience. At such, it poses the dramatic growth of public relations in the country.

According to Institute of Public Relations Singapore, statistics compiled by the productivity and Standards Board from 1995 – 2001 showed that there are around 70 PR companies employing about 500 professionals in the field of public relations in Singapore (IPRS, n.d.). On the other hand, Institute of Public Relation Malaysia also has played a significant role in the training and development of more than 5,000 Malaysian in preparing and qualifying them for a career in public relations. (IPRM, 2009). Herewith, the growth of public relations industry also increased the number of female work in the field.

Women have entered public relations field at a much faster rate than men over the last two decades. This dramatic change has been transformed the public relations field to a female-dominated field. In 1983, women were 50.1 percent of the total of public relations workforce, a decade later the figures increased to 66.3 percent. By 2000, the percentage had reached at about 70 percent, where it remains today (Wilcox & Cameron, 2009). Due to the feminization in the field, there are issues argue on the gender inequality influence job performance and job satisfaction of female public relations practitioners.

Studies of the field showed that female public relations practitioners are facing many difficulties in the work place such as gender discrimination, gender inequality of the job responsibilities, glass ceiling and etc due to the influence of feminization in the field. For example, the case of Malaysia Airline System (MAS) (Bhatt, 2005) which happened in the year 2005 where a fight stewardess who had been working for MAS for 11 years is terminated by MAS due to the reason that she is pregnant as the management think that her pregnancy will influence her job performance. Pregnancy is a normal healthy physical condition that many women experienced, and is definitely not an excuse to claim that it will affect the productivity of a female worker.

Then, another interesting case was the Dekker case (Bhatt, 2005) where a applicant for a job, Mrs. Dekker a Dutchwomen, was found to be the most qualified applicant at the job interview and was recommended for hiring by the hiring committee. As she was three month pregnant at the time, she was not given the job. ‘Feminist theory’ explain that the nature gender inequality, where women treated differently by our society, and that women have frequently and systematically been unable to participate fully in all social arenas and institutions (Lee, 1997) where this can be apply in this phenomenon.

Besides that, in the Velvet Ghetto study supports the findings of researchers in SanDiego that women are increasingly filling the role of communication “technicians” rather than managers. (Velvet ghetto summary report, 1986)

Although the ideas of feminism and equal opportunities are being emphasize in today society and government introduce the ‘One Malaysia’ concept is also mainly explain that everyone is equal and reserve equal opportunities but there is still disparity of the gender issue in the field. This unhealthy phenomenon is causing job dissatisfaction among the female public relations practitioners where at the end it might influence the organization performance as well. Besides that, studies showed that undergraduate practitioners are uncertain about this issue.

Therefore, the objective of the research is to identify the trends, roles, position of women in the public relations field and how their roles being distinguish from the men in the field to examine whether the phenomenon of feminization will influence the job performance of female practitioners and also explore the perception of the female practitioners toward gender different in their working practice and to find out whether they are treated fairly thus their job satisfaction toward the issue. The findings will suggest that the education of public relations students toward gender challenges in the field must not only starts after graduation but undergraduate, and ways to overcome these challenges. In the research, the researcher aims to understand the reason to this phenomenon and how the working female public relations practitioners perceive the issue. For example, the trend in leadership of the managerial position in public relations agencies.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Does gender differences in the field influences job performance?

What are the consequences of practitioners’ perceived this phenomenon and job satisfaction?

LITERATURE REVIEW

Velvet Ghetto

Nowadays, a feminization trend for mass media and communications has occurred in public relations, about 70 percent of today’s practitioners are women, and this has created a gender imbalance in many departments and public relations firms. Besides that, such imbalance phenomenon is not a healthy workplace situation. The major reason for this is that more women are in the educational pipeline. Studies show that for every 50 women who graduate, only 37 men do (Wilcox & Cameron, 2009).There are few reason explain the this phenomenon, where women find more welcoming environment in public relations and see more opportunities for advancement than in other communications fields, such as news-paper work or journalism.

Velvet Ghetto was being discovered in 1980’s and this concept is emphasizing on the feminization in the public relations industry. This feminization can be explained as the women had dominated the employment in the PR field and this profession had slowly turned from male-dominated to female-dominated.

