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DEFINING THE FAMILY: A family is a social unit made up of father, mother brothers and sisters. All these members play a very important role while living together, sharing problems with one another at the time of help. Love is the most important element in a family among these members without love and happiness these pillars of family has not the ability to stay longer and be with one another for a longer period of time.

THE CENTRAL POSITION OF THE FAMILY IN SOCIETY:

In order for the family to meet a child’s psychological needs, its members must be nurturing, convey mutual respect, provide for intimacy, and engage in bonding and attachment. The family also socializes the child, guiding the child to be members of the society beyond the family. The family conveys religious and cultural beliefs and traditions to the next generation. The family is the child’s source of economic resources, which meet the child’s various physical needs for food, shelter, and clothing. Then, too, the family sees to it that the child receives health and dental care. The family also teaches morals and values to a child.

WHY THE FAMILY IS THEORETICALLY SIGNIFICANT:

Family is the most important unit of society and plays an essential role in fulfilling the emotional and physical needs of individuals, which is required for achieving economic and social development”. But for a family to succeed it doesn’t necessarily need to be a “nuclear” family, it needs support in caring for its family. If a society is at war, is suffering severe weather such as droughts, is made up of people living primarily in poverty, is a society with a high illiteracy rate, or is experiencing overwhelming negative health conditions such as AIDS, of course any family will be negatively affected.

MEDIA ARTICLE 1:

Work, Family, and Religion in Contemporary Society.

By: Nason-Clark, Nancy

Publication: Sociology of Religion

Date: Sunday, September 22 1996

In the opening essay to Work, family, and religion in contemporary society, authors Ammerman and Roof claim that “the days when business could ignore families and churches could take them for granted are over.” Each of the contributors to this volume grapple with some facet of the dilemma facing

Religion and religious organizations as they attempt to minister effectively to diversified and changing family forms. The book is organized into two sections: assessing the links among religion, family, and work, and exploring emerging patterns for responding to the contemporary needs of individuals and family units.

Essays by Penny Long Marler, and Wade Clark Roof and Lyn Gesch, examine the link between traditional family forms and religious institutions. Marler demonstrates how mainline churches have been able to keep their “market share” of both husband-wife-plus-children families and the elderly, but have lost ground with younger singles and those in nontraditional households. Interestingly, she examines the process by which church programs for children and the youth are “staffed” and supported by older church members who remember with fondness their own participation in the life of the church as a family unit. Roof and Gesch note that attitudes in support of families participating in religion together occur most strongly amongst those who have the traditional family structure to match.

Several essays examine the relationships among religion, gender, and paid employment: both Lyn Gesch and Charles Hall explore the inter- and intra-personal dynamics impacting upon women’s employment status. Each of these chapters draws attention to the importance of gender images and gender expectation as women determine their role in the modern world. Using NORC data from 1972-1990, Bradley Hertel offers a detailed examination of religiosity and labor force participation among men and women. He concludes that by far the most significant challenge to organized religion lies in the work-related declines in membership and attendance attributable to the full-time employment of married women.

Part Il of this collection invites the reader to consider some of the implications of changing family constellations for religious groups. Chapters by Don Browning and Joseph Reiff consider the more particular religious or ethical ramifications of the trends documented in the earlier data-based chapters. In an especially insightful essay by Cheryl Townsend Gilkes, the relationship between church and family is examined within the African-American experience. Claiming that it is possible to interpret the history of the African-American experience as a “succession of dislocations affecting the relationship between work and family,” she argues that it is in the construction of alternatives for survival and growth that the current mission of black churches is best understood.

Choosing innovation at the personal level can involve substantial cost, but it also offers opportunities for immense rewards. Mary Johnson details the difficult choices some defense workers face as they struggle to reconcile their work experiences with their faith perspectives, and eventually decide role-exit is their option of choice. On the other hand, William and Sylvia Johnson Everett explore patterns of work and family among couples who decide to merge their familial and employment lives and “work together.”

Small groups, or the home cell ministry, are an innovation that Stuart Wright believes has the potential to bring vitality and renewal to both mainstream and conservative churches alike. Bill D’Antonio traces the growth and development of Intentional Eucharistic Communities (IECs) that have emerged within and kept rather close links with the Roman Catholic tradition while Mary Jo Neitz looks at the construction of women’s rituals within “Limina,” a group loosely linked with Roman Catholic women, but clearly outside the boundaries of mainstream Catholicism.

This collection of essays has something to offer just about any scholar interested in the issues raised by work, family, and religion in modern society. For the empirically sophisticated, there are chapters that tease apart the nuances of religious participation, employment status, gender, and parenthood. For those preferring narratives of the linkages between work and family, or case studies documenting the choices ordinary men and women make, there are several rich accounts of the process by which one’s religious ideology intertwines with one’s familial and work settings. Moreover, other chapters offer a more passioned plea for a return to the strong bond between family and faith.

Without a religious institutions have been called upon to respond to the changes impacting families across the nation. The editors have pulled together a wide array of scholars to document the dilemmas facing churches and families of faith as we move towards the 21st century. For the most part, the chapters are clear and concise and though there is some unevenness in quality and scope, readers will not be disappointed. There is much in this volume to satisfy both the seasoned scholar and the undergraduate student.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS:

The concept of work family and religion is linked with one another in a sense that a person work for his/her life to live, move in society to improve his/her life style in life only because of work, a person can earn can live a better life of his/her own choice in society.

In case of family it also plays a very important role in society because a person in this world wishes to succeed his/her family in society to get fame in society. Means that both work and family have very close relationship with one another.

In case of religion, it has a much broader view from each person or family point of perspective because every one wants to give importance to God to prayers or to church to get through the line of success in life. Letaa‚¬a„?s take the example of a Muslim point of view about their religion Islam. They have a strong belief that asking from God by fulfilling the needs of prayers in order to get success in life because they believed that God come first then the idea of work and family all these things are based on God, if God will be happy we can easily achieve all these things in life. Same is the case with Christianity and Christianaa‚¬a„?s point of view about Jesus that by going to the church regularly saying their prayers share the good and bad things such as ideas/sins with a priest in order to change their bad deeds into good ones they have to ask from Jesus in order to get success. I am not referring towards the idea that hard working is not important and justly saying prayers either in the mosques or in the church for earning or success in life for all there things it is necessary to have some ability to be educated and work hard in life not just by wasting their time in rubbish things. So here in the idea to be educated a baby is not born with idea of education from his/her childhood he/she learn a lot from society people in their surroundings from parents so his/ her foundation is based on family and that family is then linked up with society.

The media raised the above specified issue in article 1, because they actually want to show a comparison of the importance of work, religion and family in the past and in the present. In the past people used to gave a lot of importance to work, daily business in their lives, religion i.e. the role played by religion in the lives of people but in all this process they ignored the importance of family that why family is important , or why it is important to give more importance to family in life. But now according to the present time churches want to gave more importance to family as well as work and religion because according to their point of views family is also very important because the preaching of religion and churches are only for society, and what constitutes a society the people who are living in that society , the role played by families in a society and in families the role played by elders, so according to some churches that it is important to give more importance to the role played by elders in a society because they fulfill all the criteriaaa‚¬a„?s of family in life, but this view is contradicted by some churches that it is important that elders play a very important role in a family but along with elders the younger ones i.e. the siblings in a family means that the young minds in a family are also of great importance because the whole generation depends on the young minds in a family so if the young minds will not be fresh and have the complete opportunities in life for the exploration of new ideas and concepts then in that case such type of family will not be considered as the good family in society.

MEDIA ARTICLE 2:

Address (URL):

http://www.lib.mq.edu.au/e-access/document.php?save=1HYPERLINK “http://www.lib.mq.edu.au/e-access/document.php?save=1&eid=52052?&HYPERLINK “http://www.lib.mq.edu.au/e-access/document.php?save=1&eid=52052?eid=52052

CRITICAL ANALYSIS:

In the past aboriginal family life style was very simple. They gave more importance to family. In their families they have father, mother brother and sister. They were all linked with one another because of love. They have great sympathy and heart full of emotions for one another. They were badly discriminated by the white people, because of their dark skin they were not respected in a society among the white people. The white people were used to rape their woman their woman was not respected like the white people woman.

When the children were born they were brutally snatched from their parents. Children were also not comfortable in the field of education. They were not provided as much educational facilities like the white people. They were not provided of basic things in life like the white people.

When ever a baby was born in their families not of dark skin so they were snatched by the white people so before they were carried away by them their families used to hide them from their cruel hands.

This is true that the dark skin people have strong family views. They have their own family values, rules and regulation for spending their lives, but their ideas were not fully developed about the idea of success in life. They were not completely aware about the true meaning of life that to work hard in order to improve their standard of living in life. They used to live in caves and like to prefer the forests for their places of living. When the white people came at that time they have not strong and clear views about the idea of family, they were completely unaware of this thing the used to live together without getting married having children without any sort of strong relationship. They were more concerned with the idea of drugs and alcohol as compared to dark people, who in the beginning were completely unaware of using drugs in their lives. The white people induce this habit in them.

This article is written to highlight the positive aspects of aboriginal families, that the concept of family is very strong among them in a sense that they give more importance to the members in their families such as more respect to their elders, respect their decisions, great love for their younger ones. According to this article the writer trying to convince that it is true that there are some negative aspects among the family lives of aboriginal people but along with some negative aspects they have some positive aspects too.

For fulfilling the needs of negative aspects of aboriginal families government has to play a very important role such that the school curriculum must be designed in a way that children from aboriginal families must also take some advantage in the field of education because the community must be best identified through the importance of education in that particular community that either the ratio of people regarding education is raising in that particular community or not and if raised then get to know that up to which extent it has been raised. Through this process aboriginal families can be considered as the respectable families in society as compared to other communities.

REFRENCES:

Clark, Nason. & Nancy. (1996). Work, Family, and Religion in Contemporary Society. Sociology of Religion

Walker, Y. (1993). “Aboriginal family issues”. Family Matters, 35, 51-53.

Skolnick, Arlene S., & Skolnick, Jerome H. (2009). Family in Transition. New York: Pearson Education

This report covers many areas in health care and the responsibility of meadia.This focuses on the aspect that media plays a major role in Health and social care. Also individual responsibility too should be adhered too. Thus when divulging and printing or putting any thing on the mass media, each person ahs to be knowledgably taking in the responsibility of such issues because greater damage can be caused to society. So intellectuality is the most important factor in this plus each and every one should be responsible.

Explain how information relating to social and health care gives to raise to issues of concern to the public

How information related in health and social care

There are more ways to presenting information in the word. But relating to the peasant information is like health care, social, Adult, War related wise can be categorized .because all the information public focus is on some sectors. In the society, social and health care information is important. Because it’s direct effects are on the publicly in society. Ex: Some information coming to “To be care of some diseases. “This is directly effect in the public society. Need to be consider the peasant it in very secure and accurate way and also need to has consider as below attribute if the new or information.

Trust of data (Ex: data in the based on the news need to be true. before publishing have to check that sauce )/ Quality

Truly information sauces as its coming

Security of the information

Effectiveness can be categorized its Danger information, General advice..etc

Related society like adult, child, related workers..wise

Current situation in country (Ex: consider the country weather some disease is growing need to be inform in publicly its carefulness)

Consider the approval and the validation from related professionals

Emergency to be publish

Different technique for presenting information in media

In the media of presenting information is using several ways. Television, internet, radio, newspapers, Public advertisement, posters, banner and cutouts..Etc. based on these methods to be used some have a Audio and visualization some methods have only visualization or audio technique.tecghniq should be depend on the using media type. At the information presenting wise can be used as fallowing technique.

(Figure 1.0 Media and technique can used to peasant information)

Media
Methods
Technique can be used

TV

Advertisement Using Visual and Sounds ,News

Colors ,Graphics, Videos

Radio

Only Audio news or advertisement, News

With sounds, Time of peasant

Newspapers

Newspaper Article, Newspaper Advertisement

Headings can used, fonts style and Graphics, photos

Banners and cutouts and posters

Visual images with information

Graphics, words

Using Team member

Organized the caimans, Publicly do advised

Video, Sounds, using posters

Internet

Google Adds, Emails, use community sites

Video, Words, images, sounds

Different ways of presenting information

Can be present information in different ways as above showing media and methods as presenting and technique can be used in the perform it. Finally analysis thy way of peasant as information on related social and health care sector,

Friendly TV advertisement

News wise

Warning (Ex: some diseases spread in such area don’t do it)

Video ( using small TV program)

Put an large Banners and cutout in the Public places

Presentation wise in the seminars

Through the Email chasm pain

Using cinemas and Drama and entertainment way

Using newspapers article

Public health care reports

How to influence attitude and Behavior of people

In the people behaviors and attitude are different put we are going to present in the health and social care related information we can manage their attitude and behavior in one direction. But need to be maintaining on the Media type, presentation format, and style of presentation, content on the presentation, Understandability Visual aspects and sounds. Because people attitude and behaviors can be change using visualization and sounds. It’s directly effective in the human sense. Finally update their knowledge in the related topics using presentation we can improve the attitude and behavior.

Analyze how issues of concern in health and social care are presented in the media

When analyzing how issues concerning health and social care are presented in the media the good and the bad are presented in media today .People have got engrossed to media today due to the improvement of mass media and technology.

Reliability and validity of Media information on health and social care

Health care and social care are systems built around the society, combining mechanism for health financing and service provision.

Media can play a strong advocacy role by transferring the focus of health issues from indivuals to policy makers and executives whose decisions influence health policy programmers and budgets.

Thus with media spreading rapidly over the world, the global village concept has taken over the world and people are more interconnected than before.

The mass media, particularly the new media have collectively a wide reach. Generally, they also have a high level of creditability, and the information they carry is generally accepted by their audience. In the health area too, the media have a strong influence on people’s knowledge, attitudes and practicers.However while news about health issues should be of interest to everyone, we must remember that journalism has its own needs and parameters. The reader should keep in mind the fact that journalist look for interesting stories, stories that make headlines, that convey the different and the usual. But this might not coincide with the ingredients of sound public policy, or be in accordance with the actual substance of health issues.

The health sectors and social care units have information to impart to the society, information which is important and relevant to the health of the population. But government spokespersons that interact with the media are at a disadvantage. If the spokesperson gives good news, most of the time it is disbelieved by the people. Thus the communication with the media has to be accurate and clear. So the spokesperson should be a trained person, rather than a novice who cannot handle the media.

The fact is that both sides need each other. The health ministry needs the journalist to spread the news, which is often very vital to the public.

The most important factor here is that both parties; ‘the health ministry and the journalist,’ have to be professional, and the most important two factors are that their relationship are trust and transparent.

The media have been used to market health behavior, which targets the indivuals and also it informs about health risks to the masses. But most know about it, that the major determines of health are both in the social and physical environment. And the power of the media can be used very effectively to make environmental healthier.

For example the successful public litigation against the tobacco industry. Today, as a result of years of lobbying and informing the public about it, about the tobacco hazard, its consumption world wide is declining. The reason n is that the mass media together with authorities have carried on the campaign very effectively with accurate information.

Thus new media technology as stated above constantly evolves around providing better health care. But studies have revealed that excessive use of new media technology, best exemplified by computers, contains a possible risk of gaining various negative impacts on health.

Type of information influence Attitude and behavior of people health and social care

For this particular section I wish to take examples from the sex education area, as it has a great impact on the attitude and behavior of young people. The targeted audience is the younger generation of our world.

Young people can be exposed to a wide range of attitudes, behaviors and beliefs in relation to sex and sexuality. These sometimes appear contradictory and confusing.

For example, some health messages emphasis the risk and danger associated with sexual activities and media coverage promotes the idea that being sexually active makes a person more attractive and matire.Beause sex and sexuality are very sensitive subjects, young people and sex educators can have strong views on what attitudes people should hold, and what moral frame work should govern peoples behavior- these too can sometimes be at odds.

