Author: Andre Coleman

Twycross Zoo is located in the village of Twycross in Leicestershire. Most of the population are within an hour of Twycross Zoo, approx 9 million.

History of the zoo:

The Zoo was founded in 1962 by Molly Badham and Nathalie Evans. Molly Badham, who kept animals from a young age, owned a pet shop in her home town, along with Nathalie Evans who also had a pet shop in the same time. The two women went on to share a flat along with two chimpanzees. Their collections of animals grew, and they went on to buy a large plot of land with stables, farm buildings etc. Molly Badham then went on to become an expert in the care of primates in captivity, and now the zoo has grown to have one of the largest numbers of primates. Molly and Nathalie set up a charity called the ‘East midlands zoological society’ and the animal collection and zoo premises were donated to them in 1962.

Size of organisation:

The zoo attracts around 500,000 visitors a year. The zoo employs around 120 full time staff, and also employee seasonal staff for more help around the seasonal times.

Nature of the work done:

The zoos main aim is a sanctuary for the animals that they keep there. Also, conservation, education and research that is done within the zoo. The zoo does a lot of things for the animals. They do captive breeding.

The captive breeding programme

At Twycross zoo there are many animals that are threatened with extinction. The main reason for extinction is usually because of the human population, and zoos and organisations who try to help these animals have been working together for years to try prevent animals from going extinct and making organisations, helping zoo’s and captive breeding centres etc to make sure that these animals don’t go extinct by doing things such as the captive breeding programme, they also need to keep the zoo population. There are many species of land vertebrates that will soon need to be cared for by humans if they are not able to breed well in the wild. By working with other organisations and captive breeding centres etc they can help to breed animals quicker than if they were in the wild or troubled areas etc. An example of this is the Amur Leopard that they have bought to Twycross zoo to breed the animal and make sure that it doesn’t go extinct.

The zoo also does research at the zoo for animals. The zoo has a strong research department and support many projects every year. The zoo promotes research, especially if it benefits animal welfare and the conservation at the zoo. Most of the researchers that Twycross zoo recruit are studying the animals that the zoo have because they have the largest collection of primate species of any zoo in the world, apart from countries like Japan.

The zoo research behaviour, nutrition etc to help and look after the animals at the zoo to the best that they can, finding new ways to give the animals the nutrition that they need and new ways to make sure that the behaviour of the animals is good, and if it isn’t finding new ways to make sure the animals are happy and well looked after. Also, the methods of feeding the animals and the food that they feed them are very closely researched as every animal has a carefully regulated diet and this needs to be obtained.

The zoo also contributes to campaigns; this is a good thing to do for them because it shows that the zoo is interested in things that are happening and things that are related to the zoo.

They also maintain animal welfare and this is very important for the animals because the research done for animal welfare is focusing on the body, the heart rate etc to examine how the animal is coping with its environment and food etc.

The zoo focuses on enrichment for the animals also. The reason the zoo do enrichment is to make sure that the animals are happy and occupied with the things that the zoo provide for them to play with and do etc. They do this for many reasons, such as to make sure animals perform natural behaviours, animals are more active, animals have more control over their lives, and environment is more interesting to animals and public and to avoid development of stereotypical behaviour. They keep there eye on the animals daily and write down the notes on the animals for each day.

Twycross zoo has a professional education department. They teach the public that visit the zoo all of the things that they would like to know about the zoo. They also teach schools and universities. They do this by giving group talks and answering individual questions asked by the public that visit the zoo. When a school or university visits the zoo, they can arrange a talk with a member of staff at the zoo and they tell you everything about the zoo that you need to know.

The areas of science used in the organisation (biology, chemistry, physics)

At Twycross zoo, there are different sections; the zoo is split up into different areas. This means that in all of the different sections, there are different parts of science that is used.

Biology is used in the zoo because part of biology is the study of plants. There are plants and trees everywhere around the zoo. They need to understand the plants they put into enclosures incase it is harmful to any of the animals. Also, plants that the animals can eat need to be researched incase they harm the animal in any way. The zoo keepers would use this to make the enclosures and around the zoo look a bit better, also

Zoology is one of the branches of biology that looks into the structure, function, behaviour, and evolution of animals. To learn about animal behaviour and how the animals behave and show if the animals are happy with their environment and are eating the correct food with the specific minerals, vitamins in etc. The animal keepers, vets, researchers and zoo owners are most likely to use this part of science.

The zoo could also use biochemistry, for example the vet; if they have a sample to send to a laboratory this could be used.

The zoo would also use building biology, as this is the study of indoor living environment they would need to use this bit of science to make sure that the building requirements for the enclosures are up to standard and suitable for each and every animal. The estates part of the employees would use this part of science.

The zoo would use conservation biology a lot around the zoo because it is the study of restoration of the natural environment, wildlife, vegetation, preservation and protection. These are some of the main aims of the zoo, making sure that they are being environmentally friendly and finding new ways to restore the natural environment. Conservationist at the zoo would defiantly use this part of science, so would the zoo keepers and the maintenance employees too.

Ethology is the study of animal behavior; this is used a lot in zoos because they study the animal’s behavior to make sure that they are happy with the environment and their enclosure etc. They also study the animal’s behavior to make sure that they are healthy and being looked after well.

The zoo also use chemistry, this is another use of science used in the zoo.

They use chemistry to understand what medicines to give to the animals. Also, the use of cleaning fluids needs to be researched and studied to make sure that it wont affect the animals at all and can clean it properly also. Also, cooking in the cafes and restaurants need to use chemistry with cooking also, to make sure that it is cooked properly and the correct temperatures and ingredients.

Physics is used a lot around the zoo because there are a lot of buildings and enclosures, so the physics has to be good and up to standards to make sure that it is suitable and safe for the animals, visitors and employees to work, live and look in.

Skills used by employees which are science related:

At Twycross zoo there is a lot of science used in the organisation.

In Administration science is used in:

Personal decisions
Business decisions
Finance
ICT
Animal databases
Records

The skills and qualifications for these are:

GCSE’s
Business administration
Computer Science
The director of administration is a vet.

The animal team are very important in the zoo, they care for the animals. The science used is listed:

Keeping animal records
Feeding and cleaning
Caring for animals (medication etc)
Designing enclosures and enrichment
The qualifications used are:
Related degrees
Animal management
NVQ, GNVO Diploma, HND
Veterinary health studies

Experience

Estates also use science in the zoo. They help to maintain that the zoo is up to standards and build new things to make the zoo a better place for the animals, workers and visitors.

The jobs that done are:

Gardening
Building enclosures
Maintenance
Electrical
The qualifications needed for this are:
Trades
Horticulture

Education is a big part of the zoo, and the zoo do there best to make sure that visitors and workers etc are educated properly and understand the history, reason etc of the zoo.

The jobs to do with education are:

Teaching
Campaigns
Signage and Interpretation
Outreach
Research

The qualifications needed for this are:

GCSE’s
A Levels
Relevant degrees
Teaching
Experience

There are also other staffs that work at the zoo. These aren’t as important as the animal keepers etc. These include:

Food and Beverage
Gift shop workers
Visitor services

The qualifications are:

GCSE’s
A Levels
Experience
Examples of a range of jobs used in the organisation and the roles and responsibilities of those employees, you should also identify any scientific qualifications required for the jobs / how science is used

Job
Role
Responsibilities
Qualifications needed
How science is used
Education Officer

An education officer supports the education department, provides high standard services for groups of students and children visiting the zoo.

– Preparation of talks for groups of students.

– Delivering talks

– Keeping education buildings tidy

– Marketing the zoo’s education services

– Graduate in a zoo – related subject

– Preferably PGCE qualified

– Experience in teaching

– Excellent presentation skills

Science is used in this because you have to know all about the animals so you can teach people about them.

Catering manager

To ensure that the catering department delivers a cost effective service to the zoo.

– Motivate and manage staff

– Recruitment, training, development

– Maintain health, safety, hygiene

– Experience in budget setting and management

– Experienced in managing

– IT Literate

Biology is used for cooking.

Ranger

Being a key member of the team offering each member of the public their first impression of the zoo. Communicating with the public and welcoming them.

– Working on a few areas of visitor services.

– Help with car parking, gift aid, pay booth, information centre.

-Litter picking, cleaning etc.

– Good customer care skills, polite, friendly, helpful.

– Punctual

Qualifications aren’t essential.

Science isn’t really that important in this job, but you will need to know about the animals if the visitors ask anything.

Animal keeper (Grade 1)

To assist with the animal keeping on their section, so that it is carried out to the standards on a day-to-day basis.

Animals:

-Prepare and distribute food and water correctly.

-Know the animals, check, observe them.

Enclosures:

-Keep to standards of hygiene, cleanness.

-Maintain security

Staff:

– Assist with training

– Know the animals dietary requirements

– Follows the zoo’s health and safety instructions

– Had training and experience

Science is used because you need to know everything about the animals, what they eat and understand and identify their behaviour etc.

Gardener & Maintenance operative

To assist in the upkeep and planting of the zoo’s grounds and displays. Also, assist with the general maintenance.

-Mowing lawns

-Digging ground

-Planting

-General maintenance of grounds display

– Driving transport

-Physically fit, active

– Work experience as a labourer or gardener

Science isn’t really used with this job.

Vet

To help the zoo with the everyday care of animals. Be on hand to assist anything that they are needed for. Treat the animals when needed.