The term of Velvet Ghetto is named after a Business Week article (1978) where it speculated that the public relations field is always a safe place for the women to gain affirmative action goals or policies in this industry and this has result more and more women tend to involve themselves in this profession. Besides, the concept of Velvet Ghetto also proposed that people got the perception where public relations field is suitable for women in the sense of both appearance, practice and the women tend to have characteristics such as sensitivity towards audience and better communication in this field. Thus, this has undoubtedly created an influx of feminization to the PR industry.

Although the public relations industry continues to be female-dominated, yet there is salary and status discrepancy between the men and the women in this industry where this is one of the issue being discuss in Velvet Ghetto concept. Women are constantly paid less than men and are more unlikely to be promoted in the top management level in the public relations industry or they will often implement both technical and managerial tasks even they are being designated as “managers” (Toth & Grunig, 1993, The Missing Story of Women in PR).

Feminist Theory

Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into a more theoretical discussion and it is being designate to study the women’s social roles in a variety of fields in the society. The theory also being considered as an outgrowth of the general movement to empower women worldwide and it has the belief where there is inequality between males and females in the social, economic and political aspects. It does focus in examining the gender inequality which still continue to exist in the society nowadays and the feminist tend to promote the women’s rights and issues in a various fields as it believe that women should enjoy the same rights and given equal opportunity, resources as men in the society.

The issue of gender inequality that being discussed in feminist theory can be seen in the Velvet Ghetto concept. According to Velvet Ghetto, loads of job opportunities were given to women in public relations filed and undoubtedly women have dominated the public relations field apparently but there is an extremely low rate where power positions or top management pose are given to women.

Salaries Gap, Leadership Perception

Aldoory & Toth (2002) stated that women has making up of 70 percent in the public relations field but there are only 20 percent of the management pose or leadership roles given to them as there is a perception where women is not tally for the top management pose compare to men although they do have many opportunities in the field. This scenario has undoubtedly portrayed the gender inequality in the feminist theory.

Women are always the victims of sexual bias and their naturally born feminine characteristics tend to portray them as a weak one compare to men. Although the public relations industry provide many women become of the part for this profession but they are not being granted of any chance to turn into any kind of threat to men when both the gender race for top management jobs. This has lead to the discrimination against women’s opportunities for advancement in public relations field when they attempt to strike for the top management pose. In public relations industry, women are not perceived as good managers and they are being placed in the low position for example technician, pr editor and etc. Placing the women into these positions has presents an image of diversity of remuneration between men and women since men are always given the priority to hold most senior positions in the field. The industry has clarified that women is always the most nurturing one at home and most of them are not willing to sacrifice work over family demands. Besides, women do not have enough capability to handle both family and managerial work at the same time and they might be struggling to maintain work-life balance. Besides, the field sometime tends to undermine the women’s contribution to the field’s growth as there is thinking where women’s contribution in the managerial roles will not be strategic enough compare to men. All these have leaded them to work in subordinate roles instead of top managerial roles.

Besides, there is also salary disparity among the men and women in the public relations field. In the studies of The Three Paradoxes: Working Women in Singapore (Lee, Campbell & Chia ,1999) showed that majority of the women in public relation earn less money compare to male practitioners. Women tend to get diminish in salary in the field compare to men as their ability and capabilities is being doubt to command top salary or either it’s an act of sex discrimination in the public relations field. With the number of women is the field, the earning of men compare to women in the field are found to be higher where male are predominately in the sales occupation and women are more in clerical occupations. National statistics, conducted by the U.S Department of Labor, show that women in all occupations earn about 76cents for every 1$ earned by a man (Wilcox & Cameron, 2009). This phenomenon has seen across the Asia countries too , in Singapore the study conducted by the Graduates Employment Survey in the late 1980s and the early 1990s showed that female graduates earned salaries approximately 25 percents lower than the male graduates despite similar qualification (Morimoto & Wrigley ,2003). This also suggests that the occupation earnings are affected by the number of women in the field.

Even though women’s participation in the labor force has increased tremendously all around the world, men does make an importance difference in explaining the salaries gap and also the occupation distribution of women. In another study by Chapman and Harding (1986) on wage differentials in Peninsular Malaysia reveals that female’s tendency to be crowded in low-paying job is regarded as one of the prime factors for their lower average wage. In other words, the high number of women in the field has a negative effect in salaries.

