Author: Andre Coleman

A report by Garavan, Winder and McGee (2001) Health and Social Services for Older People, Consulting Older People on Health and Social Services: A Survey of Use, Experiences and Needs concluded within its findings that older women viewed that they had a low quality of life.

Stuart-Hamilton (2000) states that an element within the ageing concept is that men for varying reasons die at a greater rate than women after the age of 70 and that therefore it could be concluded that the ageing experience could be a longer process for women.

The elderly population in Ireland is increasing in that according to Connell & Pringle (2004) the projected population of older women in 2021 is expected to be between 375,000 and 389,000 which would indicate a rise of over 50 per cent from that in 2002.

“Ageing can be defined as the process of progressive change in the biological, psychological and social structure of individuals aˆ¦aged 60 or over” (Stein and Moritz, 1999;4).

According to Greenstein (2006) social research is abstract in general in that the concepts are not easily measured because of the subjectivity of the topics and that a way of gaining a vague measure within the research is to ask the participants their level of satisfaction or dis-satisfaction in relation to the sub-themes.

Ageing has a direct biological decline and because of this quality of life has been regarded to be directly linked by the health of the person versus ill-health. But health being defined by the World Health Organisation cited in (Bond and Corner, 2004:2) ” as a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing” have resulted in the concept that quality of life is much more complex and varied depending on other factors rather than being traditionally associated solely with health (Bond and Corner, 2004).

Definition of Quality of Life

Quality of life is not scientifically measureable in that it is very subjective to the individual depending on their experiences of ageing and that the terms well-being and life satisfaction are often used as a means of gaining an insight into the degree a person views that they are experiencing quality of life (Vincent, Phillipson and Downs, 2006).

Research has shown that quality of life is subjective to the person, Abrams (1973) cited in (Bond and Corner, 2004:4) defines quality of life “as the degree of satisfaction or dissatisfaction felt by people with various aspects of their lives”.

This literature review will act as a base for a thesis that will explore the views of older women in Cavan as to the factors that contribute to quality of life.

The definition of what is quality of life is not easily determined and many authors offer different domains as the priority but in fact the priority will be subjective to what the individual older person measures as the most important aspect to them (Nay and Garratt, 2009).

There has been much focus on what is quality of life in recent years in terms of social policies that have in turn directed service provision and providing care that is impacting positively on a person’s quality of life according to Vincent et al (2006).

Quality of life according to Nay and Garratt (2009) typically measures general health, physical, cognitive, sexual and emotional functioning while also measuring the happiness of the person but it is subjective to the person in that what one person views as important may differ from another person. Factors such as employment, social networks, social activities, self-identity, financial security and cognitive and physical function are considered to impact on quality of life (Renwick et al (2003) cited in Nay and Garratt, 2009).

Also that quality of life in relation to older people is often used as an assessment measure of whether a service is supporting the needs of its clients in that it is not just a measure of quantity of life but that the life has quality within it so that the outcomes of supports or services are impacting positively on quality of life (Nay and Garratt, 2009).

That measurement of quality of life is sometimes measured within one domain such as general health while others measure cover several domains. But in general the largest measurement of quality of life is the concept that it is directly connected to the health of the person and their satisfaction regarding their health (Nay and Garratt, 2009). Therefore “Health Related Quality of Life” is a term that is often used by service providers as a directive for their care provision (Nay and Garratt, 2009:352).

Focusing quality of life within the domains of general health can create what is called the “disability paradox” in that older people rather than viewing their decline in health as an indicator of low quality of life that the expectation of inevitable physical and health decline has resulted in other factors such as social networks and their overall well-being as the domains used to measure their view of quality of life and that it is presumptuous to view that general health is the sole measure of quality of life (Carr and Higginson, (2001) cited in Nay and Garratt, 2009:353).

According to Vincent et al (2006) people will view health, social networks and standard of living as important factors within their lives but that the importance of the factors will vary as the person proceeds along their life course.

Research sources have shown the complexity in defining the key factors within quality of life and the initial reading by the researcher highlighted that the many elements could be loosely grouped within three sub-themes in relation to quality of life: (1) physical factors – general health and physical mobility, (2) economic factors – income, and standard of living and (3) social structure factors – social networks, cultural environment but further reading has emphasised that even though these concepts are applicable that expanding them further will allow greater exploration and description.

In that according to Stuart-Hamilton (2000) that focusing on a narrow of domains could result in some domains appearing more important within the research than they possibly are.

That domains such as health, income, and environment have an impact on a person’s life satisfaction in general and are all inter-related but that the personality of the person will also impact on the how they measure their life satisfaction (Stuart-Hamilton, 2000).

Walker (2005) suggests that as quality of life has no distinct key factors that most research focuses on health, environment, employment and relationships. That the environment has within it the physical, social, cultural and economic elements that can either enhance or reduce quality of life. Health has within it general health and the physical, mental and emotional health of the person. Employment covers income and can be related to the wealth of the person.

The key concepts with regard to quality of life as suggested by Hughes (1990) cited in Bond and Corner (2004) are:

(1) Physical environmental factors which include quality of accommodation, access to public services such as shops, transport and other public services such as libraries and other leisure outlets.

(2) Social environmental factors which include family members, social networks, the level of support obtainable from family and social networks and the levels of leisure activities that the person is involved in.

(3) Socio-economic factors which include the general standard of living, the income available to the person and other means of wealth.

(4) Cultural factors which include the age, class, gender and religious leaning of the person.

(5) Health factors which include general health, mental well-being of the person and physical mobility.

(6) Personality factors which include whether the person is an optimist or pessimist, will all impact on the subjectivity by the person on their measure of life satisfaction.

(7) Autonomy factors which include the degree that a person has the capability to make their own decisions.

(8) Satisfaction subjective to the individual – the level of satisfaction over all the areas of their life that they judge as important.

There is no definitive on what factors contribute to quality of life, therefore (Arnold (1991); McDowell & Newell (1996) cited in Nay and Garratt 2009:355) suggest that the measurement of quality of life should include

“objective indices such as economic circumstances and housing, those that measure subjective aspects such as morale, happiness and life satisfaction and those that contain both objective and subjective components, such as health related quality of life”

But according to Bond and Corner (2004) the subjective and objective aspects are interrelated an illustration of this being in that the objective element of health related quality of life could be subjectively not important to the older person who as of yet has not experienced any health issues that they view as impacting on their quality of life.

There is a view according to Stuart-Hamilton (2000) within society that the busier the life of an older person the more quality of life that they have. That the subjective measure of life satisfaction can be directly linked to the activities that an older person participates in that give a meaning to their life can be directly linked to one of the theories of ageing – Activity Theory (Bond and Corner, 2004). That an indicator of life satisfaction can be the degree that an older person maintains activities within their community, in that the more activities indicate higher levels of life satisfaction. Bond and Corner (2004) disagree and agree with elements of this theory in that they state that although social networks and activities can maintain and support physical and mental health such as reducing depression that ageing has a biological element that can impact on health and reduces an older persons social network as confidantes become ill or eventually die and that it is wrong to expect an older person to engage in levels of activities to the degree that they did when they were much younger. Stuart-Hamilton (2000) suggests the concept that engaging in activities for the sake of them does not allow the older person the ability to make their own choices and that within the provision of services for older people that by assuming that any activity is better than none could be directly linked to the application of Disengagement theory whereby it is believed that the older person accepts that death is eventual and therefore prepares for death by choosing to dis-engage from society and that also it has a function of reinforcing the expected process of ageing in Western Society.

Personality:

And its link to health:

One element within a person’s personality is that it will relate to their choices with regard to their lifestyle such as diet, exercise all which can aid the life expectancy of a person but what if the person’s personality has within it a negative outlook will this impact on how they view the ageing process and the biological decline and that rather than trying to improve their physical well-being by a healthier lifestyle that they approach death and illness as unavoidable and then reduce their activities and disengage from society (Stuart-Hamilton, 2000).

Link between psychological well-being and personality and health:

Research has shown a link between physical well-being and mental well-being in that according to Whitbourne (1987) cited in Stuart-Hamilton (2000) people that exercised and had levels of what they measured as physical well-being had a general feeling of overall well-being but therefore could it be said that people that have a poor physical well-being are more less satisfied with life (Stuart-Hamilton, 2000).

Personality:

Preference for lifestyle link:

That the personality of a person whether they are an introvert or extrovert will also impact on the lifestyle they choose in that if they are an introvert it will probably follow that as they are older that they will not seek out social activities (Stuart-Hamilton, 2000).

Disengagement theory Cumming and Henry, (1961) as cited in Stuart-Hamilton, (2000) suggest that as people get older that they automatically start to disengage from society in degrees as if in preparation for death and this is also supported by society in that the structures have come to expect this disengagement. This disengagement according to Stuart-Hamilton (2000) can be as a result of many factors such as illness, loss of family members, low income that does not provide for activities and also their personality type in that what if they are introvert or extrovert and that disengagement theory has been criticised for the overall image that older people are cutting ties with society in preparation for inevitable death. According to Maddox (1970) cited in Stuart-Hamilton, (2000) this disengagement may simply be a an aspect of the person’s personality and that it is not an element of ageing at all. Merriman (1984) cited in Stuart-Hamilton (2000) also criticises disengagement theory and states that ageing policies within many countries encourage that older people have an high profile within their community.

Activity theory was proposed as a way of combating disengagement theory according to Stuart-Hamilton (2000) in that it was proposed that the more activities that an older person engaged in the better their life satisfaction. But this does not allow for choices for the older person and what if their personality is such that enforced activities is wrong (Stuart-Hamilton, 2000).

Issues related to measuring Quality of Life

There are issues relating to the measurement of quality of life in that the domains are both subjective and objective. The “objective indices, such as economic circumstances and housing; those that measure purely subjective aspects, such as morale, happiness, and life satisfaction; and those that contain both objective and subjective components, such as Health Related Quality of Life measures” (Arnold, (1991) cited in Nay and Garratt, 2009:355).

Vincent et al (2006) agrees that there are both objective and subjective domains but unlike Nay and Garratt (2009) attributes social factors within the objective domains by stating that the number of social networks that a person has is objectively measureable but that the quality of these social networks is a subjective element. Likewise Vincent et al (2006) states that health although measureable in terms of whether an illness was present and therefore objectively measureable that the domain is also subjective in that the importance of health to quality of life will depend on what the individual views health to be.

The view by Vincent et al (2006) that the meaning of what is health is subjectively defined by the individual is illustrated by the “disability paradox” as per (Carr and Higginson, (2001) cited in Nay and Garratt, 2009:353). In that older people rather than viewing their decline in health as an indicator of low quality of life in that the expectation of inevitable physical and health decline have resulted in other factors such as social networks as the domains used to measure their view of quality of life and that it is therefore presumptuous to view that general health is the sole measure of quality of life (Nay and Garratt, 2009). Anderson & Bury (1988) cited in Vincent et al (2006) state that people can adjust to illness and develop coping skills so that the illness no longer factors as a significant domain to the person and this would therefore affect the measurement of health within quality of life research. Health and physical functioning as an objective measure in the domains of quality of life are mentioned continually and can in its simplest form according to Nay and Garratt (2009) be that if a person has a condition or range of illnesses be considered to have a low quality of life. But what if the adjustments suggested by Anderson & Bury (1988) cited in Vincent et al (2006) were accommodations such as medication or lifestyle changes and were to adjust how the illness impacts on the person could it then be considered that although the health status remains the same but that the accommodations have resulted in the meaning of what is health to not be defined by illness or physical functioning. Therefore in relation to this research the aim is to explore the subjectivity of what the participant views as health and if any accommodations have impacted on the meaning of what is health.

Economic factors such as standard of living are objectively measured according to Nay and Garratt (2009) in that income can be an indicator of a standard of living but according to Vincent et al (2006) this objective measure has to be balanced by the subjective measure of what is the expectation of a standard of living and according to Stuart Hamilton (2000) will be directly linked to past experiences of standard of living in that if a person has in the past had a particular standard of living the subjective measure will be linked to whether the same standard of living was expected by the person or not. Therefore in relation to this research with regard to economic factors as a domain within quality of life previous standard of living and expectations of standard of living as an older person and direct experience will be explored.

According to Vincent et al (2006) quality of life has no scientific measurement that can define the exact objective degree of quality of life because there are so many variations of what is quality of life. That the experience of life may support or contradict what the objective measure describes as quality of life.