– Always on hand to help when there is a problem

– Care and look after the animals to make sure they are healthy.

– If they need treating to treat them in the correct way.

– Vaccinations etc.

-Biology ‘A’ Level, as well as one or two from Physics, Chemistry and Maths.

– Grades at ‘A’ Level, two A’s and a B, or, in some cases, three A’s

– Alternatively, a distinction in BTEC Diploma in Animal Science.

-Biology

Example of how changing scientific ideas affect the processes used within the company.

When scientific things are changed that are to do with the zoo, the zoo have to adapt to the changes and make sure that they are up to date with all of the latest ideas and changes within science, like better equipment and materials etc.

Things have to change in the zoo when scientific ideas change. The ethics of the zoo has changed along the years as there are more scientific ideas being founded, from exhibition to now it is education and conservation.

The enclosure designs also change with scientific ideas also. Before new materials were developed, the zoo enclosures were wired fences with not much to play with and not that great security, also it wasn’t very nice for the animals as they felt like they were trapped in cages and visitors weren’t happy to see the animals in cages, so they had to change how they were designed with scientific ideas. Now there are thick glass walls around the animal’s enclosure, this is better for the animal because they don’t feel as caged in and it is easier for visitors to view the animals and it is a more natural and earthly place for the animals to live in. They also have changed the materials in the zoos so that the animals are a lot safer with what they are living in and playing with etc. For example, the playground equipment that the gorilla’s have used to be unsafe and unsteady with the materials that were used before, and they may not even have had anything to play on because it was unsafe and they didn’t have the correct materials. Now, they have strong wood play equipment that is safe for the animal to sit and play on.

There are a lot of changes of how the staffs work with day to day work due to the research that is done. They do different things to what they did before new research and scientific research was done.

Also, the zoo is a lot more environmentally friendly than it used to be because of the world changing because of scientific things that are happening in the world, they join up with everyone else with recycling and re-using things.

How ICT is used in the company:

ICT is used in the zoo because they have to do some work with ICT and computers to understand their animals and keep records on them etc.

The zoo has to keep records on every single animal to make sure that nothing goes wrong and they are not fed or gave medication twice for example. They have to keep animal records on everything about the animal and what they eat, how they need to be given it. Also, with the active breeding programme they have to make sure that they put into records about the animals breeding. The zoo do this because if anything went wrong with the zoo or there are new staff being employed, and if the zoo goes under new management etc they have under records everything about the animals and what is going on with them, this is to make sure that they have proof of what they are doing and have done.

They also have staff records at the zoo to see the record on staff, so that other staff and managers etc can see what is going on and the comments or qualifications etc are up to standards and that they are doing their job properly and they don’t have any records on the CRB.

The zoo also does the pay roll using ICT. This is easier so they have all of the pay rolls and records on the computer and don’t get confused with them. Also, it is easier to print off and get all of the pay roll’s right for every staff worker. The zoo also uses ICT for pay rolls are that it is easy to update and change.

The zoo has partnership with many other zoos in the world, so they used ICT to communicate with other zoos for research, help or to do with the animals. This is easier, and much cheaper to keep in contact with them over the internet, emails etc than phone calling abroad into other countries which will cost a lot more. Also, the zoo has a website so they need to keep that up to date and running.

Rules and regulations that the company has to adhere to:

Twycross zoo has several rules and regulations that they have to stick to and go along with. Every company has rules and regulations that they must stick to and keep in line with the law, if they don’t they are breaking the law and could in fact have their company shut down.

There is a lot of rules and regulations for Twycross zoo as they have to stick to them strictly to make sure that the animals are as safe as they can be in their home, and also that the visitors and staff are safe.

The zoo has to stick to the rules and regulations of the ‘The Provision of Services Regulations.’ There are lots of different parts to this that the zoo has to stick to, the part of the provision they have to stick to is called the Secretary of state’s standards of modern zoo practice.

The provision of food and water regulation states that the food must be presented in an appropriate manner, it must be of nutritive value, good quantity and quality. That the animals must have fresh, clean drinking water and it must be available to them at all times. It also states that supplies of food and drink should be kept and prepared under hygienic conditions.

The provision of a suitable environment states that the temperature, ventilation, lighting and noise levels in the enclosures must be suitable for an animal. That the animals in outdoor enclosures must be provided with shelter. Also, that the enclosures and barriers must be in good condition and not be any harm to animals, for example they must not have barriers where the animal could get out, or get hurt or stuck in it.

Provision of animal health care states that the zoo has to do routine observation, which means that the animals should be checked at least twice a day by the person that is in charge of that section on that day, and that if they are any cause for concerned they need to be checked by a proper professional immediately. They also have to keep a daily record on that animal.

It also states that they have to check the enclosures closely also. They must be a size and design and suitable for the animal to live in. Also, they must not put animals that don’t get on or are not the same species into the same enclosure. Keepers must also check the plants and trees in the enclosures to make sure they cannot injure the animal in any way at all. Also, there must be a distance between the barriers and enclosures, and also a distance between the visitors in case of the spread of disease.

The provision of opportunity to express most normal behaviour states that the animals should always be allowed the opportunity to express the behaviour that they would like to do and in any way that they would like to, which is suitable.

The provision of protection from fear and distress states that animals must be handled and looked after by qualified and experienced staff, it must be done with care to make sure that the animals are protected. It also states that animals must under any circumstances be provoked for the benefit of the public. If the animal was to interact in a stressful way, they must not be approached or looked at closely. If the animal is pregnant with young children, they should be put in a quiet area to minimise stress.

The secretary of state’s standards of modern zoo practice also covers a lot more things that are to do with the zoo. It covers transportation, so that the zoo has to ensure that when the animals are being transported they are always safe and looked after properly and not getting aggravated. It also ensures that the zoo has a lot of public safety and that they make sure they stick to the rules to keep everybody safe. Also, they have to ensure that staff has training and are fully qualified and experienced with doing what they are doing and ready for things that could happen.

What are risk assessments? Who creates them and how are they used:

A risk assessment is a careful examination of what in your company could cause harm to people or animals. They are used in all businesses and organisations and are there to predict and limit the hazards that could happen in your workplace or in Twycross zoos place the home of animals. With risk assessments you can see whether you have taken enough precautions and predictions to make sure that the company is trying its hardest to make sure staff, visitors and animals are protected the best that they can. All zoo’s and wildlife parks legally have to perform risk assessments. They are made by the selected persons that have been asked to make a risk assessment. For example, they could ask the zoo keeper to make one as they know the things that could go wrong and work with the animals, public, and other staff and also in the enclosures so they can predict what could happen. A higher member of staff could also make the risk assessments to what they think could go wrong, or the more predictable risk assessments that they know.

10&11 – Lost them, need doing again. ??
What kite marks are and what they represent:

The Kitemark symbolises quality and safety to people and also businesses, it is a registered trademark of the British standards institution. It is a mark of excellent assurance and visible evidence that the product conforms to certain guidelines; also it shows that the product or business has gone through testing to make sure it is appropriate for the purpose.

For the business or product in question to gain a kite mark they have to go through several stages of testing to make sure that the product or business is a 100% safe for the consumer or visitor to feel safe in using the product or attending the business. The Kitemark is trusted and recognised by more than 88% of the population and of those who recognised the Kitemark claimed that products with a Kitemark were 93% safer and 91% felt that it would be better quality and purpose.

Around the zoo there are many products and places that will have the Kitemark symbol on it. For example, there should be a Kitemark on most of the glass windows you see around the zoo, or even on a fire extinguisher in the enclosures, or in the zoo shop it will have it on near enough ever souvenir that you can buy in there.

Kitemarks are important to customers because they feel like they have trust in knowing that the product or place that they are buying or visiting has been tested and is of the highest safety and qualify that it can be. They have trust in the product or business because it is well known and they know that it takes work to have a Kitemark so the product or business must be safe enough.

Impacts on the local community:
The demands made on transport and communications systems:

The zoo affects the local community, with people visiting the zoo daily the visitors and also the staff have to go through the local village to get to Twycross zoo. At peak season, there are many more visitors than other times of the year and this is going to cause more cars and coaches etc visiting the zoo. This could cause some hassle in the community as the roads aren’t big enough for big coaches and lots of traffic to go through and build up, so traffic problems on the way to the zoo can cause a major problem for the community.

Also, with so much traffic going through the local village there is going to be a lot more pollution and noise than the community are used to.

The zoo has made some changes so that they are putting less stress on the community. They have changed the entrance to get the traffic off the roads quicker and the majority queuing is on the campus of Twycross zoo.

Waste management:

Twycross zoo produce a lot of waste daily. They are trying their best to reduce their footprint as much as they can.

They are reducing their contribution to waste landfill by recycling as much as they can, and also trying to reduce the waste that they produce with things that aren’t needed. For example, most of the paper that the zoo uses is shredded and used as animal bedding. This is a good idea because you are not wasting paper and re-using it with something that is essential to the animals.

With the animal waste, the animals produce near enough 800 tonnes of poo a day! This means that they have a lot of poo to get rid of and they have to do it environmentally. They have invested in an in-vessel composting system. It works by putting the poo, shredded paper, straw, sawdust and garden waste into the machine, and it grinds the compost down and heats it up to 60 degrees. The reason for heating the compost is to get rid of all of the bacteria and germs. It generates sterilized compost in around 15 days.