Thus young people get information about sex and sexuality from a wide range of sources including each other, through the media including advertising, television and magazines, as well as leaflets, books and web sites which are intended to be a source of information. It is important to provide information which correct mistaken beliefs. With out correct information young people can put themselves at greater risks.

When taking the above scenario into consideration, this involves people’s thoughts, feelings and behaviors which are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others. At this point the media plays a major role. It is a must to keep in mind that people are prone to social influence even when no other person is present, in such case watching television or reading effects.

So when writing articles or doing television documentaries related to health and social care, the authorities that put these forward should be well knowledgeable. As they deal with the masses.

Analysis what builds the attitude and Behavior of people, for health care and social care

There are few factors that contributes to this factor of attitude and behavior which reflects on the way that people look at these issues.

The physiological needs:

Safety and security need;

The people in elderly homes, childrens’ home or under health risk need and highly require safety and security. So adverse media publications can hinder their security plus fear may arise in them.

the love a belonging need

At this point the elders at social care units long for a sense of belonging as loneliness over comes them. This issue arises to many problems within the service person and the elder. They have the strong need to be belonged to a community.

Esteem need.

Thus people in elders homes or in children’s’ homes can have an inferiority complex and some such articles or media publications can increase this as responsible citizens its in the hands of society to make these people they are needed in our society.

So when we take the above facts into consideration we can see that cultures of certain countries along with social norms play a major effect. A culture provides individuals with a set of embedded common understandings that they employ in fashioning their actions, and makes society possible by providing a common frame work of thinking. Thus along with this goes the norms of social rules that specify appropriate and inappropriate behavior in a given situation. So thus these contribute a lot and play a major effect in health and social care.

Research and analyze range of different perspectives on one specific issues relating to social and health care

Major issues in health and social care Scope

The major issues that encompass health and social care issues are the cultural, social and psychological issues. This can be considered highly intricate. Thus diversity is seen as a very broad concept, embracing for example culture, beliefs, disability, gender and race and ethnicity as well as undeserved and marginalized population. Diversity also extends to the wide Varity of settings in which care takes place and the multidisciplinary nature of professional practice.

Summary of different perspective

Western health care faces a number of challenges, including an aging population and rise in chronically diseases, in which in turn causes a burden on the sector and the rising health care expenditures.

Attitude relating to the specific issues in local area

Attitudes mean the positive or negative approach towards a view of a person, place, thing or event. Thus people posses an objective towards the introduced thing and a question arises within them whether to acquire or not.

Thus in the case of local areas or villages, there are many clans and beliefs and ideas that each of these groups posses. Thus they too have their own views and ideas on their health conditions. In many rural areas the conditions of health and sanitation lies at a very poor standard, and there are people who don’t want to change their views.

Most people living in rural areas don’t want to change their ways of medication and though the world is moving forward with new techniques and information, there is a set of people who wants to be in the olden times. Who has a strong belief, on orals and witch crafty. So with this the effect, the spreading of sicknesses and diseases are more. How much NGOS and many organizations integrate towards the rural village, the in habitants don’t want to change their ways of thinking. It is not with all but a few who want to live within their idea frame.

This is all due to the illiterates people. Thus to over come this scenario the people have to be liberated on the ways of taking medicine and facing situations.

Also the social care units are seen as something bad. They don’t believe in the benefits of these units. Also they believe that it is a social come down to keep an aged person in a social care unit, thus little noticing the care there is sometimes much better what they provide at home.

Evaluate current thinking on the chosen issues and its likely influence on the development of health and social care

How the local attitude reflect on the national level

As discussed above many local issues are the reasons of many international issues. When people are unable to solve or eradicate or minimize the spreading of an epidemic it reflects globally. Thus causing a major damage to health, physical, economic and international aspects. Thus then the revenues of NGOS,a countries economy and WHO have to spend a vast amount on eradicating these sickness when it could have been able to be plucked from grass root level.

So in order to eradicate and make the nations free and bring good health practice each and every soul should and must contribute towards this factor.

The best example that I can quote from the reason past is dengue which is a high risk health issue. But the people still have not recognized the individual responsibility towards the spreading of it. They bestow the blame on health organizations and thus each year the death toll increases. The saddest part in this is many young lives victims of this.

We have to concentrate on the fact that the national and world productivity decreases very badly when disease start to spread. So the social responsibility too should pay a vast role in this factor.

Evaluate the validity of public attitudes and behaviors related in to specific issues

Healthcare is the area of educating people about health .This encompasses a vast area when related to health such as environmental health, physical health, social health, emotional health, intellectual and spiritual health. This is the principal by whom individuals and groups of people learn to behave in a manner conducive to the promotion, maintenance or restoration of health. As there are many health definitions, there are multiple definitions of health education.

Thus the joint committee of health education and promotion terminology of 2001 defined health education as nay combination of planned education based on sound theories that provides individuals ,groups and communities the opportunity to acquire information and skills needed to make quality health care and social care.

Conclusion

In conclusion this is an over view and an insight to global health issues and how media can reflect or take it in to the masses. Thus the responsibility of the masses too is important in this issue. Each and every one should be responsible plus the attitudes count a lot. The local health issues and attitudes contribute to the international arena. Thus globally major issues do occur due to attitudes of local people. So authorities should know to educate the people, in health care and thus in media publication. What I strongly believe is that the young should be educated on media, and not to always consider the validity and reliability of media publications.

Discuss what a consumer society is and an insight to its beginnings. Divisions suggested by theorist Zygmunt Bauman. Discuss supermarket power and whether they offer choice to consumers discuss the winners and losers in a consumer society, conclude on choice to consumers.

Main Body
Paragraph 1

Explain consumer society, discuss who is involved and ways it describes society using evidence from making social lives introduction p3-8, making social lives, 2009, Chapter 1, p20-21.

Paragraph 2

Explain Industrial society, and class divisions within. Making social lives, 2009, chapter 1, p25.

Paragraph 3

The uprising of department stores, what changes it bought to consumption. Making social lives chapter 1, p37.

Paragraph 4

Theorist Bauman (1988). Divisions made in consumer society from economic growth, how society took part and their abilities to do so, the choices for those within the seduced. Concept – The seduced. Taken from making social lives, 2009, chapter1 p25-27.

Paragraph 5

Theorist Bauman (1988). Theory of ‘the repressed’, discuss who are the repressed in society and their choices. Concept – The Repressed. Claims taken from making social lives, 2009, chapter 129-31.

Paragraph 6

Supermarket chains the four largest groups, Protester groups against Tesco in Glasgow, reasons why against. Claims taken from making social lives (2009), chapter 2 p57-62.

Paragraph 7

Supermarket pro group, reasons why they are welcome supermarket uprising, claims taken from making social lives (2009) p62-65.

Paragraph8

Anti and pro supermarket claims. Anti-Supermarket power how it is used, damage from power made to small retailers. Pro-supermarket consumer choice claims. Evidence taken from, evidence in social sciences, 2009, track1.

Paragraph 9

Define zero sum game within supermarkets, suppliers to supermarkets, working conditions abroad; those who have the power in consumer supplies, who has choice. Evidence taken from making social lives (2009) p83-91

Paragraph 10

Define Positive sum game, the winners and losers how supermarkets take part in Zero sum power. Claims taken from making social lives (2009), p 90-93.

Conclusion

Sum up choice in consumer society and how it is an unequal choice

Consumerism today means more than shopping for essentials, the way we take part in consuming gives an insight to whom we are and what we are about, our personality and the promise of a freedom to choose our lifestyle. There is no doubt that essentials shopping will always be necessary in life but there is also strong connections to socialization though the activity of consumption seen in contemporary UK today. This socialization is dependent on many factors like advertising and family and friend’s pressures and our incomes, this is known as a consumer society. The ways we actively consume give us an identity in society.

Thirty years ago society was based around industry and people where defined by their jobs and class divisions known as industrial society, but due to a declining of many industrial manufacturers like mining, arrival of a more working or middle class society evolved this society introduced the idea of consumer society defined by the social activities of consumption thus reshaping society.

The appearance of department stores first appeared around the 1860’s they primarily sold the ideas of luxury to the wealthy by way of displaying plentiful goods with an immediate availability and offering to let people actively touch and connect items to create their lifestyles. Department stores began to sell the idea of luxury though seduction by the large Varity and stocks they could hold at any one time here began the uprising of consumption as a social activity.

Social scientist Zygmunt Bauman (1988) saw two divisions in contemporary day culture a society which he claims are the ‘seduced and repressed'(Hetherington,2009,p25). The seduced of 30 years earlier were those who were land owners, lawyers or high paid bankers. But as consumption grew for economic growth in the late nineteenth century a wider class of people, those with job security, or a disposable income were able to enjoy the social freedom of buying into a luxury lifestyle, the ideas of consuming to build self expression and individuality became important role in identifying who we were and depending on how people took part told of class, success and wealth. The seduced society therefore are those who can take part effectively in consumption, not only because they can afford to but because they are seen as a positive members in society, a membership, the included those with wider options of choice.

There is different side to consumer society, Bauman suggests these are the repressed (Hetherington, 2009, p28) these are considered the excluded in society, often without means to take part in consumption effectively, characteristically those on a low wage, unemployed or with disability. Their opportunity to self express or take part in the social connection and effective consumption will be limited by factors like not having a car or having funds to buy the latest fashion or gadgets to fit in with an ‘in crowd’ these people are more choice restricted labelled as unsuccessful members in society. And so what’s noticeable is that income predominantly gives a freedom of choice, it dictates the level at which society can take part.

Twenty first century shopping has taken a great step from department stores which although are still seen have declined, for out of town retail outlets, shopping malls and supermarket chains namely four large contenders Tesco, Sainsbury’s, Morrison’s and Asda. These reside in large spaces dedicated solely to consumption seen as safe place to shop a family environment within a modern setting. The ability to take part in out of town shopping is largely dependent on having transport this could lead to some of society being excluded if they didn’t have access to cars or were less able to take part financially. One protester group, STOP (Stop Tesco owning Patrick) in the Glasgow town of Patrick has taken a stand against a proposed Tesco store being built on urban ground as they claim the development would caused damage to local retailers mainly family run by their power to dominate the market with the prices and choices they offer.(Allen,2009,p62).

There is also another group in a town close by to Patrick who have also had proposals from Tesco to build a superstore, but they welcome the development as they feel it will bring restoration to the area after closure of a large car industry left many unemployed, the development will attract other retailers into the area creating jobs and skills (Allen, 2009, p62).

There is growing concern regarding the ways supermarkets use their power within the grocery market, whether they use their size and influence to control consumer choice, and whether this has caused damage to the town centres and high streets, Helene Rimmer of friends of the earth suggests that approximately fifty small shops a week are closing directly from supermarket growth (Evidence in the social sciences, 2009, track1), limiting our choices to shop elsewhere. Richard Dodd from the British Retail Consortium suggests that consumers cannot be coerced to shop at the superstores more that they make the choice to do so as they are attracted to products and services offered and should they not like that they would make the choice not to shop there anymore he suggests that power and choice lays with consumer (Evidence in the social sciences, 2009, track 1).

Anti supermarket lobbies argue that supermarkets are restricting and dominating in other ways beyond just the end consumer, bulk buying from suppliers gives buying power offering good position to demand bigger discounts for goods, but often these discounts are passed down to workforces often in countries abroad and migrant workers via below standard minimal wages, long hours and unhealthy working conditions where what

It seems the only people gaining are the supermarkets who hold the profits and choice to source the lowest prices supplies, In all a Zero-sum market(Dennis Wrong, 1997,p70) where only one side gains.

The pro supermarket lobbies see the suppliers and factory owners to be at fault of the poverty to their workers from not pushing to get a better price for their supplies. The risks here though are that should they demand to high a price for goods the supermarkets will source an alternative supplier elsewhere with widespread loss falling back greatest on the dependant workforce. By keeping the workforces in jobs may seem like exploitation at its worse but this can be seen as a positive-sum game (Dennis Wrong, 1997, p70) where all parties involved will benefit as although these jobs are still at poverty level they are better than no job or the alternatives available often with a much poorer wage.

In sum there is consumer choice but it is a restricted choice for those of society who cannot take part effectively, but for persons within society with the affluence, power and the ideals to create a lifestyle choice is not governed so strictly, there is much freedom in choice. Large supermarket retailers play key roles in influencing our contemporary day to day choices in groceries as they hold such power within the market, here our choices are limited by their choices.

1173 words

‘What is the place of Consumerism in the lifestyle of emergent new middle classes in Ireland?’ Basically an application of a Bourdieu/ Featherstone argument about new middle classes to the Irish case.

Chapter One: Introduction

In order to examine the place of Consumerism in the lifestyle of emergent new middle classes in Ireland, the ideas of ‘Consumerism’, ‘lifestyle’ and ‘emergent new middle classes’ must first be defined. Accordingly these definitions will occupy the preliminary discussions of this thesis in the relevant sections. The thesis will examine the role of emergent middle classes, and will attempt to tie this discussion to analysis of how and why demographic trends such as the emergence of new middle classes have evolved, and what place Consumerism has in the lifestyles of those individuals within these new demographic cleavages.

Economic events and socio-economic developments (both historical and contemporary) linked to these events have been the main precipitative forces responsible for these emergent sociological contours^[i]. The economic and socio-economic climate in Ireland and how this has developed will therefore be a centre point in examining the role of emergent new middle classes and how Consumerism has impacted the role and lifestyle of these sectors.

These ideas will be introduced in the literature review and they will be fleshed out throughout the thesis in order to gain a holistic and comprehensive insight into the place of Consumerism in the lifestyle of emergent new middle classes in Ireland. This analysis will be contextualised with reference to the theories of Bourdieu (1979) and Featherstone (1992) whose cultural perspectives on society have mainly rationalised Consumerism in terms of subjectivity and individual perceptions; therefore repudiating the idea that Consumerism is simply an objective, independent market force which operates within neo-classical^[ii] and laissez-faire^[iii] boundaries. Images of Irish society will be very important in this thesis and the images/themes which will be examined throughout the thesis to facilitate this discussion of Consumerism are images of secularisation, images of Class Dealignment, images connected with the Celtic Tiger and the process of diversification.

The next section will examine the methodology of the thesis. This will link the above mentioned theoretical definitions, arguments and analysis into the wider empirical and qualitative aims of the thesis. The chosen methodology is discourse analysis, and turning to a discussion of the definition of what exactly this is, is a natural progression. Accordingly, this discussion of definition will follow in the next section. The next section will also introduce the methodological framework of the thesis. It will define the various applications and forms of discourse analysis and it will explain how these will be considered throughout the thesis.

Chapter Two
Methodology: Discourse Analysis

This thesis will rely primarily upon empirical evidence gathered through discourse analysis. The writer has selected a number of cultural themes from selected publications and these will be examined empirically and through discourse analysis. These are diversification^[iv] (both political and cultural), images of Class Dealignment, images of secularised society and the imputations which arise from the phrase ‘Celtic Tiger^[v]’. These will be looked at in depth as the thesis progresses, and will be placed within the context of wider themes of economic, political and socio-economic factors which the writer will also examine in terms of broad and contextual discourse analysis.

Discourse analysis is an interdisciplinary^[vi] method of analysing sociological trends^[vii] through the analysis of language^[viii] and speech^[ix], and how political ideas are disseminated through language^[x]. This method will be used throughout the dissertation as a means of analysing the place of Consumerism in the lifestyle of emergent middle classes.

Discourse analysis has been differentiated and divided into niche areas in terms of its application. For example, discourse analysis may be used on a micro scale which would involve minute analysis of grammatical structure^[xi], language and the composition^[xii] of language^[xiii]. This is not a method which will be concentrated upon in this thesis, as the more expansive niches within discourse analysis, which concentrates upon context^[xiv] and cultural, political and other sociological forces are more appropriate ways to analyse the question title. This is because the concentration of discourse analysis in terms of wider context^[xv] and a focus on specifically identified themes rather than minute form^[xvi] and constructions^[xvii] gives the writer a lot more room to analyse political, cultural, sociological, demographic and economic trends, which is the ultimate goal of this thesis enquiry.