Qualitative and Quantitative Methods:

Quantitative methods are often the means of gaining information regarding what is quality of life but using quantitative methods will not allow for the subjectivity of individual experiences and their views on quality of life. That using structured questionnaires still conform to the researcher’s view of quality of life and does not allow for the exploration of the views of the older person. That these approaches do not allow for the “symbolic nature and meaning of life to the individual (Vincent et al, 2006:158). Taking the view that as the person proceeds along the life course that their view of life will remain the same.

Stuart Hamilton (2000) suggests that the life course?????

Another challenge in relation to measuring quality of life and with particular reference to older people is that there can be such differences between each person in that as they age the experience in relation to physical, social, emotional, sexual and cognitive functioning is not as homogenous an experience and that these differing experiences will impact on what factors are key to quality of life (Stewart et al (1996) cited in Nay and Garratt, 2009).

The setting that the older person lives within will impact greatly on the factors that are viewed as contributors to quality of life in that if a person is living within a residential unit that this group orientated setting will have different routines and rules in comparison to an older person living within community in general, and that for those within a residential setting that research has shown that “dignity, self-determination and participation and accommodation of resident needs” were considered to be the factors that impacted on quality of life (Nay and Garratt, 2009:357).

That measurement of quality of life needs to consider the domains that are considered contributors within quality of life and that how the research is conducted in that the way that questions are asked can create a bias. As already stated biological decline is a natural aspect of ageing therefore if an indicator of quality of life were to be considered the level of physical functioning it would be inappropriate to ask the participant if they were physically able to do as much and for as long as they used to when they were younger and that this would not be a realistic indicator of quality of life according to Nay and Garratt, (2009).

Measurement tools are World Health Organisation Quality of Life Instrument (whoqol) (Skevington et al 2004), cited in Nay and Garratt, 2009.

Conclusion

This literature review has explored the concept of quality of life and that the factors that are considered to contribute to quality of life are varied and can contain subjective and objective components and that older people in order to measure quality of life should not be viewed as a homogenous group.

Social values and cultural practices are both elements of culture. Social values provide a general outline for human behaviour i.e. they define what is morally correct e.g. right or wrong and what is desirable e.g. good or bad. Values are the abstract standards that define ideal principles in societies or groups (Anderson, Taylor, 2007). Culture is the way of life of a society or group of people defined by their behaviors and meaning. Culture includes values, beliefs, morals, customs, habits and language among others (Anderson, Taylor, 2007). Cultural practices are human behaviours and thoughts that are passed down by generation to generation based on these cultural beliefs (Carr, Neitzel, 1995). These practices are learned directly e.g. parent to child and indirectly through imitation and observation (Anderson, Taylor, 2007). Social values and cultural practices are instilled in people from a young age and this determines how they react to concepts of equality, justice and fairness.

Social inequality refers to the ways in which socially defined categories of people are positioned differently in society in regards to accessing social ‘goods’ like employment, other forms of income, having access to education, health care, political representation and societal participation (Ceelbas, 2010). These forms of social inequality are shaped by various factors including geographical location, distribution of wealth, income and social status. Structural inequalities operate in any society and the main inequalities are based on class, age, ethnicity and gender (Holmes, Hughes, Julian, 2007).

Class

Social stratification refers to “the hierarchal arrangement of social classes, castes, and strata within a society” (Inc. Icon Group, 2008 p.209). Class refers to socio economic status (SES) which is an individuals or groups position in a hierarchal social structure and where they are placed depends on their occupation, education, wealth, income and residence. There are four main classes of people. They are the upper class, middle class, working class and the underclass. The upper class refer to the property owners and entrepreneurs, the middle class refer to the workers whose social position is determined through professional qualifications, the working class refers to workers who exchange their labour for wages and the underclass are the poor people living in poverty (Graetz, MacAllister, 1994).

Wealth and income are key determinants of class. Money can gain access to power, status, high education, better employment opportunities which result in high incomes. Wealth can provide a better lifestyle including access to health care which would create a high standard of living and a longer, more enjoyable life. People in lower classes are forced to struggle through life, suffer discriminations and have a poor quality of life.

Inequalities affect men and women, different religious, ethnic or racial groups and people from different backgrounds. Depending on their location in the class structure will determine whether they will be better or worse off in society (Graetz, MacAllister, 1994).

CULTURAL PRACTICES VALUES??
Age

Ageism is the “discrimination or the holding of irrational and prejudicial views about individuals or groups, based on their age. It involves stereotypical assumptions about a person’s or groups physical or mental capacities and is often associated with derogatory language” (Marshall G, 1998, p.1). There is discrimination against the aged in the workplace, health care system, nursing homes and it is reflected in senior abuse (Gutman, Spencer, 2010). There are estimates between 1-3 million people over 65 in the United States alone that have been mistreated, exploited or injured by someone they know or trust to protect and care for them (Gutman, Spencer, 2010). Even capitalism exploits the elderly through pharmaceuticals. When the aged are forced to withdraw from the workforce this can result in them separating themselves from society and even preparing for death. The elderly do not get treated fairly and they are often denied their basic human rights including health care.

Social forces and the media create ageism by shaping negative attitudes towards older people and the aging process. Youth, beauty and health are highly valued in culture and the aged represent the opposite. They are linked to poor health and death. By putting distance between the aged it alleviates the fear of dying (Ventrell, 2002). Institutions also help create ageism by devaluing older workers and ignoring treatable aging problems by medical practitioners and in nursing homes. There is also a lack of attention to cruelty towards the elderly which results in low reporting and a lack of policy changes (Gutman, Spencer, 2010).

Ethnicity

“Ethnicity is the cultural background of a group of people who share a common ancestry” (Holmes, Hughes, Julian, 2007, p. 144). These members identify with each other through cultures including a shared religion and a common language. The concept of ‘ethnicity’ perpetuates inequality for people who are considered different from the dominant group. Individual racism involves the negative attitudes a person has against all members of a racial or ethnic group. They often resort to name calling, derogatory remarks or acts of violence.

Institutional racism refers to discriminatory acts and policies that prevent groups from equally accessing resources such as education, health, employment and housing (Zastrow, Kirst-Ashman, 2009). Some of these acts and policies are illegal and others are not. Macro systems policies are formed by institutional values and these policies occur in communities and organisations. Institutional discrimination is built into the structure that forms society. It is the prejudicial treatment in organisations based on policies or behaviours and is demonstrated on how these macro systems treat certain people (Zastrow, Kirst-Ashman, 2009).

Inequalities of ethnic groups can be seen in everyday community life. In non-white groups, unemployment is higher, the infant mortality rate is higher, they have a poorer life expectancy and their achievements in education are less than whites (Zastrow, Kirst-Ashman, 2009). There are many inequalities found in the education system towards ethnic groups. Schools in white neighbourhoods have highly trained teachers and better facilities than those of minority groups. Due to either a high unemployment rate or discrimination of ethnic groups in the workplace, these families struggle to provide financially for their families. As a result of this they are unable to provide for extra expenses like class trips, clothing, supplies and transportation which prevent their children from being fully involved in the education process (Zastrow, Kirst-Ashman, 2009).

A major factor affecting health inequalities in minority groups is their socioeconomic status. Education and employment barriers lead to financial instability and if they cannot afford proper health care they will have a low quality of life and a shorter life expectancy. Their ability to access health care services and a willingness to obtain treatments can have an impact on their health. Other inequalities can occur from religious beliefs, language barriers, their environment, their lifestyle and genetic issues (Bhopal, 2007).

The stereotyping, which is fed by prejudice, continues to shape the housing outcomes for ethnic minorities. The inaction of administration workers, the effect of policies in housing agencies and the national processes condoned by the state all reinforce inequalities (Somerville, Steele, 2002). Ethnic groups continue to be regularly excluded from accessing resources to improve poverty and living conditions.

The criminal justice system is supposed to be non-discriminatory and fair. The name justice in itself implies fairness but institutional racism is still evident in this macro system. In the United States for example (Zastrow, Kirst-Ashman, 2009), African Americans make up 12 per cent of the population but they make up half of the prison population. They also receive harsher sentences than whites and half of the people sentenced to death are African American (Zastrow, Kirst-Ashman, 2009). Police are more likely to respond harshly to offenses committed by minority groups or lower income people than middle or upper class white groups. Minority groups and poorer class people are less likely to afford bail so are forced to remain in jail which can lead their families and people who rely on them into poverty. They cannot financially afford a good defense and they are more likely to be found guilty (Zastrow, Kirst-Ashman, 2009).

There have been conflicting views on immigration and the effects that migrants have on the economy so much so it has swayed immigration policies. The reasons for them are that they take the low paying jobs where there are labour shortages thus stimulating the economy through the taxes they pay (Zastrow, Kirst-Ashman, 2009).The other view people have is that they believe the immigrants are a burden on the economy, reap public benefits and take jobs way from the citizens (Zastrow, Kirst-Ashman, 2009). There are also fears of terrorism since the September 11 attacks.

Gender

“Gender is the division of people into two categories, ‘men’ and ‘women’. Through interaction with caretakers, socialisation in childhood, peer pressure in adolescence, and gendered work and family roles, women and men are socially constructed to be different in behaviour, attitudes, and emotions” (Borgatta, Montgomery, 2000, p. 1057).

From a young age, boys will be treated in ways to form masculinity and girls will be handled in ways to form femininity. Gender stereotypes are reinforced and influenced through agencies like the family, peers, schools and the media (Holmes, Hughes, Julian, 2007). Stereotypic behaviour is learned by individuals through the culture of these influences. Gender roles are the expected behaviour from males and females and this helps sustain gender stereotypes which in turn create perceptions which lead to inequalities (Crespi I, 2010). Gender roles, patriarchy, sexism and discrimination contribute to gender inequality and these inequalities take place in all social institutions including the workplace and at home. The relationship between patriarchy and gender has been crucial to the subordinate position of women. Patriarchy is a social system where men have power over younger men, women and children. This power rests in the public and private spheres (Holmes, Hughes, Julian, 2007).

The role of women traditionally has been to nurture and stay at home to look after the children and the men were seen as the ‘breadwinners’ going off to work to earn an income. Segregation from society, no opportunities to make their own money, fewer opportunities for education and at times domestic violence all contributed to the oppression of women. Even though there are more women in the workforce, due to gender roles, they still shoulder the responsibility of a ‘second shift’ when it comes to maintaining the domestic sphere (W. W. Norton & Company, 2005).

It is a basic human right to be free from gender inequality in the workplace but the fight for equal opportunities, equal pay and fair treatment is a constant justice battle for women.

Women in the workforce face inequalities of pay compared to men, less prestigious positions, sexist attitudes and discrimination. Even women that are successful in the corporate world face discrimination on the ‘proper roles’ of women according to cultural beliefs (W. W. Norton & Company, 2005). The ‘glass ceiling’ refers to barriers that hinder promotion of women and minorities into higher ranks of management (Anderson, Taylor, 2005).

The media contributes to gender inequalities by their portrayal of men and women in films, television and magazines. Men are shown to be active and aggressive. They are not shown to do housework or care for children. Women are portrayed as being dominated by the man and are seen as helpless. They are seen as the carers and are told how to please men and look attractive for them.

Conclusion

Social positions and disadvantages are determined by influences such as class, status and power as well as demographic attributes such as age, ethnicity and gender. Ageism is one of the most pervasive prejudices in society and is considered as being a denial of basic human rights. Social forces and the media help create beliefs and attitudes that discriminate against the elderly. Stereotyping and prejudices continue to create inequalities in ethnic groups. Discriminations can result in poor opportunities for education, poor financial stability, which has an effect on their health, and a low standard of living. Gender is created from birth by gender socialisation. Gender stereotypes are reinforced and influenced through agencies like the family, peers, schools and the media.

The imbalances of wealth, power and prestige that exist is ironic as people continuously preach their cultural commitment to values of equality and justice. Unfortunately, systems worldwide are setup to enhance the interests of the people that reside at the top of the stratification system.

In society today, how does a city’s heterogeneity and growth of its population help to generate a new and distinctive city life? This essay explores the argument that social change in the city is a result of the growth of its population and its heterogeneity. This essay would also examine the impact of urban growth on cities. I will first introduce the sociological definitions of social change and urbanization then, I will be discussing perspectives of some sociological ‘thinkers’ towards city life. Subsequently, I shall examine the impact of heterogeneity and growth of population in a city by citing prevalent examples. In conclusion, I shall summarize the impact of urban growth on cities and its prevalence on city-dwellers in our society today.

