Author: Andre Coleman

The three branches of human sciences (Social sciences), Sociology, Anthropology and Psychology are interlinked in that they try to describe the different areas of human life and their relationships to each other. They offer an explanation on human behavior and in the society they live. Furthermore, these social sciences provide essential skills in analyzing the intentions and behavior of individuals and groups they encounter. Individual identity is forged by one’s culture, groups, and by institutional influences. Institutions such as families, schools and even churches greatly influence human beings yet these institutions are merely organizations whose aim is to develop the core social values of its constituents.

In discussing cultural diversity on the perspectives of the three social sciences there is a need to understand the difference between culture and society. This is because the all the three disciplines explore culture and society to understand human behavior in depth. The term ‘Culture’ has many different meanings, for some it is the appreciation of art, literature, music and food, while for others like biologists; they take it as a colony of microorganisms growing in a nutrient medium in a laboratory. However for social scientists, culture is the full range of learned human behavior patterns. Cultures are traditions and customs, transmitted through learning and adaptations. Children obtain such traditions by growing up in a certain society, through a process called ‘enculturation’. A culture results into a degree of uniformity in behavior and thought among the inhabitants of a particular society (Baugher et. al, 2000, p. 4). The terms ‘culture’ and ‘society’ are different as cultures are considered to be complexes of learned behavior patterns and perceptions while society is a group of interacting organisms. Therefore this paper will critically analyze cultural diversity based on the three social sciences, evaluating the social sciences similarities and differences.

Discussion
Anthropological perspective of culture diversity

When it comes to understanding diversity in cultures, the anthropological view can help humanity understand and appreciate the complexity of diverse cultures. This discipline involves the study of biological and cultural origins of the humans. The subject matter of anthropology is wide-ranging, including, fossil remains, non human primate anatomy and behavior, artifacts from past cultures, past and present languages, and all the prehistoric and contemporary cultures of the world.

The subfield of cultural anthropology is the most commonly studied and useful in analyzing and interpreting the diverse cultures of the world. In recent years, recognition of the need for multicultural awareness, understanding, and skills has grown in our society. The aim is to achieve multicultural diversity competence, which is a term that refers to the ability to demonstrate respect and understanding, to communicate effectively, and to work with different cultural backgrounds (George & Fischer, 1999, p. 71). These diversities in culture encompass differences in gender, race, ethnicity, religion, age, sexual orientation, social class and physical appearance. Misunderstandings and conflicts in the society are two major consequences of lack of awareness in the ever increasing cultural diversity. Cultural anthropology explains cultural diversity through aspects of social life such as material culture, social organizations, politics, economics, symbolism, change and development, ethnicity and modern nation-state formation.

In explaining and interpreting the diverse cultures, anthropology uses ethnography- describing particular cultures; and ethnology- comparing two or more cultures. In addition it incorporates the holistic approach in cultural studies by studying biological and cultural aspects of human behavior; encompassing the broadest possible time frame by looking at contemporary, historic and prehistoric societies; examining human culture in every part of the world; and studies many different aspects of human culture (George & Fischer, 1999, p.68).

Cultural diversity is relevant to a cultural approach in learning, in that learning and motivational styles and cross cultural pedagogical strategies assume attention to diversity in learner populations and pluralistic learning outcomes. The data, concepts and insights derived from the study of other cultures helps us meet our professional goals and lead more satisfying lives in a multicultural society (Herdman & Macmillan, 2010, p. 23). Moreover, the process of studying anthropology is also valuable because of the skills and competencies that it helps to develop. Activities such as taking courses about different cultures, participating in local internships and international organizations, living in the university’s international dormitory, and participating in study abroad programs all combine to provide students with valuable skills in understanding diverse cultures hence achieve multicultural diverse competence.

There is a need to come up with a strategy to accept cultural diversity, for example, in the United states of America the freedom to pursue ones individual dream and fortunes in the united states has produced a widening gap between the ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’. According to Herdman and Mcmillian, 2010, managing directors in United States of America made forty times as much compared to the average worker in 1973 and three hundred as much in 2004. At the same time, earnings of middle class were growing slightly and those of lower class were actually shrinking. This situation to a European means that the state is working against well being of the population, particularly in light of tax cuts during this period. Another instance is when expressing feelings of affection which is typical for all human. The manner in which the affection is expressed is cultural, the kiss is not universally accepted as a symbol of affection; some societies consider it suggestive of cannibalism.

A basic anthropological strategy for understanding other cultures is to look at a cultural feature from within its original context rather than looking at it from the perspective of one’s own culture; being inquisitive, non-judgmental, and open to new ways of thinking is vital in understanding other cultures; Balancing contradictory needs instead of trying to eliminate them; emphasize global team work; develop a cognitive complex which is made up of twin abilities of differentiating and integrating; and developing a personal acuity (Naylor, 1997, p. 157). The strategy will not only help you personally in understanding other cultures but assist you in integrating to any culture globally.

Sociological perspective on Cultural Diversity

Sociology is critical analysis of the society in which humans live. People who make sense of the social world-past, present and future- are referred to as sociologists (Anderson & Taylor, 2005, p. 8). Sociologists research on social structures such as class, family, politics, social problems like drug abuse and crime all of which influence the society. Social interaction amongst humans is the basic sociological concept, because all humans and groups that make up a society socialize. Specialists who focus on particular details of specific interactions as they occur daily are called micro sociologists and those that focus on larger patterns of interactions amongst larger sections of the society such as state and economy are called macro sociologists.

A society is rarely culturally uniform hence the result of different cultures. As societies develop and become more complex, different cultural traditions appear. The more complex the society, the more likely the culture will be internally varied and diverse. The causes of cultural changes in a society are cultural diffusion, innovation, and imposition of cultural change by outside world (Anderson & Taylor, 2005, p. 72).

Two concepts from sociology help in understanding complexity of culture in a given society, dominant culture and subcultures. Dominant culture is the culture of the most powerful group in the society. Although it is not the only culture in society, it is commonly referred to be the culture of a society, despite other cultures present. Subcultures on the other hand are cultures of groups whose values and norms of behavior differ from those of the dominant culture. Members of subcultures tend to interact frequently and share a common world view.

Sociology stipulates that culture consists of both material objects and abstract thoughts and behavior. Several elements which sociologists consider in understanding culture diversity are language, norms, beliefs and values (Kaufman, 2004, p. 7).

Language: Learning the language of a culture is essential to becoming part of a society. Language shapes culture as it provides the categories through which social reality is understood. This was proved by Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Worf in the 1950’s through their theory called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. The hypothesis states, “it is not that you perceive something first and then think of how to express it, but that language itself determines what you think and perceive” (Anderson & Taylor, 2005, p. 83). In understanding cultural diversity language is seen to reflect the assumptions of a culture. This is seen and exemplified by: language affecting people’s perception of reality; Language reflecting the social and political status of different groups in society; Groups advocating changing language referring to them as a way of asserting positive group identity; The implications of language emerging from specific historical and cultural contexts; language distorting actual group experience; language shaping people’s perceptions of groups and events in society.

Norms: They are specific cultural expectations for how to behave in a given situation. Lack of norms in any society results in turmoil however, with established norms people would be able to act, behave and interact in a society properly. In the early years of sociology, William Graham Summer in 1906 identified two types of norms; folkways and mores. Folkways are general standards of behavior adhered to by a group, example wearing pants and not skirts for men. Mores are stricter mores which are seen to control moral and ethical behaviors such as injunctions, legal and religious.

Beliefs: They are shared ideas people hold collectively within a given culture, and these beliefs are also the basis of many cultural norms and values, example in USA there is a widespread belief in God. Sociology study belief in a variety of ways, and each theoretical mentation provides different insights into the significance of beliefs for human society.

Values: They are abstract standards in a society or group that defines the ideal principles of what is desirable and morally correct, for example in USA equality and freedom are important values which provide a general outline for behavior. Values provide values for behavior, but can also be sources of conflict like the political conflict over abortion.

Understanding the four elements of sociology enables proper integration in any society. Integration into the society is achieved by respecting the diverse cultures that are found in a society. Sociology studies culture in a variety of ways, asking numerous questions about the relationship of culture to other social institutions and the role of culture in modern life. The new cultural perspective on culture according to Naylor, 1997, is that it is ephemeral, unpredictable and constantly changing; is a material manifestation of consumer-oriented society; and is best understood by analyzing its artifacts- books, films, television images.

Psychological Perspective on Culture Diversity

Social psychology a subfield of psychology has its origins in the early years of the twentieth century. Its findings do not necessarily concern human thinking throughout history but rather meet the requirements of our modern society. Social psychology research aims to capture the interplay between social thinking and socio-historical dynamics in order to understand how societies function and how culture is produced (Xenia, 2004, p. 13). Psychology is distinguished from neighboring social sciences through its emphasis on studying samples of organisms within controlled settings rather than focusing upon larger groups, organizations or nations. Psychologists test the specific results of changes in a controlled environment on the individual in that environment, but there are strongly set procedures through which organisms are tested psychometrically.

There is a big debate in psychology and more generally in social sciences how to define culture. In some definitions the concept of culture includes behavior, in the sense that our behaviors are expressions of our culture. Other definitions emphasize that participating in a culture means having understanding of our world. However with trying to find a consensual definition of this concept, the main argument of researchers in psychology is to highlight how important it is to take into account the cultural context in which psychological studies were conducted (Kerr & Tindale, 2011). They were right to point out that humans are linked to the social context in which they live, proving that psychological functioning and human behavior are universal and culture specific.

Sharing a culture means that people have a common way of viewing their relationship with the social and physical environment; of communicating their thoughts and emotions; of prioritizing their activities; of dividing tasks and resources; of attributing values, honors, and power (Xenia, 2004, pp.17-18). When they do not share the above listed elements then culture diversity occurs from a psychological point of view. The people of diverse cultures are not like minded hence the question is, whether individuals from diverse cultures can coexist harmoniously in time space and under the same political and social organizations? The answer to this question provides the idea of how to cope with culture diversity.

Various cultures flourish from the recognition that they represent a set of beliefs, modes of thinking and practices that are peculiar to them and different from others. Some cultures are more inclusive example western cultures, others refer to a small group of people for instance the Basque culture, but each one of them is important for its members because they represent the way they construct their social reality, and provides them with action alternatives.

Conclusion

Culture Diversity has been discussed using the three social science disciplines of Anthropology, Sociology and Psychology. Even though all of them have a similarity of trying to understand culture diversity in humans, they are different in terms of how they approach the study. Anthropology looks at culture diversity at the perspective of humanity, his origin and through aspects of social life such as ethnicity, symbolism, politics, race and so on. Anthropology explains that the origin of culture diversity is through mankind hence the concentration a human perspective.

Sociology looks at the society which humans live so as to explain culture diversity. It states that elements such as language, beliefs, norms, and values are what bring about culture diversities. Psychology on the other hand analyses culture diversity with focus entirely on internal factors that influence individuals. Therefore the three social sciences provide an understanding of culture diversity and a basis of respecting other cultures.