Chimombo, M. and Roseberry, R. (1998) give us the following in depth definition of discourse analysis:

‘Discourse is a process resulting in a communicative act. The communicative act itself takes the form of a text. A text is commonly thought of as consisting of written or printed words on a page; but a text may also consist of sign language or spoken words, or it may comprise only the thoughts of a writer, or speaker, on the one hand, or a reader or listener, on the other. In addition to words, a text may consist of other symbols, sounds, gestures, or silences, in any combination that is intended to communicate information such as ideas, emotional states, and attitudes. It may fail to communicate, but if the intention to communicate is clearly there, it must be regarded as a text…..^[xviii]’.

Chimombo, M. and Roseberry, R. (1998) then go on explain how this abstract definition applies within the context of methodology:

‘Analysis of discourse is a methodology for examining texts and the communicative process that gives rise to them. Its primary purpose is to enable discourse analysts to gain a deeper understanding and appreciation of texts. Because most texts are goal oriented, part of the purpose of discourse analysis is to enable people to recognize the intended goal of the writer or speaker and thus achieve some measure of control over the discourse…..The understanding that may be gained in this way helps to equalize the power relationship and enables an escape from the role of victim such that individuals may assume a greater degree of control over their lives. This book demonstrates that discourse is typically used to a greater or lesser degree for exploitation. Different types of discourse are intended to exploit consumers, voters, employees, children, women, minorities, and many other groups within society. An ability to analyze discourse offers such groups a means of protection….^[xix]’.

A discourse is therefore an amalgam of perspective. These perspectives are often political, economic or ideological in nature, since the articulation of a perspective through discourse is often underpinned by struggles for political power and influence^[xx]. This in turn imputes that a discourse has a special connection with politics and with economics and that cultural discourses have often been appended to these primary discourses. Chimombo, M. and Roseberry, R. (1998) make this point very strongly in the following passage:

‘….The term control implies a power relationship between those who produce texts and those for whom these texts are intended. For example, politicians, lawyers, doctors, advertisers, business executives, teachers, and many others exercise power over their clients through the discourse that is characteristic of these professionals. Analysis of professional discourse can reveal these power relationships and the goals that may be hidden in them. ….^[xxi]’.

Cultural discourses may also be seen as having evolved indirectly from political, economic and ideological discourses^[xxii]. A cultural discourse may therefore be rationalised as secondary in many ways to a political/ideological and to an economic discourse. However, it is important to understand that cultural discourses often exist within the framework of these arguably more primary discourses^[xxiii]. Also, one must remember that an analysis of cultural discourse, without an adequate analysis of the wider context of the discourse and its relationship with other discourses will not be a credible analysis. The writer’s regard for a cultural discourse as a secondary discourse is an explanation of how cultural discourse has evolved; it is not intended to demarcate cultural discourse as less relevant than political, economic or ideological discourse. Clearly, cultural discourses have qualified and enriched these wider, politically tuned discourses and this in itself is a unique and powerful mechanism of change.

This explains the central nature of wider political discourse analysis in this thesis and it also explains why Fairclough (1995) ^[xxiv] in particular has argued that discourse analysis centres on the interpretation of political and ideological discourses. It is important to remember however that cultural discourse analysis is intertwined with these primary discourses in a subtle but imperative way.

The following chapters will deal with definitions of lifestyle and consumerism. They will also introduce a general discourse analysis which will centre on the selected themes mentioned above and how they ultimately relate to politics, economics, and the demographic and sociological trends which have been emerging in Ireland over the last twenty years^[xxv]. The concept of emergent middle classes will be defined in the following chapters also and this definition will lead into a broad and contextual discourse analysis of how middle classes emerged in Ireland. The effects of this emergence will be discussed, but all of these threads of analysis will ultimately be drawn together to look at the place of Consumerism in the lifestyle of emergent new middle classes in Ireland, and the arguments that have been made in this area by Bourdieu (1979) and Featherstone (1992).

Chapter Three: Literature Review:
What is ‘Consumerism’?

Clarke (2003) gives us the following definition and explanation of Consumerism within the context of culture:

‘….Bauman (1992c, 24) reflects that the strange ‘dialectic of dependence and autonomy’ between consumer and consumer society is indeed ‘not unlike that of the grammar and vocabulary of language and formed sentences of speech: the latter are in no way “determined” by the former and move freely within the frame it provides’. The practice of consumption amounts, in other words, to an act of enunciation, which takes place in ‘a space filled with unattached signifiers … a space awaiting attribution of meaning’ (ibid.). The consumer is in no way manipulated, nor consumer behaviour ‘determined’, even though the consumer is formally deprived of autonomy in all forms but the duplicitous form of freedom of choice. The proliferation of relations of trust, the reliance on specialist knowledge and expertise, and the privatization of the task of constructing some form of continuity of life-experience are unavoidable features of life in a consumer society. But consumers are nonetheless in a position to make of their situation something other than what is intended. The problem, however, is that, as an ‘act through which the presence of the individual … can be confirmed and reasserted’ (ibid.), consumption and the relations of trust it entails provides an opportunistic means for the perpetuation – and dramatic expansion – of capitalism.….^[xxvi]’.

Therefore, as has been argued above, Consumerism is a term which describes the links between happiness, material goods/possessions and humans^[xxvii]. It can be argued that Consumerism refers to the idea that material goods and possessions induce feelings of happiness and accordingly all behaviours which may be linked to the endorsement of this rationale may also be described as Consumerism^[xxviii]. Consumerism is an idea which was considered by Karl Marx^[xxix], whose famous critique of Consumerism and capitalist ideology (Communism^[xxx]) interpreted ideas of Consumerism as immoral and subversive^[xxxi].

In modern terms Socialism rejects ideas related to Consumerism in a more moderate way, but the premise upon which Socialism is built mirrors Communism in its suspicion of Consumerism^[xxxii]. Consumerism may also be described in terms of economic behaviour and policy. If one considers Consumerism in an abstract manner, it is possible to argue that the freedom of individuals to choose how to spend money/dissipate resources manifests itself as Consumerism, since the marketing of goods to a consumer encourages them to exercise their freedom to choose what to purchase. Clarke (2003) has noted that this is an ongoing and repetitive process: ‘The act of consumption is destined to repeat itself, since the human subject is irresistibly compelled to seek a unity and coherence it can never know…^[xxxiii]’.

Ideas relating to Consumerism have traditionally been associated with Western societies and have also been particularly synonymous with neo-liberal capitalism. However, it may be argued that with the growing influence of globalisation and technological advancements, the impact of Consumerism is a global one as opposed to the more traditional interpretation of Consumerism as being tied particularly to certain cultures, more so than to others. Ultimately, however, Consumerism is connected to the ideas of human rationality, freedom and choice and has evolved as a means whereby human wants are satisfied. Accordingly, Consumerism may also be seen as a sociological force since, the recognition of social standings within society can be defined in many ways according to material wealth and the accumulation of material possessions.

Consumerism is a complex idea which may be interpreted objectively as well as subjectively. This characteristic of Consumerism has invited the levels of cultural, sociological and economic analysis which the theory of Consumerism seems to have attracted. Therefore, the evolution of Consumerism and the various interpretations of the current status of Consumerism will be relevant to this thesis. Consumerism; its construction and its manifestation can be seen to oscillate with cultural mores and the development of society. This is how Consumerism may also be seen as an evolving social construct.

Certainly Bourdieu (1979), Lash and Urry (1994) as well as Baudrillard (1993) consider Consumerism as a malleable social construct^[xxxiv], which has developed mostly as a result of the growing economic affluence^[xxxv] which may be seen in Ireland^[xxxvi]. Their views are that class is demarcated in terms of taste, culture and lifestyle^[xxxvii], whereas historically this demarcation was less obvious since economic limitations precluded individuals from expressing taste, culture and lifestyle in the diverse ways that are possible today. Their analysis goes on to argue that Consumerism is the vehicle through which this transition has taken effect, since diversities in taste, culture and lifestyle have largely been introduced through the marketing of Consumerism and consumerist values. Therefore the accessibility of diversity to individuals has increased as economic conditions and Consumerism have delivered more choice to the individual.

Emergent New Middle Classes

‘Middle classes’ is a somewhat overused term. It has historically been used to differentiate the economically disadvantaged within society from those whose incomes and resources provide them with enough money to live independently and relatively affluently within society, generally occupying the middle ground between rich and poor within society. The emergent new middle classes that are referred to in the scope of this thesis can be recognised as the product of an increasingly affluent society within Ireland^[xxxviii], emerging as more individuals benefit from the higher standards of living that may be seen as a result of what is colloquially known as the Celtic Tiger^[xxxix].

Cronin (2000) has an analysis of individual cultural consciousness which allows us to interpret the emergence of middle classes in a purely cultural and subjective context. He argues:

‘Diprose (1994) states that the Lockean model defines the individual as an entity which maintains the same consciousness over time and through corporeal changes, for example illness or pregnancy, thus giving primacy to the mind or consciousness over the body. Further more, the individual is defined as having identical self-presence in which, ‘an entity is identical with itself if it has the same origin in time and space’ (Diprose 1994:9). So the individuation necessary for the processes of mutual recognition to occur requires a temporally bounded entity. Simultaneously, the individual is spatially bounded through the distinction between self and not-self which is produced in that same process of recognition. Here arises the constitutive contradiction of contract, identical self-presence and exchange: in these political fictions, the individual is said to have a self-contained identity prior to contract or relations with others (Diprose 1994). Pateman’s (1988) analysis of the contradictory production of women’s and subordinate groups’ status in contract echoes this tension. For the processes of contractual exchange to occur, an individual must recognise another as an individual. The characteristics that this requires are rationality and the possession of property……^[xl]’.

Therefore, it is arguable that the emergence of new cleavages of middle classes in Ireland has arisen both through a combination of objective, market forces combined with the forces which drive individual self-perception and this in turn drives an individual to represent themselves and ultimately project this representation.

Chapter Four:
Discourse Analysis of Economic Growth in Ireland

The development of the economy in Ireland^[xli] has created unprecedented^[xlii] levels of wealth^[xliii] and affluence^[xliv] within Ireland^[1]. Accordingly this section will specifically examine the nature and underpinnings of economic progress in Ireland as this has largely given rise to^[xlv] and sustained^[xlvi] emergent new middle classes as the Consumerism which has evolved alongside these sectors.

Economic growth in Ireland may be explained in terms of ideological transition^[xlvii], the influence of the European Community^[xlviii] and the influence of political leaders^[xlix] throughout this period of economic transition^[l]. Macro economic convergence theories^[li] may also help explain the shifts in economic conditions seen in Ireland^[lii]. These factors are given more in depth analysis below.

The decline of state interventionism and state protectionism^[liii] in Ireland led to palpable ideological shifts within the country^[liv]. In an international setting, the ideological foundations of the welfare state^[lv] were being replaced with more modern neo-liberal^[2] conceptions of political philosophy^[lvi]. This trend was particularly notable in Britain with the election of Margaret Thatcher and her subsequent repudiation of Keynes’ economic^[lvii] theory^[lviii]. These ideological shifts, which influenced Ireland^[lix], (although not until many years later) partly laid the foundations for the economic revolution^[lx] which was to come about in the mid-nineties^[lxi].

Charles Haughey who had been in power periodically since 1979, was re-elected Taoiseach in 1987, during a deep economic recession^[lxii]. Haughey’s predecessor in 1987 was G. Fitzgerald. These two individuals are widely recognised as having laid the foundations for economic stability in the Republic of Ireland, with a recognition that taxation needed to be reorganised to stimulate economic enterprise and growth. Consequently, under Haughey public spending was decreased and spending on public sector employment and bureaucracy was also reduced^[lxiii]. This produced a dividend in the form of economic stability, lower levels of inflation and relatively rejuvenated economic growth. Again this affected employment conditions, reducing unemployment and creating the conditions for investment in enterprise. Tax cuts were then directed at the manufacturing industries^[lxiv], and later tax breaks for particular sectors of industry augmented these economic dividends in the form of a stimulated economy and greater levels of employment. These economic conditions led to a reduced reliance on agricultural enterprise^[lxv] and this is known as ‘economic diversification’^[lxvi].

The relationship between Ireland and the European Community and Ireland’s accession to the European Community in the early 1970s marked a high point politically^[lxvii], culturally and economically^[lxviii] for Ireland^[lxix]. However, the influence of the European Community on the situation of Ireland is a controversial area of debate at the moment^[lxx]. Some have argued that the influence of the European Union has been instrumental in the growth of Ireland’s economy^[lxxi], whereas conversely there are arguments which suggest that the role of the European Community has been over stated, misunderstood and even misrepresented^[lxxii]. Both propositions will be considered by the writer in following sections.

The theory that Ireland prospered due to entry to the European Community has been critiqued as a facile theory^[lxxiii] and this argument may be seen as even more cogent given that Powell (2003) has argued that if Ireland had prospered due to entry to the European Community, then the effects of EC investment would be identifiable and tangible. The reality is that European investment in Ireland produced some economic benefits, but the prosperity which Ireland enjoyed was precipitated by a plethora of events and shifts, which cumulatively produced the effects known as the Celtic Tiger^[lxxiv]. One such shift is known as the convergence theory and economic growth in Ireland has been rationalised in terms of the convergence theory in the following way.

This theory suggests that the ‘Celtic Tiger’ was not precipitated by circumstances, affiliations (in particular to the European Community) or events, but rather by the operation of a group of economic forces which argues that over time similar countries with similar institutions tend to perform economically in a congruous way. In this sense, the Celtic Tiger has been rationalised as a convergence as opposed to a phenomenon. Historically, this theory is plausible, as Ireland was dogged by recession in spite of entry into the EEC in 1973, under the tenure of Jack Lynch^[lxxv]. This recession continued until the advent of Charles Haughey, and G. Fitzgerald who addressed the failing tax system in the Republic of Ireland^[lxxvi].

The conception of taxation had been fundamentally challenged and revised in Ireland over the last twenty years^[lxxvii]. This shift led to the realisation of the above mentioned ideological ideas substantively and not just rhetorically. The mid eighties in Ireland was a period characterised by high taxation and low employment^[lxxviii]. Taxation was regarded as a method of bolstering the economy^[lxxix]… This had an adverse effect of investment, thwarted business and led to high levels of unemployment^[lxxx]. In many ways this is what thwarted the progress of the economy, forcing class alignment along economic lines. Powell (2003) has argued that just prior to the millennium GDP in Ireland was $25,500 per capita, whereas in Britain this figure was approximately $23,000 per capita. This can be contrasted with the fact that in the late 1980s GDP per capita in Ireland was only approximately 65%, that of the UK GDP per capita^[lxxxi]. This economic revolution has been referred to in colloquial and cultural terms as the growth of the ‘Celtic Tiger’.

The use of the term Celtic Tiger is of great significance and it may be rationalised in terms of cultural symbolism in the following way:

‘Human encounter with the world has always been a profoundly enigmatic affair. Traditionally, human societies attained a measure of ontological security from social arrangements that accepted the fundamental ambivalence of the world (Giddens 1990; 1994). Because traditional modes of existence were symbolically tied to the world of appearances, such societies were able to employ well established, ritualized ways and means of being-in-the-world…^[lxxxii]’.