They are also doing their best to reduce the electricity that they need by using as many energy efficient products as they can. For example, using energy saving light bulbs.

They are also reducing the effect they have on the water system by creating their own environmentally friendly water filtration system.

Here is a flow chart that describes what the zoo does with their animal waste:

Economy:

Twycross zoo also helps the economy by providing jobs for people that need work and that is helping society by producing more jobs so that less people are unemployed.

Also, that the shops around the zoo could benefit from Twycross zoo being in the village that is in because visitors could go into the local village and buy things from the shops which is more profit and customers for the shop.

Community involvement:

The zoo does a pretty good job of involving the community in what they do. They do this by holding events organised and held by the zoo itself to involve the community. Also, they do talks and educate the community in what they do at the zoo and everything that they would like to know to involve them a lot more.

You can join the zoo as a member, this will give you certain advantages to the zoo for example you can get cheaper entry.

Also, you can adopt an animal at the zoo. This can be a fun thing to do for children and involve the public in with the animals and the zoo.

Energy consumption:

The zoo tries their best to reduce the amount of energy that they consume.

They do this by using energy efficient appliances such as energy efficient light bulbs and heating. They also have under floor heating and this saves energy because less heat is being wasted and also they are more efficient than radiators.

Also, with the new buildings that are being built they make sure that they build them with more energy efficient things in their building. For example they put more insulation and under floor heating in the new buildings to try and save as much energy as they can.

The zoo also now use glass in the enclosures instead of cages. This is a great way to keep heat and energy in as is keep more heat in than a cage.

The establishment of casinos in American cities induces moral and economic debates. Due to the profit gambling establishments create, casinos have been able to grow and prosper. Gambling has become a huge industry in the United States with total income of over 78 billion in 2004 (Ernest P. Goss, 2000). Las Vegas by itself in 2005 took in over eleven billion dollars (Ernest P. Goss, 2000). However, despite casino’s overwhelming profit margin, the social costs of having a casino affect both those who gamble and those who do not (cite). A careful, accurate analysis of the effects of gambling and casinos reveals that gambling casinos cause real harm both to the individual gamblers and the communities they reside in. As states, cities, and counties need for tax dollars increases, government departments seek to gain approval for the placement of gambling facilities in their communities. Gambling facilities are often allowed in order to bring in more revenue by taxing gambling activities. However when one looks at the true cost of gambling this method of increasing tax revenue leads to severe long term harm to the communities and individuals who live close to these casinos.

Based on the best available numbers and analyses, the costs of gambling far exceed the benefits by a factor of more than 3:1 (Gardner, 2005). That is for every dollar of tax revenue three dollars have to be spent to address the harmful externalities caused by gambling. The social costs are tragic. Areas where casinos are built see an increase in crime, suicide, divorce and bankruptcy rates. These casino communities also observe an increase in employment costs, illness, social service cost and family cost. Casinos also hurt the local economy by taking discretionary dollars away from the local restaurants, bowling alleys and other amenities. Thus communities with casinos see either a net loss of jobs in the local community or just simply no increase in jobs at all (Gardner, 2005).

In many ways gambling casinos can be viewed and the gambling that occurs in casinos can seen as small black holes on the geographical landscape of America. These black holes exert tremendous social and economic effect within fifty miles of its location. Their negative effect on the surrounding community increases with proximity. Within this fifty mile radius of the casinos the highest rates of economic loss, bankruptcy, divorce, suicide and crime are found.

By looking at just one individual case we can see the personal tragedy as well as the huge social cost of gambling. Take the case of Riva Wilkinson, based on information made public, she had a gambling problem. Her gambling problem escalated with her beginning to steal money from her job, in order to place bets at a black jack casino in Prior Lake. Eventually it became known that she stole upwards of 410,000 dollars in as little as twelve months (Kearney, 2005). In addition to the monetary cost of this theft one has to add in the social cost of discovering and prosecuting her. Over 1,000 man hours put in by FBI agents, local police and accountants were spent in this discovery and prosecution (Kearney, 2005). “These services cost the public over 100,000 dollars (Kearney, 2005).” As we can see from the Wilkinson case, social costs from casinos fall hard on even those who do not gamble. Gambling is associated with a plethora of crimes ranging from violent to property crimes. These violent crimes include aggravated assault, robbery, rape and murder. Property crimes include larceny burglary and auto theft (Gardner, 2005).

In addition gambling is connected with so called victimless crimes including check forgery, tax fraud, tax evasion, selling drugs, and prostitution (Edington, 1999). Gambling also has been linked to organized crime (Ernest P. Goss, 2000). Many Casinos have been identified as businesses under direct control by the mob. For example “the Illinois Gambling Board concluded that the top officials of a proposed river boat casino were controlled by the mob and most of the casinos investors had links to mob figures (Kearney, 2005). Federal Court documents and South Carolina corporate records show a link between Aouth Carolina’s video gambling industry and a Pittsburgh organized-crime rating (Eadington, 1999). These mob connections although more difficult to quantify are mentioned often mentioned in courtrooms and newspapers in America (Volberg, 2007). These crimes caused by gambling invariably lead to large quantities of resources being spent. Expenditures include extra costs for policing, capturing, imprisoning and rehabilitating of these criminals (Kearney, 2005). Businesses in the communities where casinos are located incur significant business and employment costs. These expenditures which are paid for by tax paying citizens and employers, these expenditures are lost worker efficiency causing reduced performance, lost time working due to extended lunch breaks, arriving late, and leaving early due to gambling. In addition embezzlement and the taking of unnecessary sick days can be attributed to gambling (Gardner, 2005). Between 21 and 36 percent of compulsive gamblers in rehabilitation state that they have lost a job due to gambling (Volberg, 2007).

The National Gambling Impact Study Commision found that counties with casino gambling had an average of an 8% higher crime rate than that of counties that did not have casinos (NGISC, 1999). These crime rate increases occur gradually after the third year of the casino’s operation. (NGISC, 1999) “We conclude that casinos increase property crime and violent crime, with the exception of murder, and that the effect on crime increases over time.” (NGISC, 1999) The authors describe of the report describe it as “the most exhaustive study of casinos and crime to date, both in terms of number of counties we studied and the timer period analyzed.” (NGISC, 1999) The study compared crime statistics of all 3,000 U.S. counties in the United States from 1977 to 1996, observing the differences in crime rates before and after casinos opened. Some interesting facts derived from the report state that in five years after the casino opened, robberies were up 136%, aggravated assaults were up 91%, auto theft 78%, burglary 50%, larceny 38% and rape 21%. These increases were attributed to the casinos (NGISC, 1999). Alarmingly some crimes increase immediately after a casino’s construction, robbery, DUIs and domestic violence increase 9% on average the year a casino is built. (NGISC, 1999)

In examining the external or hidden costs associated with compulsive gamblers we discover the average cost to society if an additional compulsive gambler were to be added to the population. This information can provides us with a cost figure for our society. Another way to examine these hidden costs is to look directly at the symptoms gambling causes. Symptoms such as crime, suicide, and bankruptcy (Eadington, 1999; Walker, 2008). According to a study done in 1999 the average cost to society of an additional compulsive gambler is almost $3,000 (Eadington, 1999).

(Lorenz, Valerie D, 1997)

Gambling also incurs social costs because it is a Directly Unproductive Profitseeking (DUP 136) activity (Walker, Douglas; 2001). A DUP is an activity that produces nothing of social value while removing resources from productive activity. Although gambling may be personally rewarding they are to the gambler, the gambling activity is a waste and a drain on the community resources. This DUP activity of gambling also incurs opportunity costs in the sense that the time the person spent gambling could have been spent performing productive activities (Walker, Douglas; 2001). For example a professional poker player who does not gamble for enjoyment but rather gambles for a living engages in DUP activity and reduces national income by the amount of his potential productive output during those hours spent gambling. Nobel prize winning economist, Paul Samuelson, described DUP gambling as the following.

“There is, however a substantial economic case to be made against gambling aˆ¦. It involves simply sterile transfers of money or goods between individuals, creating no new money or goods. Although it creates no output, gambling does nevertheless absorb time and resources. When pursued beyond the limits of recreation, where the main purpose after all is to “kill” time, gambling subtracts from the national income (Walker, Douglas; 2001).”

An unnamed source has said that gambling is nothing more than an agreement by a group of individuals to steal each others money. Gambling of course causes personal bankruptcy and these bankruptcies impose social costs by diverting resources to lawsuits, legal costs and bill collection costs (Gardner, 2005). Research and evidence involving casinos and bankruptcy is ongoing. The evidence for the connection between bankruptcies and casinos is provided by a wide variety of sources ranging from different geographical areas and a number of formal studies. In 1994 casinos opened in Baton Rouge Lousianna (Lorenz, Valerie D, 1997). After the opening of the casinos the Baton Rouge Crisis and Intervention center subsequently that gambling related incoming calls jumped from 39 in 1993 to 1,375 in 1995 (Lorenz, Valerie D, 1998). At the same time personal bankruptcy rose 53 percent in the first half of 1996 compared to a year prior. Bankruptcy lawyers stated gambling was the major factor. Also in 1994 Kansas City opened its first casinos, by 1996 bankruptcies were on the rise in Kansas City (Lorenz, Valerie D, 1998). The officials at Kansas City Bankruptcy court normally reported one person a year due to gambling. The Kansas City Bankruptcy court would later report seeing twenty people a month because of gambling related issues (Lorenz, Valerie D, 1998).