As mentioned before, there is a long history with violence inside football and inside football stadiums. The first reports of violence go back to 1660, where the there where the first attempts to control the sport in England and Scotland, where largely ineffective and bans were issued (Dunning 1986). Throughout the seventeenth-century we find reports of several hundred football players and fans destroying drainage and causing mayhem in the town and by the eighteenth-century, the game took on a more overt political significance (Marples 1954).

But the first reports of real ‘hooliganism’ came from the 1960’s where 25 incidents of disorderly behaviour by spectators per season where reported to the FA (Football Association England). According to the Chester report of 1966, incidences of football violence doubled in the first five years of the 1960s compared to the previous 25 years (Carnibella 1996).

So from then supporter violence became a large problem, yet it escalated during the 80s. They began to form organized groups that became the hooligans of that club.

Members of such groups e.g. of the self-styled ‘Inter City Firm’ at West Ham, the ‘Service Crew’ at Leeds, and the comparable groups at clubs like Newcastle United and Chelsea often support extreme right wing, racist organizations such as the British Movement and the National Front. They have also developed quite sophisticated forms of organization and become nationally known. One of their main distinguishing marks is the fact that they do not travel to matches on ‘football specials’ and official coaches but tend, instead, to use regular rail and coach services or cars and hired vans. They also eschew the forms of dress the scarves and favours (and also the club banners) that still tend to be widely associated with football hooliganism in popular opinion. One of their main objectives in attending matches is to confront and fight opposing fans and to ‘take their end’ (Dunning 2009).

They tried to prevent and counter this problem by increasing the measures inside the stadium. The visiting (or ‘away’) fans were invariably herded into grounds via separate turnstiles and into areas where they were segregated from the home support. These isolationist operations were often emphasised by a line of police officers separating the home and away fans in a sort of “no man’s land” and by the high metal fences which surrounded these fan pens, an attempt to prevent fans from spilling onto the football pitch itself. The police have also been commonly used at the turnstile. Traditionally, this has been a law-enforcement role, with the emphasis on preventing illegal entry into the ground, enforcing exclusion orders and searching supporters for weapons and other prohibited articles. (P. Harrison, 1974)

Unfortunately this didn’t prevent all the violence. The most notoriously violence initiated by English football hooligans was in Heysel stadium in Belgium in 1985 resulted in chaos and death of 39 persons. But it was not only with English football supporters. A lot of countries had these serious crowd violence and also in Argentina (1986, 74 death), Brazil(1982, 3 death) , Colombia(1982, 22 death), Peru (1964, 278 death), and USSR (1982, 69 death) where this large violence escalations (Williams et al. 1989). These are just a few examples of the big violence problems in football that leaded to death.

It is really only after 1985 (after the Heysel Stadium tragedy) that a concerted effort has been made to establish cross-border cooperation in Europe between both police forces and football authorities to combat football hooliganism. The impact of the Heysel Stadium tragedy was such that three major European bodies addressed the issue of football violence. Firstly, the Council of Europe adopted the European Convention on Spectator Violence and misbehaviour at Sports Events, which proposed that measures should be taken to prevent and punish violent behaviour in sport. Secondly, the European Council called on all member countries to deal with violence in and around sports stadia and, finally, The European Parliament proposed a number of different measures to combat football hooliganism (Carnibella 1996).

The final report was published in January 1990 and included praise from Lord Taylor regarding the response of clubs to the recommendations contained within the Interim report. The report emphasised the lack of communication between the fans and the football authorities, criticising, in particular, the lack of facilities for supporters at football grounds and the poor condition of football grounds. In total, the final report contained seventy-six recommendations, of which the main ones were:

These measures that were taken by the governments let to a decrease of violence inside the stadiums. In Italy the incidents related to league matches in Serie A and B decreased from 73 incidents in 686 matches (10,6%) in 1990-91 to 23 incidents in 686 matches (3,6%) in 1997-98 (Stadio/Corriere dello Sport).

But did these decreases in violence in stadium and related to the football matches lead to a decrease in football hooliganism?

The decreases in the number of incidents in Italy lead to the questions whether the hooliganism in football was declining. But Roversi noted that the real fall in violent incidents should not lead us to underestimate a shift of the incidents towards the minor football divisions and the high amount of violence occurring in stadiums in South Italy. Most importantly, we must not undervalue what appears as a brand new element in these last years, namely the very large number of incidents involving ultras (Italian hooligans) and police. The reference is not to episodes where the police intervene in order to prevent the fight between two rival factions, but to the direct fights between ultras and the police. Between February 1995 and the present day, there have been 28 such incidents out of a total of 82 recorded for the two top divisions alone. In other words, relations between ultras and police have notably worsened over the last few years (Roversi 2000).

These shift to lower league games was not the only shift that occurred in Italy. A significant increase in violence outside the stadium, including pitched battles between rival groups of fans in the streets; .ambushes. at railway stations, in car parks and bus-terminals; acts of petty theft and vandalism and frequent clashes with the police (Carnibella,1996).

But not only in Italy has this shift of the incidents seemed to occur. Also in England there was is a large problem with violence in other places. The measures from the FA (English Football Association) and the governments apparatuses of social control have contributed greatly to a fundamental spatial realignment of football hooliganism as the phenomenon has gradually moved from the central, core place (the football ground) towards more peripheral settings. In its most instrumental manifestation, fan

violence may be relocated to the purely functional, ‘non-places’ of our supermodern societies, that have no symbolic relationship to the specific football games or the teams that contest them (Auge 1997).

In this assignment, I will be talking about video game addiction, why do teenagers suffer from this. does this game addiction only affects teenagers? what are the causes and reasons that led them to be addicted?

The term addiction is used in many contexts to describe an obsession, compulsion, or excessive psychological dependence, such as: drug addiction (e.g. alcoholism), video game addiction, crime, money, work addiction, compulsive overeating, problem gambling, computer addiction, nicotine addiction, pornography addiction, etc.”

The term addiction is also sometimes applied to compulsions that are not substance-related, such as problem gambling and computer addiction. In these kinds of common usages, the term addiction is used to describe a recurring compulsion by an individual to engage in some specific activity, despite harmful consequences, as deemed by the user himself to his or her individual health, mental state or social life.”

Or more broadly video game overuse, is excessive or compulsive use of computer and video games that interferes with daily life. Instances have been reported in which users play compulsively, isolating themselves from, or from other forms of, social contact and focusing almost entirely on in-game achievements rather than broader life events. There is no diagnosis of video game addiction, although it has been proposed for inclusion in the next version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM).

Video game addiction is not included as a diagnosis in either the DSM or the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems.

However, effects (or symptoms) of video game overuse are similar to those of other proposed psychological addictions. Video game overuse may be, like compulsive gambling, an impulse control disorder.

In 2007, the American Psychological Association reviewed whether or not video game addiction should be added in the new DSM to be released in 2012. The conclusion was that there was not enough research or evidence to conclude that video game addiction was a disorder.

A report by the Council On Science And Public Health to the AMA cited a 2005 Entertainment Software Association survey[10] of computer gaming players, and noted that players of MMORPGs were more likely to play for more than 2 hours per day than other gamers. In its report, the Council used this 2-hour-per-day limit to define “gaming overuse”, citing the American Academy of Pediatrics guideline of no more than 1 to 2 hours per day of “screen time”. It may be worth noting that the ESA document cited in the Council report does not contain the 2-hour-per-day data.

In a 2005 Tom’s Games interview, Dr. Maressa Orzack estimated that 40% of the players of World of Warcraft (an MMORPG) were addicted, but she did not indicate a source for the estimate. She may have derived the estimate from the informal survey managed by Nick Yee at the The Daedalus Project,[14] who notes that caution should be exercised when interpreting this data.[15]

A 2006 lecture reported by the BBC indicated that 12% of polled gamers reported at least some addictive behaviours. The lecturer, Professor Mark Griffiths of Nottingham Trent University, stated in another BBC interview that addicts are “few and far between.”

Michael Cai, director of broadband and gaming for Parks Associates (a media/technology research and analysis company), said in 2007 that “Video game addiction is a particularly severe problem in Asian countries such as China and Korea”. Results of a 2006 survey suggested that 2.4% of South Koreans aged 9 to 39 suffer from game addiction, with another 10.2 percent at risk of addiction.

A 2007 Harris Interactive online poll of 1,187 US youths aged 8-18 gathered detailed data on youth opinions about video game play. About 81% of youths stated that they played video games at least once per month. Further, the average play time varied by age and sex, from 8 hours per week (responses from teen girls) to 14 hours per week (responses by teen boys). “Tweens” (8-12 year olds) fell in the middle, with boys averaging 13 hours per week of reported game-play, and girls averaging 10. Harris concludes that 8.5% “can be classified as pathological or clinically ‘addicted’ to playing video games”, but did not explain how this conclusion was reached.

Since the American Psychological Association decision in 2007, studies have been conducted at Stanford University School of Medicine related to video game play. Researchers found evidence that video games do have addictive characteristics. An MRI study found that the part of the brain that generates rewarding feelings is more activated in men than women during video-game play.

In August 2005, the government of the People’s Republic of China, where more than 20 million people play online games, introduced an online gaming restriction limiting playing time to 3 hours, after which the player would be expelled from whichever game they were playing. In 2006, it relaxed the rule so only citizens under the age of 18 would face the limitations. Reports indicate underage gamers found ways to circumvent the measure. In July, 2007, the rule was relaxed yet again. Internet games operating in China must require that users identify themselves by ID numbers. After 3 hours, players under 18 are prompted to stop and “do suitable physical exercise.” If they continue, their characters gain 50% of the usual experience. After 5 hours, their characters gain no experience at all. In 2008, one of the 5 FCC Commissioners, Deborah Taylor Tate, stated that online gaming addiction was “one of the top reasons for college drop-outs”. However, she did not mention a source for the statement, nor identify its position in relation to other top reasons.

Excessive use of video games may have some or all the symptoms of drug addiction or other proposed psychological addictions. Some players become more concerned with their interactions in the game than in their broader lives. Players may play “many” hours per day, gain or lose significant weight due to playing, disrupt sleep patterns to play, play at work, avoid phone calls from friends and/or lie about play time. Relationships with family and friends, and performance at work or school, may suffer.

Theorists focus on the built-in reward systems of the games to explain their addictive nature.[42][43] In reference to gamers such as one suicide in China, the head of one software association was quoted “In the hypothetical world created by such games, they become confident and gain satisfaction, which they cannot get in the real world.”[44]

Researchers at the University of Rochester and Immersyve, Inc. (a Celebration, FL computer gaming Think-tank) investigated what motivates gamers to continue playing video games. According to lead investigator Richard Ryan, they believe that players play for more reasons than fun alone. Ryan, a “motivational psychologist” at Rochester, says that many video games satisfy basic psychological needs, and players often continue to play because of rewards, freedom, and a connection with other players.[45]

Michael Brody, M.D., head of the TV and Media Committee of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, stated in a 2007 press release that “… there is not enough research on whether or not video games are addictive.” However, Dr. Brody also cautioned that for some children and adolescents “… it displaces physical activity and time spent on studies, with friends, and even with family.”[46]

Dr. Karen Pierce, a psychiatrist at Chicago’s Children’s Memorial Hospital, sees no need for a specific gaming addiction diagnosis. Two or more children see her each week because of excessive computer and video game play, and she treats their problems as she would any addiction. She said one of her excessive-gaming patients “…hasn’t been to bed, hasn’t showered…He is really a mess.”[3]

Prevention and correction

Some countries, like South Korea, China, the Netherlands, Canada, and the United States, have responded to the perceived threat of video game addiction by opening treatment centers. Because few clinical trials and no meta-analyses have been completed, research is still in the preliminary stages for excessive gaming treatment. The most effective treatments seem to be, as with addictions or dependencies, a combination of psychopharmacology, psychotherapy and twelve-step programs.