Social change in the city and urbanisation

Social change refers to the transformation of culture and social institutions over time. (Macionis & Plummer, 2005) Social change is diverse and multiple with different social outcomes affecting different groups of people. Thus, different groups of people experience social changes differently. For example, the poor may not be able to benefit from the introduction of electricity as they do not have access to such resources due to their financial status. (Jordan & Pile, 2002)

Urbanisation basically refers to the social process whereby cities become bigger and more concentrated with the migration of people; or in other words, a process in which a place becomes a ‘city’. (Abercrombie, Hill, & Turner, 2005)

From these definitions, we can clearly see the close relationship between urbanization and social change; in which social change occurs when urbanization takes place. To illustrate this, let us look at football in the 1900s. Back then, anyone associated with football were considered violent and thuggish due to some unruly behaviour of supporters during matches, which has even contributed to some scenes of violence (i.e. Liverpool team supporters ‘attacked’ Juventus team supporters in the 1980s). As a result, football had a very negative public image and people associated with the game could not even wear their jerseys out for fear of being ‘labelled’ or ‘looked at differently’. However, the football scene today has evolved due to the influx of people from diverse backgrounds. Soccer players today are idolized and considered as celebrities to even ‘endorse’ popular products (for example, Adidas, Nike, etc). Young boys are also influenced by football as it is viewed as a sport to show off their ‘masculinity’. (Audiovisual materialxxx,?? ) This shows a social transformation and shift in the mindsets of people as urbanization takes place.

Some sociological ‘thinkers’ accounts on city life

There were three eye-witnesses to account for social change, namely, Georg Simmel, Louis Wirth and Robert Park.

Georg Simmel observed how urban life shapes people’s attitudes and behaviour. His observation of Berlin, particularly of people’s changing consciousness noted a ‘metropolitan personality’ among city-dwellers. He noted that people kept their distance with each other due to the money economy evident in the city, however, people also became tolerant and even more sophisticated as a result of urbanization, hence, the ‘metropolitan personality’. (Jordan & Pile, 2002)

Louis Wirth reasoned that large dense, heterogeneous populations created a distinctive new way of city life characterized by impersonality, self-interest and tolerance of people’s differences, thus, urbanities become ‘cultural hybrids’. He also acknowledged that urban life may not always be harmonious it could also be antagonistic and conflictual. (Macionis & Plummer, 2005)

Robert Park on the other hand, viewed cities as a site to facilitate greater social freedom, which could also lead to potential social disorders. (Jordan & Pile, 2002)

Impact of heterogeneity and growth of population in a city

Heterogeneity or the ‘mixing’ up of people and growth of population has impacted the city life both positively and negatively.

For instance, if we were to examine the history of Josephine Baker, the African-American dancer whose career took her from St Louis, to New York, to Paris ; we could see different variations of social mobility through the different places, and also, that class improvement is not rigid. One’s life chances and quality of life in a city can improve the same way Baker’s did. Baker grew up in poverty and harsh living conditions and faced racial discrimination however she eventually became a popular celebrity as she left her country for work. (Jordan & Pile, 2002)

This example clearly illustrates Simmel’s, Wirth’s, and Park’s theory of urbanization that cities are intense sites of social change which offers possibilities for social mobility by interfering with clear-cut social stratification.

In Simmel’s observation, we realize that the blase attitude of people in the city has enabled Baker to climb up the social ladder. In Wirth’s theory, we can see that Baker was socially accepted due to the urbanites tolerance of people’s differences. Through Park, we could clearly relate that social mobility was possible in the city due to social freedom that existed.

Friedrich Engels and Harvey Zorbaugh on the other hand, observed city life through the lens of Manchester (1845) and Chicago (1929) respectively.

Engels zoomed into the physical space of the city and noted the city as being crowded, disorganized, dirty and smelly. He felt that the interrelationship between the bourgeoisies and the proletariats created class conflicts within cities. Zorbaugh on the other hand, examined how diverse groups of people come together and live. He viewed city life as cosmopolitan, hybrid and confused. He also observed that the urban-dwellers were ‘many-tongued’, or were able to speak several languages due to the immigration of people from diverse backgrounds into the city. On the other hand, he also noted that family life in the city was broken and disorganized due to the influx of individuals from diverse backgrounds in the city. (Jordan & Pile, 2002) From this, it is clear that both Engels and Zorbaugh emphasized that it was “hard to see” in cities, possibly due to the heterogeneity and size and density of the population, which in turn leads us back to the works of Wirth.

Hence, heterogeneity and the growth of population in a city have resulted in many positive and negative impacts. Baker’s story shows how small-scale ‘micro’ change has large-scale ‘macro’ angles in society (especially on one’s social freedom); showing a positive impact. It also shows a negative aspect to it, especially through the portrayal of Baker’s childhood, as the whites ‘attacked’ the blacks as they tried to get away. Engels and Zorbaugh’s account, describes both positive and negative impacts of urban growth in cities.

Conclusion : City-dweller’s in today’s societies

Cities are viewed as sites of social change, which carries both positive and negative aspects to it. Heterogeneity and growth of a city’s population contribute to that “urban, city life” that we are experiencing today. We should also bear in mind that, this ‘mixing’ up of migrants in a city can lead to fierce and even violent antagonisms. For instance, in Singapore, between Singapore’s People’s Action Party (PAP) government and some, mainly foreign critics, who created some criticism that policies made by the government are “innately hostile, unwarranted and based on preconceived ideas rather than the actual situation”, there are also some endemic misunderstandings concerning the “banning” of chewing gum. The practice of chewing gum is not actually illegal, only importing it for sale is illegal. (Diane & Milne, 2002). This shows a negative aspect of heterogeneity.

In addition, a city allows chances of social mobility for people to move up the social hierarchy. For instance, in Singapore, marriage to a person belonging to another race or religion or caste seems to be socially accepted these days. In 2006, the proportion of Indian men who marry outside their race was at 36%, and for Malay men and Chinese women at 22.5% and 7.6% respectively. Intermarriage is viewed as an evidence for integration, which occurs in a city like Singapore, and it also, shows a narrowing of social distance between the different ethnic groups in Singapore. It is also evident that “we’re quite racially blind. It’s the mothers who sometimes insist that the brides be from the same race”. (Tan, 2010) This clearly shows that Simmel’s perception of a ‘metropolitan personality’ is dying out in cities like Singapore, however, it also agrees with Park’s and Wirth’s observations that urban life may not always be harmonious, and that eventually people’s lives are still guided by social division and inequality.

Personally, as an urbanite myself, I can see that the city that facilitates social freedom, though at times, people’s lives are still guided by social division and inequality to a certain degree. I can also conclude that the impact of urbanization results in social change which is heterogeneous, diverse and multi-faceted as discussed in this essay. Simply put, social change may be experienced differently by different people, within a single city.

(1362 words)

The family issues can always attract public attention, because it is so close to people’s life. As Kephart claimed that the family is one of the older social institutions which could be found in almost all societies (1961:3). This report will argue that the family turned into diversity as a result of the varied demands of individual while the alterations of household could affect society in social services, government policy and social safety. There is no denying that the development of society could also influence the family lifestyle. Initially, this report will look at the history of the family. Secondly, this report will introduce the changing nature of the family and the situation of several types of household( cohabitation, lone-parent families, homosexual families ) that have appeared recently. Specifically, what family means to society will be illustrated—-family is not an abstract word, but a basic part for society. Finally, this report will analyse the role of the family has played in society and the impact of changes on British society.

2. History

Generally, family is categorized as two basic models: nuclear family and extended family. Nuclear family includes parents and their children while extended family is a family group with a close relationship among the members that includes parents, children and relatives (Oxford , 2005). As Eversley and Bonnerjea (1982:75) said, “Victorian family (between 1830 and 1870) has played an important role in the development about the modern family: whatever forms the contemporary family takes, it is usually considered as a deviation from this supposed former norm”, in other words, the Victorian family is the earliest ancestor for families of British society. Until the 1980s, it was popular within sociology to talk about the “family cycle”. Inherent in this notion was the idea that people typically followed a similar family pathway (Allan and Crow, 2001:2). In contemporary society, families have changed from formation and conditions over time. The average household size fell from 2.9 persons per household in 1971 to 2.4 in 2006 (ONS Focus on Families, 2007). Nowadays, there is no typical example of families, such as single-parent families, cohabiting, step-families, and so on (Harding, 1996). Actually, family could provides a wide range of functions which include socialization, social placement, material and emotional security, child rearing and economic cooperation (Morris and Winter, 1978:46 ; Allan and Crow, 2001:19-20). Families determine the outcomes for children, adults, community and society. Such as in the family, parents bring up children, give them encouragement with love and a good relationship between family members could contribute harmonious development on the community and society as well (Cabinet Office Families in Britain, 2008). So that family could be seen as valuable to the society and to individual.

3. Current Situation

A recent survey showed that 80 percent of people really think that family is more important to them than their friends in British society (Ipsos MORI Real Trends, 2008). As an institution, family is altering continually. Since 1971, the proportion of all people living in “traditional” family households of married couples with dependent children has fallen from 52% to 37% in Britain (BBC, 2007). Today, people usually get later marriage, the one possible factor of this situation might be women paying more attention to their career. It is a common phenomenon to live together without marrying. The number of cohabiting couple families increased from 1.4 million to 2.3 million between 1996 and 2006 (ONS Focus on Family, 2007). More and more children are born outside of marriage, especially occurred among cohabiting couples’ families. A recent survey showed that the rate of births outside marriage has risen from about 10% in 1971 to over 40% in 2006 (ONS Population Trends No.132, 2008). Meanwhile, married couples also have some problems. According to a statistics, there is a increased number of divorces – around 26 thousand in 1950 to over 155 thousand in 2005. Compared with many other developed countries, Britain keep the higher rate in divorce until 2005 (ONS Marriage Stats 2006 (Provisional), 2008).

4. Analyse the Effect

The family could be claimed as an economic and social institution (Jagger and Wright, 1999:3). No matter which form the family is, it seems that family could influence the society both in positive and negative aspect whilst be impacted by social environment.

4.1 Major institution in society

In order to support the family, people have to hunt for a job. Individual plays essential role in different working areas, such as the large number of workers are employed in the services sector, a minority in industry and a little proportion in agriculture (Oakland , 2006:170). Those people create necessity for public need and make income for their family, thus there is a situation that the family workers fulfill the social demands while create wealth. Meanwhile, the family could be impacted by the external environment. For instance, financial crisis hit British families since 2008. According to research, the conflict between parents occurred frequently due to them worrying about the economic risk, therefore, a number of children suffered a hard period during the financial crisis (Hawthorne et al, 2003). Furthermore, families contribute children’s growth. The new generation is the force of the society continually developing. In order to make sure the better outcome for children, parents have to balance children’s state of being fully developed while make the children being a part of family and society by providing love, encouragement and guidance (Bornstein and Bornstein, 2007).

4.2 Cohabitation

In contemporary society, public attitudes of sexual relationships have moved forward, thus cohabitation has been accepted by a majority of people (Allan and Crow, 2001:64). Review the recent two decades, the number of people who cohabit has rapidly raised (Oakland , 2006:190). When the divorce were difficult to achieve, people likely choose cohabitation (Kiernan, 2002:3). There are several factors enable adults to cohabit, one of the factors is decreasing the living cost. Men and women live together and share the expenses of daily necessities. Moreover, living together lead to learn more about each other. It is an opportunity to test whether the person suit to the other party (Allan and Crow, 2001:67-68). In turn, there is not any data (no data) shows that cohabitation could be helpful to marriage living, meanwhile, some statistics prove that if some people married after cohabiting, they had higher rate to divorce (Popenoe and Whitehead, ?:2 [reference: should we live together]). People in cohabitation families maintain the relationship rely on

4.3 Lone-parent families

The proportion of children living in lone-parent families

in Great Britain more than tripled between 1972 and

spring 2006 to 24 per cent(11 _04_07_social_trends)

Children living with single parents may be at higher risk of experiencing physical and sexual abuse and neglect than children living with two biological parents. Single parent households are substantially more likely to have incomes below the poverty line. Lower income, the increased stress associated with the sole burden of family responsibilities, and fewer supports are thought to contribute to the risk of single parents maltreating their children. In 1998, 23 percent of children lived in households with a single mother, and 4 percent lived in households with a single father. A strong, positive relationship between the child and the father, whether he resides in the home or not, contributes to the child’s development and may lessen the risk of abuse. In addition, studies have found that compared to similar non-neglecting families, neglectful families tend to have more children or greater numbers of people living in the household. Chronically neglecting families often are characterized by a chaotic household with changing constellations of adult and child figures (e.g., a mother and her children who live on and off with various others, such as the mother’s mother, the mother’s sister, or a boyfriend).