(Walker, 2008).

In Wisconsin in 1996 an AP report showed that “People in eastern Wisconsin were seeking bankruptcy at a pace 25 percent greater than a year before gambling had been made legal (McGowan, 2008).” According to the AP report one in ten bankruptcies in this Wisconsin area were linked to gambling debts, more than double the rate of past years (Gardner, 2005). A 1995 study in Minneapolis found that in 105 filers for bankruptcy the average gambling loss was 22 thousand dollars (Walker, 2008). “A 1998 study found that in the 298 U.S. counties which had legalized gambling within their borders reported a 1996 bankruptcy gambling rate that was 18% higher than the filings of counties with no gambling (Walker, 2008).” The SMR Research Corporation located in Hackettstown, New Jersey found that 2.5 to ten percent of all bankruptcy filings in the United States have a gambling component (Grinols, 2004).

Gambling also tragically increases the rate of suicide. Studies of problem and pathological gamblers report that they both contemplate and commit suicide at a rate higher than the general public (Gardner, 2005). Studies report that 15 to 25 percent of gamblers who have admitted to having a gambling problem, have attempted suicide rates that are five to ten times the average of the general population. Of these gamblers, 12-18 percent have made potentially lethal suicide attempts, and almost 50 percent have made plans to kill themselves and more than 65 percent think about suicide (Gardner, 2005). The full extent that gambling has on suicide rates in the United States, is definitely a question that needs further research.

The stress that gambling causes individuals can lead to a number of stress-related illnesses such as chronic headaches, anxiety, moodiness, irritability, intestinal disorder, asthma, cognitive distortions, and cardiovascular disorders. Many of the costs of sickness are borne by the gambler, but these illnesses also lead to real resource costs that the local community must bear in the form of treatment costs (Grinols,2005). “The extreme financial stress and employment difficulties associated with problem and pathological gambling can lead to unemployment and require periods in which government assistance is needed (Grinols,2005).”

Social service costs include therapy and treatment costs, as well as unemployment insurance costs, Medicaid, energy assistance costs in some states, and the cost of other social services such as welfare and food stamps (McGowan, 2008;Grinols, 2004). “Other social costs include the family cost caused by gambling such as the cost of divorce, separation spousal abuse and child neglect (Grinols, 2004).” Many of the spouses and children of pathological gamblers are physically and verbally abused (Grinols, 2004).

There are many examples that show the personal tragedies that gambling can cause and the difficulties that the local communities have in dealing with them. The following is just a few of these events. In 1999 Mississippi Gulf Coast banking officials were looking for the best combination of security measures to deal with an increase in bank robberies (Walker, 2008). “Harrison, Hancock, Jackson and Stone counties (on the Mississippi Gulf Coast) reported only two bank robberies in 1990 and in 1991 (Walker, 2008).”While since that time such burglaries have soared to over thirty such thefts in 1997. The Montreal Quebec reported in 1999 that the rate of gambling related suicide had more than doubled in one year. According to their report 15 people all men had killed themselves because of gambling problems this figure is up from six in 1998 and two in 1994(Walker, 2008). Interestingly 1994 was when Quebec introduced legalized casinos. The above are just a few stories of the harm gambling causes.

Another way to judge the effect casino gambling has on the near-by communities, is the use of statistical analysis. In 2003 the amount that compulsive gamblers cost society was above $10,000 (adjusted for inflation) whereas in 1990 each compulsive gambler cost society almost $2,400 (Grinols, 2004). Compulsive gambling is a recognized disorder and is part of the DSM-IV of the American Psychiatric Association (Volberg, 2007).

“Pathological gamblers are identified by a number of characteristics, including repeated failures to resist the urge to gamble; loss of control over their gambling, personal lives, and employment; reliance on others to relieve a desperate financial situation caused by gambling; and the committing of illegal acts to finance gambling. Problem gamblers have similar problems, but to a lesser degree (McGowan, 2008).”

Frequently these different types of gamblers are mentioned together as “problem and pathological gamblers (Kearney, 2005).” Scientific research in the medical field has revealed that gambling influences the brain in much the same way addictive drugs influence the brain. Additionally in the same way that a portion of the population is more susceptible to the influence of drugs, a portion of the population is susceptible to addictive gambling (Albanese J, 1996).

As discussed above a comprehensive cost benefit analysis reveals that true cost of introducing a casino to a region is greater than 3:1 (Gardner, 2005). Which means it costs three dollars for every dollar gained in tax revenue. In light of this casinos are a horribly ineffective way to raise taxes. Building casinos today will bankrupt communities in the future. Casinos are much more costly than simply instituting a tax. If we assume that these cost benefit numbers were somehow skewed are exaggerated by a factor of 3 casinos would still prove to a useless mechanism to generate money (Volberg, 2007).

In a National Gambling impact Study commission discovered that the close you live to a casino the more likely you are to become a compulsive gambler. A person living within fifty miles of a casino has a 1.2% chance of becoming a compulsive gambler, comparatively a person living between 51 and 250 miles away has a .5% chance of becoming a compulsive gambler (NGISC, 1999) . A 200 mile increase in distance from a casino more than halves one’s chances of becoming a compulsive gambler. (NGISC, 1999)

The national gambling impact study commission also reported that families who live close to a casino spend roughly $500 every year per adult on gambling (Near being defined as within three miles of the casino) (NGISC, 1999). Additionally those families that live between three and one hundred miles away spend $340 per year per adult, a decrease of 32% (NGISC, 1999).

Prior to 1990 most of the country in America had no legalized casinos (Albanese J, 1996). The question put to local communities and society at large is whether they would be better off without legalized casino gambling. The evidence clearly indicates that these communities would in fact be better off without casinos by a wide margin. In simple terms for every dollar spent on casinos, three are required to clean up the casinos externalities (Gardner, 2005).

EXTRAS

Reviewjournal.com

Problem gambling among Southern Nevadans has a social cost conservatively pegged at between $300 million to $450 million a year, a new report being released this week says.

The cost also is about equal to the total estimated gaming taxes paid by casino operators in Southern Nevada, he said.

The actual cost could be fairly estimated as high as $900 million a year “had very conservative assumptions not been made in preparing the report,” said Las Vegas professor and casino gambling expert Bill Thompson, a co-author of the study.

Estimates of the number of pathological gamblers in Southern Nevada ranged from 20,000 to almost 40,000.

The research showed the annual social cost of each pathological gambler in treatment programs is $19,085.

The highest annual single cost per individual in treatment programs involves bankruptcy debt losses and civil court costs of $10,000.

The employment costs in terms of missed work, productivity losses, forced terminations and unemployment compensation is more than $6,000 per compulsive gambler.

The criminal justice cost (theft, arrests, trials, incarceration and probation) is almost $2,500. The cost of treatment and social services is $500.

“That’s the government’s and the casinos’ dirty little secret. They have claimed they create benefits without costs,” he said.

“For those who have a problem with gambling, it’s a different story. Even at 2 percent or 5 percent of the population, it’s a problem we have to take seriously,” Stewart said.

“The National Gambling Impact Study Commission concluded the annual cost of problem gambling is $5 billion to $6 billion nationwide,” he said.

The report also excludes the costs of family dysfunction, divorce, children being without families, suicide and attempted suicide. That also could be a serious omission because the suicide rates among compulsive gamblers are the highest of any addicted group and six times the rates among alcoholics.

“The Swampscott conference in 1965 highlighted a growing need for psychologists to be political activists and agents of social change – this conference is considered the birthplace of community psychology” (Barry, 2008). The ultimate aim of community psychology is to enhance the quality of life through collaborative research and action. Community psychology consists of three dominant perspectives – namely, the ecological perspective, the social constructionist perspective and the critical perspective. Community psychologists use these perspectives to structure research and formulate interventions. Community psychology focuses much attention on health and creating interventions to alleviate health concerns. Health, is not just physical well being, but is a state of complete physical and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (Petee & Asch, 1949)

As the discussions progresses, the three perspectives will be explored in detail, the case study Deadly Cells: The struggle of HIV positive prisoners will then be utilized to contextualise the three perspectives in formulating HIV/AIDS health interventions within prisons. Before we dive into the complexities that underlie these interventions it is important to have an accurate understanding of the three perspectives that are considered to be the foundation of community psychology interventions.

Urie Bronfrenbrenner was the first to propose the ecological model based on a nested level of analysis. Bronfrenbrenner asserted that the individual does not exist as a static entity but is at the core of various levels of analysis that are all in constant interaction with each other – thus an individuals behaviour does not exist in a vacuum and is influenced by the environment. The levels of influence include: the microsystem (refers to interpersonal relations), the mesosystem (refers to interaction among the systems that the individual is involved in), the exosystem (this involves the larger social system) and the macrosystem (refers to cultural and religious beliefs). “James Kelly evolved Bronfenbrenner’s theory by shifting the focus from the individual and the levels of analysis to develop an understanding of how human communities function” (Kelly, 1966, p. 537). Kelly highlighted four important principles that govern the behavior of individuals in different contexts. The four principles are as follows: adaptation (individuals need to adapt to the demands of change); succession (acknowledges the history (values, culture etc.) of a context – history helps understand the present); cycling of resources (this is the identification and utilization of the resources available within a context – the central aim being, to focus on the strengths of the particular context and its constituents) and interdependence (change is directly proportional to the other systems, thus change in one part of the system may cause negative or positive effects in other parts of the system). The ecological perspective helps stress that systems are not static entities, thus effective interventions can only be achieved by adopting a holistic stance.