Creating territories and physical boundaries within buildings and public spaces, is termed as hierarchy of a defensible space. The conversion from private to public space is important and demands efficient management. Through the sub division of zones (private to public), the character of one’s own territory is defined and thereby managed.

Private space – An area under total control of the occupant, and not physically connected to the public

Semi private space – An area under the control of the occupant, but visually and physically accessible by the public Semi public space – An area accessible to the public, and under the control of a specific group of occupants. Public space – An area for the public

Territoriality therefore defines the hierarchy of the space, and develops the idea of having one’s own territory. This discourages outsiders from entering into private zones and reduces the risk of anonymity.

This can be achieved if the following design features are implemented in the planning process (Colquhoun, 2003, 41)

All the spaces inside as well as outside the building should be under natural surveillance by the residents and under their influence.

All the external spaces should be seen as public spaces and should be clearly demarcated from the internal spaces with the help of symbolic barriers like gates, fences, walls, levels, steps, gateways etc.

If the housing density is high, separate staircase entrances should be designed per building block so that there should be no confusion in recognizing a stranger.

External communal areas such as parks, green open spaces should be in the vicinity of the building and where ever possible should be entered from the private zone.

Surveillance – Positioning and locating the windows and doors such that it increases surveillance to the outside surrounding. Opportunity to commit crime is potentially reduced when the offender senses that he/she is under constant surveillance from the adjoining buildings. Surveillance helps to create a feeling of security by providing the residents with their own territory and defending it through the overlooking windows, doors and entrances to the outside surroundings.

Windows should be positioned such that it suits the internal plan of the house as well as provides surveillance to the outside surrounding.

Front entrances of the buildings should be designed from the main road, main streets and pedestrian areas so that the passerby’s can notice anything strange which helps in reducing the risk of anonymity.

The communal areas of the buildings such as staircases, elevators etc should be designed where they can be visually connected to the outside surrounding.

The rooms which are used more frequently like the kitchen and living rooms should be designed with their windows facing the public domain while bedrooms and toilets should be designed facing the private domain.

Image

– This idea explains the proper use of materials and architectural design which reduces the feeling of being stigmatised, which creates a sense of isolation increasing the vulnerability of crime risk.

To avoid building forms and layouts which completely stand out from the rest of the neighbourhood, makes it vulnerable by increasing the footfall of strangers by attracting them.

Keeping the high rise and high density blocks away from the low income houses, as a mix of both can lead to criminal activities Encouraging the use of robust and attractive finishes to the building surfaces, preventing them from being vandalised.

Milieu

– The juxtapostioning of residential areas with other facilities which helps in improving security and provides means for natural surveillance.

Housing facilities should be mixed with social and commercial facilities to improve natural surveillance through increased footfall.

Parks, playgrounds and open spaces should be designed around residential areas thereby offering constant natural surveillance.

In the U.S, about one million teenage girls get pregnant every year and this greatly affects the lives of the teenagers, the children they bare and the society at large. The social behavior and attitude towards sex has greatly contributed to the increase of teenage pregnancy since sex is publicly glorified and is even used as a marketing tool. Teenagers are engaging in sexual activities at an early age since they are exposed to it even before they are mature. It is the role of parents to try and bring up their children in a morally upright manner and advice them on the effects of early pregnancies in their lives. The causes and effects of teenage pregnancy are more of the same. They include poverty, unemployment, and lack of education, low self esteem and in some cases, abuse.

Factors leading to teenage pregnancy

The causes of teenage pregnancy are both social an also economical. The lack of knowledge on the consequences of teenage pregnancy among the teenagers is the primary factor that leads to teenagers to engage in irresponsible sexual practices. Another contributing factor is the up bringing of the children. The way parents bring up their children as well as the kind of environment they are brought up in contributes realty to the sexual behavior of a child. Parents who do not communicate openly to with their children on social issues such as sex are putting their children at the risk of being teenage parents.

The lack of open communication between the children and the parents encourages the children to find other sources of information and in most cases, they go to their fellow students or older friends who may end giving them the wrong or misleading information. On the other hand, children who are brought in an environment that consists of many cases of teenage pregnancies or even in situations where the parents are single mothers or were victims of teenage pregnancy are more likely to follow the same course since it is something normal in their ‘world’.

The way a child is brought up defines who they are in terms of emotional maturity as well as their communication skills. When children are not taught how to communicate and air their views openly and boldly, they end up suffering from low self esteem and this makes them easy targets and increases their chances of being vulnerable to peer pressure which is also responsible for teenage pregnancy. This lack of communication and guidance from parents also contributes to the child’s irresponsible behavior.

Poverty is another major factor that contributes to teenage pregnancy. In most low income earning areas, the are no facilities that are used to educate children on the effects of engaging in sexual activities at an early age. In some cases, the children are forced to engage in sexual activities as a way of getting money to support themselves and their families. The wealthier people in these areas take advantage of the young children and promise them a better life in exchange for sex. Ignorance is also another aspect that is come in these areas and is usually brought about by the lack of education. When parents are not well educated, they do not see the importance of educating or discussing sex and other issues that affect the teenagers and the children end up messing up since they were not advised.

The kind of messages that are sent to teenagers about sex are also contributing factors to the early engagement in sex which leads to teenage pregnancy. Today’s culture glorifies sex and does not put into consideration nor is it accountable for its consequences. The social attitudes on the other hand do not provide a conducive environment for open discussions on sex and resources are not also available for the same. From studies, there are some factors such as poor performance in school that force the children to drop out and when they do, the chances o them engaging in sexual activities are very high and they end up getting pregnant.

There are many children who are victims of sexual abuse and this completely messes up with their views and attitude towards sex. These children end up perceiving themselves as sexual objects from an early age and this increases the cases of teenage pregnancy.

Effects of teenage pregnancy

The effects of teenage pregnancy are felt by the individual victims and also the society. When school going teenagers get pregnant, most of them opt to drop out of school due to shame and also so that they can prepare themselves for the coming baby and motherhood in general. On the other hand, teenage fathers are not in a position to support their families financially so they also end up dropping out of school so that they can work and provide for their family. Since getting a job without education is hard, the students find themselves engaging in criminal activities and drug abuse as they try to find solutions to their state.

Most teenage mothers do not have any support from their families so they and up becoming a part of the lower society whereby they are not able to access basic needs such as health care and well balanced diets. This affects their health and the health of their children and sometimes may lead to complications during child birth.

Teenage parents pose a great economic and social risk to the society since they are not financially stable. Dropping out of school, doing drug and also engaging in criminal activities by teenage fathers affect the community in terms of the level of security. Dropping out of school means that one is not well educated and therefore, they cannot secure good jobs and this increases the cases of joblessness and this pull down the economic status of the society. When one is not educated, their level of productivity socially and economically goes down and this affects the community at large.

Ways of preventing teenage pregnancy.

Teenagers should be encouraged not to engage in sexual activities at an early age and they should also be well informed on early pregnancy and its effects. The students should be well educated on the topic of sex as a whole should be discussed in schools and this will help in the reduction of cases of teenage pregnancy. The teenagers should also be educated on the ways of preventing pregnancy and also ways of ensuring safe sex. They should be allowed to access contraceptives as well as family planning services without age being an issue and confidentiality should be assured.

Parents on the other hand have a great role to play in ensuring that their children are brought up morally upright and that they should instill confidence and a sense of responsibility in their children so that they can be able to make wise choices and not be pulled away by peer pressure. Motivating children on positive life options and also enhancing the skills of the children I other ways apart from education is also very important since children know that they have a future despite their performance in school and this reduces the cases of school drop outs who would have otherwise ended up getting pregnant.

Tattoos and piercings have been used for thousands of years to show personal expression, beliefs, dedication, devotion, regret, and desires. Tattoo is defined by the Webster dictionary as an “indelible mark or figure fixed upon the body by insertion of pigment under the skin or by production of scars” and piercing as “a piece of jewelry (as a ring or stud) that is attached to pierced flesh”. Tattoos and piercings have been used for thousands of years dating back to the Bronze Age. According to DIG magazine, “Some of the oldest tattoo marks ever found are on Otzi, the “Iceman,” the frozen mummy dating to around 3300 B.C. that was found in the Tyrolean Alps.” Otzi had 58 tattoos and it is generally believed they were for medicinal purposes. These tattoos were simple using dots and lines and places near joints possibly to provide relief associated with arthritis. The history of piercings is not as clearly documented as tattoos but date back to ancient times. Piercings were once reserved for women and cross-gender acceptance began in the early 1900s.

Infections are common with both tattoos and piercings. An individuals should take extreme care when deciding where to get one on their body, which facility to perform the procedure, and post procedure practices to help reduce the risk of infections. Tattoo and piercing facilities should be researched to find the ones that use the best practices. Are the instruments sterilized before each piercing and are new needles used for every tattoo? If a facility says no to any of these items, it may not be a reputable shop, and one should keep looking. Not using sterile equipment and having a clean environment to receive a tattoo or piercing can lead to a number of infections. According to (Hamodat & Hutchinson, 2007), a 17 year old girl died from infection after by getting her nipple pierced by a friend. This young woman developed Staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome (TSS) after receiving this piercing. Despite receiving medical care for this infection, she died two weeks after the piercing. Despite locating a clean facility to receive a tattoo or piercing, skin infections, bacterial infections, and allergies still occur. Individuals should adhere to the prescribed methods for caring for this new body modification.

Whether deciding to get a tattoo or piercing through a carefully thought-out plan or impulsive decision, one should consider the possible diseases that can be transmitted through the procedure. According to the Center for Disease Control “hepatitis C can be transmitted through contaminated devices used for tattoos, body piercing” (Davies, 2005, p. D.1). One of the most popular examples of a person contracting hepatitis C from a tattoo is Pamela Anderson. Pamela Anderson contracted hepatitis C from sharing a needle used to get a tattoo with her Tommy Lee. Additional blood-borne diseases that can be transmitted through having a tattoo or piercing include hepatitis B, HIV, and tetanus. These diseases can have life-threatening consequences up to and including death. Listed in the chart below are the definitions of each of these diseases according to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention website (2009).

• Hepatitis B is a liver disease caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). It ranges in severity from a mild illness, lasting a few weeks (acute), to a serious long-term (chronic) illness that can lead to liver disease or liver cancer.

• Hepatitis C is a liver disease caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV). HCV infection sometimes results in an acute illness, but most often becomes a chronic condition that can lead to cirrhosis of the liver and liver cancer.

• HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is the virus that causes AIDS. This virus may be passed from one person to another when infected blood, semen, or vaginal secretions come in contact with an uninfected person’s broken skin or mucous membranes*. In addition, infected pregnant women can pass HIV to their baby during pregnancy or delivery, as well as through breast-feeding. People with HIV have what is called HIV infection. Some of these people will develop AIDS as a result of their HIV infection.

• Tetanus (lockjaw) is a serious disease that causes painful tightening of the muscles, usually all over the body. It can lead to “locking” of the jaw so the victim cannot open his mouth or swallow. Tetanus leads to death in about 1 in 10 cases.

Beyond the risk of infection and disease, there exists a negative association with tattoos and piercings in society. Future employers tend to look negatively on individuals with visible tattoos and piercings. Companies such as retail and sales want to present a clean image to their potential and existing customers and having visible tattoos and piercings is not what they want from their employees. Companies that require business casual or professional attire from their employees do not want the distractions that come with tattoos and piercings. In the “Your Chatter” section (2005), Crain’s Cleveland Business asked several senior executives whether they would hire someone with tattoos and or piercings. Their findings reveal that employers think that people with body modification are less professional, skilled, and intelligent because of partaking in this risky expression of oneself when compared to people without them, regardless of qualifications. While employed, displays of body art can also have undesired results. Job advancement and promotions can be hindered because the majority of managers find it easier to advance employees that have the traditional appearance.

Tattoos and piercings have been used for thousands of years to show personal expression, beliefs, dedication, devotion, regret, and desires. Tattoo is defined by the Webster dictionary as an “indelible mark or figure fixed upon the body by insertion of pigment under the skin or by production of scars” and piercing as “a piece of jewelry (as a ring or stud) that is attached to pierced flesh”. Tattoos and piercings have been used for thousands of years dating back to the Bronze Age. According to DIG magazine, “Some of the oldest tattoo marks ever found are on Otzi, the “Iceman,” the frozen mummy dating to around 3300 B.C. that was found in the Tyrolean Alps.” Otzi had 58 tattoos and it is generally believed they were for medicinal purposes. These tattoos were simple using dots and lines and places near joints possibly to provide relief associated with arthritis. The history of piercings is not as clearly documented as tattoos but date back to ancient times. Piercings were once reserved for women and cross- gender acceptance began in the early 1900s. Infections are common with both tattoos and piercings. An individuals should take extreme care when deciding where to get one on their body, which facility to perform the procedure, and post procedure practices to help reduce the risk of infections.

Tattoo and piercing facilities should be researched to find the ones that use the best practices. Are the instruments sterilized before each piercing and are new needles used for every tattoo? If a facility says no to any of these items, it may not be a reputable shop, and one should keep looking. Not using sterile equipment and having a clean environment to receive a tattoo or piercing can lead to a number of infections.

According to (Hamodat & Hutchinson, 2007), a 17 year old girl died from infection after by getting her nipple pierced by a friend. This young woman developed Staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome (TSS) after receiving this piercing. Despite receiving medical care for this infection, she died two weeks after the piercing. Despite locating a clean facility to receive a tattoo or piercing, skin infections, bacterial infections, and allergies still occur. Individuals should adhere to the prescribed methods for caring for this new body modification. Whether deciding to get a tattoo or piercing through a carefully thought-out plan or impulsive decision, one should consider the possible diseases that can be transmitted through the procedure. According to the Center for Disease Control “hepatitis C can be transmitted through contaminated devices used for tattoos, body piercing” (Davies, 2005, p. D.1).

One of the most popular examples of a person contracting hepatitis C from a tattoo is Pamela Anderson. Pamela Anderson contracted hepatitis C from sharing a needle used to get a tattoo with her Tommy Lee. Additional blood-borne diseases that can be transmitted through having a tattoo or piercing include hepatitis B, HIV, and tetanus. These diseases can have life-threatening consequences up to and including death. Listed in the chart below are the definitions of each of these diseases according to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention website (2009).

• Hepatitis B is a liver disease caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). It ranges in severity from a mild illness, lasting a few weeks (acute), to a serious long-term (chronic) illness that can lead to liver disease or liver cancer.

• Hepatitis C is a liver disease caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV). HCV infection sometimes results in an acute illness, but most often becomes a chronic condition that can lead to cirrhosis of the liver and liver cancer.

• HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is the virus that causes AIDS. This virus may be passed from one person to another when infected blood, semen, or vaginal secretions come in contact with an uninfected person’s broken skin or mucous membranes*. In addition, infected pregnant women can pass HIV to their baby during pregnancy or delivery, as well as through breast-feeding. People with HIV have what is called HIV infection. Some of these people will develop AIDS as a result of their HIV infection.

• Tetanus (lockjaw) is a serious disease that causes painful tightening of the muscles, usually all over the body. It can lead to “locking” of the jaw so the victim cannot open his mouth or swallow. Tetanus leads to death in about 1 in 10 cases. Beyond the risk of infection and disease, there exists a negative association with tattoos and piercings in society. Future employers tend to look negatively on individuals with visible tattoos and piercings. Companies such as retail and sales want to present a clean image to their potential and existing customers and having visible tattoos and piercings is not what they want from their employees. Companies that require business casual or professional attire from their employees do not want the distractions that come with tattoos and piercings. In the “Your Chatter” section (2005), Crain’s Cleveland Business asked several senior executives whether they would hire someone with tattoos and or piercings. Their findings reveal that employers think that people with body modification are less professional, skilled, and intelligent because of partaking in this risky expression of oneself when compared to people without them, regardless of qualifications. While employed, displays of body art can also have undesired results. Job advancement and promotions can be hindered because the majority of managers find it easier to advance employees that have the traditional appearance.

For my unit 1 my task to complete unit 1 I will research 20 local organisations then I will pick one organisation and look into it more. This organisation with be Twycross zoo.

I will be researching this organisation by using the internet like company’s website and review website to get the company’s information and public and business people’s opinions, phonebook by looking at business’s name and what they do, my local schools and business have also helping beings I have attended or attending them, local knowledge of the area like obvious facts and what people that live near by think of the organisation, books and magazines again seeing what peoples reviews are on the zoo and I will be visiting the Twycross zoo for my own opinion.

Name of company

Address

Type of service they provide

The science they use

Size

What goes on?

Groby community college

Ratby toad Groby

Leicester

LE6 06E

Science teachers teach all types of science providing an education

All types of science showing all types of experiments

Small part of the school with about 10-15 staff

Educating students from the age of 14-19,

Leicester royal infirmary

Infirmary square

Leicester

LE1 5WW

Looking after the injured and sick patient.. providing radio therapy, heat surgery and maternity

All types of science is used in the business it a hospital its very important to have science.

It’s a big hospital with about 50-100 staff

Treating patients with all different medicines, therapy and surgery.

Markfeild medical centre

24 chittermen way

Markfeild

LE67 9WW

Solving and treating minor issues

All science is used for handing out the right medicine and identifying the patients problems

Small doctors around 15-30 employees

Small problems are dwelled with at the doctors and also can send people to hospitals, check ups and small issues

Twycross zoo

Burton road

Twycross

CV9 3PX

Displaying the animals and also looking after them and breading them.

Biology is used mostly as they treat the animals but also providing a safe environment..

Big land and have many visitors all though the year.

Employees have set job to feed clean and breed the animal and make the place safe.

Park vet group

Leicestershire

Treating ill pets and farm animals

Biology is for treating the animals and keeping them clean and healthy

They have five surgeries around Leicester

People look after sick animals 24/7

Detalsuit

Leicestershire

Giving check ups and treating patients

Biology us mostly because of the people teeth but chemistry is used for chemicals they use

Only have one in Leicester town but also one in Loughborough

A normal dentist surgery check ups and vital surgery on teeth

Nspca/ Rspca

Woodside animal centre 120 scudamer road

Taking in animals that have been abused or left.

Biology is used for treatment of the animals that need taking care of.

This business is nation wide

Rescuing and taking in animals that have been abused or abandoned.

Vision express

Loughborough

Checking that patients eyes are healthy

Biology because they look into peoples eyes and check if they are healthy or if they need glasses

Nation wide

Regular check ups and proving with glass if needing

Forensic Science

Tip tree

Birmingham

UK

Investigate crimes in deep impact and detail

All science is used as all different crimes will need to be solved

Nation wide so millions of staff involved

Sciences detect things that have happened in crimes

British gas

Grove Park

Leicester

LE19 75Z

Provide and fix gas pipes for customers and services.

Chemistry is used mostly because of all the gases used

Nation wide

Company

They service people with gas and a 24/7 helpline and also produce gas and electric.

Greggs

15 market place Loughborough

Selling bakery production, drink and others

Chemistry is used to prepare food

Nation wide

They hand make there products and sell them, they also sell drinks and others.

Sandicliff

Welford road

A594

Sell new and used cars and service, mot, sell parts

Physics is used when fixing cars because there are trying to find the right part and electric

Nation wide

Provide service for customers and also new and old cars.

University of Leicester

Leicester university road Leicester Le1 7kh

Provide extended education of a science

They mostly only teach biology but I think they do teach all 3

About 30-40 staff

Educating older students extended science.

The met office

Nation wide

Provide use with the weather forecast

Chemistry is used for the chemical reaction in the sky.

Nationwide

Shows use climate change and other things in the sky.

Mercefeld primary school

Oakfield avenue markfeild

Teaches basic science to children from the ages 5-9

All science is needed to be to be a primary school teachers

About 30 staff as its small a school.

Teach children basic science to start them off.

South Charnwood high school

Broad land markfeild Leicester Le56 9tb

Teaches teenagers science and do experiments

All the science is used as they teach them all

About 15 staff in the science department

Teach 10-14 year olds all science.

Caterpillar

Desford Leicester

Make heavy construction and build and sell parts

Physics is used in the making of the products

Nation wide

Sell produce machinery.

Section B How science is used in Twycross zoo
History of Twycross Zoo

Twycross Zoo opened in 1963. Twycross Zoo is a very big zoo in the village of Twycross in Leicestershire, close to the border of Warwickshire. The zoo was founded in 1963 by Molly Badham and Nathalie Evans. In 1972 it became a charitable trust. The zoo attracts around 500,000 visitors a year. Over 9 million people can reach the place in less then an hour. The zoo is open all year round except Christmas Day.

Twycross is notable for having the largest collection of primate species of any zoo in the world. Twycross has 50 acres of parkland; it is home to over 1000 animals, most are endangered species. It is the only British zoo to exhibit all four species of great apes. It is also known for its large collection of chimpanzees that have famously featured in the PG Tips tea advert.

They also have a lot of other animals like penguins, elephants, giraffes, sea lions and many others.

Location

I believe that the zoo is located in Atherton because it’s in the village which is better for the people because it’s away from the smell and noise so not many people are affected by it. The zoo is next to the motorway which is not a good environment for the animal because of the noise from the transport, yet this is beneficial for customers to visits the zoo and attracts tourists. I would say the position of the zoo is very well placed because there is 40 acres of land for the animals.