Besides that, statistics and survey also show that that are fewer women than men involved in the managerial roles (Lee et al., 1999). As in Malaysia and Singapore, the rapid growth of the economic provided more enrollment of female into the work force but most of the female held low-paying positions such as manufacturing jobs. (Morimoto et al, 2003)

Glass Ceiling

‘Glass ceiling’ refer to the situation where the advancement for an employee in the organization is stopped at a lower level because of some form of discrimination. According to the previous study on the issue of gender discrimination (Lee et al., 1999) most female practitioners in the field happen to be get lower chance to take part in management position due to the phenomenon of ‘glass ceiling’ (Lee et al., 1999). Thus, the equality for women is judged from the comparison with a male standard or is it a norm in certain organization.

Throughout all the studies have been conducted regarding this issue, some researchers claimed that female is more familiar to the front line and administration task like copywriting, receptionist and etc (Lee et al., 1999). Besides, some agencies simply hired public relation practitioners was to meet the quota of female workers. The idea was that a company could have a vice president of public relations as ‘window dressing’ without giving her any real management authority (Wilcox & Cameron, 2009). ‘Role congruity theory’ explains the prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles (Eagly & Karan, 2002), in this phenomenon, role incongruity theory can be applied here. Therefore, it is important to take further steps into understand this phenomenon.

Public Relations and Job Satisfaction

Scholars consistently focus on the job satisfaction among public relation practitioners to advocate the value and status of public relations as a unique profession. In the study of Shin,Mckee,Nayman,& Lattimore (1975) they found that public relations practitioners are more satisfied with professional jobs rather than craft jobs such as message production through publicity. The feeling of job dissatisfaction might occur when a person is treated unequally in their workplace such as the phenomenon of glass ceiling. Therefore, this issue should look into seriously to reduce the damage that might cause to the organization or the practitioners. Broom and Dozier (1989), in their role study, found that practitioners taking on managerial roles are more satisfied with their job and that the level of participation in the decision making process is a link between managerial roles and job satisfaction. In addition, according to Maslow’s (1943) theory of human motivation, a human being’s highest need is self-fulfillment, where this is the final stage in which people want to achieve throughout their career. On the other words, if female public relations practitioners are limited in the advancement of her career this might reduce her job satisfaction and motivation toward her job. Therefore it is important to understand more regarding on this issue.

Those studies indicated that a general relationship between job satisfaction and their profession which showed that when a person in a higher position would more satisfied with their profession. Although women appear to be dominated the public relations field yet we can see that there is gender inequality toward leadership perception in this industry. As feminist theory advocate that women should have the same right as men and the promotion of gender equality, women should take step forward and clarify what they should have as the men so that women can take a giant leap into equal opportunities and pay in the public relations industry.

Velvet Ghetto

RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

Gender Discrimination

Feminist Theory

Job Satisfaction

Feminization

Salaries gap and Leadership Perception

Glass Ceiling

This paper explores the possibility and the extent of culture’s influence on the communication process and styles. Communication is the process through which individuals share ideas and information. Its effectiveness is gauged on the level of understanding by the receiver. Such sharing of ideas and information may be explicit/precise or requiring the receiver to infer/deduce the meaning from the ‘not conclusive’ message that is passed. The parties communicating, in this case, are human beings with diverse cultural and emotions orientations which act to influence the perceived outcome in the message exchange between such parties. The ‘co-existing’ factor leads to more complex element of culture (Kapoor, 2003). Culture is simply the way of life of a given people. It will refer to the values, norms and basically the foundation on which a group of people base their reasoning and pluralism on. Cultural values have varying extents of meaning across the various cultural divides. Some divides have much emphasis on the values as presented by culture than others. Longitudinally, individuals, within a cultural divide, value their cultural aspects with varying degrees.

In considering the possible influence on communication it is important to also consider the constituents of and individual. Emotions can be defined as the textual expressions representing the writes’ mood and the facial expression. Emotions can alter or improve an interpretation of a plain text. The development of various sets of emotions may vary across cultures and individuals. The evoking of the emotions is largely dependent on a person’s personality , which is the sets of characteristic that differentiate a person from the other .An individual will emotionally respond to similar information differently depending on the sender of such information. Emotions being internal can be regulated by an individual in determining the extent that they will be released.