The effects of cultural symbolism may be further delved into through examining this explanation of existence and illusions which are imparted through the ‘appearance of things’:

‘The continuity of such an existence was assured by the experience of tradition alone, and legitimated by forces beyond human powers. ‘Nature … in the infinite detail of its illusory manifestations … was conceived above all as the work of hidden wills’ (Bloch 1962, 83). This world of illusion amounted, in other words, to an acceptance of the illusion of the world (the term ‘illusion’ is apt ‘not in the sense of its power to fool you, but in its power to put something into play, to create something: scene, space, a game, a rule of the game – to invent, in fact, the mode of appearance of things’ (Baudrillard 1993b, 59-60)). Modernity, in stark contrast, was founded firmly on the disavowal of the fact that ambivalence is inevitable; that appearances are intrinsically deceptive. Modernity was founded on a commitment to the reality of the world (Bauman 1991). Modernity thus held out the dream of an attainable order. And order, as the promise of the removal of ambivalence and contingency from the world, necessarily cast contingency as a threat, and demonized ambivalence. This was, of course, a complex and multifaceted affair. It involved, for instance, a transformation of time, as time became ‘the property of man’ (Le Goff 1980, 51)…^[lxxxiii]’.

Therefore the concept of a tiger married to the concept of ‘Celtic’ and Celticness^[lxxxiv] conveys, in metaphorical terms the speed and the pervasiveness of the new found wealth which swept through Ireland in the mid nineties, changing and fuelling market forces such as Consumerism. This terminology^[lxxxv] is relevant in cultural terms since it conveys the prosperity which pervaded Ireland during this period, and continues to drive the Irish economy as one of the wealthiest countries in the European Union^[lxxxvi].

This led to a dramatic shift in cultural mores and led to a redefining of class boundaries. The term ‘Celtic Tiger’ also cast Ireland in an advantageous light internationally, advertising the economic growth and success which the country was experiencing. This attracted foreign investment interest and raised the profile of Ireland internationally, as well as serving to extricate Ireland from the damaging and often distorted image of a country dependent on EEC funding and support.

Demographically, the influence of economic forces was also dramatic and widespread. More people were in employment in Ireland and this led to a surge in industry, investment and enterprise^[lxxxvii]. The tourist and the service sector industries surged forward economically, changing the sociological and cultural contours of the Republic of Ireland. Small businesses expanded and more people built hotels, shops, restaurants and food outlets^[lxxxviii]. This impacted upon the tourist industry which thrived as more people were attracted to visiting locations within Ireland that were more accessible and inviting^[lxxxix]. This trend too had a knock on effect with more leisure facilities being built, and a general emphasis on regenerating services and facilities in the interests of attracting tourists

Prostitution or commercial sex work, the practice of providing sexual services in return for payment, is one of the oldest professions of the world. Every civilisation mentions the presence of prostitution in some form in their respective literature. Moreover, with the change of time, the face of prostitution has changed a lot with varied consequences. The commercial sex workers have moved out of a confined wall of brothels to streets so as to attract customers. Sex work as a profession is not a natural choice for the most sex workers but they are put into the profession either by force, human trafficking, or are victim of economical or social injustice. However, research advances in this field, though not new, has been very scant. The present study attempted to study the consequences of sex work in terms of perceived stress, loneliness and wellbeing. A total of 115 active female commercial sex workers from different cities of India were requested to participate in the present study. Measures of Perceived stress, loneliness and PGI wellbeing was used to get the responses from the respondents. Using a 2 (level of age) x 3 (levels of number of clients per day) factorial design results were achieved. The ANOVA results indicated a significant effect of number of clients on the measure wellbeing. However, only interaction of age and number of clients was found to be significant on the measure of perceived stress among the commercial sex workers. Furthermore, main effects were not found to be statistically on the measure of loneliness. In addition, correlation results indicated a negative relationship between number of clients per day and well being. Interestingly, a negative correlation between perceived stress and age of the respondents suggesting aging relives from stress arising out of the profession was observed. The measure of loneliness revealed no relationship between any of the measure under study. The results have been interpreted and implications have been discussed the light of available literature and contemporary theoretical approaches.

Introduction

Prostitution is widely described as the world’s oldest profession. Prostitution, the practice of selling sex for cash or other immediate compensation, has existed across cultures and times from the ancient Greeks, through religious servitude, to today’s sex scandals that have rocked several countries. Prostitution also crosses class lines, from the poor ‘streetwalkers’ with their stereotyped drug habits and abusive pimps to the high-class brothel and escort service workers with their designer clothes and stylish apartments.

While the prostitute technically sells a service, namely sexual intimacy, the ways in which prostitution is discussed suggest that, at least to modern sensibilities, she is selling far more than that. Common euphemisms for prostitution in English include ‘selling her body’ and ‘selling herself’, conflating the body and the self with sexual intimacy indicates that sexual intimacy both defines and controls the body and the self.

Buyers of sex are not restricted to any one class or clan; however, throughout the world mobile populations of men form a large proportion of sex consumers. Transport workers, seafarers, businessmen and men who are separated from their families and communities either by migration or by joining the armed forces are regular clients. Nevertheless, sex work remains criminalized in many countries and sex workers are subject to human rights violations in many more.

Most analyses of prostitution suggest that both men and women enter prostitution, either professionally or temporarily, as relative amateurs, for economic and monetary reasons or are forced to indulge in sex work profession. Certainly, through most of history there were few professions open for women, especially if they had little or no family support or they lacked the education or class status to aspire to the few professions that respectable women could participate in. Conversely, many people who advocate a departure from the shame culture surrounding sex in a variety of arenas, including sex work, argue that some prostitutes work in order to challenge repressive gender roles which restrict women’s sexuality to a romantic ideology and oppressive patriarchal marriages. As these activists are also working to change women’s opportunities and thus eliminate prostitution as a forced, last-ditch option for staying alive, they are not simply romanticizing prostitution but complicating it by forcing the world to consider the positive choices of sex workers.

More so, females in their early teens are more vulnerable and get lured into the profession not by choice but more due to immaturity. However, adult women may also be vulnerable to economic, social and psychological pressures leading to the choice of sex work profession. There is nothing magical about a girl’s eighteenth birthday that guarantees that she can make free and unpressured choices. What seems more important in the context of prostitution and the controversy over ‘choice’ is the individual’s ability to manage power hierarchies and to retain an element of control within them (WHO, 2001).

Nevertheless, very little is known about the demand for sex worker services. Sexuality is not a subject that is much discussed in India. Contrary to cultural ideals that stress chastity before marriage and fidelity within it, men commonly stray from this norm. While this behaviour is generally not as pronounced as in societies in East and Southeast Asia there is consistent, although largely anecdotal evidence to indicate that a large minority of men are clients of sex workers. Mobile groups of men: male migrants in the cities; truck drivers; those in the armed forces; and travelling businessmen are frequently cited as important client groups. Many young men are initiated into their sexual lives by prostitutes (UNFPA, 2001). Rapidly escalating prevalence rates for HIV indicate that monogamy is not necessarily practised (Lousie, 2000). This applies to men from all social classes.

Threats to physical and psychological wellbeing come from working conditions, as well as from clients, the public, and the police encountered in the working environment. Both the public and the police use harassment and violence to monitor sex workers’ behavior. Besides, street-based sex workers are subject to constant attention, scrutiny, and harassment. In contrast to street-based workers, sex workers who operate in other venues are relatively invisible but are still likely to be the subject of harassment and assault leading to depleted state of well being.

Regarding sexual and physical health, the sex workers are at a high risk of sexually transmitted disease (STD). Undeniably, the importance of the link between sexual abuse injuries and STIs has been recognized. Specially, in the context of the trafficked, they are often victims of repeated sexual abuse and coercion into involuntary sex acts, which may include vaginal rape, forced anal and oral sex, forced unprotected sex, gang rape, sex during menstruation, and sex accompanied by violent or degrading ritual, which not only have physical consequences but also affects the psychological state of the victims. Moreover, the dimensions of coercion and violence within the given situation also increase women’s risk of infection by limiting women’s ability to negotiate how sex takes place and whether condoms are used. Gynecological complications are the most common health problem faced by trafficked women as a result of the abuse context, which may be in terms of tearing of the vaginal tract and genitals, sexually transmitted infections, unwanted pregnancy, risks to reproductive and sexual health and above all HIV/AIDS.

Above all social stigma the sex workers face is more enduring and affects them more psychologically and is devastating for them. However, they still continue to indulge in the profession for various reasons. Stress and loneliness is one of the consequences accompanied with shattered wellbeing which may be observed among the sex workers.

In view of these beliefs, numerous authors have been interested in exploring sex workers’ sexual health. However, the psychological exploration in the lives of sex workers in Indian context could not be seen. Within this backdrop, present study attempted to explore the consequences of sex work in terms of perceived stress, loneliness and wellbeing.

METHOD

Sample: A total of 115 active female commercial sex workers from different Red light areas and prostitution belt, located in cities of India, were requested to participate in the present study. Looking at the extent of study and the difficulty in finding participants for the study, purposive sampling method was used to select the sample. Respondents were female sex worker in the age range of 14-45 years.

Tools: Apart from including demographic items in the interview schedule measures pertaining to perceived stress, loneliness and wellbeing was used to get appropriate responses, suitable to the objectives, from the respondents.

Perceived Stress Scale (PSS): Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983) was used to understand the stress pattern of the respondents.PSS included 14 items to be rated on a 5-point Likert type scale ranging from never (0) to very often (4).

UCLA Loneliness Scale: The UCLA Loneliness Scale (Russel, 1996) was included to assess subjective feelings of loneliness of the respondents (commercial sex workers). The items in the scale were to be rated on a four point scale ranging from “never’ to “often.”

PGI Wellbeing Scale: PGI Wellbeing scale developed by Verma, & Verma, (1989) included 20 items intended to measure the subjective wellbeing of the respondents. Forced type ‘yes/no’ response was to be put against the items and a high score on the scale indicated high degree of wellbeing.

The interview schedule was supplemented by actual observation of the situation.

Procedure: Initially, all the respondents were contacted at their workplace and objectives of the study were explained. With great difficulty the respondents agreed to participate in the study. Data was collected from different Red light areas and prostitution belt, located in various cities of India. All the respondents were assured of confidentiality of their location and responses and were thanked for their participation in the study.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Using a 2 (level of age) x 3 (levels of number of clients per day) factorial design results were achieved (Table 1).

The ANOVA results pertaining to perceived stress have been shown in table 2. No statistically significant effect of the main effects of age (F (1, 109)= 0.246; p>.05) and number of clients (F (2, 109)= 2.785; p>.05) on the perceived stress is observed. The mean results, however, revealed that the respondents of younger age (M= 29.61) perceived more stress than their upper age (M= 27.12) counterparts. With regard to number of clients per day, it was revealed that the respondents dealing with 5 or more clients (M= 28.41) were more stressed than their other counterparts dealing with 3 or less clients (M= 28) and with 4 clients (M= 27.29) per day.

Conversely, interaction of age and number of clients (F (2, 109) = 7.732; p<.01) was found to be significant on the measure of perceived stress among the commercial sex workers (Figure 1). The mean results depicted that the respondents belonging to the younger age group of below 20 years and having 5 or more clients (M= 29.61) were more stressed than their counterparts. On the other hand the respondents of same age group and having 3 or less clients per day (M= 22.00) were found to be least stressed in all groups under study. Further, in the higher age group respondents dealing with 3 or less clients (M= 29.50) were most stressed. The result seems to indicate interesting fact age the sex workers age they become more accustomed and adjusted with their profession and that less number of clients, for them, means less income and hence more stressed. Similarly for younger age sex worker 5 number clients on daily basis is not only difficult to manage but also stressful. The vast majority of women who become sex workers do so because of dire economic circumstances. Young aged getting into this sector of work dealing and with much number and tolerating them due to certain circumstances perceive stress more than any other age group. This result is also important since the situation is thought to be especially acute in this part of the world where a combination of poverty and the low status of females contribute to their exploitation in the sex industry (CCDT, 1999). Stress is one of the major experience as a consequence of this profession.

When 2?3 ANOVA was applied to the measure of Loneliness, neither did age (F (1, 109)= .329; p>.05) nor did the number of clients per day (F (2, 109)= .327; p>.05) reveal any significant effect. Similarly, the interaction effect (F (2, 109)= 2.784; p>.05) also was not significant. However, it was the younger respondents (M= 29.67) who perceived loneliness more than their counterparts (M= 28.77). Conversely, respondents dealing with 4 clients daily (M=29.18) experiences loneliness more than their counterparts dealing 5 or more (M= 28.80) and 3 or less (28.20) clients on daily basis. Ordinarily, loneliness exists because of the isolation people feel in them. The isolation can come as a result of loss of someone or something people are dearly attached with and when it is taken away experience of loneliness creeps in. It’s usually because of this separation that creates the feeling of loneliness. However the result seems to indicate that loneliness is experiences similarly across age group of the sex workers and that number of client is also not important.

A 2?3 ANOVA was applied to see the effect of age and number of client on wellbeing. The results indicated a significant effect of number of clients on the measure wellbeing (F (2, 109) = 3.55; p<.05). in addition, the mean results indicate that less the number better is the wellbeing, i.e., dealing with 3 or less clients (M= 8.00) instills less threat to wellbeing of the commercial sex workers than dealing with 4 clients (M= 7.88) and 5 or more (M= 7.12) clients per day. Dealing with high number of clients in sex work demand usually extra time and efforts in terms of mental and physical efforts, which may not be conducive for a woman's physical and psychological health. The results seem to indicate the same. Main effect of age and interaction effect were not found to be significant.

The correlation results (table 2) indicated a negative relationship between number of clients per day and well being. It suggests that number of client is a potent source of good or depleted wellbeing among the commercial sex workers. Interestingly, a negative correlation between perceived stress and age of the respondents. This result seems to suggest that with aging these sex workers are more adjusted to the daily demands of the work they do and consequently are more relieved and hence less stress. Furthermore, the measure of loneliness revealed no statistically significant relationship between any of the measure under study once again suggesting that the feeling of loneliness is not affected by either age or number of clients and also it is not statistically related to stress or wellbeing for the commercial sex workers.

Conclusion

Socio-economic factors such as financial handicap, trafficking, unemployment and peer influence are the major factors encouraging the growth of the sex industry in India. Stress as a function of age and number of client is an important factor was used in the present study but revealed no significant effects. However, client’s number was significant with wellbeing. Age and number of client was also not significant with the measure loneliness. Some of the other studies have documented an association between sex trading and multiple traumas and other characteristics associated with psychological distress (El-Bassel et al., 1997; Fullilove, Lown, & Fullilove, 1992; Kelly, et al., 1992).

This finding should be viewed in the light of two limitations. First, because of difficulty in finding the respondents random or systematic sampling procedure could not be used, thus, the conclusions may not be representative of all women in this trade. Second, the present study did not consider stressful life events, such as trafficking, socio-economic conditions prior to entering flesh trade, childhood abuse, and domestic violence, etc., that could confound the relationship between sex trading and perceived stress among this population. These associations notwithstanding, the question as to what extent psychological distress and loneliness is a consequence of commercial sex work and its possible relationship with various other psychological variables remains unanswered by this study. Future studies are needed to examine culturally relevant appraisals, coping style, psychological symptoms and their consequences on the commercial sex workers. Knowledge of psychological factors can be used to develop interventions for this population. Despite these limitations, this study has implications for assessing and possibly providing possible intervention for mental health problems of sex workers. The level of perceived psychological stress among sex workers highlights the need to assess their need for psychological interventions.

The feeling they have of being stigmatized because of the nature and status of their work likely contributes to their stress (Fullilove, Lown, & Fullilove, 1992) and shattered wellbeing because the wellbeing results were slightly at the lower side. More so, for the majority of commercial sex workers, commercial sex constitutes their major source of income and it was revealed that given a chance they would like to leave the profession. In this line, women who are ready to leave this profession should have some policy from the government addressing their rehabilitation and alternate source of income generation.

Gaining access to public assistance may enable some women to reduce their dependency on sex trading. Those who are not willing or able to leave sex trading need training to develop strategies to reduce the dangers of their work. By and large, high number of partners and inconsistent risky sex conditions among these sex worker, as reported, indicate that these women will continue to become infected with STDs, if not yet affected, and get into drug abuse as well. Thus, government and providers of public health must intensify their efforts to bring them into the mainstream of the country.