“Social constructionism are sociological theories of knowledge that consider how social phenomena or objects of consciousness develop in social contexts” (Daniel, 1998, p. 126).Therefore, our world has been constructed, through social interactions within our environment Social constructionism has many underlying principles that help accurately understand this theoretical paradigm.

Social constructionism is anti-naturalism, which according to Bruner states that: “It is culture not biology that shapes the human mind that gives meaning to action by situating its underlying intentional states in an interpretive system” (Gergen, 1999, p. 27).This point illustrates that there is a danger involved if we treat individuals and societies as mere objects, to probe and study (as in biology), agency and interaction need to be considered. Secondly, is the use of language. Language is not just a means of communication, but a complex tool of symbolic representation that we utilize to construct our social reality, to define roles, formulate traditions and develop unique systems of representation.

Closely tied to language is the third principle of ‘meaning’. Food is food because we have socially constructed it as an edible substance within our culture – we gave it meaning (e.g.: the stomach of the sheep is a delicacy in Indian culture, however in Western culture it may be incomprehensible to eat). Fourth is power, power is closely tied to the notion of discourse (“Refers to how people operationalize language within a culture” (Freedman & Combs, 1996).The various discourses of a particular culture dominate the culture, and knowledge of such discourses create a sense of power. Power and discourse is utilized to normalize individuals within a culture. Each and every culture contains a grand narrative which can be defined as the dominant, overarching ideology that exists within a culture. Grand narratives are sustained and constructed through the use of guiding metaphors, which refers to the selective use of language to actualize our realities. The fifth principle is that there is no single truth. This can be illustrated by the speech entitled ‘The Danger of a single story’, delivered by famous Nigerian author Chimamande Adichie. In her speech Adichie speaks of her childhood and the books that she read which were chiefly British and American. These books influenced her overall view of the world to such an extent that when she began writing (at 7 years old), all her characters were predominantly white and lived in their white world. It is important to note that she developed a single story of the world devoid of her African heritage. Her unilateral views were confirmed when she entered university and her American roommate was awestruck, that she, a Nigerian girl could speak fluent English. As her roommates view of Africa was nothing but poverty and war – a single story of Africa. Coupled with the ‘single story’ notion is the issue of power. “Power is the ability not just to tell a story of another person, but to make it the definitive story of that person” (Adichie, 2002). It is evident that a single story robs all the colour of any painting. “The consequence of a single story is it robs people of dignity and emphasizes how we are different than how we are similar” (Adichie, 2002). The above illustration illuminates the notion that there are multiple sides to any story ,however what may be the most important side is the underlying dynamics that are absent from sight. From the above discussion on social constructionism it is clear that this perspective by no means objectifies reality, but subjectifies experiences, interactions and social construction within a particular context.

“Critical psychology can be understood as a metadiscipline that urges the discipline of psychology to critically evaluate its moral and political implications” (Painter & Terre Blanche, 2006, p. 215) Critical psychology places importance on challenging the dominant values of mainstream psychology. Critical psychology points out that the roles of professionals (e.g. politicians, psychologists etc.) are not value free roles and the values of professionals need consideration. Therefore, it is evident that critical psychology poses a much needed criticism of mainstream psychology. Critical psychology and mainstream psychology differ in the following aspects: Traditional psychology attributes problems to particular individuals and their contribution to the emergence of a problem ,conversely critical psychology identifies a problem within a particular system and the existing power differentials, secondly, mainstream psychology emphasizes individualism and capitalist values, critical psychology challenges this view, asserting that this view stunts the search for self-actualization and the final aspect is power. Power according to mainstream psychology is attained through professional training and knowledge, however critical psychology asserts that power should be shared and not exist within individuals. Critical psychology highlights that power can either empower or marginalize individuals and all interventions do not benefit all individuals. Thus from the above discussion it is clear that critical psychology is a coupling of the previous two perspectives with ultimate goal of freedom and empowerment.

Now that a clear understanding of the three perspectives community psychologists utilize in formulating interventions has been developed, it will be used to contextualise the case study : ‘Deadly Cells: The struggle of HIV positive prisoners’

The article Deadly cells, illustrate the plight of HIV positive prisoners in a South African prison (Westville). The article states that infected inmates were denied access to anti-retroviral treatment (ARVs) – robbed of their human right of access to appropriate healthcare. The Department of Correction when notified of the issue responded by stating that prisoners need their identification documents (which they did not have) and that there was limited access to hospitals that would treat the prisoners. After much contention the matter reached the courts. Due to the harsh conditions (rape, unprotected sex, overcrowding, gang life etc.) in prisons, infection of the disease was exacerbated. In 2006, after much deliberation the government agreed to provide ARV treatment, however this conclusion does nothing to curb the problem of the rapid increase of HIV/AIDS victims in prisons.

The above case study will now be contextualised with the use of the three perspectives discussed earlier and interventions will be suggested to alleviate the problem.

A community psychologist working from an ecological perspective will define the prisoner’s perception of their environment, analyse the characteristics of the environment and then adopt a transactional analysis of how the perceptions and external characteristics interact to produce the problem – a holistic systemic view. The researcher will spend time at the prison in a participatory manner, engaging collaboratively with the prisoners to understand their problem on various levels. The ecological intervention will promote participation and instil the belief that the affected can indeed effect change. An example of an appropriate ecological intervention to alleviate the problem of HIV/AIDS at the Westville prison includes the following: first and foremost the prisoners need to be made aware of their rights and the laws that protect their health; this can be done by running education programs. The prison staff (officers, wardens etc.) need to play a proactive role in the prevention of rape, discrimination and the alleviation of gang fights in the prisons, this can be achieved through training programs for the staff. The issue of overcrowding within the prison needs to be referred to the authorities or community based organisations (CBOs) in order to create awareness and mass media attention. The prison authorities need to provide lubricants and condoms to prisoners – teaching them to be proactive. Pressure should be put on the Department of Health for ARVs and in-house HIV/AIDS care centres by creating media attention. Lastly, an external officer needs to monitor that the interventions are in place (by weekly visits). The above suggestions emphasise that the problem is not just a health issue and in order to alleviate the problem a holistic, nested stance needs to be adopted.

The social constructionist perspective differs from the ecological model as the values of the participants are central to the formation of an intervention. A researcher working from the social constructionist perspective will work closely with prisoners, in order to understand their subjective experiences, through qualitative methodologies. The researcher will search to uncover the prisoner’s discourses, utilisation of language and their grand narratives in relation to the causation and treatment of HIV/AIDS. Once a contextually specific view has been developed the researcher will begin to build a context specific intervention. An example of an intervention that may alleviate the problem at the Westville prison includes the following: A researcher may begin by conducting focus group interviews with the prisoners to gain an empathic understanding of the plight of the prisoners. Once a clear understanding of the problem (rape, overcrowding and the lack of proper healthcare) has been developed, the researcher will then collaboratively formulate possible solutions to the problem with the prisoners. Possible solutions may include: a prisoner awareness programme carried out by the prisoners, practicing safe sex, alleviating gang violence and rape through creating awareness and reporting incidences and by involving CBOs- thus taking responsibility for their own health. The lack of medical treatment can be alleviated by forming a campaign that emphasises the disabled healthcare rights of the prisoners, the ultimate aim being to gain media attention, ultimately government fulfilment of the laws that protect prisoners. The social constructionist view places importance on the value structure within a context, once these structures have been unwrapped, they can solve the problem by building new structures that are proactive – thus the answer may lie within discourses or narratives.

The critical perspective differs as it is an integration of the above two paradigms with the ultimate goal of freedom and empowerment. Critical psychology like social constructionism values the subjective experiences of the prisoners and therefore, can be considered to be value-driven. A key goal of critical psychology is to transform the problem and therefore, has political connotations. The aim of the researcher begins with a transformative stance, understanding the plight of the prisoners and to empower and liberate them to action, by enlightening them on the possible solutions. An example of an intervention to alleviate the problem at the Westville prison includes: “Participation Action Research (PAR) is a collaborative approach, with research aimed at social change, researcher and participants are partners and communication is central to successful intervention” (McTaggart, 1997). PAR is an activist approach. The prisoners could form a mass demonstration (protest) and form alliances with CBOs that can create awareness outside the prisons, thus jointly accessing media attention. Once attention is attained the CBOS can appeal to the relevant legal authorities and international organisations such as the United Nations and the World Health Organisation – ultimately this would push the government to act. Therefore, it can be seen that the critical approach emphasises transformation and activism.

From the above discussion it can be deduced that community psychology is a multidimensional field that employs the use of various perspectives namely, ecological (a holistic systemic view), social (value-driven, constructed reality) and the critical perspective (a critical, activist view). Each perspective sheds new theoretical light on the plight of the Westville prisoners all emphasising the need for stronger health systems, a need for coordination and cooperation between authorities, CBOs, prisoners and prison staff and a limited exercising of rights related to healthcare and laws protecting the well-being of prisoners. Therefore it can be concluded that community psychology with the utilization of the three perspectives can help the marginalized prisoners break free from the stigma that prisoners have dissolved their rights to healthcare.