Nature of the work done

Twycross zoo has many different types of work that takes place and these jobs involve science. Twycross also apart of research projects, always caring for the animals, safety rules and regulations, education and conservation.

Conservation work

The zoo uses new scientific information to run and be involved in conservation programmes. There involved with EAZA conservation campaign to help out save amphibians. For years they have been involved with similar global campaigns helping out to save different animals that are in danger of extinction. Twycross captive breeding programme is a example of their own efforts that is successful.

Zoo’s need to join together because many commonly known animals such as gorillas, tigers, orang-utans, elephant and lion’s population is decreasing because of humans.

Captive breeding

Twycross is applying new scientific knowledge to run a captive breeding programme, this involves breeding almost extinct. The staff needs to understand about the parentage and history of the animals also how dangerous breeding can to the health of the animals. The British bulldog has been inbred because it’s a viscous dog and in the past been breed to fight which has lead to people been bitten and problems for the dogs and owners.

Enrichment Programmes

The zoo provides the animals with opportunities to present as much natural behaviour to keep them entertained. This involves toys, pools, unusual way to find there food, fixed furniture, branches, appropriate interesting enclosures and different levels.

Enrichment programmes are important to the animal’s lifestyles at the zoo. The animals get encouraged to perform natural behaviour because they are wild animals not pets so it’s important for them. The more active and entertained the animal’s are gives them a happier life and also it encourages them to create decisions for themselves and as a result have more control of their lives which increases continued existence.

Nutrition

Nutrition is very important in the zoo for the animals life’s because health problems could be caused by too little food. The correct diets that will provide the right nutrition that the animal’s need and what is right for the animal’s digestive system.

Twycross is linked to EAZA (European association of zoos and aquaria) and they ensure that the animals are fed the right diet.

How jobs at the zoo use science
Vet

Vets in Twycross are very important to the zoo; they should always have one on hand just in case some thing happens or an emergency. There are a lot of pregnancies in the zoo as different animals have different breeding seasons. And animals that have accidents or fall ill will need to be treated as soon as possible for the animal’s welfare.

Education officer

Twycross Zoo offer’s there visitors a lively interactive educational sessions. So that everyone can study, discover and have an understanding about the living world. The zoo allows pupils to expand about the responsibilities the zoo has. All the educational sessions are related to the national curriculum. They recommend educational sessions for children from age of 4-upwards.

This is what they provide

Reception and Key Stage 1 sessions at Twycross Zoo

Key Stage 2 sessions at Twycross Zoo

Key Stage 3 sessions at Twycross Zoo

GCSE sessions at Twycross Zoo

Post 16 sessions at Twycross Zoo

Special Educational Needs sessions at Twycross Zoo

How Changing scientific ideas affect the processes used within the company

Research has helped improve how zoo do there work everyday and made people more knowledgeable with the animals welfare scientific and general. Zoo are increasingly changing way they look after/run their zoo’s like the ethics of the zoo have changed because there are always aware of the animals welfare, before they kept the animals in wired cages which were boring and made the animals stressed and self harm so now they have changed the enclosure design to make it fun and safe for the animals with different levels in the enclose for the to play but make it as natural as possible and have thick glass to keep them in.

The zoo has become environmentally friendly like a lot of companies have done they are reusing water and doing the general things that help the planet and will hope influence members of the public to join in.

ICT used in the company

The zoo uses ICT by creating staff rotates also information for staff like covering shifts, posters for events coming up to attract customers to come back. I believe that they would probably order animal feed from suppliers and other equipment for animals and staff. Also they would keep every animal logged into a system where the date of birth, where about the animal came from, sex, reproduction cycle, what medicine the animal has had and needs. Reporting to the public about the animal’s welfare and how they are helping with saving extinct animals and giving to charity also “the green zoo” helping the environment.

Also a zoos needs a website that will have to be up to date for customers information like covering open times, admission prices/annual memberships, disabled facilities, news on the animals and staff and details of up coming events and functions and also past events and function with information on the day, history on the zoo to make people reading it interested and can be educational.

There’s also a webcam in the elephant encloser and pets at Twycross to give people an insight on the animals, there’s also slideshows on things that have happened to in the past interest people and make them want to come. They have a list of the animals to tell the people that are visiting what to expect and what to look forward to, you can also adopt an animal to help charities, research & development and the day to day running of the zoo, supporting the captive breeding of rare monkeys, apes and other endangered species help fund the education programmes for schools, universities and the general public, collaborate ions with zoo staff, scientists and conservationist experts worldwide as part of a global conservation movement

Rules and regulation in the company

When Twycross had its first owners they choose their premises, they had to ensure that they had selected a property with the correct class. Because the business was likely to create excessive noise and smells, and could not build near property that have residential dwelling houses. They also had to make sure that the county council approved there request. They had to make sure that they had legal responsibility for health and safety for all employees and the public, and had to register the business to the HSE. Twycross use refrigeration and air conditioning equipment and solvents for cleaning. So they had to make sure that they contained ozone depleting substances.

The zoo had to make sure that they were giving their employees the legal rights as works with the right amount of pay and hours to work. But they as so had to make sure that they had the right qualifications to work with the animals.

The secretary of states standards for modern zoo practices is, Standards with value to the management of zoos and the animals in them, this was enforced in 1999. Not every Standard will apply equally to all zoos. There are many standards that should be followed like the natural behaviour of the animals, mainly social aspects, should be considered when offering food and drink.

Risk assessment

Risk assessment is something that is used in every business and organisation. This is because it helps the company to avoid as many hazards as possible. A risk assessment is an examination of how the work place could cause harm to people, cause illnesses or lead to injury, so that the company can evaluate on whether they need change anything to prevent this from happening. Employees have a right to be protected at work as well as the people visiting. After doing these assessments they have to act upon them to decrease the danger. Every businesses and organisation should have a member of staff responsible for risk assessment, but each section will be expected to be contributed to them.

A risk assessment will have five stages:

– Looking for any hazards.

– Discussing who would be in danger and how.

– Evaluating the risks, Should it get changed or removed.

– Recording what you have found and telling the other employees. There should be five or more employees that must keep a record of their findings in their risk assessment. It will have to be a part of the employers approach to health and safety.

– Reviewing the assessment and if necessary reviewing it like if Work has changed significantly or if there is an accident or if a change in halt that could be affect by their work.

If a risk assessment is good enough it should help avoid ill health and accidents, this is important because it costs the businesses money if an employee is injured at work because claims and compensation will be payed out the employee even if it was not their fault.

After the risk assessment the employees then need to correct what they have to correct in ordered to keep the zoo safety and risk free. The correct measurers need to be taken so that the risks that were found are now fixed and safe. In deciding the blocking and protective method, the following principles should be applied:

If its possible its best to avoid risk altogether

Fix risks at source

Adapt work to the individuals where ever is possible

Take advantage of the technological and technical development

Form part of a dependable policy and approach.

Give a main concern to those methods which are protected.

The difference between a hazards and risk

The difference between a risk and a hazard are that a hazard is anything that may cause damage to injury to a person; such as electricity, chemicals, working at a height, climbing stairs and uneven floors.

A risk is a possibility even if it’s high or low, that somebody could get hurt by these hazards. This can show how serious the harm could or not be. Example slipping on wet floors, falling for ladders and anything else that could lead to injury.

Some hazards that could occur in the zoo are stuff like diseases that could be spread among the animals and also people like foot and mouth, fire is also a high risk because the staffs use chemicals to clean the cages of the animals and tables in the restaurant. Escaping animals could be hazards if not kept in enclosed cages.

Risk assessment at Twycross

At Twycross zoo they have educational sessions for any ages and this is where they have to chance to learn and sometimes touch the animals.

Twycross have made their own risk assessment for these sessions:

All animals have been assessed for any possible risk, and are used to being handled.

Always be supervised by a member of staff when visitors touch the animals. Then everyone has to get their hands cleaned with sanitizing hand spray. And children under five maybe asked to clean their hands with sanitizing cream instead before handling the animals due to high possibility that they will put their hands in their mouth.

Health and safety

The health and safety laws are vital in running Twycross zoo. The zoo believes that health and welfare of their members of staff is of intense importance which is why they made their own health and safety policy.

Members of staff are organised to assist within their roles to help to achieve their aims at high standard and be very controlled so there is minimum risk to the public and staff.

Twycross aim to encourage members of staff on all levels and get them to work together to make sure that the health and safety policy id effective for all of them. Employees are provided with information on what is coming up in new laws, they are giving the right training and if needed direction for the processes they take on. This is so staffs are aware that they are being protected when carrying out their job. The zoo requirements are to continue the work place to be a safe environment so that workers are protected from any threat and also the public that may be at risk this includes the animals to. Limiting the danger to the public from the animals they have provided signs are the animal’s encloser warning them how not to behave.

The deputy director is in charge alongside the director of planning the health and safety policy used in the zoo’s workplace which is allows them to supply a safe working environment and all facilities are provided, any other arrangements for extra protection can be provided with no difficulty. Tasks that needs to be carried out to show the awareness of safety in places they must emphasise to members of staff and when all the measures for their safety are in place they must take on individual reasonability for their actions which means that the equipment provided is tested so that so that it abides to the laws in position.

Kite Marks

Kite mark is the UK’s most recognised product certification mark. Kite marks are official marking representative the product is accepted by the British standards institution. It is a mark of excellent assurance and visible evidence that the product conforms to certain guidelines; it also shows that the product has gone though testing to make sure that it is appropriate for its purpose.

For a business or product to gain a kite mark it has to go though stages to make sure that it is great quality and safe for customers to use. When a product displays a kite mark the customers can be more confident that the product will be safe and in shape for its purpose. Research shows that 60% of the UK customers will look for kite mark when choosing between products and willing to pay more for goods with kite marks as they have to be 100% safe

The zoo has many products that have a kite mark on like in the gift shop many of there products would have a kite mark on this is because a lot of there products are based around children, so then when the adults look at it they will be more willing to but them there merchandise.

The cleaning apparatus will also have kite marks are as well as protective glass and windows of shops and offices. The zoo does not make any products so they do not have its own kite mark.

Transport and communication

Peak season is a time of the year where thousands of visitors a day come to Twycross zoo. The roads around the area are small so traffic problems can occur so to try and decrease the traffic they changed the entrance by instead of getting a member of staff to get the money whiles the visitors were in the que they have made toll booths for after when they have park in the car park. This will also reduce pollution because the cars engines will not have to be on as long because they will not have to wait as long and this will also decrease noise pollution by the noise of the cars and angry drivers.

Waste management

Waste is a big issue across Britain so Twycross have joined in to recycle by recycling composed waste that is put in to green bags and the bin men sort it out into the right place, Plastic that is collected into a clear bag that take it to get recycled, clean cardboard which is flattened down and put next to the bins, Hazards wastes that is put into a designed bucket that staff empty into blue category 2

Waste bin at bottom kitchen then is collected on demand

By contractor and general waste that is collected in a black bag that normal bin men collect. They recycle water by cleaning it and reusing it. Green zoo is where the zoo agrees to do as much as they can to help the environment most of the things they do is what people could do in there own homes but also reuse and recycle other things that could only be used in a zoo.