(http://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/usermanuals/foundation/foundatione.cfm)

4.4 Homosexual families

5. Recommendation

As a result of what have mentioned, the government is considered that should establish reasonable policy for different type families. Trying to improve the marriage rate, create employment opportunities for lone parent, pay more attention to the mental health of single-parent children and provide help for them. Ensuring each kind of families getting equal rights include homosexual families. Honestly, family is the fundamental part of the society, making each unit running normally is one possible way to boost the development of society.

6. Conclusion

In summary, under several period changing, the family developed into many forms, it all depends on individual needs, so that the changing to the family is an inevitable phenomenon. For the society, its development rely on each family’s growing, such as changes to household required a development of services, domestic variety created new demands on government policy, and some of the new type families led to social crisis. Meantime, it could be found that the social environment influenced family lifestyle. Therefore, a interaction between families and society could be discovered.

Allan, G. and Crow, G. (2001). Families, households and society. New York: Palgrave.

BBC (2007). One-parent families on the rise. Retrieved October 7th,2010 from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6542031.stm

Bornstein, L. and Bornstein, M. H. (2007). Parenting styles and child social development. Encyclopedia on early childhood development. Montreal: Centre of excellence for early childhood development.

Cabinet Office/The Strategy Unit. (2008). Families in Britain: An Evidence Paper, Department for Children, Schools and Families.

Elliot, F. R. (1996). Gender, family and society. London: Macmillan Press

Eversley, D. and Bonnerjea, L. (1982). Social change and indicators of diversity. in Rapoport, R. N. , Fogarty, M. P. and Rapoport, R. (1982). Families in Britain.(p.75). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul

Harding, L. (1996). Family, State & Social Policy. London: Macmillan Press

Hawthorne, J., Jessop, J., Pryor, J. and Richards, M. (2003). Supporting children through family change: a review of interventions and services for children of divorcing and separating parents. London: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.

Ipsos MORI Real Trends (2008) self-completion and online. Base: 2,019 British adults 16+, 9th May – 5th June.

Jagger, G. and Wright, C. (1999). Changing family values. London: Routledge

Jenkins, DRS. , Pereira, I. and Evans, N. ( date unknown ). Families in Britain, The impact of changing family structures and what the public think. London: Ipsos MORI and Policy Exchange.

Kephart, W. M. (1961). The family, society, and the individual. Cambridge: The Riberside Press

Morris, E. W. and Winter, M. (1978). Housing, family, and society. Canada: John Wiley & Sons

Oakland, J. (2006). British civilization: an introduction. New York: Routledge

Office for National Statistics (2007) Focus on Families: increase in families mainly cohabiting couples. Retrieved October 7th,2010 from:http://www.statistics.gov.uk/pdfdir/fofam1007.pdf

Office for National Statistics (2008) Marriage Stats 2006 (Provisional) cited in Cabinet Office/ The Strategy Unit (2008) Families in Britain: An Evidence Paper, Department for Children, Schools and Families. P26.

Office for National Statistics (2007) Population Trends 132. cited in Cabinet Office/ The Strategy Unit (2008) Families in Britain: An Evidence Paper, Department for Children, Schools and Families. P28.

Oxford Dictionary of English. (2005). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Rowlingson, K. and Mckay, S. (2002). Lone parent families: gender, class and state. Great Britain: Pearson Education Limited

The family was categorically defined and empirically grasped as the “nucleus of society” and the pillar of the sate order (Beck & Beck-Gernsheim, 2004). The recognized performed functions of the family are imitation of new members and socializing them, and stipulation of physical and emotional care for young and older persons. Family in fact, is an institution which resolves or eases a huge amount of collective problems (Giele, 2009; Hughes & Stone, 2003).

Until 1960s, there was a generally accepted model of the family in Western societies, one to which people’s lives approximated more or less closely according to their material circumstances, social class, religion, region and so on. This normal family consisted of an adult couple and their own children; the adult were a man and a women, never of the same sex; they were married and remained so until death did them part; and they operated a kind of sharp gendered division of labor whereby the mothers at home, ideally giving affection and emotional support, and fathers out in the work force supporting their families (Beck & Beck-Gernsheim, 2004).

New trends affecting families

Everyone recognized that families had changed. Divorce rates had risen dramatically. More women were in the labor force. Evidence on rising teenage suicides, high rates of teen births, and disturbing levels of addiction and violence had put children at risk (Giele, 2009). Post modernity has changed our values but all these seem so normal to most wealthy societies, yet separation between couple not only negatively affects them but also children, relatives and friends. This higher degree of breakup of families put downed a social stigma upon the society and families might well become more fragmented.

Conservatives believe that these problems can be traced to a culture of toleration and an expanding welfare state that undercut self-reliance and community standards while the liberals opined that these problems are surfaced on the disappearance of manual jobs that throws less educated men out of work and undercuts their status in the family as well as rising hours of work among the middle class that makes stable two-parent families more difficult to maintain. However feminist vision combines both the reality of human interdependence in the family and individualism of the work place (Giele, 2009).

Social transformation by industrialization, urbanization, educational expansion demographic change, and monetization has altered the structure of family relationships in important ways. New patterns of marriages emerged superseding arranged marriages. A tendency on the part of younger generations, to overlook the consent of the “procreated” family for conduct of sexual behaviour; premarital pregnancy, single parenthood, divorce and remarriage gained ground in most countries, especially in the Western World (Beck & Beck-Gernsheim, 2004). This situation poses a strong potential to change the attitudes, particularly of the younger generation, who experience and experiment with the changes, causing a pattern of delayed marriage. A resultant outcome is the decline in birth rate. Another issue arising out of such situations is the absence of a legal heir for property if one of the partners met with an accident.

The overall increase in divorces almost in every region of the world from the 1960’s is another important development in the demographic sphere (Skolnick, 2009). Two major reasons can be identified for this trend. New legislation had been enacted making the procedures associated with the act of divorce easier, to meet the newly emerging economic and development needs (Beck & Beck-Gernsheim, 2004). Economic empowerment of women through employment tended to loosen their bonds to the patriarchal family and gave them the taste of economic independence. Women experienced a greater confidence to discontinue a bad relationship with a married partner (Skolnick, 2009).

Rising in divorce rates also imply that the number of single parent families also increases. This situation severely affects the socio-economic conditions of families with children which mean that security, education and welfare of these children would hardly be met. Most frequently single parent families are headed by women (Giele, 2009).

Another thing is that the ‘new’ family life became much more home centered in various senses. The house had become a more pleasant place and people now had increased means with which to make themselves comfortable (Beck & Beck-Gernsheim, 2004). Intra family relationship within the wider kin group was becoming less significant and the nuclear family household increased its importance.

Recent changes in family structures and dynamics of community

Strong families are the foundation of strong communities; therefore, the changes that have occurred in family life are seen as a threat to the quality of community life (Hughes & Stone, 2003). In this context, three trends are overwhelmingly changing the nature of our society. Firstly, the rise of individualism in early 1960, which calls upon individuals to live a “life of their own,” beyond the link to the family or society, and, indeed, actually urge them to break free of such ties and to act without regard for them. So the preference of one’s own needs became the derivative factor for selfishness (Beck & Beck-Gernsheim, 2004).

Secondly, there has been the persistent increase of the market into every component of society. The widespread sense of the market is no more of just neoliberals’ ideology, but all of us, which has domino effects in both the public and the private sphere. The mantra of self, inextricably intertwined with the gospel of the market, has taken over the fabric of our lives and has released us from the pre-given ties, social relations (Beck & Beck-Gernsheim, 2004).

Thirdly, the increase development of communication technologies, particularly Internet and the mobile phones, which are eliminating our personal time, reducing our private space and increasing the pace of life (Beck & Beck- Gernsheim, 2004). Our relationships may be more multinational but they are progressively more short-lived.

The Concept of family for 21st century

In the relationship between parents and children, and between partners, family is the central place of intimacy. Intimacy is a job of time and durability that is placed on sympathy and unconditionality and entrenched in trust. As such, it is the contrast of the values produced by the current economic race.

At the beginning of the 21st century, the understanding of man and woman in their joint relationship, of family life and of the destiny of mankind has already entered a very complex stage. Notions such as family and household can no longer be understood in as simple a manner as they once were. The whole question of who is a family member now raises substantial issues that were of minor consequence two generation ago. For example, when does a cohabiting partner become a member of your family, and when does he or she become a member of your children’s, your parents’, or your siblings’ families? (Allan, Hawker & Crow, 2001).

According to White (1998), if we are to acknowledge non institutionalized family forms created by rising rates of non marital fertility, cohabitation, divorce, and remarriage then we need to recognize that family structure has a larger subjective component than we have accorded it (White, 1998). But what does it mean when, on the one hand, politicians invoke “family values,” motherhood, and fatherhood but, on the other hand, demand and solemnly promise that everyone should be constantly and generally available on the labor market – a labor market, that offers ever fewer protected areas and long – term guarantees and then defining family through caregiving patterns (Beck & Beck-Gernsheim, 2004).

Conclusion

An accelerated creation of nuclear families occurred with the process of industrialization brought considerable changes in family and demographic beliefs and values, dramatic declines in childbearing and marriage, major increases in non marital cohabitation placing the notion of family at risk. Therefore, there is a need to identify various problems that emerged due to the changes in functions and the structure of the family unit. Reduction of emotional and physical support by the family would directly affect the personality development of children and their health.

Sexual harassment is a universal problem in all over the world. Most of the sexual harassment happen in western country but it’s also happen in Asian country such as Malaysia. In Malaysia, sexual harassment happened at workplace and is target on female workers by their male colleagues. There was getting more articles, report and news indicate those female workers are subjected to sexual harassment nowadays. In additional in year 2000 onwards the numbers of female worker start rising and entering male oriented job such as engineering, medicine and management. From the rise of female worker in all types of industries the management and policymakers consider that sexual harassment is vital for female.

Slowly, when the female worker faced sexual harassment and the situation getting serious, immediately the Code of Practice on the Prevention and Eradication of Sexual Harassment officially launch by Malaysian government in 1999. Workshop taking effort by drawing out guidelines to prevent incidences of sexual harassment. New amendment and guidelines are added by government through its Ministry of Human Resources. For examples, the Employment Act 1955 makes the sexual harassment officers compulsory to investigate any allegations of sexual harassment. Thus the guidelines of sexual harassment for civil service employees have also been issued and giving out counseling for the victim and punishing the perpetrator if sexual harassment happened. Every females worker have the right to free from a unsolicited harassment environment and atmosphere to avoid decrease the morale, productivity and quality of workers.

The research on sexual harassment show that men and women can also be victim but men frequently pose as harassers and women pose as victim in sexual harassment. Even the problem existed for many decades but the research start in late 1970. Now studies focus on the consequence of the organization and individual. In the organization, women with lower job got harassment than women in high job so this make those women in low job make excuses to take leave to avoid harassment. For the individual, the victim can be emotional stress and all this can bring effect on motivation, effectiveness at work and breaking family relationship. In the natural attraction of human and the men behavior shows that men has stronger and aggressive sex drives than women so that sexual harassment in workplace is an extension of human sexuality. Furthermore men with dominant power usually exploit their power to approach women in addition women usually have less power and control than men in workplace.

There are four factors model influencing sexual harassment in Malaysia and because of it is cover with social cultural, organizational and individual causes so it is more comprehensive and realistic. Thus the social cultural considerate the three main ethic group which is Malay, Chinese, Indian and other Malaysian worker. Furthermore the sensitivity level of sexual harassment towards entire females is different. In workplace female can involve themselves in sexual harassment on how they dress themselves. However the dressing types are different due to their religious and culture between Malay and non Malay. For Malays they wear ‘tudung’ with long dress but non Malay prefer western fashion. Besides, that sex ratio, sexist attitudes and available workspace easy to happen sexual harassment.

The first factor risk is motivation which means that the victim can be the motivator of the harasser. Furthermore, if the victim physical attractive attract that could be the force to motivate the harasser. In additional, the male colleagues may took action or establish unwanted sexual attention to female worker. The hypothesized show that female works who wear more attractive will easily get sexual harassment than the female worker that wears less attractive.