Marxism and Functionalism can certainly be defined as classical sociology and both have had a significant impact upon contemporary understanding of culture. Neither perspective is the preserve of a sole theorist. They are multifaceted and extensive in scope. Thus, due to the limits of this study, this essay shall concentrate on but a few of the theoretical points, namely consensus and conflict because, as I hope to prove, these provide and incredibly useful framework for the analysis of contemporary culture

In Leviathan Thomas Hobbes notes that man in the state of nature is inexorably engaged in a war of all against all. Reason dictates that one’s life is, “Solitary, poor, nasty brutish and short,” (Hobbes in Parsons p90) where man’s interests conflict so greatly. How humanity solved this problem of conflict of interest, the creation of society, was the study of Emile Durkheim, the French sociologist who first developed the Functionalist perspective.

“In his (Durkheim’s) criticism of the utilitarian (Hobbes) conception of contractual relations……he insists that a vital part is played by a system of binding rules embodied in the institution of a contract.” (Parsons p376)

The functionalist perspective was further advanced by Talcott Parsons. “The concept of order is located predominantly at the level of the social system itself and the cultural system becomes a mechanism of the functioning of the social system.” (Savage p146) The normative order, for Parsons, is the key ingredient that retains social order in society. Norms, which can be regarded as moral standards, regulate action and interaction. Norms are coercive, to break them invites sanctions from social estrangement to capital correction and punishment. Individuals are forced to cooperate and act in predictable ways, or face the consequences. Norms are external to individuals, laws and the like, but also internalised through socialisation, children’s schooling being a very important normative learning area. The normative order, that produces acquiescence in individuals to the order, Is the staple of Parson’s consensus theory. “Society therefore is a self equilibrating system: order is always maintained without major changes in society. In the end, the system functions.” (Jorgenson p285)

A perfect example of how the system functions is Durkheim’s concept of Anomie in his study of suicide. Anomie is, “precisely the state of disorganisation where the holds of norms over individual conduct has broken down.” (Parsons p377) A possible outcome of this kind of break down is suicide. Norms so permeate society that personal equilibrium, individual’s thoughts and actions, is permeated too, as governed by norms as social interaction and law.

“A persons will is constrained by the application of sanctions.” (Parsons p379) If an individual breaks one of the norms of society, then society will sanction them to discourage other such deviant behaviour through the threat of punishment. In the case of Durkheim’s suicide study, the sanction imposed when an individual commits suicide is the social stigma that then attaches itself to their family accompanied by the threat, in Christian countries for instance, of religious punishment – burning in hell.

In Erving Goffman‘s view of society, “The key factor is the maintenance of a single definition of the situation, this definition having to be expressed, and this expression sustained in the face of a multitude of potential disruption.” (Goffman p246) For Goffman actors meet on the field of interaction under a metaphorical flag of truce, working together to attempt the smoothest possible interaction with the best possible outcome for both sides.

“The maintenance of this surface of agreement, this veneer of consensus, is facilitated by each participant concealing his own wants behind statements which assert values to which everyone present feels obliged to give lip service.” (Goffman p20-21) The definition of a given situation may well only be a veneer, a pretence, lies may be suspected even known but, as long as they are not revealed, then definition of the situation is maintained. Goffman’s language, the use of the word consensus, shows his theoretical links to the Functionalist perspective, in particular Parson’s consensus theory. The reason that lies may not be exposed is because it would be against a societal norm to do so. Thus norms regulate interaction providing a consensus. For Goffman the individual acts in different roles that are governed by norms, suppressing and sacrificing certain drives, needs or wants in order to maintain the definition of the situation, to maintain the consensus. As the definition of the situation allows individual acts of interaction to maintain cohesion and momentum, so the normative order governs those definitions, allowing the juggernaut of society to roll ever on.

This classical thread, from Durkheim to Goffman via Parsons is incredibly important for the understanding of contemporary culture. That there is a normative order and how it regulates human action is critical for any understanding of society. The minitatude of Goffman’s analysis, explaining the exigencies of social interaction, the tiny details, has proved both popular and crucial in contemporary sociology.

The Marxist tradition, starting with Karl Marx and Frederich Engels, has many issues with the functionalist consensus view of society. “The state is by no means a power imposed on society from without; just as little is it ‘the reality of the moral idea,’ ‘the image and the reality of reason.’” (Engels in Hechter p180) The Marxist tradition has many issues with what it considers a utopian explanation of power in social order. The state, the embodiment and, in many cases producer, of societal norms is felt to be the inevitable consequence of a society ripe with irreconcilable antagonisms largely manifesting in class conflict. “A power, apparently standing above society, has become necessary to moderate the conflict and keep it within the bounds of ‘order’.” (Engels in Hechter p180) This power, this normative order of the state is alienating and another tool for the ruling class to maintain its position of dominance over the working classes. As with most Marxist theory, the power that maintains social order is not fostering cooperation but coercion. We have already seen that punitive punishment is meted out to norm breakers. Where Parsons sees this as a tool for society to remain cohesive and function relatively smoothly, Engels sees a repressive state apparatus designed to keep the proletariat in its place through sanctions.

Where Functionalism describes consensus, Marxism defines conflict, class conflict. The normative order is ideology in all the very worst senses of the word. “A dominant power may legitimate itself by promoting beliefs and values congenial to it; naturalising and universalising such beliefs so as to render them self-evident and apparently inevitable.” (Easthope p5-6) Appearing as truth, immovable, certain, ideology controls the class conflict always in favour of the ruling class, the bourgeoisie. The most pertinent criticism of Functionalist theory by Marxism is that it explains the inequalities of the system as functional. That the proletariat are poor is for the good of the system, the society. Marxism refuses to accept this. The system is unfair and unequal because those in charge, through ideology, keep in that way, protecting their interests. “Children also learn the rules of good behaviour, i.e. the attitude that should be observed by every agent in the division of labour, according to the job he is ‘destined for’: rules of morality, civic and professional conscience, which actually means rules of respect for the socio-technical division of labour and ultimately the rules of order established by class domination.” (Althusser p127)

The Marxist tradition, and in particular the concepts of ideology, are hugely important to contemporary Feminist understandings of society. “The univocity of sex, the internal coherence of gender, and the binary framework for both sex and gender are considered throughout as regulatory fictions that consolidate and naturalise convergent power regimes of masculine and heterosexual oppression.” (Butler p44) The pervasive and domineering regimes in Marxism and Feminism are, essentially, controlled by the same – rich and powerful men. The importance of feminist sociology in contemporary society is its understanding of, and explanation for, the universality of female subjugation. It is considered not enough that women are dominated by men because it is functional, for the best of the system. It is illogical to conclude, as the functionalist tradition can be accused, of assuming that it is functional to effectively marginalise the contribution of one half of the population of mankind. Just as it is illogical to assume that it is functional to marginalise the proletariat, who constitute a majority of humanity. The Marxist tradition, and the feminist, emphasise the conflict in society, along gender and class lines, and demand sociological attention be paid. Moreover they identify the place where much of this conflict occurs, the ideological order, the self same normative order that the functionalist tradition regards so highly. No sociological study of contemporary society would be worth attempting without some attempt to explain gender, class and other inequalities beyond the assumption that they are ‘for the best,’ of the system.

In conclusion society continues. Always has and always will till humanity is extinguished. In no way could society continue without some form of consensus, some shared values or norms. To be without such rules we would exist in the state of nature, in anarchy and thus we would not exist for very long. Yet within those rules there is great scope for conflict. Functionalism, in its more ‘pure’ form of Durkheim and Parsons, and in the more unique observations of Goffman, help explain that consensus that is so essential to avoid anarchy. Marxism, the pure of Marx and Engels, the adaptation of Feminism, show how that consensus becomes corrupted and a tool for one section of society to dominate another. Society continues. With conflict and consensus. Contemporary society can not be understood without appreciating why and how conflict and consensus occur. Functionalism and Marxism both illuminate those aspects, both show how society continues.

Bibliography

Althusser, Louis, 1971. For Lenin Western printing services Ltd.

Butler, Judith, 1999. Gender trouble. Routledge

Easthope, Antony, 1991. Literary into cultural studies. Routledge

Goffman, E, 1990. The presentation of the self in everyday life. Penguin

Michael Hechter Theories of social order published by Stanford University press 2003

Nik Jorgenson Sociology an interactive approach Harper Collins 1997

Parsons, Talcott, 1937 The structure of social action. Free press.

Stephen Savage The theories of Talcott parsons pub by Macmillan 1981

What are the principal differences between ‘consensus’ and ‘conflict’ approaches to the sociological analysis of education?

The sociological study of education focuses upon the effects that social institutions and individual characters have upon the education system. Education is often seen as positive social practice which thrives to identify personal skills and talents, and subsequently build upon them. Consensus social theorists support this approach with structural functionalism claiming education to have many positive functions. Education is essential to maintain the modern workforce. This view, however, is not universal; with Marxists taking a contradictory view that education works to reproduce social inequalities, therefore providing negative functions for society. This conflict approach claims that the education system does not promote equality but instead transmits capitalist norms and values, benefitting the ruling class and leaving the working class at a disadvantage.

One of the main purposes of education, according to the consensus approach of functionalism, is that of socialization. This is described by Bilton (1996: 12) as the process through which individuals ‘learn the ways of thought and behaviour considered appropriate in society’. Primary socialization is administered informally by the family. This process is then continued with the provision of a more formal style of secondary socialization by other institutions within society. According to Durkheim (1925) and Parsons (1959), both key consensus theorists, education plays an essential role in this secondary socialization, albeit in different ways, by performing functions that the family is unable to. This is done through the teaching of specific skills for specialised occupations, but also, possibly more importantly in Durkheim’s eyes, through the socialization of the common norms and values of society. The teaching of religious and historical beliefs helps to create a child with a sense of identity within the community. Fulcher and Scott (2007: 321) feel it was, however, the moral aspect of the secondary socialization provided by the education system that concerned Durkheim the most. Through discipline within school, children are taught morally acceptable behaviour. However, rather than simply being forced to obey, it is essential that they are made to understand and appreciate the moral code of wider society, causing them to go on to choose to behave in a moral way. Hargreaves (1982) commented on the idea that the education system should promote social solidarity, the concept of providing pupils with a sense of community. Aspects of school, such as all wearing the same uniform and participating in group charity or sporting events help to provide pupils with a sense of belonging within the school, but also provide links with the wider community, and society as a whole. The moral significance of education is also recognised by Parsons; however it is the value of individual achievement which he focuses upon. This sense of achievement was the central aspect to a functioning industrial society in mid-twentieth-century America, where Parsons was studying. Although their approaches differed, both Durkheim and Parsons focused upon the positive functions of education for society.

Another key concept in the consensus approach to the sociological study of education is that of meritocracy. That is the idea, endorsed by Parsons, of a social system in which rewards are gained for individual hard work, talent and ability. In such a situation, people would be rewarded for their effort, and not on the basis of other characteristics such as age, gender, ethnicity, class. Thus giving all children within the education system an equal opportunity to succeed. An example of an attempt to create a meritocratic school system is that of the tripartite system put in place by the 1944 Butler Act. By the creation of Grammar, Secondary and Secondary Technical schools the government was recognising the need for equality of opportunities, and therefore attempting to suit the abilities of children to right type of schooling. It also provided free education for all children between the ages of 5 and 15, regardless of their class background, emphasising this attempt to create equal opportunity. This system has been criticised, however, as even though it did mean that the 11+ was open to all, the test itself was said to be written in middle class language, therefore meaning that the working class were still left at a disadvantage. This led to it being said that the system was actually leaning towards Marxism, rather than functionalist ideas, as it appeared to reproduce social class inequalities.

On the other hand, the conflict approach of Marxism opposes the view that we should assume that the education system serves to meet the needs of society as an entirety. Within society there is a significant conflict of interests, and therefore needs, between capital and labour. This demonstrates a capitalist society in which the ruling class owns the means of production, bringing them power over the working class. We should therefore, according to Marxists, not view education as meeting the needs of society as w hole, but instead as meeting the needs of the bourgeoisie. In order to maintain a state of false class consciousness, capitalism requires a workforce that is obedient, passive and motivated who are prepared to work hard at the benefit of the ruling class without question. According to Bowles and Gintis, the education system was the main means used by capitalism to produce such workers. The correspondence principle (1976: 131) claims that what working class students are taught in schools mirrors that of what goes in the workplace. The qualities that the workforce are required to have are taught to students in schools. This is done through the curriculum and the hidden curriculum (Illich, 1973 in Fulcher and Scott, 2007). Aside from the formal curriculum, the subjects which provide students with academic knowledge, vocational skills and qualifications, Illich identified a hidden curriculum. This hidden curriculum teaches pupils patterns of behaviour such as punctuality, meeting deadlines and accepting authority. The working class are unaware of this covert curriculum that is being imposed upon them. Along with the acceptance of hierarchy, the hidden curriculum also leads the working class to believe that they are part of a meritocratic society; in they will gain the rewards for working hard. Therefore meaning that they will conform in the hope of long term gratification, however it is just another way for the ruling class to keep them passive. It is also helps to justify inequality, as the working class are led to believe that everyone is equal, however, in reality; the middle class are receiving more encouragement. Another way in which the correspondence theory works is by connecting levels reached within the education system to that of occupational levels (Fulcher and Scott: 327). When in the lower levels of the education system, obedience is emphasized, as it is in low-level occupations. This pattern continued with intermediate levels in education when more independent work is encouraged. Once a student reaches higher education they are expected to be both self-motivated and self-disciplines, essentially a completely independent worker, just as those in senior levels of occupation. Therefore, the level a student reaches in education determines the occupational level they will stay at. This is another way in which education reproduces social inequalities.

Bowles and Gintis, like the Marxist perspective in general, have however been criticised for being too deterministic. It is too presumptuous to claim that everyone is going to conform to the rules and remain passive. The education system, also, could not produce complete conformity of the working class without the support of the family.

As can be seen there are a number of differences and varying ideas between the consensus and conflict approaches to the sociology of education, however they are all based on the idea that functionalism (a consensus approach) identifies education as providing society with positive functions, however the conflict approach recognises the education system as a negative body which reproduces social inequalities and is detrimental to the masses. Where functionalism sees education as meeting the needs of society as a whole, capitalism instead claims for it to serve the needs of the ruling class and ignore those of the rest of society.

References

Banks, O. 1978. The Sociology of Education. London: Batsford.

Barton, L. And Walker, S. 2007. Sociological perspectives and the study of education. In: Meighan, R. and Harber, C. A Sociology of Educating. (Fifth Edition), London: Continuum. pp. 282-298.

Bilton, T. et al. 1996. Introduction to Sociology. (Third edition), London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Bowles, S. and Gintis, H. 1976. Schooling in Capitalist America: educational reform and the contradictions of economic life. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Fulcher, J. and Scott, J. 2007. Sociology. (Third Edition), New York: Oxford University Press.

Trowler, P. 2003. Education Policy. (Second Edition), London: Routledge.

Conflict resolution and transformation are issues which have become very topical in debates and discussions on Zimbabwe. This is not only because Zimbabwe is characterised by many conflicts, but much more so due to the realization that in most cases the conflicts have negative impacts the a nation’s socio-economic and political development. Thus conflict resolution and peace building processes have become very essential in solving the problem of conflicts in the country. This chapter intends to examine the grassroots conflict resolution and peace building processes in Zimbabwe with a focus on Tongogara district as case study. It will also seek to explore the context, in which traditional leaders operate, the processes that link them to the people as well as how other scholars view them in terms of their effectiveness.

Saunders (2000) defined literature review as a search and evaluation of the available literature in a given subject or area. Reviewing related literature helps the researcher gain insight on what other researchers have done and establishes existing gaps which the research seeks to ultimately fill. Punch (1998) considers the review of related literature as a researcher’s roadmap in the quest to convert tentative research problems to a detailed and concise plan of action. Lincoln (2005) augments the same notion by suggesting that it is of importance to be guided by related literature as this will equip the researcher with requisite skills to evaluate various viewpoints basing on the work that other researchers have done.