Economy

The zoo needs a lot of staff to help run the zoo which means there are a lot of jobs which helps the economy with jobs, there are jobs for most people like cleaning, running the shops and cafes and then the animal stuff which you will need qualifications for. The shops and cafe can benefit the zoo because that mean the visitors buy more like gifts and food which increases the income for the zoo.

Community involvement

The zoo likes to get as many people as possible so they hold events and talks to get the community involved. You can become and member by signing up and you get updated on what is happening in the zoo and what events that will be happening and on how the animals are doing. You can also adopt an animal by paying a little price per month and getting updates on how the animal of your choice is doing, you get a certificate congratulating you on the adoption and pictures of the animal.

Educations

Twycross has educational tours around the zoo these could be from primary school children that get shown the animals and get to go on the rides for there entertainment to student at university with very detailed information about the animals and environment they live in. Special educational needs are also available.

Energy consumption

The zoo uses energy efficient appliances like under floor heating because its more efficient then radiators they use glass instead of cages because it helps saves heat this helps the environment and makes the zoo a better place.

Gender inequality is an issue that has existed and plagued women around the world for generations.

In modern times, gender inequality is more widely recognized as unacceptable than in the past.

To achieve this effect, efforts have been made throughout history women and men around the world

to draw attention to these inequalities and to change the social practices that support(Sullivan, 2007, p 246).

Efforts are continuing to be made today as well in an effort to eradicate gender inequality once and for all.

Efforts to stop gender inequality are sometimes referred to as the feminist movement, or movement for womens rights.

1998 marked the 150th Anniversary of a movement by women to achieve full civil rights in the United States.

Throughout these many years,generations of women have come together to affect these changes in the most

democratic ways: through meetings, petition drives, lobbying, public speaking, and nonviolent resistance.

They have worked very deliberately to create a better world, and they have succeeded hugely(Eisenberg & Ruthsdotter, 1998).

Women realized that in order to change the social views of women, they would have to develop their own

organizations and their own voice. Feminism kicked off with the first Women Conference in Seneca Falls,

America, in 1848. Women campaigned upon a whole range of issues; from guardianship of infants, property

rights, divorce, access to higher education and the medical professions, to equal pay and protective

legislation for women workers(Eisenberg & Ruthsdotter, 1998).

However, it was not until 1928 that all women – not just those over 30 and of the right property

qualifications – could legally vote(Eisenberg & Ruthsdotter, 1998). This was a crucial landmark

in the struggle for womens rights. Also in the 1920, the Women Bureau of the Department of Labor was

establish to regulate women & rights in the workplace, and Alice Paul drafted the Equal Rights Amendment

for the Constitution to ensure that men and women have equal rights throughout the United States (Eisenberg & Ruthsdotter, 1998).

Each decade continue to mark some victory for womens rights. In the 1940 and 1950 more and more women

became employed to support the war effort as well as compensate for the effects of the war. It became

evident that the state would have to begin to accept some responsibility for the welfare of families.

Together with the trade unions, the women’s movement fought hard for a welfare state system

which would provide this and act as a safety net for society’s most vulnerable (Eisenberg & Ruthsdotter, 1998).

The 1960 saw a second wave of feminism, and further accomplishments for the movement. President Kennedy

convened a Commission on the Status of Women, naming Eleanor Roosevelt as its chair. The report issued

by that commission in 1963 documented discrimination against women in virtually every area of American

life (Eisenberg & Ruthsdotter, 1998). This brought the need for reform and change to the forefront

for many state and local governments. Additionally, Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act was passed,

prohibiting employment discrimination on the basis of sex as well as race, religion, and

national origin(Eisenberg & Ruthsdotter, 1998).

The feminist movement did not exist alone in the United States. Many countries have taken up the fight

for women rights. In some countries, religions beliefs and traditions, combined with ideas from elsewhere

[have been used] to justify gender equality(Sullivan, 2007, p 246). In the Arab world, many believe that

a misinterpretation of the Koran has lead to the lack of gender equality, and in truth, Islamic traditions

call for gender equality and womens rights to be upheld. For example, one of the pioneers

of Arab feminism, Qassem Amin, published a book in 1899 titled The Liberation of Women that called for

extending to women most of the same rights that men enjoyed(Sullivan, 2007, p 246). In addition,

even countries such as China and Cuba who are traditionally very conservative have had a feminist

movement that was supported by the Communist government.

The feminist movement has continued with an international focus in recent years with support from the

United Nations. Gender equality is embedded in the Charter of the United Nations. Consequently,

the United Nations has a history of promoting gender equality, starting with the first United Nations

World Conference on Women in Mexico in 1975, through Copenhagen, Denmark in 1980 and Nairobi, Kenya

in 1985 (Mayanja, 2005). The United Nations also fostered the historic Convention on the Elimination

of All Forms of Discrimination against women, sometimes referred to as the international bill of womens

rights. The UN continued the push for gender equality through other UN conferences and summits of the

1990s, concluding with the Fourth World.

Conference of Women which took place in Beijing in 1995. After these conferences growing number of

countries developed and implemented national gender-sensitive policies and programs in economic, social

and political spheres. Many countries successfully adopted gender-mainstreaming approach towards the

implementation of programs and policies designed for the empowerment of (Mayanja, 2005).

However, women internationally continue to face great challenges, including poverty, gender-based violence,

ensuring family survival, unemployment, illiteracy, discrimination in law, policy, and practice,

lack of positions of power, stereotypical attitudes and discriminatory practices, prevalence of HIV/AIDS and

other diseases and infection, and slave trafficking (Mayanja, 2005). While great achievements have been real

ized in the past decade and beyond with regards to the feminist movement, there is still a long way to go

before gender equality is reached internationally.

Gender inequality deeply rooted in societal institutions, entrenched attitudes and roles(Mayanja, 2005).

The United Nations has committed to the continuation of implementing gender equality policies internationally.

To achieve gender equality, what needs to be done is to translate the global commitments into policy at

the national level and ensure that the policies are fully implemented. The necessary commitments have been

articulated. They need to be followed by action and all actors must be creative in seeking ways to translate

these commitments into actions, taking into account the particular national contexts.

This decade should be the decade of action for gender equality(Mayanja, 2005).

References
Eisenberg, Bonnie & Ruthsdotter, Mary (1998). Living the Legacy:

The Women’s Rights Movement 1848-1998. The National Women&acirc History Project.

Retrieved August 23, 2008, from http://www.legacy98.org/move-hist.html

Mayanja, Rachel (2005). Further Actions and Initiatives towards Gender Equality: Perspectives from the

United Nations. The Policy Dialogue on Gender Equality 2005 Tokyo Symposium.

Retrieved August 23, 2008, from www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/news/news2005/StatementinJapan17Nov.pdf

Sullivan, T.J. (2007). Sociology: Concepts and applications in a diverse world (7th ed.).

Boston: Pearson Education.

The definition of multiculturalism depends a great deal upon the context in which it is discussed. Concept of multiculturalism is constantly varying as more people make their voices heard to a recurrently increasing audience. Multiculturalism implies the diverse perspectives people develop and maintain through varieties of experience and background stemming from racial, ethnic, gender, sexual orientation and/or class differences in our society.

Multiculturalism is the acceptance or promotion of various ethnic cultures. It is diversity valid to the demographic make-up of a specific place, often at the organizational level, e.g. schools, businesses, neighborhoods, cities or nations. In this context, multiculturalists advocate extending equitable status to distinct ethnic and religious groups without promoting any specific ethnic, religious, and/or cultural community values as central.

Multiculturalism should preserve the ideals of equality, equity, freedom and respect for individuals and groups as a principle fundamental to the success of a nation.

Background of British Public Life Style that embraces Multiculturalism – the Evolution

Britian is one of Europe’s most multi-cultural nations. There are a number of policy drivers and historical happening that have led Britian to evolve into multicultural society that it is today. There is no infliction of immigration in the 1914 and 1948 Nationality Acts. Immigration remained low, however until after 1948. In 1953 the total number of immigrants to Britain was 2000 and by the end of the first half of 1962 the number had risen to 94,500.

The 1948 British Nationality Act established positive immigration rights to Citizens of Commonwealth countries. Britain experienced an increase in immigration rate in post war era due to deficiency of labor. Initially men alone came to Britain for jobs but in late 1960s and early seventies their families joined them. These included mostly Hindus, Sikhs, Muslims and Buddhists as well as Christians and they settled in London, in the Midlands and the North and in the seaport towns of Liverpool and Cardiff.

The immigration load of 1960s and early seventies made UK an ethnically and religiously diverse community. The idea that the immigrant would ultimately merge and become part of the host culture which was given in mid-50s was rejected. These communities develop their own cultural values. Racial tension increased and by the end of 1950s immigrants were subjected to unprovoked racist attacks. This resulted in the notion that immigration and race relations were politically controversial issues and there was a growing campaign to introduce immigration controls.

Between 1950 and 1955 certain control measures were adopted to reduce the influx to Uk as the number of West Indian, Indian and Pakistani immigrants increased. But in spite of the strict immigration policy the population of immigrants is still growing

Over the last decade most of the immigrants came from the Indian subcontinent or the Caribbean, i.e. from former British colonies. In 2004 the number of people who became British citizens rose to a record 140,795 – a rise of 12% on the previous year. This number had risen dramatically since 2000. The huge majority of new citizens come from Africa (32%) and Asia (40%), the largest three groups being people from Pakistan, India and Somalia.

This resulted in changes to the ‘British way of life’ and the UK became known as a multicultural community. However, more recently the term multiculturalism is becoming a contested concept both in sociological discourse and in recent policy making.

The term multiculturalism is generally thought to have arisen in Britain in a speech by the then Home Secretary, Roy Jenkins in 1966. While this term is current in the UK there are often instances where local politics can serve to exclude minority cultures while promoting the values of the dominant white culture. Multiculturalism is also a term which describes aspects of social policy. Multiculturalism is used in a number of ways which can serve either to celebrate difference or to act as a cover for what, in any real terms, is another form of enforced assimilation. It also needs to be recognized that diverse ethnic groups now consist of large numbers of people who have been born in Britain.

Causes for Reduction in People’s Moral Value and Multi-cultural Understandings of Harmony in UK

1. Materialistic Lifestyles and Lack of Religious Influences – Nowdays people are inclined towards economic advancement rather than social advancement on basis of sticking to the moral values. Simplicity has been taken over by extravagent life styles and extra needs. This brings human cirlce of behavior and brings about significant impact on the entire social fabric.

There is lack of religious and spiritual influences on people, and they do not tend to believe in virtues and moralities. In the “The Twilight of a Great Civilization”, with reference to lack of religious influences on nations and consequent emergence of immoralities, Theologian Carl Henry stated that “there is no fixed truth, no final good, no ultimate meaning or purpose, and that the living God is a primitive illusionaˆ¦ it champions mysticism, occult forces and powers, communion with nature and exotic religions”. This concept of illusional God is taking up roots in various sections of British society.