Factor two is the overcoming internal inhibitions against harassment. The harasser morality and sympathy is very important in this factor because if a harasser do not feel his act towards the victim are sympathy , wrong and immoral it will increase the cases of sexual harassment. There for female workers will experience some offensive jokes and unwanted sexual attention from the behavior of harasser.

Third factor is overcoming external inhibitions against harassment. Thus there are five working environment could contribute to sexual harassment. For example the privacy of workplace usually occurred because in private workspace that could not be witness by outsider. The hypothesized shows females that work in open workspace has lower chances encounter with sexual harassment compare to females that work in a private workspace. In addition, knowledge of grievance procedure so that females worker can do their complaint towards harassment and with this kind of system harasser will be punished and prevent harasser. Besides, that sexist attitude is a very valid problem and reported in sexual harassment because females that wear physically sexy easy be targeted as sex object by male’s worker. Other than that an unprofessional working environment bring u a vulgarism, alcohol consumption, disrespect among employees, and employees involve in non-work activities climate while u working and it will bring u sexual harassment. The hypothesized show that women that work in professional work place suffer less sexual harassment than females that work in unprofessional work place that suffer serious sexual harassment. The final is skewed gender ratios that mean males workers are many than females worker and is unbalanced. The hypothesized tell us that if the males workers more than females worker, the chance for females to encounter sexual harassment is higher than a balance ratio worker.

The last factor is overcoming victim resistance. The prevention and ability to recognize the behavior of a harasser toward the victim and the variables is related to the jobs status and sex roles of the victim. The hypothesized shoe those women employees who hold lower position and power will experience sexual harassment than women that hold higher position in a organization. Women that resist or not being cooperative will meet with threat from male employees that hold higher position.

Sexual harassment occurred in Malaysian workplace is causes by few factor and the factor has been confirm and the prediction is pretty accurate. The reason being sexual harassment occurs is the education background of female worker, unprofessional working environment, and sexist of male worker. The females dressing could be the key element cause sexual harassment. All this factors will interrupt with company progress. For examples, the relationship among worker, team spirit and cooperative of employees. Beside that that it will appear a unequal power between males and female workers. Finally one organization should consider the risk or women workers by setting some rules and regulation. For examples, proper dress for females, open space office for women and tighten the discipline among workers.

Feedback

This has taught me more in depth about sexual harassment in social psychology and let me more respect female. The sexual harassment happened in Malaysian workplace is too serious and endanger the moral and living style of a female. Furthermore women who experience it will mentally suffer. Therefore, prevent is better than cure.

The definition of hypothesized is the argument and investigation of a cause and effect. For examples, smoker gets shorter living life than a non smoker because smoking is bad for health. From the journal show that if women that wear more attractive will experiences sexual harassment than women that wear less attractive. Eventually the dependent variable will be how the females dress themselves and the independent is the sexual harassment. The theory I use for this journal about sexual harassment is self-fulfilling prophecy. The definition of self-fulfilling prophecy is your expectation toward a person and how u treats them to judge that your expectation is true or false. For examples, you expect that man will be every nice person so u a treats him very friendly at the same time he treats u the same way, eventually your judgment come true. But in this journal the theory is, if a male judge that if a girl wear more attractive, they will judge them as a very open minded and easy to handle women so they will make some sexual intention towards the female.

Finally all this hypothesized and theory is connecting to social psychology because all the factors and examples is effect and the cause happened among social cultural and human behavior around us. This assignment is very challenging and let me think out of the box.

My great, great grandfather, Paul Christian Lautrup, a single, caucasian man of 35, migrated from Denmark to the United States. He came from a wealthy family originating in the Danish culture and was educated to become an architect. He was expected to continue in the occupation that his nuclear family had persuaded him to train for in order to be kept in the family will. If he were to move away and not pursue the career that had been expected of him, he would be removed from the family will and lose all his inheritance.

Against his family’s wishes, he chose to leave Denmark to escape their career demands and to pursue his own interest. He moved to the United States in 1880 to follow his dream of becoming an actor. He made Washington DC his home, where he met his wife Delia whom he had 6 sons with. Unfortunately, he did not succeed in becoming an actor and settled for becoming an architect in the US. This is rather ironic, because he ended up moving away from Denmark and losing all his inheritance only to become an architect in another land. (Lautrup, Paul).

Denmark is a small nation nestled within the Scandinavian countries located on the European continent. Denmark, also known as the Kingdom of Denmark, has a tiny population of roughly 5.3 million citizens with only a 69km land border that is shared with Germany; this is the only land connection that Denmark has with Europe through it’s only peninsula and largest region, called Jutland. Also, Denmark’s main realm has 5 major islands, which support most of Denmark’s population, accompanied by 406 minor islands. Only around 90 of the 406 minor islands of Denmark are known to be inhabited. Also, Greenland and the Faroe Islands are part of the Kingdom of Denmark. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

They are both located in the Atlantic Ocean and considered to be autonomous regions within the Kingdom of Denmark; both have very small populations under 100,000 citizens. Copenhagen is the capital of Denmark and is the nation’s largest city. Copenhagen is also the biggest and most modern city in all of Scandinavia. Scandinavia includes the countries of Sweden, Norway and Denmark. Over 70% of Denmark’s population lives in an urban environment, while most of the population consists of people of Danish ethnicity, although there are a growing number of immigrants from Asian and African nations. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

The North Sea is to the west of Denmark and the Baltic Sea is to its east. Denmark is separated by its northern, neighboring, Scandinavian nations of Norway and Sweden by the Kattegat and Skagerrak straits. Sweden, the second closest neighbor to the Danes is cut off from Denmark by only 5km of water named the Oresund strait. Denmark’s climate is humid and chilly during the winter, with an average temperature of 34 degrees F and during the drier, summer months, the temperature averages 72 degrees F. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

Denmark has gently rolling hills with fertile soil that are at a close range to sea level with no true mountains throughout the nation. There are many lakes, rivers, streams and moors, which create an ideal environment for agricultural prospects. There are no extreme changes in climate due to the Gulf Stream that flows up from the south over Denmark’s western borders. Since the land is accessible to the sea, it is a prominent supplier to the ship industry is Northern Europe. Denmark has no point on its land that is more than an hour’s drive from the sea. There are numerous bays and inlets, which creates gainful opportunity for their prosperous shipping industries. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

Some especially important Danish landmarks include: The Tivoli Park, the most popular amusement park in Denmark, Fredericksborg Castle, and The Royal Theater. Hans Christian Andersen, known for his fairytales with relatable moral teachings and Karen Blixen, known for short tales and life memoir are among many famous writers of Danish literature. Soccer is Denmark’s national sport, but sailing, cycling and rowing are also Danish favorites. The national language is Danish, although, many Danes can speak English and/or German at least on elementary levels. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

The Krone is the source of Denmark’s monetary exchange and the Euro has not yet been accepted, due to the nation’s suspicions that switching over to the Euro will have a detrimental effect on their beloved social welfare system, which the citizens of Denmark take great comfort in. Denmark maintains the oldest continual monarchy in Europe and the second oldest in the world. Queen Margrethe II is the current Queen and head of the constitutional monarchy in Denmark. She is only the second queen to rule the monarchy throughout the entire history of Denmark. The Danish community is very proud of their form of government, their royal family and their Dannebrog, which is their national flag. Danes are not a people who are easily insulted, but one way to offend them would be to criticize anything concerning their Dannebrog, royal family or form of government. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

The subsistence strategy relied upon most in Denmark today is information. Higher education, the promotion of environmentally green solutions, literature and the fine arts are all very important to the Danish people. (Bendure, Glena, and Ned Friary) Over 77.3% of the jobs held by Danes are part of the information subsistence strategy through service-related jobs. (CIA – The World Factbook) Since education is paid for by the heavy taxes the Danish people submit to, it is financially obtainable for anyone with high enough scores to continue their education into any of Denmark’s universities. There are 5 universities for the citizens to choose from which include: Copenhagen, Roskilde, Odense, Aaloborg and Arhus Universities. Queene Margrethe II and her son, Crowned Prince Frederik are graduates of the elite Arhus University. Danes also have the option of continuing their education by attending community colleges or vocational technical schools. Some of the occupations that Danes are going to school for include: maritime studies, nursing, physicists, architects, social services, literature, history, religion, photography, teaching or various other information service occupations. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

These jobs all rely on technology and tools such as computers, cameras, high-tech printers, internet connections, satellites, sterilized medical equipment, body-image scanners, reference texts, cell phones, writing utensils, specialized uniforms and printers are just a few examples of the many advanced tools that are necessary for these various fields of information subsistence strategies. For example, a teacher would use tools such as a blackboard, a computer projector, chalk, erasers, videos, books and printers in order to relay information to teach her class a particular subject. Of course, these types of tools and technology are used all over the nation in rural and urban areas, but perhaps slightly more in the densely populated regions. Division of labor can be divided up in a number of ways in regards to the information subsistence strategy.

For example, a dean of a college may oversee that the college professors are following the guidelines for teaching classes from the code of ethics in their employee handbooks. The professors oversee the progress of skills and information learned by his/her students. The students attempt to maintain good grades in their class by completing all their schoolwork to the best of their ability. Division of labor usually depends on the socioeconomic status and education acquired.

However, in Danish society, social caste or social status does not create an obstacle in regards to whom can do what type of career. The citizens have a silent understanding amongst one another that every individual within the nation is important and should not be treated differently whether the citizen is a doctor or a trash man. The opportunity to pursue an information career is equally welcome to men and women; gender does not hinder occupational roles in Danish society. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

The second most important subsistence strategy amongst Danish society is industrialism in which some 20.2% of the population is employed. (CIA – The World Factbook) Some examples of the products manufactured are ships, boats, ceramics, silverware, furniture, chemicals, paper, fish products, dairy products, canned ham, electronics, textiles, concrete, marine engines, radio and communication equipment, toys, glass, pharmaceuticals, agriculture/forestry machinery, electrical products and diesel engines. Most of the industrial facilities that produce these Danish goods are located in more urbanized areas throughout the country. Many of these products require special skills used by laborers that have been trained at either a vocational school or through a type of apprenticeship training program paid for by the Danish government. Particular tools and equipment are necessary for creating these products that can include: pulleys, compressors, mixers, castes, hammers, nails, scissors, ovens, kilns, saws, test tubes, Bunsen burners, beakers, glue, electrical wiring, assembling machines, counting machines, computers, charts, slicing equipment, turbines, converters, nets, sails, anchors, food processors, milking machines and generators. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

For instance, if a plant is producing paper products, large, metal rollers, would need to be used in order to press the paper into the desired thickness. Also, mixers would be used to stir and prepare the paper pulp in order to pour it into the appropriate screening containers. A specialized machine would be necessary to wrap the finished paper product for distribution and sale. Distribution of labor depends on experience, skill level and seniority of the workers involved in the particular industry. Owners of factories and heads of departments oversee the quality and efficiency of production, which is reported from the supervisors. Supervisors organize, direct and monitor manual labor workers in their duties. Manual labor workers attempt to create products at a company-desired rate and quality, while not bearing the responsibility of their overseeing their co-workers.

The third of the most important subsistence strategies used in Denmark consists of agriculture. The main products grown in The Kingdom of Denmark include: sugar beets, barely and wheat, grains, rapeseed, fruits, vegetables and flowers. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary) Agriculture is most commonly practiced by only 2.5% of the population and is normally achieved in rural areas of the country. (CIA – The World Factbook) Training apprenticeship programs and information passed down through family generations are used to teach agricultural methods. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

Some technologies used for agriculture include items such as combines, separating machinery, generators, irrigation systems, planting machinery, tractors, plows, fertilizing distributors, storage units and computers for analyzing crop quantity and quality. Irrigation systems are used to water the large expanse of crops, plows are used to till the land for preparation of planting seeds and computers are used to keep record of seasonal harvest yields and perhaps even profit margins. There are over 60,000 family-owned farms in Denmark (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary) and the division of labor is shared by the family and or corporation that own the farms along with the hired employees who are used for cleaning and fixing equipment, sorting crops, running machinery, irrigation and maintaining the health of the crops.