The literature reviewed in this chapter seeks to analyse the role of traditional leaders in conflict transformation, the concept of conflict transformation, the common conflicts experienced at grassroots level and more importantly the approaches that are used by the traditional authorities in transforming conflicts. It further seeks to examine the theoretical and scholarly perspectives on the effectiveness of community processes that are employed in conflict management and peace building.

2.1 Background to conflict theory

The period from 1970 to the present, has witnessed a remarkable interest in studies in conflict management and transformation. This was motivated by a number of factors which include ideological changes in the international system, the independence of most African states and the rise of many civil wars in Africa and the rise of new actors in conflict resolution paradigm. Interestingly however, most of the literature produced focuses mainly on the documentation of conflicts, their nature, and types of resolution that can be achieved neglecting the area of conflict prevention, resolution, transformation and management; hence the need to research on the practical ways that can help in the achievement of sustainable peace especially at grassroot level. Gaps have also been noticed in terms of the level at which conflict analysis is taking place as many scholars tend to place conflict resolution and transformation at the high level of governance not considering that many causes of conflict are deeply rooted in the grassroots and require the grassroots level actors to act on them to achieve sustainable peace and development.

Sandy (2004) places emphasis on the conditions that are necessary for the transformation of conflicts. He argues that any attempt to articulate the nature of conflict and conflict resolution, must address those conditions, which are favourable for its emergence. He mentioned participation, engagement, freedom, justice and human rights as pre requisites for the achievement of conflict transformation. Sandy (2004) also mentioned the need for Community building and democratization as important strategies in conflict resolution and transformation .However Sandy does not unpack on how the democratization and community building can be used to achieve conflict transformation at the lowest level of governance where there are traditional leaders and councillors as key actors in governance. This therefore leaves out players like the grass root leaders and other influential people in the communities who are also important in peace building. The Online Journal of Peace and Conflict Resolution (2010) focuses on definitions of peace and conflict, bringing the different kinds of peace that are there and the pre-requisites for conflict transformation and peace , the mechanisms of achieving this peace is however often overlooked. This therefore leaves a gap in terms of literature that explores practical ways of resolving conflicts and peace building,

Rumel (2004) looks at alternative concepts of conflict resolution and the principles underlying those concepts. He mentions peace, as being a state of mind, that is, if the mind is at rest, then it follows that there will be peace and vice versa. Rumel (2004) views the human mind, as major contributor to conflict as he points out that, for as long as one has unsatisfied desires he/she won’t be at harmony with the others. He brings out an important aspect in conflict transformation when he states that a human being needs to be satisfied with oneself and the outcome of any resolution exercise that maybe employed.

Harris and Reilly (2005), emphasize the need to build a strong grassroots background as critical in addressing deeply rooted conflicts. They emphasise on the importance of addressing the root causes of conflicts through the involvement of parties involved in the conflicts. Their focus is however more inclined to ethnic conflicts and tribal conflicts, as they believe these conflicts are more a result of identity than anything else. This work is important, as it looks some of the practical ways in conflict resolution that are needed to achieve peace more so at grassroots level as most ethnic and tribal conflict are noticed at lower levels of administration like the districts and the villages.

Most of the literature on conflict turns a blind eye on the role of grassroots actors in conflict transformation as usually their focus is large scale level, this often does not bring sustainability and progressive development, moreover this also leads to the extinction or decline in relevance of the grassroots approaches that are being used in the rural communities in developing countries.

2.2 The concept of Conflict transformation

Conflict transformation is the term that has come into common usage over the years from the early 1980s, as a concept and a process that encompasses various aspects of conflict prevention, peace building, supporting local capacities for peace and transformational development. Conflict transformation arose as an alternative to the dominant paradigms of conflict resolution. As advocated by Lederach (1995), conflict transformation was conceptualized to provide a comprehensive framework for addressing conflict throughout its phases, that is from the initial stages of indirect conflict, to full-scale direct conflict to lastly, its resolution. Conflict transformation seeks to address questions often neglected on conflict resolution; structural violence, culture and cultural identity and the role individuals can play in diminishing conflict intensity and duration (Miall et al 1999). However, conflict transformation has also been articulated as an extension of current practices incorporated in peace-building (Miall et al 1999). This distinction does not however, affect the primary goals and objectives of a transformational approach.

A number of conflicts theorists like Lederach (1998) advocate for the pursuit of conflict transformation as opposed to conflict resolution and conflict management, this according to Lederach (2000) is because conflict transformation reflects a better understanding of the nature of conflict itself. Conflict resolution implies that conflict is bad hence something bad should be ended thus conflict can be “resolved “permanently though mediation and other intervention processes, conflict management on the other hand correctly assumes that conflicts are long term processes that people can be directed or controlled as though they were physical objects (Lederach 2000). Furthermore Conflict transformation as put by Lederach does not suggest that we simply eliminate or control conflicts but rather work with its dialectic nature, this takes into cognisance the fact that conflict is social and naturally created by humans who are involved in relationships, it changes (transforms) these events, people, relationships that created the initial conflict. The cause and effect relationships thus goes both ways from the people and relationships to the conflict and then back to the people and the relationships (Vayrnen 1991), thus in this sense conflict transformation describes a natural occurrence.

Conflict Transformation also involves transforming the way conflicts are expressed, it may be expressed competitively, aggressively or violently or it may be expressed through nonviolent advocacy, coalition or attempted cooperation (Lederach 1998) .The Centre for Conflict Dynamics(CCD 2009) views conflict transformation as a process by which conflicts such as ethnic conflicts are transformed into peaceful outcomes , it is therefore a process of engaging with and transforming the relationship, interests, discourses and if necessary the very constitution of society that support the continuation of violent conflict. In support of this view by CCD (2009), The Search for Common Ground (SFCG 2010) sees conflict transformation as initiatives that are often characterised by long time horizons and interventions at multiple levels, aimed at changing perceptions and improving relationships and addressing the roots of the conflict including inequality and social justice.

Conflict transformation theory recognises the need to transform the conflict at a number of levels. Vayrnen (1991) identifies five transformations that need to occur in order to have a positive shift in the conflict. These are context transformation, structural transformation, actor transformation, issue transformation and individual / group transformation. This approach to conflict transformation acknowledges the multi-dimensional nature of conflict.

2.2.1 Principles of conflict transformation

Burton 1996 identifies several principles to which he argues form the backbone of a conflict transformation process.

Conflict should not be regarded as an isolated event that can be resolved or managed but as an integral part of society’s on-going evolution and development.

Conflicts should not be understood sorely as inherently negative and destructive occurrence but rather as a potentially positive and productive force of change if harnessed constructively.

Conflict transformation goes beyond merely seeking to contain and manage conflict, instead seeking to transform root causes of a particular conflict.

Conflict transformation is a long term gradual and complex process requiring sustained engagement and interaction.

Conflict transformation is not just an approach and set of techniques but a way of thinking about and understanding conflict itself.

Conflict transformation is particularly intended for intractable conflicts, with deep rooted issues.

2.3 Background to Traditional Leadership in Zimbabwe

Ranger (1996) poses that the institution of traditional leadership has been around in Africa from time immemorial, traditional leaders are according to ranger the politicians of the pre-colonial age. At independence in 1980, Chieftainship was retained as a symbol of traditional values but the chiefs themselves were stripped of all their administrative and judicial functions. The chiefs and headman even lost their tax collecting functions as well as some administrative customary functions. District Councils assumed the administrative functions previously performed by traditional rulers whilst community courts took over the judicial functions.

Ncube (2011) posts that the failure by the new government to incorporate and co-opt traditional institutions into formal state institutions in the first decades of independence lies at the heart of the confusion surrounding local administration in the communal areas after independence, this confusion was characterised by lack of clarity on the roles and functions between the Traditional institutions of Chiefs, Headman and Village Heads and the elected leadership of Village Development Committees (VIDCOs) and Ward Development Committees WADCOs in land matters. This precipitated a crisis of communal leadership in the communal areas of Zimbabwe whereby the legitimacy of the traditional institutions began to be questioned .Ncube (2011) further states that the powers of the traditional leaders were becoming defunct in many areas of the country, some chiefs, headman and village heads required some of their defunct authority over land proceeded to clandestinely allocate land, this land allocation has become the common source of conflicts in Zimbabwe’s rural areas, thus the crisis of communal leadership sufficed itself in many land conflicts which occurred throughout the country

The Zimbabwe governance system like in most African countries is characterised by co-existence of hereditary chieftainship and a democratically elected leadership. Traditional leadership is active at all levels of governance in Zimbabwe from the national level to the village level. At the highest level of the institution is the Chief, at the middle of the hierarchy is the office of the Headman and at the lowest tier which is village level is the Village Head , These institutions are established by the Traditional Leaders Act which recognises the role of each office in community development and peace building. The institution of traditional leadership is also recognised by the constitution, unlike local government that is created by statutes of Parliament. There are however conflicting claims to legitimacy and uneasy co-existence between traditional and elected leadership. Traditional leadership and local government officials occasionally trade accusations of abuse of power, non-compliance with laws; customs and traditions, especially regarding allocation and management of resources such as land which forms the prevalent source of most conflicts in communal areas

The Headman has functions similar to those of the Chief on a delegated basis but he is also the chair of Ward Assembly meetings. Since the Village Head chairs both the VIDCO and Village Assembly, the VIDCOs survive on the hard work of the Village Head and in a number of cases the VIDCOs no longer operating with all VIDCO functions being performed by the Village Head whilst in some cases VIDCOs are only seen to be operating when land disputes and resource conflicts emanate (Moyo, 2006)

2.3.2 The rural Governance nucleus

The above diagram gives an explanation on the relationship in rural governance. The people form the core of governance and everything that is done at local level. The Africa Community Publishing and Development Trust (ACPDT 2010) explains that the authority in the rural areas rise with rank from the ordinary citizen or resident of a local area until it reaches the level of the rural district council. Which form the overall leadership in terms of development policies in Zimbabwean rural areas? the powers of the village heads are less than that of the headman as given in the traditional leaders Act cap 29.17(111) section 11, whilst those of the Headman are more than those of the Village heads but less than those of the chief in terms of the same Act (section 6 and 8; Traditional Leaders Act).

Matibenga (2010) Asserts that in conflict resolution, if a village head fails to solve a community conflict issue, they refer it to the headman and if a headman fails again that same issue is referred to the Chief, the Chief is the highest traditional authority in rural areas. Ncube (2011) however argues on the same line but stating differently that these hierarchies in the rural areas are the primary causes of conflicts in rural Zimbabwe, this is because there are conflicts between these traditional leaders themselves in terms of responsibilities as one can easily see that the Chief has no limits over his jurisdiction in the discharge of traditional authority, The chief has the power according to the Traditional Leaders Act and the Customary Law and Local Courts Act to deal with issues even those that can be adjudicated by the lower authority of traditional leadership as such this causes dissatisfaction amongst the headman and village heads, as a result if the lower authority try to adjudicated the same type of conflicts in future, their authority is easily undermined and as such this reduces their relevance in dealing with traditional matters. This duplication of duties has been going on well for quite some time and has thus undermined the co-existence of these traditional leaders and as such reduced the impact of the grassroots approaches to conflict transformation by the traditional authorities.

2.4 Aims of grassroots conflict resolution
2.4.1 Empowering the community

Kubasu (2008) observes that grassroots approaches to conflict resolution by traditional leaders seek to re-empower communities to make vital decisions and address the needs of their people as well as create an environment more conducive to lasting peace. This is because empowering the traditional leader is empowering the community as the community banks on its leadership for progress, opinion and development.

2.4.2 Restoration of Order and Relationships

From a traditional point of view, conflict is perceived as an unwelcome disturbance of the relationships within the community. Hence traditional conflict transformation aims at the restoration of order and harmony of the community. Cooperation between conflict parties in the future has to be guaranteed. Traditional conflict management is thus geared towards the future (Mare. 2004). Consequently, the issue is not punishment of perpetrators for deeds done in the past, but restitution as a basis for reconciliation. Reconciliation is necessary for the restoration of social harmony of the community in general and of social relationships between conflict parties in particular. The aim as put by Kubasu (2008) is “not to punish, an action which would be viewed as harming the group a second time. The ultimate aim of conflict transformation thus is the restoration of relationships

Another immediate objective of such conflict resolution is to mend the broken or damaged relationship, and rectify wrongs, and restore justice (Moyo 2009). This is to ensure the full integration of parties into their societies again (Bob-Manuel: 2006), and to adopt the mood of co-operation for progressive development.

2.4.3 Transforming societies

Other long term aims are based on building harmony in the community. It has been realised that tolerance is not maintained automatically, and should purposefully be aimed at and worked for. The Kpelle people of Liberia of West Africa are known for their ad hoc local meetings called “moots” or “community palavers”, where the conflicting parties arrive at mediated settlements through the use of experienced traditional leader (Bob-Manuel 2006). Bob-Manuel (2006) further tells that among the Ndendeuli of Tanzania, grasroot actors play active roles in conflict solving by suggesting an agreement and get as far as pressurising the parties into accepting it. Pressurising can be done through talking or singing: shaming and ridiculing. This special method can be used in contexts where it is acceptable and in instances where the cause of the dispute is self- evident.

2.5 The importance of Grassroots actors

Grassroots actors are well positioned to address matters of community building, and identity formation. This is so due to a number of reasons as noted by Wilson (2001). Firstly, grassroots actors are positioned within the communities that they are working. These places them in close proximity to each individual which builds trust, respect and confidence between those directly involved in the conflict. Wilson (2001) points out that the Volunteer conflict transformation project in the rural provinces of Rwanda was widely accepted because grassroots actors were integrated into the local planning processes which catered for developmental needs of the community.

Traditional approaches focus on the psycho-social and spiritual dimension of violent conflicts and their transformation. This dimension tends to be underestimated by actors who are brought up and think in the context of western enlightenment (Dore 1995). Conflict transformation and peace-building is not only about negotiations, political solutions and material reconstruction, but also about reconciliation and mental and spiritual healing. Traditional approaches have a lot to offer in this regard. They do not only deal with material issues, reason and talk, but also with the spiritual world, feelings and non-verbal communication. Thus Dore (1995) further highlights that reconciliation as the basis for the restoration of communal harmony and relationships is at the heart of customary conflict resolution.

“When dealing with conflicts based in a Third World or non-Western society, action or interference from external factors, such as International Non-Government Organisations, is often regarded as culturally insensitive or an act of Western imperialism” (Solomon and Mangqibisa 2000). This perception of outside interference affects the prospects of conflict transformation as external actors intervening in the conflict often have established methods of interaction that often disregard traditions of conflict resolution that are evident in conflict-ridden societies (Solomon and Mngqibisa 2000). Grassroots actors are however, often familiar with particularistic traditions of community-building. As these are more likely to be positively received by the people, traditional methods are more conducive to peace promotion and enduring stability and cooperation within the society.

Traditional approaches are holistic, comprising also social, economic, cultural and religious-spiritual dimensions. This is in accordance with the entirety of traditional lifestyles and world views in which the different spheres of societal life are hardly separated. (Kubasu 2008)The conflict parties can directly engage in negotiations on conflict termination and in the search for a solution, or a third party can be invited to mediate; in any case the process is public, and the participation in the process and the approval of results is voluntary. It is carried out by social groups in the interest of social groups (extended families, clans, village communities, tribes, brotherhoods, etc.); individuals are perceived as members of a group, they are accountable to that group, and the group is accountable for (the deeds of) each of its members.

Kubasu (2008) advances that grassroot action provides an invaluable contribution to the process and substance of conflict transformation. Through their position in the socio-political hierarchy, Traditional leaders are well placed to address issues of identity and may often initiate change in an environment generally un-conducive to larger scale attempts at conflict resolution. Whilst the activities engaged by grassroots actors is largely context specific, conflict transformation theorists and practitioners can look to the success of different grassroots initiatives to build upon the current literature.