” Htee Ree Muan Ta Hta , Htee Ree La Ta Soung,Yam Ree Ham,Um Ree Dam”, old saying in Pa-Oh language was quoted from former local teacher of Yoke village. It means “Don’t see in advance just by six inches, try to see further tens of thousands distance, same as to do the plow before you eat your meal”. It is also similar to English saying think twice before you act. Hence, prior to testing, the following theories and literature have been reviewed to have better idea and to see whether there is consistency between theory and the real world situation.

Maslow’s Theory of Motivation – Hierarchy of Needs

In 1943, Dr. Abraham Maslow’s article, “A Theory of Human Motivation ” appeared in the Psychological Review, which were further expanded upon in his book: Toward a psychology of well being, Abraham H. Maslow attempted to formulate a needs-based framework of human motivation and based upon his clinical experiences with people, rather than as did the prior psychology theories of his day from authors such as Freud and B.F. Skinner, which were largely theoretical or based upon animal behavior.

The basis of Maslow’s motivation theory is that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that certain lower factors need to be satisfied before higher needs can be satisfied. According to Maslow, there are general types of needs (physiological, survival, safety, love, and esteem) that must be satisfied before a person can act unselfishly. He called these needs “deficiency needs.” As long as we are motivated to satisfy these cravings, we are moving towards growth, toward self-actualization. Satisfying needs is healthy, while preventing gratification makes us sick or act evilly.

Maslow’s model indicates that fundamental, lower-order needs like safety and physiological requirements have to be satisfied in order to pursue higher-level motivators along the lines of self-fulfillment. As depicted in the following hierarchical diagram, sometime called ‘Maslow’s Needs Pyramid’ or ‘Maslow’s Needs Triangle’, after a need is satisfied it stops acting as a motivator and the next need one rank higher starts to motivate.

Self-Actualization
Esteem Needs
Social Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
Source:http://www.envisionsoftware.com/articles/Maslows_Needs_Hierarchy.html#Self_Actualization
2.1.1 Physiological needs

For the most part, physiological needs are obvious – they are the literal requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met (with the exception of clothing, shelter) and sex), the human body simply cannot continue to function. Physiological needs include: Breathing, Homeostasis, Water, Sleep, Sex, Clothing, and Shelter.

2.1.2 Safety needs

With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual’s safety needs take over and dominate their behavior. These needs have to do with people’s yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which injustice and inconsistency are under control, the familiar frequent and the unfamiliar rare. In the world of work, this safety needs manifest themselves in such things as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, and the like. Particularly, physiological and safety needs are reasonably well satisfied in the “First World”. The obvious exceptions, of course, are people outside the mainstream – the poor and the disadvantaged. They still struggle to satisfy the basic physiological and safety needs. They are primarily concerned with survival: obtaining adequate food, clothing, shelter, and seeking justice from the dominant societal groups. Safety and Security needs include: Personal security, financial security, Health and well-being, Safety net against accidents/illness and the adverse impacts

2.1.3 Social needs

After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs is social. This psychological aspect of Maslow’s hierarchy involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as: Friendship, Intimacy, Having a supportive and communicative family. Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs (‘safety in numbers’), or small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression. This need for belonging can often overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure; an anorexic, for example, may ignore the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of control and belonging.

2.1.4 Esteem

All humans have a need to be respected, to have self-esteem, self-respect. Also known as the belonging need, esteem presents the normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. People with low self-esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory, which again depends on others. It may be noted, however, that many people with low self-esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels. Most people have a need for a stable self-respect and self-esteem. Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one. The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The higher one is the need for self-esteem, strength, competence, mastery, self-confidence, independence and freedom. The last one is higher because it rests more on inner competence won through experience. Deprivation of these needs can lead to an inferiority complex, weakness and helplessness. Maslow stresses the dangers associated with self-esteem based on fame and outer recognition instead of inner competence. Healthy self-respect is based on earned respect.

2.1.5 Self-Actualization

The motivation to realize one’s own maximum potential and possibilities is considered to be the master motive or the only real motive, all other motives being its various forms. In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the need for self-actualization is the final need that manifests when lower level needs have been satisfied. Classical Alderrain psychotherapy promotes this level of psychological development, utilizing the foundation of a 12-stage therapeutic model to realistically satisfy the basic needs, leading to an advanced stage of “meta-therapy,” creative living, and self/other/task-actualization. Maslow’s writings are used as inspirational resources.

2.1.6 Self-transcendence

Near the end of his life Maslow revealed that there was a level on the hierarchy that was above self-actualization: self-transcendence. “[Transcenders] may be said to be much more often aware of the realm of Being (B-realm and B-cognition), to be living at the level of Beingaˆ¦ to have unitive consciousness and “plateau experience” (serene and contemplative B-cognitions rather than climactic ones) aˆ¦ and to have or to have had peak experience (mystic, sacral, ecstatic) with illuminations or insights. Maslow later did a study on 12 people he believed possessed the qualities of Self-transcendence. Many of the qualities were guilt for the misfortunes of someone close creativity, humility, intelligence, and divergent thinking. They were mainly loners, had deep relationships, and were very normal on the outside. Maslow estimated that only 2% of the population will ever achieve this level of the hierarchy in their lifetime, and that it was absolutely impossible for a child to possess these traits.

2.2 Maslow’s Theory – Limitations and Criticism

Though Maslow’s hierarchy makes sense intuitively, little evidence supports its strict hierarchy. Actually, recent research challenges the order that the needs are imposed by Maslow’s pyramid. As an example, in some cultures, social needs are placed more fundamentally than any others. Further, Maslow’s hierarchy fails to explain the “starving artist” scenario, in which the aesthetic neglects their physical needs to pursuit of aesthetic or spiritual goals. Additionally, little evidence suggests that people satisfy exclusively one motivating need at a time, other than situations where needs conflict.

2.2.1 ERG Theory of Motivation – Clayton P. Alderfer

In 1969, Clayton Alderfer’s revision of Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, called the ERG Theory appeared in Psychological Review in an article titled “An Empirical Test of a New Theory of Human Need.” Alderfer’s contribution to organizational behavior was dubbed the ERG theory (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth), and was created to align Maslow’s motivation theory more closely with empirical research.

Source http://www.envisionsoftware.com/Management/ERG_Theory

Beyond simply reducing the distinction between overlapping needs, the ERG theory improves upon the following shortcomings of Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy:

Alderfers ERG theory demonstrates that more than one need may motivate at the same time. A lower motivator need not be substantially satisfied before one can move onto higher motivators.

The ERG theory also accounts for differences in need preferences between cultures better than Maslow’s Need Hierarchy; the order of needs can be different for different people. This flexibility accounts for a wider range of observed behaviors. For example, it can explain the “starving artist” who may place growth needs above those of existence.

The ERG theory acknowledges that if a higher-order need is frustrated, an individual may regress to increase the satisfaction of a lower-order need which appears easier to satisfy. This is known as the frustration-regression principle.

2.3 Capability approach

Amartya Sen – Capability Approach clearly shows that there are certain basic capabilities everybody should have access to; Nutrition (Food), Health, Basic Education, Social Connection, Market access, Ability to work .It is a theory of persons and their development in terms of functioning.

(Little 2003: P17-18) state that in normal process of development, capabilities that all humans have the potential to develop and exercises are realized in play, work, education, conversation, family life, friendship, and so on. Lack of good preventive health care may prevent a child from taking part in play of benefiting from an education. Lack of opportunities for employment may harm the development of many. Thus, a series of institutional, social, and family requirements need to be in place for successful development

(David P. Levine & S.Abu Turab Rizvi 2005: P 46-47) state that , when people have chosen a way of life and are pursuing it successfully, their needs are satisfied. Income and commodities are important not for their own sake but because of their absence might retard development. Thus, needs fulfillment is important to extent that it allows for human flourishing and so as free choice is important in the same way.

(Sen 1993 : P 33-39 ) state that , the freedom to lead different types of life is reflected in the person’s capability set .And capability set should be evaluated not only according to the set of real opportunities ( well-being freedom) but also the well – being achievement .(Sen 1993 : P 41 ) pin point in terms of poverty analysis , identifying a minimal combination of basic capabilities can be a good way of setting up the problem of diagnosing and measuring poverty. Since income is not desired for its own sake, any income -based notion of poverty must refer- directly or indirectly to those basic ends which are promoted by income as means. However, as long as minimal capabilities can be achieved by enhancing the income level (given the other personal and social characteristics on which capabilities depend), it will be possible (for the specified personal and social characteristics) to identify the minimally adequate income for reaching the minimally acceptable capability level.

2.4 Income Distribution and Consumption

Furthermore, Smith and Hadded -2000, states that Income opportunity along with food availability defines food security at household level. That’s relevant to Ernst Engel’s Law which in this context is seen as the greater the household food insecurity the greater the share of household food expenditure to total expenditure.

Engel’s Law states that as incomes increases, proportion of income spent on consumption reduces. Engel’s Law can be identified as a fundamental principle of income and consumption theory. Engel’s Law states that as income rises, percentage of income spent on consumption rises slower as compared to rise in income. Engel’s Law; Consumption is described as utilizing a service or product until its economic value is exhausted. It can also be described as aggregate expenditure on personal consumption that manifests itself on buying of goods and services. Expense required is sourced from either savings, income or even from borrowed funds. Consumption denotes that portion of disposable income that is not saved by an individual.