Abstract

Researches indicate that culture has an influence on the way individuals exchange information and ideas and indeed the way such ideas are interpreted. The definition of communication by including more than one individual depicts a cultural aspect. The involvement of an individual as an entity capable of making an inference from what information has been relayed can as well not be overlooked. There is also a possibility of prior determination of what is to be understood by the hearer. Communication can as well be either direct or indirect, from the second dimension. There is a general idea that Asians are collectivists with the Europeans and Americans being individualists. Researches indicate that people with values at individual-level close to the norms in the culture are happier than those with values less normative.

Discussion and Literature review

A culture is constituted by, among other elements, individuals. In dissecting the culture, it is indispensable to first consider the individuals and then look at them in the cultural context. Culture entails of those patterns, implicit and explicit, for and of behavior usually acquired and then transmitted by symbols, encompassing the distinctive attainment of human groups, comprising human artifacts, ideas, values and norms that bides (Brown & Singelis, 1995).

Psychology presents a human being as an entity that can influence and be influenced by the environment. The environment, for purposes of this paper, will be composed of people in the societal setup. As individuals co-exist, they influence each other and develop a boundary that guides them in their relationships. In relating, each individual will first display the ‘self’ and will probably be influenced by the environment to have a collective representation in the said relationships. Two concepts come into the limelight here; the individualism and the collectivism. Individualism is the expression of someone’s self. An individual’s self will attempts to protect itself from societal intrusion. Individualists reason as entities and explicitly express their ideas to others as well as insist that such ideas be taken as truth. Collectivism is the group context that an individual associates with. A collectivist will, before passing/inferring any information consider the societal values/say in such a matter. Such a person will communicate ideas guided by the cultural setting. In both cases, emotions will still exist.

The concept of self across cultures

Self concept is an essential mediator in cultural behavior patterns. This notion gives room for a more specific role of ‘self’ in regulation of preference for conversational styles. The ‘self’ might be linked to some communication styles such as collectivism and individualism that has previously been associated to culture. Subsequent to this, the broad terms of individualism and collectiveness may be used for cultural description while idiocentric and allocentric characterize individuals. The two images describing the self emphasize the connectedness referred to as interdependence relationship and the uniqueness and separateness of individuals referred to as independence of self. This draws the conclusion that the more individualistic a culture is, the higher the probability of sampling the independent self. Similarly, in collectivistic culture, there is a likelihood of people sampling a more interdependent self. Dependence and interdependence of the self determines the behavior characteristics of an individual (Neumann, Steinhauser & Roeder, 2009). It is important to note that culture is a composition of similarities in individuals’ behavior and as such, a collection of individuals affecting communication style in a similar way indicates a cultural influence on communication. The definition of culture and that of individuals is related in the sense that an individual is a subset of a culture. An individual’s characteristics can only be defined in the context of the culture. It is the sum total of a culture’s characteristics that creates boundaries within which the concepts of good and bad can be outlined. For example, a culture may have a regard for openness in communication. Individuals who exert silence in conversations appear to exhibit vices in such cultural context.

Emotions in the individualistic and collectivist contexts

Culture has direct influence towards emotional predictions based on the meanings as well as practices that contexts their occurrence (Mesquita, 2001). His sample included individualists and collectivist in Netherlands. Among the collectivists, emotions were characterized as relational and also contextualized in the phenomena whereas among the individualists, it was characterized as intrapersonal and subjective. His co-relational and procedural study identified some major differences including the interpretation that emotions signals a change of reality among the collectivists as compared to internal, subjective feeling and indeed a little or no implication for belief among the individualists. The findings of the study revealed a concurrence with the hypothesis, that collectivists emotions related to the phenomenon and could only be explained within the contextual relationships and were also a reflection of the said relationships. On the contrary, individualists’ emotions referred less to their contextual social environment. The research findings further revealed that among the collectivists emotions are shaped in a style similar to ideas as well as practices of the cultural settings of occurrence but underlining the disparity of oneself and others/society among the individualists. Furthermore, the boundaries that exist between subjectivity of emotional experiences and the social reality were found to be thinner in collectivism than in individualism cultures.