2.5.1 Comparison between grassroots conflict transformation and Morden conflict resolution
Table 1(Adopted from Kubasu 2008)
Traditional conflict resolution values
Morden

Judgement handed down by the traditional leader whose throne is hereditary and his assessors selected on their merits

Judgement handed down by judges whose

office is conferred on them through formal

qualifications

Peaceful resolution and recourse to justice

Frequent recourse to revenge and violence,

without waiting for justice

Concern to reconcile the parties in

conflict

Judgements are categorical. There is no

concern to bring together the parties to the

conflict, nor for any later outcome

The traditional leaders act out of a spirit

of honesty, impartiality and fairness

They offer their services voluntarily

Bureaucratic and (at times) corrupt mentality

Paid work

Justice by the people involving everyone

(everyone can come to listen and give

an opinion)at the dares or village circles

Justice is the province of a particular group

of people (those with formal qualifications)

Lengthy judicial process

Disputes settled quickly or over a period of time(transformative)

Moral and social sanctions

Physical punishment and material fines

Torture and imprisonment(does not create social harmony)

Divesting individuals of their functions

Being discredited in others’ eyes

Being marginalized

Paying fines

Once the penalty has been paid, no further

reference made to offences committed

2.5.2 Conflict Mapping and Analysis

Processes of conflict resolution in Africa are characterised by three dimensions which include the nature of conflicts, conflict resolution mechanisms and the outcome of such mechanisms. In understanding the nature of conflicts, first there is need to identify types of conflicts (Maruta and Mpofu: 2004). There have been different ways of identifying types of conflicts. One way is in terms of complexity. It has been observed that in Zimbabwe there are simple and complex types of conflicts (Alexander 1995). Most of the conflicts have been and continue to be complex. The second way is in terms of duration. In this context there are short lived and protracted conflicts. Protracted conflicts are the most common in rural Zimbabwe these include conflicts of resources especially land and well as ethnic or tribal issues .In the Midlands and Matabeleland were protracted conflicts and civil wars that came after independence .

The third way is in terms of violence. There are conflicts which are violent and those which are non-violent. Some people have characterised the non-violent conflicts as latent or structured conflicts (Fisher 2007). However, most conflicts which have been studied and which have drawn greater attention are violent conflicts which have involved bloodshed. Although most conflict resolution measures have been taken on violent conflicts, there have also been situations when conflict resolution measures have been made on latent conflicts. For example the latent conflict between traditional leaders and elected councillors in the Zibabgwe district of Kwekwe gave rise to a process of peace negotiations under the auspices of the Centre for Conflict Management and Transformation (Mpangala, 2000). The fourth way of identifying types of conflicts is in terms of the scale of the conflict. In this context conflicts in rural areas have been categorised as either resource or political conflicts, with a few tribal and household conflicts

2.5.3 The effect of political involvement

Sometimes the role of traditional leaders as champions of conflict transformation and good governance is compromised by their involvement in politics, this motivates the people to challenge their legitimacy and the validity of their judgements, and as such this affects their leadership capabilities. The Newsday(2012) reported that the institution of the traditional leadership has come under spotlight following the government’s intention to bestow greater powers on the traditional leaders , the argument here is that the age old concept of traditional leaders remaining mere custodians of cultural values and interceding with the ancestors has been turned head on as a ruling government seeks to enhance their political expediency though influencing traditional leaders, Kubatana(2012) supports this by quoting President Mugabe’s speech when he said chiefs should no longer remain repositories of oral history

“You should be guardians of our national sovereignty and guard against those who delight in associating with our detractors and those who work in cahoots with the powers that seek to mislead our people”(Kubatana :2012)

Mararike (2011) observes that although there is need to improve the role and operations of chiefs , greater caution should be taken to prevent abuse of any authority guaranteed , traditional leaders are unable to operate effectively because of the dualism of using the Roman Dutch Law as the basis of our legal system and the traditional system hence there could be serious problems unless the traditional system of government is clearly separated from the political party system whereby traditional leaders are separated in a non-partisan way

Few traditional leaders have legal remaining to despise Morden forms of justice their judgement and authority can be easily contested and overlooked, the Chief Negomo vs. the Prime minister Tsvangirai issue is one such example of a situation where traditional leaders are oblivion to address community issues but go on to fight the politicians, however they end up with their decisions overlooked and their legitimacy questioned, Mararike (2011) further argues that the current crop of traditional leaders have no capacity , he argues that young ,educated and professional men should be appointed as chiefs otherwise the current crop would need support staff to dispense justice without biases among rural communities.

2.6 The Traditional Conflict Transformation approaches

During the years of traditional leadership in Africa various conflicts caused by different issues attracted various approaches to their resolution. Most conflicts and their resolution methods at that time were predominantly local. Conflicts were between individuals, villages, communities or tribes who lived in the same or adjoining areas. Those who intervened were often local elders and /or tribal leaders. When kingdoms developed about the 17th and 18th century in southern Africa, stronger and wider authority came into power, but the traditional methods of instigating and resolving conflicts had gone through very small changes and are now gradually starting their process of decline.

2.6.1 Mediation

Mediation is defined as an attempt to settle a dispute through an active participation of a third party(Mediator) who works to find points of agreement and make those in conflict agree on a fair result. The Harvard journal of Conflict Studies (Nov 2008) defines mediation as an act of reconciliation that is trying to unite and reach an agreement between conflicting parties.

The chiefs and headman are respected as trustworthy mediators all over Africa, because of their accumulated experience and wisdom as they are usually of an elderly age. Their role as mediators would depend on traditions, circumstances and personalities, accordingly of their society. These roles include: pressurising or manipulating conflicting parties to reach an agreement, making recommendations, giving assessment, conveying suggestions on behalf of a party. Behaviour used is facilitation, through clarifying information, promoting clear communication, interpreting standpoints, summarising discussions, emphasising relevant norms or rules, envisaging the situation if agreement is not reached, or repeating of the agreement already attained. The mediators can also remain passive, as they are there to represent important shared values. There is no predetermined model, so they are entitled to change their roles fr

Gender based development has been a major concern in the recent years. As far as the state of Himachal Pradesh is concerned, this state has gone through a long journey. Himachal Pradesh is ranked third in women empowerment index. Therefore, we can say the state has improved a lot in terms of women’s condition, status and development. The state is yet to improve in some of the key areas. For example, almost half of the women’s population has no say in the economic decision making. Also there are issues related to healthcare. The percentage of anemic women in this state is 40.9% (Central Statistical Organization, Govt. of India), it is lower than the overall percentage of India.

The State Government believes that women’s empowerment is essential for the overall development of the society. Himachal Pradesh happens to be the first state providing 50 percent reservation to the womenfolk to ensure their participation in the development process. Gram Panchayats with highest birth of girl child are being provided fiscal incentives in the form of additional development grant of Rs 5 lakh.

The State has been adjudged the best in women empowerment in a survey conducted by the prestigious weekly and National electronic channel and given the ‘Diamond State’ award. A number of schemes directed at women welfare and empowerment are being implemented in the State. Girls from poor families are being given Rs 11,001 marriage grant under ‘Mukhyamantri Kanyadan Yojna. For the marriage of 1056 such girls, an amount of Rs 1.16 crore was spent in 2008-09.

Financial assistance of Rs 2000 per child to destitute women for support of two children till they attain the age of 14 years under the “Mother Teresa Matri Sambal Yojna” is being provided. In 2008-09 an amount of Rs 1.07 crore was spent for support of 13060 such children. To support the birth of a girl child in BPL families, under the ‘Balika Samridhi Yojna’ an amount of Rs 500 is deposited in a bank or post office until she attains 18 years of age. Scholarships up to matriculation are also being provided to girls and in 2008-09, an amount of Rs 75 lakh amount was spent under this scheme.

Widow Re-Marriage Scheme has helped in getting 86 young widows to script a new beginning of their lives. Under this scheme, a financial grant of Rs 25,000 each during previous financial year was given. Families adopting permanent family planning after birth of one girl child were being awarded Rs 25,000 and with two girl child Rs 20,000 under “Indira Gandhi Balika Suraksha Yojna”. The Kishori Shakti Yojna is aimed at improving nutritional and health status of adolescent girls. In the year 2008-09 as many as 95,944 girls were provided supplementary nutrition. To check female foeticide, the Government has tightened the noose around sex determination centers in the State. Surprise checks on clinics conducting sex determination tests are being done and awareness campaigns at district and village levels are carried out to change the societal outlook towards girl child. Besides, the State Government had also launched the ‘Beti Anmol Hai’ campaign to create awareness amongst the populace about the skewed sex ratio in the State.

The Government has taken a strong stance on the evil of domestic violence. The State Government is exercising zero tolerance towards domestic violence and women atrocities by implementing the Domestic Violence Act, 2005 in the right spirit. The First Women Police Battalion was set up at Naina Devi in district Bilaspur. To save women from domestic violence and atrocities, three women constables have been posted in each of the police stations in the State. In addition to this, the rights of single women have also been ensured.

The State Government believes in empowering women to create a just society. The State has thus enhanced the social security pension of the widows and old aged women to Rs 330 per month benefiting over one lakh women in the State. On coming to power, the Government sanctioned public holiday on Karva Chauth, Bhaiya Dooj and Raksha Bandhan for women besides free travelling facilities for womenfolk to travel in HRTC buses within the State on Bhaiya Dooj and Raksha Bandhan.

By providing pensions to destitute, widows and aged women besides initiating various schemes for their welfare, the government has extended the social security spectra beyond the conventional provisions of women emancipation. With a focus on economic empowerment for helping women achieve financial independence, government schemes have been instrumental in the formation of 24,329 women self help groups. These groups involved in various income generating activities have generated an annual turnover of Rs 77 crores. To protect the rights of working women and check exploitation at workplaces, the government has constituted Female Grievances Committees. A gender budgeting cell has also been established in the social justice and empowerment department.

(Source: http://himachalpr.gov.in)

Data Based Analysis:

The idea behind this is to analyze the improvement of women’s status in the Himachal Pradesh. The data gathered for this was based on the following factors:

2.1 Sex Ratio:

There are 968 females per 1000 males in Himachal Pradesh. It is higher than the overall average for the country (933 females per 1000 males). But there is a slight decline in sex ratio. For 1991 census, it was captured as 976. The major concern is the heavily declined sex ratio among 0-6 age group (from 951 to 897). The NFHS-II points to a strong son preference among women in the state. 88% of women wanted at least one son and 62 % of those who have no daughter wanted no more children. The graphical representation of sex ratio for the last four censuses is given below:

Source: Census of India

2.2 Female Literacy Rate:

According to 2001 census the overall literacy rate of the state is 77.13 %. The female literacy rate is 68.03% though it’s lower than the male literacy rate (86%). The remarkable thing is the growth rate of female literacy. In 1971 it was 20.23 % only. The rate of increase can be found as 3.36% which is better than the overall rate for India (2.91%). The graphical representation of female literacy rate is mentioned below:

Figure 1

Source: Publication Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Govt. of India

2.3 Healthcare:

Health and health related issues have been a major concern everywhere in India. The conditions are more or less same. There are facilities provided by the Government but there are some areas where improvement is solicited. NFHS-II shows that only 30 % of women in the state have received three recommended ante-natal health care services- the three pre natal check-ups, two doses of tetanus injection and IFA tablets during their pregnancies. This is more than 50% lower than that of Kerala. Also, deliveries conducted in health institutions are 29% and only 21% of them received post natal check-ups. However their involvement in decision making process to take care of their own health is 80.8% which is higher than the socially advanced Kerala (72.6%) and economically developed Punjab (78.5%).

Figure 2

Source: National Family Health Survey-II, India (1998-99)

The report published by WHO shows that there are only 48 % of births assisted by the trained birth attendants. The Adolescent Pregnancy Rate is one of the major factors in case of Himachal Pradesh. The sharpest decline in the Adolescent Pregnancy Rate was observed in this state (W.H.O. report, 2005-06). This factor indicates the no of pregnancy among adolescent girls (girls 10-19 years old). The higher rate of adolescence pregnancy in earlier days (1992-93 & 1998-99) can have the following reasons:

Cultural norms

Socioeconomic deprivation,

Lack of education, no access to sexual health information

Unavailability of contraceptive services and supplies.

The graphical comparison of the Adolescence Pregnancy rate during different periods of time is given below:

Figure 3

Source: World Health Organization Report

2.4 Women Political Participation

The percentage of women elected to state legislative assemblies in Himachal Pradesh has grown from just 5.9% in 1970-75 to 8.8% in 1998-98. With the reservation of seats, a good number of women have been elected to Panchayati Raj Institutions in Himachal Pradesh. 40% of them are chairpersons of zila parishads, 31.94% chairpersons of panchayat samities and 33.20% chairperson of gram panchayat. However it has been observed that in Himachal Pradesh, women are still ostracized by political parties and isolated from mainstream politics. Barring a few examples like Mrs Vidya Strokes of Congress not many influential women politicians are there in Himachal Pradesh.

Figure 4

Source: World Health Organization Report

Table 1

Women’s representation in PRI’s in Himachal Pradesh
TYPE
TOTAL INSTITUTIONS
MALE
FEMALE
ZILA PARISHAD

CHAIRPERSONS

MEMBERS

12

252

60%

66.67%

40%

33.33%

PANCHAYAT SAMITI

CHAIRPERSONS

MEMBERS

72

1661

68.66%

66.40%

31.94%

33.59%

GRAM PANCHAYAT

CHAIRPERSONS

MEMBERS

2922

18264

66.80%

67.04%

33.20%

38.96%

Source: Publication Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Govt. of India

2.5 Women Security

Himachal Pradesh falls in the category of higher ranking states in crime against women. Kangra, Mandi and Shimla districts have recorded high rates of crime against women. The prevalence of drug abuse among males, female-headed households, migrant population etc. is some of the reasons for this state of affairs. Next to Kerala, Himachal Pradesh has the highest number of female headed households. Out-migration of male members for jobs and widowhood are mostly responsible for the existence of female headed households. The government has to pay special attention towards the social security and welfare of these households in general and widows with no children in particular. Another problem is that of female child labour. The number of girl child labour in Himachal Pradesh is more than eight times higher than in Kerala and Punjab. Engagement of girl children in petty-income earning activities deprives them of school education. This also affects the health of young and adolescent girls.

Table 2

Status of Crime Against Women in 7 Major States Of India
Major States
Persons /Million
Status of Crime

RAJASTHAN

208.16

HIGH

MADHYA PRADESH

206.97

HIGH

MAHARASHTRA

173.81

HIGH

HIMACHAL PRADESH
139.42
HIGH

ANDHRA PRADESH

121.97

HIGH

HARYANA

119.41

HIGH

ORISSA

110.35

UPPER MIDDLE

INDIA
120.67
HIGH

Source: Publication Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Govt. of India

3. MAJOR PROBLEMS OF THE WOMEN

The facts and figures provided above and our understanding about the status of women in the state of Himachal Pradesh through the various readings we did, familiarized us with two major problems in the state. These are High Rate of Violence against Women and Poor Health of Women.

We will be dealing with them one by one.

3.1 High Rate of Violence against Women:

As already mentioned the state ranks at 4th position in violence against women. This is a disturbing fact owing to the good position women enjoy in this state when compared to other states of the country in various aspects like sex ratio, education etc. on initial investigations we assume that spousal violence should contribute greatly towards this. However when we see the official figures it becomes clear that only 6% of it is by spouses. In fact Himachal Pradesh comes last when spousal violence is taken into account. The 4th position overall thus makes it important to look into the matter further.

Coomarswami(1992) points out that women are vulnerable to various types of violence all pertaining to the gender.

Because of being a female, women are vulnerable to rape, female circumcision, female infanticide, and other gender related crimes.