The family or corporation of the agricultural operation oversees the employees or hires a supervisor(s) to ensure that the agricultural laborers are working efficiently. The supervisors or owners of a farm may calculate the quantity of crop and the value it yields per season. The agricultural land owners or supervisors also may keep track of the laborers improvement or lack of effort on the job. The farm laborers will tend to any manual labor that the agricultural operation needs completed while only having to be responsible for their individual production. The division of labor in agriculture is based mostly on skill, seniority and ownership.

The fourth most important subsistence strategy in Denmark is pastoralism of which is included in the 2.5% of the nation’s population that maintains a career in agriculture. (CIA – The World Factbook) The animal goods raised and produced in the Kingdom of Denmark include: canned ham, butter, cheese, fish oil, fish meal and milk through the use of fish hatcheries and typically family-owned farms. As in the agricultural subsistence strategy, pastoralism is either passed down through families or learned through an apprenticeship training program. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary) Some tools used for pastoralism include: fences, watering/feeding troughs, barns, herding rods, milking machines, slaughtering equipment, medical tools, labels, hoof clippers, lead ropes, halters, hoses, generators, heaters and computers.

Fences are used to keep the livestock confined to a desired location, animals are put in barns to protect them from predators and the occasional harsh outdoor elements and heaters may be used in the barns to keep a sustained temperature that is more suitable for the livestock’s health. As in the agricultural subsistence strategy in Denmark, the division of labor amongst workers in pastoralism is based on skill level, seniority and ownership. For example, the owner of a herd of swine may hire a supervisor or herd manager in order to keep track of the manual laborers and also the efficiency of herd quality, health and maintenance. The owner of the swine operation may calculate yearly profits, upkeep costs and decide what to pay employees based on their skill levels. The employees without management skills, the hired hands or basic herd tenders will be responsible only for the safety, feeding and order of their set group of livestock that they are to have authority over.

Denmark has a centralized political organization and maintains a constitutional monarchy as a political model. A constitutional monarchy can only be led by offspring of the current king or queen after he or she is deceased. It is a requirement for the king or queen of Denmark to be a member of the national church. A single-chamber parliamentary runs hand-in-hand with the constitutional monarchy. The prime minister, currently known as Lars Lokke Rasmussen, leads Denmark’s political organization with the indirect support of all 179 parliament members and direct assistance from the cabinet ministers who lead numerous political departments throughout the nation. Voting age in Denmark is 18 and all parliament members are elected for a term of 4 years, unless state minister forces a new election before the 4 years is completed. It is the duty of the members of parliament to come to consensus on decisions to enact or not enact new legislation and the duty of the prime minister to carry the decision to action, however new legislation cannot be enacted fully until Queen Margrethe II writes her finalizing signature on it. There are typically around 12 political parties that make up the single-chamber parliamentary system of the Danes. The top 2 of these major political parties consist of Social Democrats and Liberals-a right-of-centre part. Social Democrats seem to be the most popular considering the fact that they are tied heavily to the belief that all Danish citizens should be granted security by maintaining the comforts of social-welfare programs, but of course, these are safety features only made possible by very high taxes to the Danish people. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

The royal constitutional monarchy headed by Queen Margrethe II has control of the executive powers, while legislative powers are for the most part, granted to the parliament and judicial powers are carried out by the courts of Denmark. Denmark’s military branches include: a home guard, an air force, a navy and a national rescue corps. Military members are usually enlisted for 4 months to a year of service. During war times, the Danish military acquires 58,000 members, but during peace times, there are roughly fifteen thousand participating members. The Danish military ranks are usually based on mandatory enrollment in order to be ready when an emergency arises.

Denmark’s police force has about 10,000 law enforcement officers who are known for their more civilized, calmer approaches to domestic disputes by using advanced communication skills and maintaining close, positive relationships with the overall communities they work in. (HOG, ERLING, and HELLE JOHANNESSEN)

One form of internal political control in Denmark is the enforcement of laws through the judiciary court systems. Although, crime in Denmark is very low and it is not normal for a Dane to even consider breaking the basic laws of the land. An example of externalized political control would be the decision of the Danish Parliament to not accept the Euro as Denmark’s new currency, even though Denmark is a member of the European Union. Internalized political responsibilities of Denmark’s parliament involve the maintenance of social welfare programs that protect all Danish citizens regardless of socioeconomic status. The externalized responsibility of the parliament consists of maintaining peaceful political connections with the European Union and other nations in regards to preserving a secure way of life for its citizens and also keeping a cohesive relationship with national allies for added protection. After all, Denmark is a very small nation and it would be beneficial to preserve as much peace with as many nations as possible. (Bendure, Glena, and Ned Friary)

The economic system of Denmark is based on negative reciprocity due to the use of capitalism throughout the nation. Capitalism is used by the Danes to generate profit through sales of products from private businesses and corporations to customers. Redistribution is also used throughout the Danish culture in the form of health care and educational needs. Danish pay high taxes that allow them to enjoy the freedoms of free health care and education of any type. This allows the Danish citizens to give and take as they need, for example, all citizens are taxed regardless of how much income they generate, but it is possible that not all of them will use the free education opportunities or the free health care services during their lifetimes. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

Market exchange is also used through capitalism in Denmark in regards to having the freedom to set up a private business and gain profit from it without limit, which is a prime example of capitalistic market exchange. Denmark uses both socialism and capitalism, but the predominant economic system would have to be capitalism. This is true, because Danes are free to pursue their own interests through careers that will allow them to generate profit without limit to the individual. Although, socialism is prevalent in the way Denmark controls and maintains social welfare for the citizens in order to provide free and easily accessible, equal-quality health care and education to all Danish citizens regardless of social or economic status, gender, religion or ethnicity. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

The primary economic sector, which involves extraction of resources form the land, also known as mainly agriculture in Denmark, makes up 2.5% Danish employment. (CIA – The World Factbook) A few of Denmark’s exports consist of canned ham, butter, cheeses, beer and processed fish products of which are brought forth through agriculture, pastoralism and industry. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary) The nation’s secondary economic sector, which involves processing of goods, also known as industry makes up 20.2% of the Danish workforce. (CIA – The World Factbook) Denmark manufactures machinery, chemicals, furniture, electronics of which are exported all over the world. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary) The tertiary economic sector, which involves services, makes up 77.3% of the working Danish population. (CIA – The World Factbook)

A few of Denmark’s popular service industry jobs are found in the fields of architecture, nursing, teaching, physics, environmental science, literature and social sciences. Denmark enjoys the highest Gross Domestic Product in Europe and maintains one of the highest standards of living for its citizens compared to all nations in the world. Unemployment is very low and over half the country is employed with the reassurance that health care and education will not be a challenge to pay for. Denmark relies heavily on the income from its exports and puts a great deal of value on maintaining its social welfare programs. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

Denmark’s most common religious organization is Evangelical Lutheran, of which over 90% of Danish citizens belong to. Evangelical Lutheran is a denomination that is part of a national church, supported by the state called the Danish People’s Church. Only about 5% of Danish people actually attend church weekly; most Danes only participate in church services during important religious holidays such as Christmas or Easter. Evangelical Lutheranism is a monotheistic religion, which means that they worship only one god. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

Other religious organizations that exist in Denmark consist of Catholicism, Judaism and Islam, which also practice monotheism. Also, a small percentage practice forms of religious organizations such as Buddhism, Sikhism and Hinduism, which promote polytheism, the worship of many gods. It is ironic that the overall Danish society does not have a strong faith in the god or gods of their religious choice, yet at birth most of the country is automatically enrolled as a member of the national church, also known as the Danish People’s Church. Their enrollment is expected unless they belong to a religion other than Evangelical Lutheran. It is a requirement that the current king or queen of Denmark be a member of the Evangelical Lutheran religious organization. (HOG, ERLING, and HELLE JOHANNESSEN)

Danish churches are typically located in close proximity to all Danish towns and are encompassed by graveyards. Evangelical Lutheran religious organizations have sermons and worship in churches on Sundays. Their ceremonies include a minister, a servant, an organist and a cantor. Evangelical Lutheran important ritualistic ceremonies include: weddings, confirmations, funerals and baptisms. It is expected that most Danish churches have fairly low attendance rates during Sunday services. (HOG, ERLING, and HELLE JOHANNESSEN)

Throughout the Danish social organization, monogamy, the practice of marriage to single spouse, is the most accepted and nationally predominant form of union. Marriage is important in regards to the most common form of religion in Denmark, Evangelical Lutheranism, yet because Danes are not known for being highly involved in the practices of their religious organizations, there is a loose view on marriage and when it should be chosen, if at all. It is common for a Dane to cohabitate for years, have offspring and not be married until many years after. Therefore, it is not uncommon for Danish households to have illegitimate children born outside of wedlock. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

If Danes do decide to marry, it is usually not until they are in their very late twenties or early thirties. Danes do not participate in arranged marriages, an event where parents choose a marriage partner for offspring, instead, single Danes choose their own marriage partners through the anthropological term love match. Endogamy, marriage created within one’s own organized cultural group, is practiced in Denmark as well as exogamy, marriage outside one’s own organized cultural group. Most often, Danes marry other Danes of their own ethnicity, yet those who choose to marry outside of Denmark or one’s ethnicity is not condemned within the Danish societal organization. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

Post-marital residence, pertaining to where a bride and groom reside after their marriage ceremony, only pertains to the Danish societal organization in the sense that marriage partners typically practice neolocal forms. A neolocal form of post-marital residence can be defined as the event of taking residence in a home that is set apart from the married couple’s families. Other forms of post-marital residence, such as patrilocal, the act of a married couple living close to or with the married male’s family of his father, or matrilocal, the practice of both marriage partners residing with or in close proximity to the married female’s family of her mother, are not commonly practiced. Marriage in modern Denmark societal organization, is not required, nor is it a high priority. (HOG, ERLING, and HELLE JOHANNESSEN)

Therefore, post-marital residence is not of great importance, It is only on a neolocal sense, considering that Danes learn to be very independent at a very early age, while maintaining a close-knit family on an emotional level. The most important family type for Danes is the nuclear families containing dependent children, a wife and a husband. Even though the idea of marriage in the Danish societal organization is very loose and laid-back, out of all couples living together in Denmark, most of them are in fact married. Extended family, consisting of aunts, uncles, cousins, grandparents and other individuals with marriage or blood relating them, are also important, but not as high a priority as the nuclear family. Most Danish nuclear families are small, having two or less dependant offspring. Privacy is valued greatly by Danes, especially when it comes to the nuclear family’s home. It is rare for a Danish family to invite a guest to their home whom they have not known for a great while. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

Each of the nuclear family members generally has their own private room in the home along with the rooms for meeting, such as the kitchen and larger family rooms. In Denmark’s societal organization, descent is traced by using a lineage, which is used by connecting all ancestors back to a single, original ancestor. Descent in Denmark is traced in this way, because last names are important links to ancestry. Although last names are taken from the male within a married couple, patrilineal descent, tracing only by acknowledging male individuals as ancestors, is not used, because all genders are included when tracing Danish ancestry. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

When referring to kin, relatives connected by marriage or blood, Danish citizens value ties with both the mother’s and the father’s side of the family, which is called bilateral kinship. Bilateral kinship is important for Danes, because both nuclear and extended family, regardless of mother or father’s side, builds a cohesive unit of strength emotionally, sometimes financially and offers support that is not commonly expected outside of family ties. National polls and summaries do not generally include information in regards to socio-economic classes, instead Denmark’s citizens are divided up into 5 social layers. These social layers consist of subcategories within each layer. (HOG, ERLING, and HELLE JOHANNESSEN)

The first social layer consists of corporate owners, employees of the educational system and anyone that has over 50 workers. The second social layer involves academically professional owners of businesses, agricultural owners with at least 4 employees and corporate owners that have over 6 workers. The third social layer includes small business owners, individuals with employment that calls for special skills and agricultural owners with a limit of 3 workers. The fourth social layer is made up of employees containing academic training, owners of small plots of land and experienced employees. The fifth social layer consists of employees with no special skills or experience. (HOG, ERLING, and HELLE JOHANNESSEN)

Denmark, as a social organization, is very tolerant of other people’s ways of perceiving life and is considered to be outgoing and well-educated. Danes are very accepting of homosexual marriage and equality of the sexes. Denmark was the first European nation to allow for legal gay marriages within its borders offering homosexuals the majority of rights granted to straight married couples. Danes are very conscientious when it comes to preserving a clean, toxic-free environment. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

A recent news article summarizes a protest put on by Greenpeace activists at the Environment Ministry in Denmark. This article was used for this research paper, because Danes are very involved in environmental policies in regards to keeping the planet as clean and sustainable as possible. The article was personally interesting, because Denmark is one of the most environmentally conscious nations on the planet and I was curious to see how they react to the disposing of harmful waste products. The Greenpeace activists were protesting the transport of a poisonous pollutant called HCB from an Australian company named Orica. The Kommunekemi in Nyborg, Denmark is one of a small number of companies in the world that is able to incinerate the hazardous carcinogen, HCB. The Greenpeace activists argued that hazardous waste materials should be incinerated closer to the point to which they are processed. This is just one of many examples of the Danish culture’s desire for a cleaner and greener planet. (“Greenpeace Goes Aloft to Protest Transport from Down Under”)

Danes are also known to love their most famous amusement park, Tivoli. This amusement park is located in Copenhagen and is the most popular attraction in Denmark. The park was built in 1914 and maintains a decor and cuisine that is based on the historical, traditional Danish culture of the time the park first opened. Some Danes pay the park’s entry cost just to eat at a few of the thirty-seven restaurants within the park. The park has roller coasters, games, gardens and various amusements and entertainment. (“Copenhagen, Denmark”)

Danish people are in love with the concept of social gatherings combined with eating and the two almost always go hand-in-hand. It is customary for a Danish household to always have tea, chocolates, pastries and cheese just in case guests arrive unexpectedly. Their meals often consist of three or more courses and it is considered a crime to oneself to not savor and take time to enjoy one’s meal. Danes love rich, whole foods of which often include broiled or marinated fish, thick and creamy cheeses, hearty breads, substantial gravies and delectable deserts.