In communicating with individuals, it becomes necessary to first identify what kind of orientation, whether individualism or collectivism, that they hold. As drawn from the articles findings, this indeed seems to limit the sender of the information to the kind of information that can be received. The idea of collectivism builds a wall inhibiting communication in two ways. First, the sender of information is guided entirely by what has been inculcated by the culture. The assumption in such a person is that the contextual culture is ideally good. There will however be the limitation of the social coverage that the said culture be ‘good’ or perhaps acceptable. As such, the question of ‘what’ in the information may be compromised to fit in that particular cultural orientation. Subsequently, collectivism dictates that the two parties involved in a meaningful conversation be culturally related. Second, the receiver of the information is not at an individual liberty to interpret the information so received (Neumann et al, 2009). One has to go back to the cultural files so as to infer the meaning. In both the cases, culture dictates the emotions that individuals develop from information stimuli.

It is important to appreciate that though culture is a valuable asset in the global society and indeed the diversity that brings in beauty and indeed minimize global competition; the world is increasingly becoming a global village. Individuals will no longer be restricted to their original interpretation of signs and ideas. Emotions should not be expressed in the cultural contexts only but also on an individual basis. Indeed the possibility of inhibiting both elements in emotional expression should be every person’s efforts. Once information is relayed, an individual should try to have and individual interpretation as well as be informed of the collective interpretation depending on the sender of the information. Either way, the need for a background on the sender and the receiver should be availed to the respective parties. Expression of a set of emotional elements once information or idea has been received is a critical issue in understanding an individual whether from the individualism or collectivism orientation. Almost all emotions are extremely meaningful for purposes of capturing the global thematic features in a situation. These features commonly referred to as appraisals assist in simplification of the complex social situations by reconstituting that complexity into a single strain intrinsically meaningful in the context of the person experiencing them. For example, emotions like pride, anger, guilt and friendly feeling all reflect a significant theme that goes beyond the mere positive or negative evaluations. The themes give a description of individual’s perception to their relationship with the surrounding environment. As such, friendly feelings and pride that are positive might be associated with social harmony and personal achievement which are definitely different themes.

Findings and Discussion

Influence of culture on emotion suppression

As aforementioned, individuals exist in societal setups that have capabilities of influencing the way such individuals express or fail to express emotional signs. The concept of emotional suppression is the failure to display ones interpretational responses of information received or limiting the extent of the expression done. According to Butler et al, (2007), Americans of European values orientation would report less emotion suppression than would Americans who held Asian values and that those holding European values would only suppress their emotions for identity protection. The later would associate emotional suppression with high levels of emotional negativity. As such, European values seemed to hold that an individual could only give up the self expression of emotions unhappily. They identified two major barriers in understanding emotional responses in social interactions as self regulating efforts and the culture. Self regulating efforts can be interpreted to mean that an individual applied personal efforts to fail to or limit the emotional expression. Such would be a false expression of the reality within an individual though it would propagate communication flow. The positive that could be associated with the self regulating efforts is that there is liberty of an individual to distinguish which issues to apply emotional suppression. Whether this is ideally acceptable or not, the effectiveness of communication which is between the two parties can be evaluated.

This research further narrowed down to two specific issues namely emotion suppression and two groups of participant who were Americans whose cultural orientation was either Asian or European. Existing literature suggested that emotional suppression may be less linked to negative emotion among the Asian cultures in comparison to European culture, whose emotional suppression, also displayed as a safeguarding of the self and an assertion of one’s will (Kapoor, 2003). The findings of this research showed that cultural orientations tend predict the differences in frequency and the function of emotional suppression as well as the negative emotion related to it.

As drawn the findings, emotional suppression was also found to be a reduction of emotional disclosure. The generalization of these findings may pose a challenge since the sample taken had a similar foundation of culture. Nevertheless, some sectional components of the findings were varied. While communicating, the expression of the receiver’s emotional expression is dependent on the societal values that the individual holds (Nezlek, Kafetsios & Smith, 2008). Much as an individual would want to express the emotional expressions as experienced during a communication, there will always be the element of what the relationship existing between the parties communicating entails. For example, in the smallest element of culture that can either exist between immediate family, members must carefully consider their emotional expressions in efforts to maintain harmony. It is possible that a message passed is not delivered yet there is harmony between people but is ultimately not possible to relay a negative, as perceived by the group, emotional expression and maintain cohesiveness. The ability to balance between regulations of emotional responses and maintain the need for the real self in responding to information relayed would be an ideal venture for every individual. Such a balance would ensure that communication is made effective without losing one’s self. Furthermore, emotional responses must be duly regarded useful in the process of communication since they offer the required feedback.