According to Economypedia Websites -“Autonomous consumption is described as consumption quantum that would be present even if a consumer had no source of income at all. A person’s autonomous consumption ascertains his or her real wages or real (Source: http://www.economypedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Income) income. Examples of autonomous consumption include food, house rent, and electricity. In case, a person’s income suddenly ceases to exist, he or she is compelled to take money from savings to meet these financial obligations. Income is the revenue earned by any individual. Flow of money to any factor of production is termed as income. Income is generated by sale of commodities or services. Returns to labor, enterprise, capital, and land are termed as wage, profit, interest, and rent respectively. Thus, sum of wage, profit, interest and rent is income. In simple terms, income is an opportunity earned from various sources and income provides the ability to consume and avail other services. Income is sometimes used as a macro concept and again income is treated as a constraint. When we talk about consumer theory in economics, income is treated as a budget constraint. Consumer theory is the study of consumer behavior. Here, income is spent on two different goods of different prices. Thus, a basic equation that can be formed as follows:

I = Px . X + Py . Y ,Where I = income from poppy spent on two goods x (basic needs) and y (luxuries or inferior goods) in quantities X and Y at prices Px and Py.

“First, people are often reluctant to change jobs for psychological and institutional reasons (Gujarati 2003). Additionally, income levels are often perpetuated from one generation to another by means of inheritance, cultural background and, more generally, characteristics of the community (Bourguignon and Morrisson 1990; Cooper, Durlauf et al. 1994; Durlauf 1996; Checchi 2000). This allows for intergenerational stability in income, denoting the existence of a positive autocorrelation in inequalities. Cooper (1998), for instance, has pointed out that families from poor communities or wealthy communities tend to exhibit higher intergenerational income stability than families living in middle income communities. Hence, it is often the case that a proportion of the population remains trapped at low and high levels of income for more than one generation. Income persistence is often viewed (i.e. Lane 1971) as an essential characteristic of rewarding achievement and, particularly, of ensuring that the most suitable persons are allocated the most suitable roles. The presence of inequalities in income provides an additional incentive to achievement and innovation which are an integral part of modern society. Some degree of inequality is generally perceived as a necessary constituent of a healthily functioning economy (Champernowne and Cowell 1998, p.14). According to Aghion and Bolton (1992) and Galor and Zeira (1993), the persistence of income inequalities across generations is possible only if capital markets are imperfect.”(Source: www.esri.ie/research/research…/Working_Paper_No._9.pdf)

2.5 Causes of Dualism (Amartya Sen- 1975)

Dualism of labor arises from a number of different causes, and since their implications are quite different, it is necessary to distinguish clearly between the different types of causation;

Laborer’ job preferences. The laborer in question could actually prefer to be in one sector rather than in another e.g., working in peasant agriculture rather than in wage employment in the town. It would be foolish to attribute all such preferences to irrational in having a preference for being one’s own master in one’s farm even at a lower income, rather than working as a’ wage ‘slave in some factory, or indeed in some other farm. What is, however, more easy to argue is the case of avoiding the assumption of stationary taste. Preferences about one’s way of life and location are typically the result of one’s past experience and an initial reluctance to move does not imply a perpetual dislike. The distinction has some bearing on the welfare aspects of employment policy, since the importance that one wishes to attach to the wage gap as a reflection of the laborer’s preferences would tend to depend on the extent to which tastes are expected to vary as a consequence of the movement itself.

Indivisibilities in labor supply. A laborer could prefer to work half time in his farm and half time in a factory, but he may not be able to do this, given the physical problems of location and organizational problems of the factory system. To take up a job in factory he may have to leave his farm altogether or at least for long stretches of time, and the same may be true if accepting a job in say, an irrigation project. The high level of transportation costs, including the monetary and psychological cost of settling in, may persuade the laborer to stick to his firm unless the reward elsewhere is very high. But settled in his own farm the supply price of labor z and the real cost of labor j for hours (or days) of extra effort may be comparatively low.

Loss of share of family income. A movement away from one’s farm may involve the loss of one’s share of the family income. In terms of orthodox economic theory it is possible to split the earnings of the peasant into two parts- one being the reward for labor and the other that for being a joint owner of family resources, in particular the plot of land. But there is a kind of labor theory of value which tends to determine the distributional principles in a peasant society, and the possibility of the ex-peasant working in the town but nevertheless cashing in on the ‘implicit rent ‘ on his share of the land is frequently rather remote. This ‘income aspect’ of employment we distinguished from its ‘production aspect’, the peasant in question may have economic incentive not to move, even when his marginal contribution to the family output is negligible or low. What wage he will accept as minimal compensation depends partly on the extract distribution system in the peasant set-up and partly on his concern for the welfare of the joint family as compared with his own welfare. The greater his concern, the more willing he will move, since his loss of implicit rent is a gain for the others in the joint family.

Labor legislation and union pressure. In many countries there is labor legislation specifying a minimum wage for employment in the organized sector and even if the number of people seeking such jobs far exceeds the number of jobs available, the wage rate will still not decline. The same results is sometimes achieved by unionized labor through wage bargaining. This provides a straightforward institutional explanation of the wage gap between organized and unorganized sectors.

Employers’ incentives for paying high wages. The employer is under certain circumstances; better off by paying wages higher than the minimum at which he can recruit labor. First , the costs of rapid labor turnover can be very high for the firm in terms of work disruption and frequent rearrangements, and the industrialist may have an incentive to offer higher wages and for aiming at a loyal labor force. Since many industrial firms use rather heavily mechanized techniques, the share of labor cost even at a comparatively high wage may be quite low, while the loss from strife and discontent in reducing the effectiveness of the machines may be relatively much higher. Thirdly, higher wages may also have a direct impact on labor productivity through better nutrition and greater ability to work hard. While the first two considerations apply especially to wage labor in the modern industrial sector, this third consideration is thought to be particularly relevant for hired labor within the agricultural sector itself.

2.6 Moral Related Literature

Sen. A. (1987). (On Ethics & Economics P-43) state that to recognize the distinction between ” Agency Aspect and Well-being Aspect” of a person does not require take the view of that person’s success as an agent must be independent, or completely separable from, his success in terms of well- being. Which seem to agree with ERG theory of Aldefur regression and frustration in a way that ” A person may well feel happier and better off as a result of achieving what he wanted to achieve- perhaps for his family , or his community , or his class, or his party, or some other cause. Also it is quite possible that a person’s well-being will go down as a result of frustration if there is some failure to achieve what he wanted to achieve as an agent, even though those achievement are not directly concerned with his well-being.

Sen. A. (1987). (On Ethics & Economics P-80) described “the complex structure of “self-interested behavior” has three distinct and essentially independent features as followed;

Self-centered welfare: A person’s welfare depends only on his or her own consumption (and particular it does not involve any sympathy or antipathy towards others).

Self-welfare goal: A person’s goal is to maximize his or her own welfare , and given uncertainty- the probability- weighted expected value of that welfare ( and in particular, it does not involve directly attaching importance to the welfare of others)/

Self-goal choice: Each act of a choice of a person is guided immediately by the pursuit of one’s own goal (and in particular, it is not restrained or adapted by the recognition of mutual interdependence of respective successes, given other people’s pursuit of their goals).

Sen argued that welfare economics can be substantially enriched by paying more attention to ethics and the study of ethics can also benefit from a closer contact with economics.”

Concerning about rights Sen argues that welfarism must be compromised, if the rights violations are treated as bad things and rights fulfillments as good things. Because welfarism requires that nothing else be intrinsically valued other than utilities. When different elements of utilitarianism are unpacked, it is seen that although a right based moral theory cannot coexist with “welfarism” or ” sum ranking”, it can very well do so with consequentialism.

(William H Shaw 1999 3rd edt.p-19) claims that self interest person has less happiness and less satisfying lives than those whose desires extend beyond themselves and defines as the “Paradox of Hedonism”. In contrary , they are even found having greater satisfaction by living according to moral principle than by devoting life solely to immediate self interest.

“Varian’s idea of fairness has to do with the notion of envy and is therefore known as envy-free justice. Envy free allocation is one in which no one envies the bundle of anyone else. However, two main condemn Varian’s envy-free justice. First, allocation of goods is envy free does not mean that it is appealing on other grounds. For example, one person may be extremely happy with has allocated bundle, whereas another person may be miserable. The happy person will certainly not envy his miserable neighbor. However, it is possible that the miserable neighbor is also not envious. She may find that the happy neighbor’s bundle includes goods that she hates. Second, not all Pareto -optimal allocations are envy free.” (Hal.R.Varian -Microeconomic Modern approach P-568-569)
2.7 Poverty and Opium Related Literature

DavidA.Dufree (1970 P.76) state that “Poverty is both root and offshoot of inadequate schooling, deficient health services, crime and juvenile delinquency, inadequate social security and welfare programs to deal with the problems of broken homes and the penury of so many of the old , indecent housing conditions, civil strife, and high unemployment resulting in the main from slow economic growth.”

” From the acknowledgment that economic necessity often plays a key role in the decision to cultivate illicit crops, there is consensus in the international community that the economic reliance on crop cultivation can only be removed when viable , sustainable income generating activities are available in the legal sector” ( World Drug Report 2000: 143)

In the opium related literature, many reports suggest that the immediate and underlying cause of the poppy cultivation is economic. Most scholars claim that the lack of alternative sources of income for poppy farmers is the main factor. They mention several secondary factors pertinent for the cheroot growers and tobacco farmers. These include degraded soil or adverse climatic conditions for that result in poor yields for tobacco and the other crops they grow. Yet other factors include post-harvest problems for tobacco that could cause the crop to spoil because of improper storage. High transportation costs to take the crop to markets and uncertain market prices are other reasons why farmers decide to grow the opium poppy as a cash crop.