2. Fragmented Family Structure – A dysfunctional family is detrimental to the development of an individual and usually results in low self-morale. Among the numerous factors for the deterioration of morals among the youth, such as lack of religious education and appreciation and peer pressure, a dysfunctional family were stated as the leading causes.

The family is the basic building blocks of society. Abuse whether sexual, physical, emotional, or mental is a very real and crippling problem in families today. Young adults, couples and elderly struggle with anxiety, depression, panic attacks, sex addiction, abuse, incest, sleep disorders, divorce, mid-life illness, death and many more problems. The family has dramatically changed over the last 30 years. This results in the deterioration of morals, values, beliefs, priorities, and life styles. Such disjointed social systems where an individual is so aloof from family would definitely show rejection and lack of trust to other members of the society especially those from “alien” cultures. Lack of harmony in family structures ultimately lead to lack of harmony in multi-cultural society.

3. Disillusioned Youth – Young people are taught in our schools and colleges that ethics, morals, right and wrong depend upon the situation. Some teachers and professors use the concept of Values Clarification to inculcate students that their desires represent valid moral and ethical values. Many of these people have come of age and are among our highest leaders today. Morality is vital in all areas of society. It is the critical education young people obtain that imparts ethical values that endow with lasting benefits. Today’s teachings produce mixed results.

Name calling and bulling due to racism is prevalent in British schools and educational systems. This causes discomfort to students from other cultures and creates sense of disharmony.

4. Negative Messages by Media – Billboards, magazines, TV commercials, music videos all portray messages of sex, violence and extravagant lifestyles. Blood gore horror flicks or action packed ones are all full of images of violence. Even video games have element of adventure by infusing streaks of violence by use of guns, explosives, daggers. These channels of exposure to voilence makes us prone to being emotionally insensitive, and enhance trends of agression, anger and violence in the society. Violent and aggressive trends call up for dis-harmony amongst various segments of multi-cultural society.

5. Racist Behavior – Racists do not like foreign people who live in the UK, either as immigrants or as visitors. Racist behavior is more widespread in areas where there are many immigrants or in towns where there are many international students. Racist behavior implies the use of slang expressions.

The British Crime Survey reveals that in 2004, 87,000 people from black or minority ethnic communities said they had been a victim of a racially motivated crime. They had suffered 49,000 violent attacks, with 4,000 being wounded. At the same time 92,000 white people said they had also fallen victim of a racially motivated crime. The number of violent attacks against whites reached 77,000, while the number of white people who reported being wounded was five times the number of black and minority ethnic victims at 20,000. Most of the offenders (57%) in the racially motivated crimes identified in the British Crime Survey are not white. White victims said 82% of offenders were not white.

6. Hatered Flared due to Terrorist Attacks – According to a report by BBC race-hate crimes increased by almost 600 per cent in London in the month after the July 7 bomb attacks, with 269 more offenses allegedly “motivated by religious hatred” reported to the Metropolitan Police, compared to the same period last year. [1] Muslim community living in Britian becomes subjected to harsh attitudes because they are all believed to be from terrorist groups. Religious leaders of Muslim groups hold the view that government and race bodies for pursuing a policy which, he claims, has alienated Muslims. These views were stated to be “absurd” by the Commission for Racial Equality. This rift between those representing Muslim community and the Commission for Racial Equality reflect a deep set sense of opposing views.

Suggestions to Enhance Understanding and Harmony amongst Various Sections of British Society

Media Propagation – Media can play a vital role in promoting peace and harmony oriented messages.

Role of Educational Systems – Children and students should be taught respect and tolerance for other cultural and religious trends prevalent. They must be taught to “tolerate and accept” rather than to “retaliate and reject”. Students from different ethnic backgrounds should be encouraged to share knowledge about their cultural heritage, and the teacher can add the element of “fun” and “interactive learning” in the whole process, so that the students affiliate positivity with this exercise. At higher educational level, knowledge can be shared on wider platforms through tutorial, or intellectual discussions.

Role of Government and Legal Bodies – Fair and transparent government mechanisms, policy making, and legal framework. Human rights should be followed rigidly and justice should be available to all regardless of color, race or religion.

Role of Peace Organizations – Various organizations can come into play to drive peace and harmony campaigns. For example, “Peace Boat” has been active in the field of education for peace and sustainability through the organization of educational voyages, based o­n lectures, workshops and study-exchange programmes both o­nboard the ship and in ports of call. Their Global University and International Student (IS) programmes provide innovative approaches to peace and sustainability-related studies through intensive learning onboard and direct exposure to issues in various countries.

Equal Opportunities and Freedom to Express Cultural Values – Government should ensure equal opportunities regarding availability of basic necessities, housing, education, health care, employment should be available to all the communities and social strata’s of UK. People should not feel awkward to expressing their cultural norms in anyway. Law should be made flexible to allow people to wear hijabs and veils (Muslim women), turbans (Sikhs) etc at work and educational places. Government should ensure that the performance of various religious cultural activities and festivals are not hindered in any way.

Changes at Individual Level – At the end of the day all these suggestions can add up to be nil if each one of us individually fails to take others as they are. Each one of us must work and evaluate our holistic approach of going about things. No one can compel us to exhibit tolerance or respect towards other communities unless we feel the need to do so within ourselves. The question might be: “Why the need to change anyway?” The answer: Change for a secure, peaceful and brighter tomorrow!

Policy Areas to be covered by Government to Promote a Multi-cultural Society

In UK 50 years ago, when for the first time the effect of mass immigration was experienced, the need for policy, political and legal changes was felt. With this the concern of the Government was to integrate and assimilate the incoming groups into host communities.

Policy making is very crucial as it can help in formulating policies which helps in determining the representation which various ethnicities receives in television or press. It helps in determining the code of conduct for these communities, the dress code, and content of education, the freedom for observing religious holidays and to celebrate festivals.

With the years Multiculturalism has initiated many disputes but the The UK Government has focused less on establishment of multicultural policy and more on issues of inclusion and cohesion.

While it was principally ignored under Margaret Thatcher’s Government the success of New Labor has meant that the term has grow to be a common currency in political debate and in policy making. In 1997 the ODPM was given task for a social exclusion unit which aims to embark on research into a number of different areas. Social inclusion and cohesion are not just used in relation to diverse ethnic groups but are the basis for policy making in a number of other areas such as mental health, early years education and homelessness. Issues of inclusion cover a host of areas and can range from the numbers of ethnic minorities using childcare facilities, to those undertaking further education of some kind to increase their employment prospects.

Policy making aimed at reducing inequalities in both the labor and the housing market. In order to be successful anti-racist strategies need to be multi-faceted and aimed at subjective, institutional, and structural racism. Past policies have been deficiently focused because there is no clear consensus in Britain what equal opportunity and multiculturalism mean either in ideological or practical terms. According to a Policy Studies Institute (1982) report found that in the majority of diverse ethnic communities’ rates of unemployment were twice as elevated among these groups as they were in the governing host group. There is a continuing disparity in terms of wages, exclusionary modes of hiring and higher unemployment rates, certain ethnic groups experience greater success in the labor market than do others. Housing policies also tend to discriminate against asylum seekers/refugees and other diverse ethnic groups. Clearly there are problems in the categorization of diverse ethnic groups and in present policy making, which, instead of greater inclusion sometimes tends to further leave out such groups.

In the light of above mentioned scenario of policy decisions and proceedings, it is suggested that to sustain and promote a healthy Multi-cultural Society the Government should address the following policy areas:

1. Economic Policy Areas – Economic policies should attract intellectual capital, trade, skilled migration, education, tourism, and science/technology. Establish partnerships between government agencies and business, industry, tourism, and education sectors to promote and maximize the economic advantages of cultural diversity and promote the State as a destination to work and live together. Develop supporting strategies for multiculturalism in international relations, tourism, trade and export areas. Develop educational and promotional activities to increase awareness of the economic benefits of multiculturalism. Develop strategies in the public sector to better capture the benefits of a diverse workforce.

2. Policies to Support Communities – Policies should be developed for funding and investing in communities to further multiculturalism through research, policy development, advocacy, community awareness, festivals, services, projects and networks. Policies should be formulated in consultation with agencies and stakeholders in the community and across government on multicultural affairs.

3. Policies to Strengthen Multiculturalism in the Public Sector – Government agencies should ensure that regardless of cultural and linguistic backgrounds, all communities have equal access to services.

4. Policies to Strengthen Community relations and anti-racism – Policies should be designed for strengthening the sense of belonging in their local environment and in the global community. Policies should be taken up to promote positive and cohesive community relations across the whole community through a renewed community relations plan.

5. Policies to Develop Multicultural Education in British Schools – Educational systems should be developed keeping in view the requirements and cultural backgrounds of students coming from various backgrounds. Methods of teaching and interaction should promote multi-cultural harmony amongst the students.

6. Policies for Equal Opportunities – Policies should be developed to eunsure that people from all communities have equal access to basic necessities, housing, education, health care, and employment

Transparency in Government Operations

Transparency in government operations will definitely bring in good understanding between different sections of society. In principle, a basic requirement for transparency in the overall structure and functions of government is a clear demarcation of the boundaries between the public and private sectors and, within the former, between different levels of government with respect to the state enterprise sector. [2] Transparent government operations would mean sound government policies, administrative frameworks, finances, good governance, and overall fiscal integrity. Transparent government operations would be accountable to all the communities dwelling in the UK. It would clearly distinguish provision of rights, protection by law and facilities by the government to the people. This would cumulate a sense of justice and equality in the society and hence promote greater level of social security and harmony.

Role of Public in Promoting Harmony and Understanding

Public can play a major role in promoting harmony by abiding by the law and respecting multicultural policies. As discussed earlier each one of use must develop a sense of tolerance and respect for other members of the society. Public can actively participate in other communities’ cultural activities and not only promote a sense of harmony but also learn about other cultures. At homes parents must teach their children how to respect and deal politely with foreign children at schools. At work place, shopping malls, community centers we must learn to respect and treat all members of the community equally.

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REFRENCES:

Giddens, A., “Sociology”, 2001, 4th Edition, Cambridge, Polity Press.

Skellington R. and Morris, P., “Race in Britain Today”, 1992, London, Sage.

Braham, P. Rattansi, A. and Skellington, R., “Racism and Antiracism”, 1982, London, Sage.

“The Roots of Multiculturalism”, Retrieved on 21st March 2010, from : http://www.law-essays-uk.com/free-essays/multi-culturalism-in-social-policy.php

Winnail, Douglas S., “Moral Decline Ahead”, 2002, Volume 4, Issue 4, Retrieved on 19th March 2010 from : http://www.tomorrowsworld.org/cgi-bin/tw/tw-mag.cgi?category=Magazine19&item=1104106519

Daniel, Finaz and Begawan, Bandar Seri”Concern over decline in moral values”, February 21, 2008, The Brunei Times, Retrieved on 20th March 2010, from : http://www.bt.com.bn/en/home_news/2008/02/21/concern_over_decline_in_moral_values

“Racism”, UK Student Life 2002-2009, Retrieved 19th March 2010 from : http://www.ukstudentlife.com/Personal/Safety.htm#Racism

“Racism in the United Kingdom” , Retrieved 19th March 2010 from : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_Kingdom#cite_note-3#cite_note-3

Freeman, Simon, “Britain urged to wake up to race crisis”, The Times, September 22, 2005, Retrieved on 20th March 2010, from: http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article569491.ece

“Muslims ‘alienated’ by UK policy”, October, 2001, Retrieved on 20th March 2010 from : http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/1630513.stm

Tatsuya, Yoshioka and Mari, Kushibuchi, “Education for Peace & Sustainability”, Peace Boat, Retrieved on 19th March 2010 from: http://www.peacefromharmony.org/?cat=en_c&key=240

Braham, P. Rattansi, A. and Skellington, “Racism and Antiracism”, 1992, London, Sage.