Because of her relationship to a man, she is prone to domestic violence, dowry murder etc

Being a member of a society, during times of riots, women may be raped or humiliated because she belongs to a particular community, group etc.

In case of Himachal Pradesh, the violence is due to the following major reasons.

Alcoholism: Violence against women has a high relation with alcoholism, as it increases the risk for women. Studies of domestic violence frequently document high rates of alcohol and other drug (AOD) involvement, and AOD use is known to impair judgment, reduce inhibition, and increase aggression. Alcoholism and child abuse, including incest, seem connected also.

Absence of the Male Counterpart: A majority of the male population have migrated out to urban areas leaving behind their families at home. This leaves their wives and children dependent on others, often prone to violence. Violence by family members in such cases is common. Also a majority of the male population in the state is in the armed forces. Therefore a large number of widows are present in the state; the risk to violence is thus aggravated.

The domestic violence act 2005 has provided some relief, however as reported in the state women hardly get FIRs lodged. Also as the law provides no provision of violence done by a woman to another cases or domestic violence between mother-in-law and daughter-in-law is neglected.

Administration tough due to the Terrain: as the state is majorly a hilly one the terrain is tough to be administrated. This makes the police inefficient in acting quickly to any violence reported. Also the woman has to travel over a tough terrain to report any crime against her. When there is no fear of being executed the crimes will rise.

Illiteracy: Illiteracy is high in rural areas leading to violence at household as well as society level.

3.2 Poor Health of Women :

There has been significant development in fields of education, political participation etc. however, the health status of the women here remains a major issue. The MMR of the state is 456 per 1, 00,000 against national figure of 453 and that of Kerala 87. More than one fourth of the women suffer from chronic energy deficiency. The percentage of obese women in the state is also high. The terrain of the state suggest that the fat accumulation in the women should be low however, this is not the case. More than one third females suffer from reproductive health problems.

Low food consumption by women lead to late menarche and early menopause. Also the major cause of high miscarriages and stillbirths. Himachal Pradesh has a high percentage (40.5%) of anemic women, almost double that of Kerala. The awareness abvout health is very limited. There is not much connection with the outer world. Less than 2/3rd ( 61%) women of the state have heard of HIV AIDS.

The various factors can be held responsible for the poor quality of health experienced by the women of the state. They are:

Illiteracy: This is the root cause of the poor health of the rural women of the state. There is no awareness about the various schemes available which they can use. Basic knowledge for leading a nutritious life is also missing in many cases.

Topography: The state being a hilly region makes accessibility to the available infrastructure difficult. To visit a government clinic they have to travel for about 2-3 hours, often leading to negligence on their part.

Poor infrastructure: The poor healthcare infrastructure of the state is a major hurdle in improving health of the women. There are frequent transfers of grassroots level health workers which further aggravates the problem.

Negligence from family: It being a majorly patriarchal society the health and other needs of the women are often neglected by the family. Lack of proper helping hands in the household work, and more importance given to the male counterparts leaves little resources which can be used for the development of the women.

Impact of Rural Entrepreneurship on Women in Kerala

A women with an entrepreneur tag is hard to find in a village setting where there are so many barriers and hurdles to just step out of home for an out of routine task. This paper focuses on the strides that women in rural Kerala regions have made in being self-employed through small start-ups and what were the gender based difficulties that they faced while pursuing or at the start of their ventures.

When it comes to being an entrepreneur, the major ingredients are need for achievement, economic independence and autonomy. Apart from that the willingness to take risks and persistence are the driving forces that can make or break an entrepreneurial venture.

The experience of women in Kerala is being discussed in this paper as Kerala is thought to be a state different in many perspectives when compared with the rest of Indian states. The women have, through the help of the state, opened up many entrepreneurial ventures. The ventures include readymade garment manufacture, food processing, handicrafts, electronics etc. A woman has to face a lot of hurdles in opening up of these ventures in the beginning, the family and societal pressures have direct implications on the business venture. These are present in the choice of her enterprise, location, marketing facilities, growth and diversification of the enterprise. Many of the women have to compromise as they cannot go out for the marketing of their products and thus they are restricted to their households which greatly affect the productivity and pose a hindrance in achieving the full potential. These societal pressures start from confining them to their homes as the family members are not ready to let their daughter in-law go out of home everyday even when they have easily allowed them to make a head start. The husbands in particular have had a major role to play in the opening up as they provided the much needed initial support unlike the other states.

Below given is the data for the sick units as a total of the functioning units by women entrepreneurs in the various districts of the state.

Table 4

District
No. of Units
Functioning
Sick

Trivandrum

827

28

709

Kollam

557

–
–

Pathanamthitta

390

–
–

Alappuzha

551

35

516

Kottayam

652

62

590

Idukki

304

33

271

Ernakulam

991

50

941

Thrissur

741

57

684

Malappuram

305

22

283

Palakkad

449

63

386

Kozhikode

453

94

359

Wayanad

158

15

143

Kannur

321

46

275

Kasargod

142

44

98

Total
6861
549
6312

Source: World Health Organization Report

The total sick units forms a staggering 92% of the total units and this has been particularly due to the fact that in most of the units the women are acting as mere fronts for the men as women helps them in obtaining concessional credits and subsidies.

Gender sensitization among the male members of the society has an important role to play. Though they have allowed women to diversify their livelihoods but there is some kind of inhibition at the same time. Women are also still dependent on their male counterparts for any decision related either to the day to day functioning of their enterprise or with the initial push required to open up their ventures. The facts from the entrepreneurship development programme in the state show some grim facts that even when the requisite credit is provided the women are still reluctant to give it a shot.

Above facts would definitely seem contrasting given the fact that Kerala as a state provides a sharp contrast with many other parts of the country in having little or no gender bias in many facets of a woman’s life. Women’s literacy is the highest in the country, sex-ratio is the best in the country, the fertility rate is as good as developed countries but still the above gender related hitches are still present in wide numbers. A good start has been made though but a lot needs to be done to ensure that the women come up in large numbers to start, sustain and augment their family incomes for the generations to come.

The findings of the center for development studies in Kerala reveal that a lot of women seemed to give priority to their families rather than to their enterprises. Women focused majorly on micro-enterprises and restricted their areas of operation to a very limited range due to the constraints imposed by the family not to venture out too much and expand their businesses as it demands a lot of time and effort. The women have to coordinate both their ventures as well as take proper care of their household needs such as children care, elders and husbands. This becomes too demanding at times and this is the major cause that many units are still sick and those of the other healthy units are not growing too fast either.

There were many domestic constraints which were prevailing and which can be easily cited as the major reasons for the not so successful micro-units. Common are minor children, bedridden parents, unsupportive husbands etc. These were the major familial constraints and apart from that there were a number of social constraints too such as adherence to traditional role expectations of society, and hence dependence on male support. These societal pressures were common across a gamut of women who were either directly or indirectly involved with any of the ventures within and outside their homes.

4.1 Prerequisites for Entrepreneurial Development

There are various personal and environmental prerequisites for Entrepreneurial Development which can bring a much needed change in the way ventures are started and maintained for long term sustainable development and empowerment of women. These measures become all the more important considering the fact that it is the rural poor women who are the most vulnerable in the society and who are the worst affected by the gender bias prevailing in the society. Since there is a very low level of education standard, there are not much aware of their rights and thus continue to be the oppressed gender in the society.

There are various factors which form the perquisites for promoting entrepreneurial spirit among rural women:

Creating Awareness: The women in rural areas must first be awakening up to the possibility of micro-enterprises which is a formidable task demanding considerable time and effort in the long run. It becomes the duty of the government and the not for profit sector units to create awareness among the most productive age group of rural women i.e. the newlyweds and middle aged women.

Motivating Entrepreneurs: The various economic and social benefits of owing and maintaining the micro-enterprise units should be cited to the women and they must be provided with ample time and support in order to fully establish their enterprises.

Expertise training: More and more vocational women training centers is the need of the hour and women are slowly and steadily awakening up to the possibility of having one in their close vicinity.

Continuous Follow-up: Taking cue from the example of Kerala where despite the good gender indicators the enterprises are still not able to survive in long term. A continuous follow-up strategy should be included as an essential part of the agenda for any organization.

Micro-Credit: The above factors establish a sound base for starting an entrepreneurial venture by a woman, but the major push factor is the easy availability of micro-credit at an affordable interest rate.

4.2 Reasons for self-employment

The women owners of the successfully operating multi product ventures had various reasons for having something of their own. Common were utilizing spare time, Self-learning and economic independence. Others had reasons such as Utilizing their technical know-how, contribution towards augmenting their family incomes and a low percentage citing a very positive new generation reason as that they needed to be their own boss.

4.3 Contrasts

A contrast which can be striking to many people is that woman having high educational qualifications were not the ones who would readily take up a career in being self-employed. Majorly, the women who were self-employed were from extremely backward backgrounds but the most successful in their ventures were the women from higher castes. Mostly the unsuccessful women entrepreneurs were found from the scheduled castes.

4.3 Final Word

Rural women are performing and venturing out into large and varied micro-enterprises which are both home based and out of homes depending upon the local conditions and gender mindset prevailing in a particular region. They have basic indigenous knowledge, skill, potential and resources which can prove helpful to establish and manage enterprises. What they need is awareness, motivation, technical skill and support from family, government and other organizations from both For-Profit and Not For-profit sector. With the right assistance they can strengthen their capacities besides adding to the family income and national productivity.

Marx recognised the growth of industrialism and a massive increase in the productive powers of labour. He stated that the growth of wealth at one end of the stratification system was matched by a growth of poverty at the other end. He saw Labour as the main driving force behind the industrial revolution; while history alters depending on the action of various classes of people the Marxist theory of history was seen as historical materialism. “The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle” (Marx and Engles 2001 [1848]) Historical Materialism is a theory of the transitions from one mode of production to another. (James Fulcher and John Scott 2011) The least developed forms of society took the form of primitive communism. With the development of technology production expands resulting in a change between property relations. This is how systems with private property and more complex divisions of labour appear. Marx researched feudal societies and found that these were centred on the division of labour between the landowners and the labourers who worked for them. He then stated that Capitalist societies developed only in those societies in which feudalism had already occured.

Marx identified two main areas within a Capitalist society. The first of these areas is the capitalist assets that can be used or invested to make future assets. This goes together with wage labour. Wage labour refers to the group of working class people who do not own the means to their livelihood therefore must find employment provided by owners of capital. Those who owned capital created a ruling class whilst the majority of the population making up the wage workers Marx referred to as the working class. With the spread of industrialisation peasants who’s previous form of work entailed working for themselves on their own land, moved to growing cities and helped to form this aforementioned working class. According to Marx capitalism is inherently a class system. The ruling class who are the owners of capital and the working class who are the wage earners are both to some degree dependant on each other. However, as Marx stated the dependency levels were highly imbalanced causing an exploitive relationship between the classes. Marx’s theory was based on what he called the materialist conception of history. According to this view its not the values humans hold that cause social change but economic influence. However, certain sociologists such as Weber disagree with this statement and say that whilst economic factors are important to some degree the ideas and values of humans have just as much an impact on social change.

According to Marx Capitalism and the division of labour alienates human beings from their work which is where the term “Alienation” first came from. “The object that labour produces, its product, stands opposed to it as something alien, as a power independent of the producer. (Karl Marx , Manuscript, 1844) Alienation refers to feelings of indifference or hostility not only to work but to the overall framework of industrial production within Capitalism. According to Marx it is where peoples work changes their labour from a creative act in which they enjoy doing, to a dehumanized activity where they are purley working to earn a living and no other satisfaction is gained. Alienated people do not enjoy their work and see it as a means to ensure their survival in order to make sure they are able to turn up for work the next week to do exactly the same. Whereas workers used to have an element of control over their work, the introduction of Capitalism meant that workers had none or little control over their jobs. Marx argues that work appears as something alien, a tasks that must be completed to earn a living but that is intrinsically unsatisfying. Durkhiem disagrees with Marx’s statement and had a much more optimistic outlook on the division of labour. He stated that specialised work roles would strengthen social solidarity and that people would become more linked together through a mutual dependency.

Marx believed that the competing nature of Capitalism compelled employers to force up productivity. Mechanization was their main way of doing so leading to a battle between work people and the machine, causing the workers to become alienated. There were four different aspects to alienation that were established. The first of these were product alienation; paid labour in Capitalism is alienating as the products don’t reflect any creative forces of the workers but are simply objects that are produced at the command of the employer. Workers then end up resenting these products and Marx states, in Capitalism the products of labour confront the workers as something alien. The second form of alienation discussed is the act of production itself. As the products are already alienated, so is the act of production. Workers only feel themselves when they are not working causing a feeling of forced labour as they get no form of personal value from their work. Marx says this is known as labour in which man alienated himself. Common purpose is the third form of alienation and is when the workers social actors become alienated from other workers. The portion of life spent working to earn a wage results in relationships with other social actors becoming devalued. The final form of alienation is loss of humanity. Due to all the previously mentioned factors of alienation, workers begin to develop feelings of being estranged from the very essence of human beings. This leads to people becoming alienated from their own inner selves and the worker feels a constant sense of misery. The condition of alienation for the workers themselves is something very negative. The worker gains no sense of personal value or worth from their work as they are exploited by the higher class and purely there to earn a living, not to better themselves. As well as this alien character such work is shown by the fact that when there is no compulsion, it is avoided like the plague. Furthermore, for Marx work is alienating for the worker because at the workplace the worker belongs to another person and alienations of humans from humans is the germ of class division.

Similarly to Marx, Blauner did some research of his own on the concept of Alienation and stated that workers on assembly lines were the most alienated but levels of alienation were somewhat lower at workplaces using automation. Blauner came up with four dimensions of alienation which were, powerlessness, meaninglessness, isolation and self-estrangement. Self estrangement came as a result of the previous three dimension of alienation and like Marx meant that workers had an inability to express themselves through their work therefore were unable to involve themselves in it.

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Blauner agreed with Marx’s theory to a certain extent in the sense that non ownership characterized all workers under Capitalism. However, whereas this was for Marx the main cause of capitalism, Blauner was more interested in the variation of alienation within capitalism. He found that alienation increased with industrialisation reaching its highest level with car assembly plants. Blauner accepted that capitalism causes all workers to experience some form of alienation however he claimed that this could be removed by advanced technology that would make work more satisfying and meaningful again. Harry Braverman 1974 dismissed the idea made by Blauner that automation had reversed the tenancy towards increasing alienation. He argued that it was the development in technology that had de-skilled workers by making tasks more complicated and separating mental and manual jobs. Mechanization had turned work in repetitive tasks that required little training. According to Braverman however, there were some advantages to deskilling as it made the labour cheaper and increased employer control. However, with increased employer control and technology becoming more and more developed, there was little need for as big a work force meaning many workers lost their jobs and the workers left still felt alienated as they still expeirienced little control over their roles and were ultimatley under ruling class orders.

In conclusion, it is clear to see that the concept of Capitalism causing Alienation is one deeply explored by the sociologist Karl Marx. He sees Capitalism and the division of labour as the two main factors resulting in alienation. The idea that the working class are exploited by the ruling class is one Marx sees of great importance. He saw economic activity and a Capitalist society as vital characteristics to social life and that aspects such as work, property and the division of labour form the basis of class division resulting in alienation and exploitation of labour. The way Marx sees it is that Capitalism causes class conflict whereby the ruling class have great power over the working class due to their position in society and their wealth; this then results in alienation. However, Marx theorized the inevitability of a workers revolution which would see the end of the capitalist system and class conflict would no longer exist. He argued that in the society of the future production would be more advanced and efficient than production under capitalism. Still in today’s society we witness a hugely wide gap between the rich and the poor. In developing countries there is a clear exploitation of labour where workers are at the mercy of their employers such as sweat shops and the exploitation of children. In situation like this the worker has little or no say over their job resulting in alienation.

Words: 1892

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