Effects of individualism and collectivism on conversational styles

Individualism and collectivism dimensions of culture are founded on some varying fundamental issues that may affect the way people communicate. A research conducted sought to come up with a mediation model in attempting to spell out the manner in which culture do influence the communication style from a sample of nine hundred and seventy two individuals across four cultural backgrounds of America, Japan, Korea and Hawaii. According to Park. & Kim (2008), that individuals can differ with both independent and the interdependent distinctiveness. The intention was to establish if self-construals were aspects of culture that accounted for the alleged usefulness of conversational constraints. In so doing, it’s easier to trace possibilities of a linkage between culture and the individual values of either independence or interdependence construals of the ‘self’. These conversational constraints are the wide-ranging as well as overarching criteria for selecting a conversational strategy and which influence the construction of a message. In their research they identified a gap where culture is broadly expressed into individualism and collectivism as two contrasting aspects and never as a dimension for explaining why people vary. The research revealed that there is extensive use of interaction strategies intended to provide a protection from the societies’ influence of the self’s autonomy.

Individuals across cultural divides seem to have a thirst for a certain level of independence. Though the degree of independence may also vary, this demonstrates the diminishing trend of culture in communication. The self’s autonomy could only be hindered by the harmonization element that is required in the society. With the continued social civilization, a time may come when individuals will co-exist without necessarily agreeing. This does not at all eliminate the need for communication but emphasizes on the diminishing level of concurrence, between the sender and the receiver in communication, which is usually deemed to be necessary for cultural coexistence. According to Brown & Singelis (1995), cultural collectivism compared to individualism tends to be positively associated with the apparent interdependence, but usually unconstructively related to independence.

Consistency of culture and the self -concept: Asian Americans and European Americans Contexts

According to Chen & English (2007), consistency in cultural differences within and across different contexts demonstrates robustness as well as boundaries that exist in cultural differences in the consistency of self-concept, and also the need for examining several forms of stability in self-concept. The hypothesis was that the cultural variances in consistency of self-concept extended to importance of self-view and the self-enhancement. The researches proposed that a low consistence, as aforementioned, do not necessarily indicate insufficient enduring and meaningful self-view but instead a possibility of it coexisting with the firm. Of the two categories of participants, temporal stability among the Asian Americans’ ratings of self enhancement within the specific relationships was found to be as high as that of the European Americans. The researchers yielded to other researches suggesting that human beings display a certain degree of manipulability and irregularity in their self concept across contexts but Asians hold more flexible self concepts (Kitayama & Mesquita, 2006). The conclusion was that Asians particularly from the East has a relatively low consistence in their self concept globally which reduces abstractness.

In fact, referring to the multifaceted research carried out by Brown & Singelis (1995), it’s clear that development of self-construal is greatly influenced by complex cultures. As drawn from findings, individual dimensions do not necessarily match with the perceived cultural levels. Self-contractual and cultural collectivism is affected by the prevailing socialization norms, practices and institutions where individual separateness is accounted for. During socialization of a child, collectivist mothers tend to encourage empathy and listening in their kids, while under individualists’ mothers, kids are taught keys words and self-expression skills crucial in promoting cognitive development, problem solving capacity and the perceived autonomy in building friendships.

High and low contextualization in communication

High contextualization in communication refers to a scenario where much of the information is thought to be internalized in a person or in the physical context. Message is inferred from the context. The parties communicating are thought to be familiar with each other’s physical context as well as the internal perception of ideas and information being passed. Low context communication refers to the explicit, explanatory and clear use of the accepted codes to pass information. Park and Kim had interest in studying relationships that existed between adherence to European as well as the American cultural backgrounds to communication in Asia. They had the notion that Asian cultures utilize a high context communication as advanced in the 2001’s Gudykunt concept of both high and low contexts in communication. A high context communication among the Asians is associated with Confucianism that emphasizes on communication as a tool towards developing harmony as well as maintaining it in interpersonal relationships. Asian values seemed to mediate the identified relationships between collectiveness, which is the solidarity sense in a society, and communication behavior. On the other hand, individualistic values were said to be related to low communication that focuses on uniqueness of an individual and hence use of explicit codes in passing a message (Kapoor, 2003).