Hot tea is often served with milk and honey and it is customary to leave the last bit of food in a main communal dish when eating. This is a symbolic action of politeness to show that nobody is selfish or rushed during the meal. The Danish culture is known for being one of the happiest cultures on earth. They are generally friendly, warm and open to communication with strangers. Recently, Denmark has incorporated many American concepts, products, stores and fast-food conveniences into their societal organization. Unfortunately, they are also gaining a few of the health problems that are associated with the introduction of American culture into their nation. However, despite the Dane’s cultural borrowing, they still have a strong sense of uniqueness through a proud society that shows compassion for its citizens and welcomes visitors. (Waldron, Julie)

The constancy and steadiness of any economy is based on the structure of its supply and demand. The supply and demand establish the pattern of the prices and the quantities of different commodities and products in the economy. The increase and decrease in the supply and demand fluctuates the prices and the quantities of different products. The market has a certain balance between various elements and all this symmetry is affected by the variation in the pattern of supply and demand. Various replacements and substitutions play role in adjusting the balance of the market and the prices and their elasticity are also affected by these. Furthermore all this has an effect on the society.

Basically four market systems are there. Varied roles are played by the economists in different markets.

Explain what causes changes in supply and demand

A market is a place where various products are bought and sold. At times there is too much quantity of a certain good is present in the market then it is said that the supply of that good is high. When a product is produced and the capability and eagerness to sell this product is there at a certain price in a certain time period then this is known as supply of that product.

Similarly when there is a capability and eagerness to buy a certain product at a certain price in a certain period is known as the demand of that product.

The income is traded in return of various jobs and tasks. Likewise if we have a demand of any particular product we offer money in order to buy it.

Market equilibrium is basically where the demand of any product is almost equal to the supply of the product. At this stage the prices for such a product are the most suitable for it. Whereas if there is too much supply and the demand for a product is comparatively low then the consumers will pay less for that product. Similarly if there is too much demand of any product but the market has a less supply of that product then the price of such a product goes high and the buyers are willing to pay even more for it. Therefore in order to maintain the market equilibrium it is better to bring the supply equal to demand and vice versa.

Determine how changes in price and quantity influence market equilibrium

Steven Tomilison defines equilibrium (Understanding Market Equilibrium, Determining A Competitive Equilibrium, p1,) as a state where there is no propensity to change. Market equilibrium is a stage where the prices and quantity of any product remains constant and endure the pressure by the buyers and the sellers. Here the supply of a product is basically similar to the demand of the product. This equilibrium is disturbed when there because of undue pressure a change is brought about in the prices or quantity of any product. What actually happens is that there maybe less demand of a product where the sellers might bring in too much of the product in the market. Here basically there is less willingness to buy a product or the demand of that product is reduced thus affecting the prices and also reducing them. Likewise if there is too much eagerness by the buyers to buy a certain product but the suppliers bring in lesser quantity in the market this will increase the demand thus increasing the prices of that product also. This all is actually bringing a change in the prices and quantity of a product thus affecting the supply and demand and bringing a change in the market equilibrium.

This all can be stated that an increase in quantity decreases the prices whereas the decrease in quantity will increase the prices.

Describe how the necessity of a good and the availability of substitutions impact price elasticity.

Harrison (2004) defined elasticity as the flexibility to increase or decrease. When it comes to the elasticity of the prices this can be shown by a graph of price elasticity of demand or PED. This price elasticity of demand is calculated by dividing both the percentages of demand with the price. This PED is very useful. Companies are interested in them when investing in new business or starting new ventures. It gives them the idea of competitive prices and the profit margin. According to Harrison (2004) the influence or effect of the taxes and subsidies is seen by the governments by this PED. By levying more taxes on harmful products such as cigarettes or alcohol will increase its prices thus decreasing its demand. Similarly by providing a subsidy on any product will decrease the price of that product thus reducing its price and making it easier for the consumers to buy it or increased demand. Nowadays for every product there are different alternatives or substitutions present in the market. The necessity of a product will lead to finding its substitution and creates a direct relationship in them. This relationship fluctuates because of different situations and conditions of the market and the world and this is what capitalism is.

Food has been described as essential and fundamental element for life by the China Agricultural Economic Review. This review describes the relationship between the supply, demand and the prices of different products in Nigeria. The domestic food prices were increased when Nigeria faced a food shortage between 1998 and 2001. To overcome this shortage different food products and livestock was imported from other countries. This increased the prices of these food products as large import bills came along with them which added up to the prices of these products. Automatically these prices were to be endured by the consumers. This resulted in large import bills. Now the domestic food prices were already high because of the shortage the imported food prices were almost similar or even higher then those products. This all brought about the elasticity in the prices and the economy was provided with elasticity. The market would have said to be inelastic if there was no shortage and the food prices were normal and there were less imports and competition higher. http://proquest.umi.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/pqdweb?did=1657972491&sid=3&Fmt=6&clientId=13118&RQT=309&VName=PQD).

Market Systems and the Role of an Economist

There are different types of business and likewise the market systems are also of different types. As per Mankiw (2007) the market systems can be divided into four basic types, and the markets not only in US but all over the world usually fall under one or the other categories. Majority of the economists also agree with this diversification of market systems.

Monopoly is one of the market systems. As the name refers the market is dominated by a single or sole seller and usually no alternatives are present for such a product. Since there are no substitutions the competition factor is also absent. Due to the advancement in the technology and information explosion usually the monopoly of any one product is nowadays not commonly seen but still companies like cable companies, trash collectors etc. are considered to be monopolies due to the uniqueness they provide through their product or services. According to Mankiw (2007) the monopolies enjoy this state because of the low marginal value they keep.

Oligopoly is another type of market system. According to Mankiw (2007) in oligopoly there are very few sellers present in the market for a certain product and action of one at times affects others also. The profits of everyone are affected by oneaa‚¬a„?s decision. This type of competition is known as imperfect competition.

Monopolistic competition is one of the market systems. As per Mankiw (2007) in this type of market system there are sellers who sell products which may be alike but cannot be considered as identical. That is their few features may be similar but they do differ from one another in other features. Again this is a type of imperfect type of market systems where the buyers are same but the products are different.

Perfect competition is the fourth type of market system and as the name indicates that the competition in this type of market system is perfect. The product is absolutely same but there are a number of sellers present in the market. The competition here is too high because of the number of sellers and the price of the product is usually very near to the cost of the product. It is difficult for the sellers to gain a good margin out of such type of a market.

One business can only be successful if it copes up well with the type of market system it enters. Good economists tend to understand the demand of the market system. They are well aware of the cost of the production and make efforts to offer better then its competitors. The buyers are always looking for the best with the most cost effective price. In order to earn the most of the market share one has to cut down its prices to the lowest then only it can compete successfully.

Conclusion

Thus the price of the product, the product itself, its buyers and sellers are the factors that affect the supply and demand of a product. The decision of the buyers regarding the quantity and their purchase is very much dependent on the price of the product. They are always willing to pay for quality but it is essential that it should be affordable for them. The increase in supply is because of too much quantity of a product present in the market, similarly the demand increases when there is not enough of the product present in the market. The price elasticity is also dependent on the importance of a good and the competition present for that good.

In explaining how we evolve into truly human beings, Symbolic Interactionism concentrates on our adaptation to the social world around us, its symbols and meanings, and the need to ‘read’ each other. Explain the Symbolic Interactionist model.

Symbolic interactionism is one of the major theoretical perspectives in social science. It was Max Weber and George H. Mead who emphasised the importance of subjective meaning of human behaviour. Mead drew on pragmatist ideas to construct a social theory that stressed the communication of meaning through interaction. Symbolic Interactionism examines specific social phenomena’s such as crime, educational underachievement and collective representations, to help explain such complex issues in a rational and relatable manor.

Interactionist’s focus on the subjective features of social life, as opposed to objective and macro-structural aspects, as the theory is based on that of individual human beings, rather than society as a whole. Unlike what Behaviourist theory suggests, humans do no react automatically to ‘stimuli’, it is but a process of definition and interpretation. It is the active involvement of practical knowledge which separates humans from animals.

Humans are seen as ‘pragmatic actors’ who must adjust their behaviour (or script) to fit the appropriate actions of others. “In order to understand the action of people, it is necessary to identify their world of objects” (Blumer, 1969, p11) The actor firstly indicates objects in their environment which are regarded as meaningful and secondly, combines objects in an appropriate way and constructs symbolically. This process of adjustment is supported by the ability to ‘imaginatively rehearse’ alternative lines of action prior to acting and the capability to react to one self as a symbolic object. Thus, the theory suggests humans are active participants who construct their own social world, as opposed to passive, docile objects of society (Introduction to Mead [Online] 2010). Role taking is the key means of interaction as it permits an individual to take another’s perspective. Mead held that “it is the ability of the person to put himself in other people’s places that gives him the cues as to what he is to do under a specific situation” (Scott, 1995, p105-106). It helps individuals perceive what actions might be to others with whom they interact. As well as taking attitudes of a specific other, individuals also reflects the attitude of the ‘generalised other’. Through socialisation, it is possible to internalise an organised response so every individual is able to respond in the same way. Through the internalisation of these attitudes of the generalised other, the human mind is structured socially in order to become a valid member of society (Scott, 1995).

Erving Goffman, a prominent social theorist, discusses roles dramaturgically, using an analogy to the theatre, with human social behaviour seen as more or less well scripted and with humans as role-taking actors. Goffman elaborated mead’s work, he suggested that social life must be seen as a theoretical performance in which people give creative interpretations of their ‘rules’. They also use props and scenery to support the impression of their character they seek to convey to others. Self presentations is only shown in a public setting, in the domestic world (backstage) individuals prepare for their next role. Self presentation is manipulated for the audience and self conceptions are shaped by attitudes and reactions of others. Organisational routines are employed to repress and control individuals and lead to definite shifts in self identity.

Role making, too, is also an important mechanism of interaction. All situations are essentially vague, thus requiring individuals to create those circumstances and roles to some extent before they can act. The majority of personalities are determined by the response to appearance, speech, actions, beliefs and so on. The reflections people gain from particular impressions are influenced by an exchange of symbols. Cooley’s theory of ‘The Looking Glass Self’ suggests that individuals develop a self image, and can assess the judgement or critique of others regarding their own appearance (Cooley’s Looking Glass Self [Online] 2010).