Solomos, J and Back, L., “Racism and Society”, 1996, London, Macmillan Press.

Modood, T. and Berthood R., “Ethnic Minorities in Britain Diversities and Disadvantage”, 1997, London, PSI.

“Multicultural Queensland – making a world of difference”, 2004, Queensland Government Multicultural Policy, Retrieved on 21st March 2010 from http://www.multicultural.qld.gov.au/media/maq_making_world_difference_policy.pdf

Transparency in government operations”, Retrieved on 20th March 2010, from: http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LyCV9MlnLPYpsTFdkCRBW0jF039GFrJhRMnS6WNP54VSvCvQ9M1G!144947719!-2000885492?docId=5001407337

1.0 Introduction

The Greeks believed that animals were a lesser form of life because animals could not think like humans did. Furthermore, this thought was continued by Christians who claimed that animals were less significant because they had no soul (Vivisection, 2002). Animal testing is the use of live animals for research in order to better understand the effect of certain substances towards human health. This application has been widely carried out in many industries. Numerous animals have been used for animal testing, such as guinea pigs, rabbits, dogs and mice. The issue of animal testing has become a worldwide focus these days due to arguments brought up by those who are against animal experimentation.

Unquestionably, the practice of animal experimentation has increased tremendously compared to the past. According to Shandilya (2008), it is estimated that 20 million animals are used for animal experimentation yearly for the purpose of medicine and for testing other products. Findings from studies indicate that less than 10 percent of pure psychological researches use animals as test subjects, which do not include animal subjects used for cross-over medical experimentation (American Psychological Association, n.d., cited in Harding, L. , 2001). However, there are some who state that animal experiments are cruel and immoral, besides violating an animal’s rights. This has caused many individuals to agree with the movements of anti-vivisection organisations due to brutal treatment towards animals.

Although there are laws regarding animal testing enforcing the reduction in the use of animals for vivisection, opponents of animal experimenting are still debating about the subject of legalizing it.

If we view this subject from a broader perspective, it can be seen that animal testing should be legalized as it aids scientist in the discoveries of new drugs and treatments to make health and medicine better, an animal’s life does not hold as much value as a human’s, and it is the most precise way to find out the effects of substances on a living organism.

This research paper will explain why animal testing should be legalized. Research findings are confined to the United States of America, since the subject of animal testing is highly debated there and the progress of this issue in the US is relative to other countries.

2.1 Animal testing helps in the development of drugs and treatments.

Currently, humans are often exposed to various diseases which are life threatening, which includes existing diseases or new forms of diseases due to mutations and changes in the environment. Hence, researchers are working hard in finding cures for all these illnesses. From here, it can be seen that animal testing is essential in the sustenance of human health. Animals will be used to study the effect of newly invented drugs, whether it will help in curing the disease.

Speaking of the positive outcomes of animal testing, this includes the development of new medicine and treatments. Derbyshire (2004) mentioned that many medical advances used animal testing; dogs were used to develop the production of insulin, whereas primates were utilized in the manufacture of a powerful anti-rejection drug, cyclosporine. Besides this, discoveries of various vaccines have evolved through animal experimentation. From here, it can be seen that animal testing can guide us to discoveries of new knowledge about living organisms.

Many drugs have been invented to fulfill the aim of remedying diseases. However, the side effects of newly invented drugs remain unknown. Therefore, animal testing allows the evaluation of the danger of drugs before being used upon humans which will greatly reduce the risk before any human based trials are carried out (About Animal Testing, n.d.). Drugs that are tested safe can then be used to save millions of valuable human lives. The future of medical science still relies on animal testing, and this clearly shows a need in legalizing animal testing.

There are some people who claim that the effects of drugs tested on animals may not be the same to humans. Arthritis drug Vioxx, which caused 140 000 heart attacks and strokes in United States of America, was withdrawn from the global market even though it appeared to be safe when tested in animals (Archibald, 2004). However, scientists have proven that animals are extremely alike to humans and experiments done on them would produce similar results obtained through future human experiments (About Animal Testing, n.d.). Hence, carrying out animal testing on drugs would improve the quality of human life indirectly.

Therefore, to sum it all up, animal testing should be legalized because it assists researchers in medical treatments besides drugs discovery, improves health and medicine and is able to test the safety of drugs. Alternatives of animal testing are not as plausible as they are not as accurate as the results obtained from tests conducted upon animals. Hence, animal testing should be encouraged instead of being suppressed.

2.2 The importance of human lives is given priority over animal lives.

Differences existing between humans and animals cause animals to receive treatments which are different and unequal although both of them are alive. As animals differ from humans as they do not have conscience, they are considered inferior to humans when it comes to the value of life. Seeing that the lives of humans are viewed as more valuable than animal lives, animals will have to be sacrificed in animal experimentation.

The pros and cons of animal testing were debated with both sides being able to produce solid reasons for their stands. From the view of sentiency, it is mentioned that all living things are morally equivalent. However, the lives of humans are superior over the lives of animals (Garner, 2005). Authorities have to make a choice between the welfare of humans and the welfare of animals. Which one is more important, the life of a human or the life of an animal? As Archibald (2004) points out, most people are willing to sacrifice the lives of animal in animal testing to save human lives.

Even though human welfare is the main concern, the welfare of an animal is still taken into account by minimizing the suffering of animals when conducting animal experimentations. The Animal Welfare Act had been formed and reviewed constantly to protect animals and decrease the number of vivisections carried out (Monamy, 2000). Every experiment involving the usage of animals is normally administered with anesthesia. In conjunction with this, the experiments will not be repeated or animals used will be euthanized when brutal treatment is involved. Animal testing can be accepted as it allows the improvement of human life quality without the suffering of animals (Garner, 2005).

Those who are against animal testing argued that animals have the right to live peacefully. Animal testing is regarded as unkind treatment towards animals as it violates animal rights as their lives are valuable as well (Le Fanu, 2003). Nevertheless, their arguments are weak because animals lack the sense of judgment, and therefore are not subjected to moral claims and animal rights (Cohen, 1986). Hence, they cannot be compared with human life. As long as the animal is experimented upon without pain, the welfare of the animal is not violated. Therefore, it is acceptable to legalize the activity of animal testing as human life should be prioritized.

Although there are many who are against animal experimentation, the points asserted are not h3 enough to discontinue the activity of animal testing. Supporters of animal testing affirm that animals should not have equal rights with humans as both of these cannot be compared. Animals lack the sense of judgment, thus human lives always come first before animal lives. Animals are considered to be protected as long as animals receive minimum amount of suffering. So animal testing should be legalized in order to save more human lives.

2.3 Animal testing is helpful for studying the effects of substances.

Many new chemical substances are produced every year to meet the demand of the global market such as in agriculture, medicine and cosmetic products. The credits should be given to animal testing. The effect of that particular substance has been studied to produce countless helpful products. This can increase the longevity of humans besides improving the human standard of living.

By conducting experiments on animals, the researcher can gain invaluable information from the living specimen. Winston (2006) mentioned that 70% of the Nobel prizes for physiology or medicine are contributed from animal testing. Hence, it is clearly shown that by performing researches on animals by studying the effects of a substance can bring a huge impact upon the world. The discovery of knowledge will be delayed or remain undiscovered if animal testing is not carried out.

As stated by Le Fanu (2003), primates offer the best experimental models as they have 99% similarity in genes with humans. Animal testing can be carried out on primates to ensure the safety of some drugs before being tested on humans. The chance for both organisms exhibiting the same effect is high due to the similarity of their genes. This in turn can reduce the risks faced by humans when commencing the trials. Hence, animals are good tools for learning the effects of various substances.

In spite of this, people who are in opposition to animal testing argue that it must not be legalized just because animal experimentation leads to medical breakthroughs and the outcome is more rewarding. This statement is insufficient to justify the drawbacks of animal testing (Derbyshire, 2004). On the other hand, it is proven that the beneficial outcome outweighs its drawbacks, so it is rational to legalize the activity of animal testing. Without studying the effects of substances using animal testing, most of the major vaccines against disease like polio, rubella and hepatitis B used today would not exist (Derbyshire, 2004). New drugs undergo in vitro research, computer modeling and animal testing before being tested on humans. Thus, every step is vital in this process of studying the effects before a drug is introduced into the market.

In short, the effects of a substance can be study by carrying out animal testing which can provide invaluable information besides the anatomy of some animals are similar to humans. Even though animal experimentation its disadvantages, there are still many benefits that can gain by carrying out animal testing. Thus, legalization of animal testing must be accepted. Moreover, it can be a good tool for education and research purposes.

3.0 Recommendation

Normally, the usage of animals for animal testing delineated as cruelty towards animals and should not be legalized. However, it is impossible to ban the practice of animal experimentation due to the benefits brought by animal research towards mankind. Animal testing is a noble action to sustain the welfare of humans. Since the practice of animal testing cannot be stopped, the welfare of animals can only be protected by another approach.

The principle of “Three Rs”, that is “refinement”, “reduction” and “replacement” can be practiced. The researchers are pledged to reduce the number of animals used when performing a research. To use the least number of resources to obtain the fastest results, researchers have the tendency of using a smaller number of animals during their research. This is an act that showed the willingness of mankind to reduce the cruelty towards the animals. Besides this, scientists were asked to lessen the degree of suffering of the animal. This can be attained by exclude some needless harmful actions involving the animals. Lastly, alternative methods should be used whenever possible to replace the usage of animal testing (Derbyshire, 2006).

For instance, the welfare of animals can be secured by doing so. The practice of animal experimentation should compromise between the welfare of humans and animals so that harmony can be achieved. Animal experimentation still can be practiced, and the laws should be strictly enforced so that it is not violated by irresponsible people.

4.0 Conclusion

Due to the increased usage of animal testing, the issue of animal experimentation is getting highly debated and remains relentless. After examining several points, it has revealed that animal testing should be legalized as it helps in the progress of medicine and health, human life is more valuable than animal life, and helps to learn the outcome of a substance on a living organism. Day by day, anti-vivisectionists try to rule out animal testing by looking at this issue from the animal’s point of view. Concurrently, supporters of animal experimentation were able to refute their arguments, by claiming the welfare of humans should always come first before animals. They viewed the subject of animal testing from a broader perspective and the long term advantages that come from animal experimentation. Life is never perfect, some sacrifices have to make to achieve success for a better future. Nonetheless, animal research should be carried out as its advantages are more significant than the disadvantages.