Indeed, Asians were found to harbor more recognition to collectiveness, emotional self control and conformity to norms as well as humility. The researchers examined three hypotheses, among two hundred, and ten Asian America and hundred and thirty six European America, as follows. First, for both Asian and European Americans, the open and explicit styles of communication were to fit with the low context style of communication. Second, the Asian Americas were to display less use of low context style of communication and instead use high context than the European Americans (Chua et al, 2005). Finally, for both samples taken, and with the element of sex and race, the hypothesis was that high level adherence to Confucius would positively relate to high context while negatively relating to low context styles of communication. The findings were that contrary to the hypothesis, collectiveness was found among the European Americans and the conclusion was that perhaps European Americans belonged to in-groups that valued assertiveness and self expression.

Intentionality in communication

Intentionality is the indication of aims, plans, goals and urgency guiding the actions intended to be followed by an individual. Cultural variations may be founded on the societal structure. Such structures may require that individual’s actions closely coordinates with those of the other members of society as well as reducing social conflict. Others may motivate setting of one’s plans and goals. In contrast, the first structure calls for individual’s sensitivity to the environment while the later expects that the environment is sensitive to the individuals. Intentionality is determined by the different perceptions of primary and the secondary controls inhibited within individuals. Primary control provides for the individual’s exercise of freedom and control over a person’s psychology (Kapoor, 2003). Secondary control implies the inability to separate an object or idea from the field in context. Subsequent to this issue, motivation is in independence to autonomy in thinking for those under influence of primary control whilst guiding those under secondary control. The emphasis of emotions is more on those in secondary controls as such; these groups of individuals associate the tone in the voice during conversation in inferring the meaning.

Self determinism in communication

Self determinism is the theory asserting that individuals have an entire control of their destiny. Personal responsibility is therefore the key to influencing what is and would happen in the future. The process of communication involves inferring of information whether sent or received. As such, an individual has a responsibility in determining the meaning. Culture must not be taken to cover-up a person’s irresponsibility in making sound inferences in the conversations. The influence of culture in communication must be subjected to individuals’ efforts to control meaning. The search for the reality is a personal responsibility and which is dependent on a person’s need to not only coexist with others but also to develop as an individual. Furthermore, the amount of time available in corporate world equates with money. In corporate world, individuals communicating disrespectful of their cultural background are likely to use a more direct, explicit and a clear style of communication. This is meant to improve time efficiency and save energy. Clear evidence that the world is tending towards direct style of communication is indicated by the use of interpreters when communicating to various parties with diverse cross-cultural backgrounds (Chen & English, 2007). In order to effectively identify with such parties’ culture there is need to hold cultural harmonization forums first.

Social status of the communicating parties

Power relationship between the communicating parties is also a variable that influences communication. When conducting supervisory roles, communication is usually more direct especially in conflict management than it is among subordinates. The later would use non-confrontational / indirect communication. These two aspects of communication indicate that individuals consider the context within which they are communicating. Whether among the individualists or collectivists, the said aspects appeared to prevail. Though there is no direct relationship between power and culture, the two interacts in the real word. Relationships usually exist between two people who are not at per. Two subordinates though at the same social level are at different levels in terms of who knows more in particular issue concerning the organization. The subordinate who knows more of issue A assumes the role of the “more powerful” in that issue (Yoon et al, 1996). Respect which is associated with culture since it is an element/value geared towards bringing harmony also exists between people of different power levels. There is also some degree of respect that is shown by an individual who is depending on the other. All these scenarios depict a resultant communication style which is culturally based (Butler et al, 2007).