Language plays a central role of symbolic construction, “it does not simply symbolise a situation or object which is already there in advance; it makes possible the existence or the appearance of that situation or object, for it is a part of the mechanism whereby that situation or object is created (Scott, 1995, p102) Actors interpret other people by their actions of communication and the significance is constructed through this. It therefore takes a form of a ‘conversation of gestures’, whereby behaviour is a direct stimulus to the behaviour of others. This behaviour becomes symbolic when it is ascribed to, this becomes basis of action. “Gestures become significant symbols when they implicitly arouse in the individual making them the same response which they explicitly arouse, or are supposed to arouse, in other individuals… to whom they are addressed” (Scott, 1995, 103) Gestures become symbols within specific groups, but each individual participates in universal gestures, which are understood by that nation. Blumer stressed that definitions form an accepted stock of knowledge which is acquired through socialisation. The culture in which an individual is brought up in provides guidelines of how to act in given situations, through means of language and gestures, this enables people to act alike. Actors rely on these accepted interpretations in order to maintain social relations. Ethnomethodology is a product of symbolic interactionism, which focuses on how day-to-day experiences and how they contribute to our ‘social reality’. The term was originally coined by Harold Garfinkel, who investigated this phenomenon by setting up ‘breeching experiments’, in which ordinary conversations were brought to a sudden close by refusing to conform to the regular pattern of speech, making those who took part in the conversation confused and even angry.

Scheff suggested consensual collective representations exist where there is agreement of a given situation. There is an infinite series of ‘reprocated understandings’. In some situations there is limited guidance, but in rapid changing circumstances, new interpretations should be arrived at, a respected/consensual agreement should be achieved. Symbolic Interactionism adopts a stance of ‘methodological individualism’ as the theory suggests the social process is an outcome of individual action which doesn’t relate to social structures, however, it doesn’t rule out collective action. Blumer argues its importance in order for social roles such as; families, friendships, businesses and political parties to function correctly. Actors still assume that social institutions remain relevant to their actions, as educational, occupational and political outlets stand on principles of consensual grounds. Any breech of the accepted norms, produced by these outlets, will meet with a specific response, be it classed minor (usually by small groups such as friends and family) or major (by the general public) Individuals anticipate the likely reactions of others, which, in turn, constrain their actions. (Symbolic Interactionism [Online] 2010)

Criminal behaviour, like any other behaviour, is learnt through the process of interaction. Criminals have been likely to be involved in subcultures that encourage typical deviant attributes, such as theft, illegal drug taking and vandalism. Involvement in these groups may lead the individual to believe this activity is in some ways ‘normal’. Individuals act in accord with their norms of small social groups, if they are not educated in ways of the larger society, this could lead to crime. Mead suggests, “a criminal is the individual who lives in a very small group and then makes depredations upon the larger community of which he is not a member. He is taking the property that belongs to others, but he himself does not belong to the community that recognizes and preserves the rights of property” (Smith, 1995, p106). Becker suggests deviance is not an attribute of an individual, but as a definition, or label which is applied, “social groups create deviance by making the rules and applying those rules to a particular behaviour” (Scott, 1995, p106). The ‘audience’ judge criminals by their preferred opinions, and what is classified as the norms and values of that given culture. If an individual is ‘labelled’ a delinquent, it may become a self-fulfilling prophecy, leading to adopt a criminal lifestyle.

Schools play a vital role in shaping the way individuals see themselves and even reality. Many Interactionists’ have argued that the authoritarianism which is present in schools hinders learning and encourages autocratic behaviour in later life. The education system can create serious problems for students who are ‘labelled’, such as low academic achievers and classroom troublemakers, who are driven by low expectations of their teacher and in turn, tend to perform less well. These students may never be able to see themselves as good students and move beyond these labels. If students are made to feel like high achievers, they will act like high achievers.

The Symbolic Interactionist theory gives a huge contribution to the social world, however, it is often criticised for being overly generalisable in their research methods and somewhat unsystematic in their theories. Interactionist’s conception of social integration gives only a partial view of collective agencies. Formations of small groups such as political parties and business enterprises are recognised, but not so much explained. Social institutions for Mead and Blumer exist only in the minds of individuals, they may constrain some individual action, but only in so far as individuals take account of them and act accordingly. These objections, combined with the fairly narrow focus of research on small-group interactions and other social psychological issues, have relegated the Interactionist camp to a minority position among sociologists, although a fairly substantial minority. It is clear that the nature of human interaction cannot simply be underpinned with such a generalised view, there is no exact determinate of social life and how individuals react towards each other in relation to larger structures, only a subjective outline of what some individuals believe to be true.

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Working in an animal shelter is a good experience where one is educated on how to take care of animals. Though I believe it is the responsibility of the government to ensure that animal rights are respected and observed by all, it is my responsibility too to take care of animals that I am in contact with. It is with humble care that the Humane Animal Control Project was set up in the United States. The project was to protect movements of owned dogs and cats by private owners and those that were kept in the animal shelters. The government also has the responsibility of taking care of its citizens. It is entitled to supports the available animal shelters in making sure that animal movement are controlled and regularly checked. It has been observed that uncontrolled animals pose a threat to human beings. The animals act as transmitters of health hazards such as spread of rabies or a bite.

The implementation of the project was done in accordance to the objectives of the animal shelter. It focused to ensure that health of citizens and animals were observed and taken care of. The project also included ways in which animals could be controlled so that they could not stray around and transmits the Zootomic diseases, destroy well laid garbage and spread litters over the area. The project also mentions ways of licensing privately owned cats and dogs and providing shelter to uncared animals. In the United States, the private humane societies collaborate with the local government to perform these services to animal owners.

When you work in an animal shelter, you have to devote all your time, energy and money in to dealing with the animals in the shelter. The exercise involves protecting the animals and providing for them ‘humanely’. Humanely providence means providing proper medical care, food, good housing, controlling spread of diseases, establishing an active adoption programmes and providing exercise to the animals in care.

Observing the above is one of the attributes of a good animal caretaker and this was one area that I loved getting involved with. It has been observed that cats and dogs are sociable animals and so they deserve the best care and loving homes. One of the many responsibilities that I attended to while in the animal shelter was to ensure that the animals were sprayed and segregated so as to control their breeding in the house. It was a rule that all animals be neutered and sprayed before they left the shelter for a new home or given to adoption. Together with the humane society of United States, we focused on providing humane education to the community, developed animal control programs in the community, established and enforced laws that offered protection to the animals and lastly established animal clinics that provided services at low costs.

Working in the animal shelter needs a lot of patience and courage. Just like the human beings, animals too fall sick and it doesn’t matter which area you are working within the shelter, you just have to take care of an animal that is sick. Doing this work is unpleasant but with time you learn to persevere until the animal is back to normal. There was this one special lady who was an animal technician. The lady had been informed about the job by one of her friends meaning she never had an idea of what the job was all about. Although she had never thought of working in such a place in the past, she is glad that she found that place. Sometimes she had to sleep near the animals so as to keep an eye on them, when they were sick. When asked to talk about the hard times she had in the animal shelter, she didn’t have a ready answer, noting that she enjoyed her work and the environment she was working in. Her statement was that if you never loved staying with people or being close to animals then you won’t manage the job. She insisted that animals too have feelings and have to be communicated to because they cannot speak.

The main aim of the project raised by the animal shelter is to provide its cats and dogs with some social network. The animal shelter will try to raise some amount so as to ensure that the animals are well provided with the needed services and care. It expects to raise $30,000 through fundraising and asking for grants from other established organizations in the United States. At the moment, the shelter obtains funding in the additional projects that are set up by it although it survives through all this on a tax -based funding.

The significant project also aims at raising enough cash to build enough cages for the cats to play around and interact freely. It also aims at finding a suitable area that can be used by the community for walking their dogs and playing with them just outside the shelter. Leslie (2003) indicates that enough interaction between the animal and the human beings makes the animals sharp and provides greater chances for them to be adopted.

As I look back I cannot help to think about this one significant experience. I was told to organize a show that would teach the community to appreciate dogs and treating them well. The show was to feature on the importance of animal shelters by demonstrating how animal sheltered dogs can be used to find drugs, explosives or anything that might be of interest of police. The guests were to be shown how trained dogs can be of help to both the state and individual as well. Our objective from the show was that if anyone thought of getting a dog by adoption, and then were to get it from the animal shelters.

A dog’s statistics carried out indicated that over three million dogs in the United States were euthanized (deliberately killed in a painless death). It further indicated that the unwanted dogs were usually either killed through this way or killed ruthlessly which was against the law of the state. Most of the killings were observed to be due to unacceptable behaviors that could be avoided. The show was to instill the notion that when a dog is well trained and provided for, it forms a great companion to the man as it exhibit a social behavior as a pet cat. Most of the citizens in the community had the mentality that the dogs that are in the animal shelter have some problems and that’s why they were thrown out of their original homes.

The show exhibited how the rejected dogs after undergoing through the training, had become clean and dependable. An example of such a dog was ‘Conny’ which was found shaggy, dirty and thin. The dog had been left abandoned tied to a tree in the forest. In the show, the dog trotted alongside its trainer wagging its tail from end to end. It had fluffy skin that was pleasing to touch and look at. The guests were so pleased with the sight of the dogs and most of them adopted the dogs out of pleasure. Before giving off the dogs for adoption, we sprayed and neutered them as a standard shelter policy. The experience was so encouraging and pleasing because it taught me the need of patience and perseverance.

The experience at the show also taught me that not many people in the United States were knowledgeable about how to keep dogs and cats. Most of them rejected them yet they are among the most humbled animals that can be easily tamed by anyone including a child. The experience also taught me that being a caretaker at the animal shelter needs you to be sensitive, calm have good communication skills, strength and ability to solve a problem immediately. These qualities are essential to anyone working with the animals in that they can be able to interpret how the animals respond to various environments.

The course work done indicates that cats and dogs are social animals and they therefore need to be treated with care at all times. They have feelings that need to be catered for just like the human beings. It also portrays that when such animals are treated well, they become the best companion to human beings as they respond to the way they are treated. The workers in an animal shelter have to wash and play with the animals when they in the shelter, clean the cages, feed them accordingly, keep their records safely and lastly they have the responsibility of screening all those people that are interested in adopting their animals.

Government agencies and animal shelters are seen to control the problem of animal overpopulation and mistreatments. Creative strategies have been implemented by the community members to ensure that animals are not euthanized but instead taken to the care shelters for training and upkeep. Statistics indicate that the people who work in the animal shelters are usually exposed to various injuries and most of them work overtime to see that the animals are in good condition. Those who have passion for animals get the satisfaction from working in the shelter but those who do not have the love for animals, find it hard to cope up with the encounters while they are at work. The statistics further indicated that the workers exhibited a higher illness rate compared to the others who were not working in such a field. Most of the injuries are obtained because the job entails kneeling, crawling, lifting heavy substances such as feeds and repeated bending. They are therefore cautioned to take a lot of care when they are treating the animals. Those travelling to shows might be exposed t bad weather conditions that might be harmful to their health.

The experienced affirmed that animals are social creatures and that they should be treated just like normal human beings. It also depicted that they are affected by the environment they are exposed to. It indicates that owners have the choice of looking for a care taker who can look after their animals when they are at work. In the above experience (while working on a project in the animal shelter), it is evident that the learning objectives were achieved. I learnt that animals have important traits such the human beings and they depend on us to live a quality life. They adapt easily to an environment they are exposed to.

It has been observed that leaders have a special impacts in our lives as they give or show direction towards something in life. Leadership therefore can be described to be a social process that entails one person using the help of others to arrive to a common goal or objective. The lesson learnt in this course shows that leadership can also be observed in animals’ social life. Different animals can be used to indicate this. Leadership also entails using intelligence to manage others that are under your care. According to James (2003), it has an important role in influencing the role of others by taking charge of them.

It is also observed that animals posses leadership when they influence groups by showing examples for them to follow. An example of such an illustration is when they migrate in a group. Usually the movement decisions are made by the leaders of the group who are usually seen to be at the front of the other as they move. This movement always depends with the communication skills of the leaders to the others. From the above experiment, it has been depicted that animals are social beings that can be influenced by the social nature of the human beings. According to Haralambos and Holborn (2004), Social change means an alteration to the social nature of a certain social group. The change can be in the form of behavior, social institution or relations of a certain social group. Social change in animals is depicted when animals interact and adapt to behavior they are exposed to. Social change in animal usually is influenced by the way they are treated by those taking care of them.

Forms of social change are depicted when one is able to work in a situation that was seen to be impossible in the first time. This can be illustrated by the above example where I had to work with the animals though initially I did not have an interest in them. A social change is also depicted when the stray animal are taken care of by the care takers at the animal shelter. An unwanted animal that had unacceptable behaviors changed to being an animal that can be kept at home as a pet after taken through in the animal shelter. The above is seen to be possible in animals because they have been proved to be social beings that copy what they have been taught to do by their leaders (trainers).