Convergence and divergence in communication

Divergence in communication is the disagreement that arises from the receiver of a message between the actual message as per his/her interpretation and the reported interpretation. In conflicting situations, expatriates and their host nations diverge in communication, not only because of the obvious typecast cultures but also by alterations of responses accordingly though the motives vary. Power -distance perspective is the most valid explanation in this phenomenon. Convergence element is strongly displayed by the superior condition of the East whereby direct-indirect peculiarity is diluted by the expatriates who alter their approach to conflict (Brown & Singelis, 1995). This is, in both groups, a reaction to urgency. The clarity of communication and the diminished sensitivity to the face needs as compared to the obtuse communication, and the honoring face needs has increasingly acquired more value in situations where time is essence. On the other hand, the abstractness of direct communication is assuming a more diplomatic path which serves the needs of a global workplace especially in dealing with a collectivist Asian (Nezlek et al, 2008). Moreover, agreeing to norms does serve and indeed promote a harmonious and mutually respectful workplace.

General comments on methodologies and samples

Culture as a variable influencing communication cannot be numerically expressed. In general, the methodologies used captured data from the participants and were later generalized to be a representation of a non definite issue. The studies therefore were more of measures of intent behavior instead of the actual behavior patterns. Approximately eighty percent of the sampled participants did not have the Asian’s collectivism cultural orientation. The participants were tested whether they believed in such an orientation. This definitely affected the consistency of the idea flow from the participants. It appears that the participants were aware of the data that they were supposed to generate. Moreover the samples were too small to correctly constitute a generalization. In a culture based study, the sample should be big and wide in terms of occupation and age composition. As such, the data would be collected not only from the students, as it is the case, but from the wider population. Cultural differences are likely to be less pronounced amongst students than it is in other groups (Chua et al, 2005). How negatively or positively skew the data did not get the desired attention that such a data should have. Deductions on such non-vector subjects should be majorly based on the Skewedness and not on mere cross-correlations.

The overreliance on previous researches in coming up with deductions is also evident in determining the relationship of emotions and culture on communication. The propagation element increases the error that is supposed to be as minimal as possible. The errors accumulated are loaded onto a new study meaning that from the onset, the study is adversely affected by previous errors. The ideal scenario would have been to carry out the coincidental researches at a reasonably close interval of not more than a year to increase the validity. However the researchers’ attempts hold a substantial validity which provides a basis for future research and which are currently useful with low error prevalence.

Synopsis

In conclusion, the aforementioned discussion displays a relationship between emotions, culture and the communication style adopted by individuals. The general consensus is that human beings exhibit, from theories of creation, a common origin. They are also social beings that cannot escape the influence of others in their social life. Although there is evidence of strains of individuals whose energy protect them from influence from others, there is a limit that such a characteristic can endure. For example, individuals against some national ideas will however concur with the wishes of their families or their closest friends. According to Brown & Singelis (1995), when relevant intermediate values are considered whilst analyzing communication and culture, the diversity across culture and be justified. These two authors consider the direct effect that culture has on an individual behavior and resulting communication patterns. In fact, culture is seen to influence the psychological make-up of an individual thus affecting the communication behavior exhibited by the person.

Even if the said friends are supporting the negation of the national idea, it still remains that those close friends constitute a society and as such a culture. Moreover, when construction of both the society and individual correspond, individuals are more likely to have a more involvement in the society and hence be more affectively involved (Chua et al, 2005). It is important to note that due to the dynamic nature of the communication interactions, intercultural communication standards can be achieved only if the communicating parties mindfully adjust their behavior in communication.

As drawn from findings, individual dimensions do not necessarily match with the perceived cultural levels. Self-contractual and cultural collectivism is affected by the prevailing socialization norms, practices and institutions where individual separateness is accounted for. During socialization of a child, collectivist mothers tend to encourage empathy and listening in their kids, while under individualists’ mothers, kids are taught keys words and self-expression skills crucial in promoting cognitive development, problem solving capacity and the perceived autonomy in building friendships. Prior research which basically encouraged on orthogonal tests on groups in deriving cultural comparisons, tend to effectively open a wider scope in culture study by perhaps encouraging potential researchers in contributing to the elaboration on the correlation that cultural.

Recommendations

In efforts to achieving better deductions, any cultural and self reacted studies ought to be carried in the very cultural context of the participants. When dealing with the collectivist individuals, it will be better to determine their strength in their cultural orientation. This will perhaps facilitate relations and effective workplace culture which act to boots performance level from team levels tickling down to the entire organization. When conducting such cultural tests or cross-sectional research, attention ought to be laid on the perceived impact that preceding findings would have on the conclusion derived. The as