With reference to the annual income comparison between poppy and non poppy village, UNODC 2009-Illicit Crop Monitoring Report found that the opium poppy growers have an average lower cash income than those who do not grow the poppy. One main reason is that when people grow poppy addiction will occur. Usually this starts because the growers take opium as a medicine to reduce pain, relieve cough, treat diarrhea or for some other ailment. In the absence of other medicines the use of opium often continues until addiction takes place. When that happens, and particularly among heads of household who are usually the strongest person in the family, they grow less productive and thus cause the entire household’s income to decline.

After its take over of the country in 1988 Military Government of Myanmar amended the 1974 Nacortics Drug law (BURMA PRESS SUMMARY, The WORKING PEOPLE’S DAILY) Vol.II, No. 4, April 1988 ) as below.

“Section 2: In Section 2 of the 1974 Narcotics Drug Law [NDL], the following shall be substituted for Sub-section A A. Narcotic drugs are defined to be any of the following: i. Poppy plants, coca leaves and cannabis in any form together with any manufactures thereof; ii. Any preparations of poppy plants, coca leaves, or cannabis; iii. Chemicals of properties similar to those of narcotic drugs or chemical compounds of narcotic drugs or other similar materials; iv. Drugs or other materials declared to be narcotic drugs by the Minister responsible by notification from time to time.

Section 3. In Section 2 of the NDL the following sub-section E shall be inserted after sub-section D: E. Drug addicts are defined as persons who consume any one type of narcotic drug without a permit.

Section 4. After Section 6 of the NDL the following section shall be inserted: 6A i. No person may possess any narcotic drug for purposes of sale; ii. Any person infringing this section may be punished by imprisonment for a minimum term of ten years with no upper limit and a fine of up to fifty thousand kyats, or by death. In addition, any narcotic drugs concerned and any goods, materials, implements, vehicles, animals, land and buildings involved will be confiscated for the national treasury.

Section 5. After Section 7 of the NDL the following section 7A shall be inserted: 7A i. No person shall transport any narcotic drug for the purpose of sale. ii. [same as 6A ii]

Section 6. In Section 14 of the NDL, the following shall be substituted for subsection A: A. Habitual users of drugs must register themselves at a time and place to be ordered.

Section 7. In Section 14 of the NDL, the following shall be substituted for subsection B: B. The government may make arrangements at its pleasure for the treatment of habitual users who are registered under subsection A.

Section 8. In Section 14 of the NDL the following Section 14A shall be inserted:14A. Any person either in possession or transporting narcotic drugs named below in excess of the quantities named for each may be presumed to be in possession of or transporting them for purposes of sale within the meaning of subsections 6A and 7A: i. White opium – 3 grams, ii. Morphine – 3 grams, iii. Monacetyl morphine – 3 grams, iv. Intoxicating drugs named in subsections A, B and C in, total or in any mixture of two – 3 grams, v. Green opium or prepared opium or the two together – 100 grams,vi. Cannabis or cannabis resin or the two together – 25 grams, vii. Coca leaves – 100 grams, viii. Cocaine – 3 grams”

In 1949, the PaOh National Liberation Organization .use to strongly against the immoral activity such as gambling and intoxication. On May 1958, the PNLO( PaOh National Liberation Organization exchange arms for democracy in order to rehabilitate and reconstruct economic and social life of the PaOh people. They set poppy eradication policy and took measure on supply reduction by adapting central government narcotics drug law (NDL 1947). In terms of demand reduction, detoxification camp in Narbound village (which located nine miles the south of Capital City Taunggyi )was opened and Kachin herbal medicine was used as treatment and also physical and metal rehabilitation was provided.

The (PNO) Pa-Oh leaders in Hopong and Taunggyi have recognized this situation as a problem facing the people. In response they have drawn up an alternative development plan to reduce addiction and introduce other crops by which the farmers can earn cash income. In this regard, the government also has plans to reduce opium production. In October 2007, for example, the Southern Shan State commander called a meeting in Taunggyi of all the local leaders and representatives of government agencies such as CCDAC and NATALA as well as the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation. The purpose was to introduce his plan to reverse the rapid increase of poppy cultivation in Southern Shan State and among the Pa-Oh in particular.

These and other efforts are referred to as alternative development because they seek to develop alternatives to opium production. In 1998 this concept was approved at a Special Session of the United Nations General Assembly. UNGASS defined it as “a process to prevent and eliminate the illicit cultivation of plant

According to Karl Marx, crime is as a result of the social structures and the economic system that is implemented

Karl Marx is a renowned scholar who came up with different kinds of theories to explain the various situations in the world of sociology and economics. In his school of criminology, he largely focuses on conflict criminology and why things change and the role of society in these changes. He acknowledges that the shift from one society to another is not at all smooth as there are obstacles for example, crime.

According to Marxism, for the different societies in the world, there exist different social classes. These are based on what each group owns and what it is therefore in control of. The conflict was persistent due to the ownership of the means of production which included land, labor and tools. Hence, the conflict was between the owners and the non-owners of the various means of production. As a result, there was a rise of the two social classes; the working class (less powerful) and the ruling class (more powerful).

In a capitalist economic system, the main means of production include factories and machineries. As a result, the owners of these means of production are out to gain all that they can from the implementation of these means of production. However, they still need labor in order to complete the production process. Their main objective is to maximize profits and as such, they result to minimization of the labor costs as much as possible. As a result, the working class is angered by the low wages and is ultimately tired of the exploitation by the persistent means of production owners. Eventually, the working class tends to alienate itself from the overbearing production process. The working class will therefore try anything in its power so as to overthrow the owners who have continuously been exploiting their labor. (Crutchfield, 2000)

In their continuous endeavor to overthrow the dominating ruling class, there is competition among them and things become harder. Karl Marx notes that in due course, the working class realizes that the means of production owners also dominate the political divide. As such, their needs are well catered for in the formation of the laws that govern them. They not only have economic control, but also political control. It is then that the working class realizes that they are trapped in their course for freedom and equality.

The working class therefore becomes vulnerable and results to crime. After all, there is hardly any way out as the owners of means of production have completely dominated the economy. The poor continue to be poor while the rich become richer. Marxist argued that it was only through theorists like them coming out to clearly inform the working class of who their enemies really are that the conflict resolution would advance and eventually the working class would achieve their sole objective of having some form of control. He argued that with the underpinnings of the capitalist system being brought to light, the fall of this system would be hastened and a communist system would be eventually reached. A system where there were no rights to private property and hence, a society free of classes and oppression. (Tibbetts & Hemmens, 2009)

Though he did not largely dwell on deviance, Karl largely mentioned about criminal tendencies. He even ironically mentions that had there been no criminals, then personnel such as judges and the police would have no jobs. Marx largely dwells on the societal pressures in doing wrongs other than the individual motives of being immoral. This is largely supported by some scholars for example, Merton who argues that the problem of alienation is mainly due to the social structure other than social change since the society presents equal goal to be achieved yet there are no equal means of achieving the set out goals and objectives. It therefore becomes a form of survival for the fittest. Deviance therefore, is as a result of incompatibility of what the society expects of the working class and the social structure that is in existence.

It is accepted by all sociologists that for a society to function effectively, there needs to exist some sort of social order. Laws that govern a state should be for the sole interest of the state. However, there seems to emerge a group that is always leading. This could be as a result of the power that they solely possess. The emergence of such a group could be as a result of efficiently and effectively using power. According to Marx, it is also a huge possibility that the group owns the means of production and is hence in control. A good example is the case of British Colonialism Law in East Africa that resulted in the ruling class having complete control over the coffee plantations. As a result crime becomes on the rise as the working class, though wrongfully, fights for its right.

According to the sociologist researchers, it is evident once a group of people have political power, they end embedding all ownership rights of property to themselves and the working class is left at their mercy. As a result, crime rises. Marx was for the idea that means of production should be communally owned in a communist system. As a result, there would be less crime being committed. The only solution to the crime issue is to have a socialist revolution. For example, in Western Europe there is very minimal crime since that part of the world is more socialist as compared to the United States of America. (Marsh & Melville, 2006)

On the issue of crime, Karl Marx’s theory of alienation is also applicable. Over the years, some types of crime have continuously been labeled “working class crime”. The only question that is commonly left out is whether or not there are certain reasons that make these crimes to only be mostly committed by the working class group. Critically looking at it, it becomes clearer that there are certain factors that leave the working class as the sole victims of these crimes. We also note that crimes in the society do vary depending on different elements for example, age.

In case a crime has been committed, it is evident that the judgment passed is highly dependent on the social class that one belongs to. Marxism argued that the final judgment is highly dependent on one’s ability to be represented by a good lawyer. However, it is notably difficult for an individual from the working class group to be able to hire a good lawyer due to the limiting factors such as financial limitations. The same analysis is persistent in terms of the punishment that the offender receives. This leads to bias and inequality.

Therefore, the main causes of criminality are hugely as a result of capitalism. For instance, the huge economic inequalities whereby the powerless (working class) are exploited by the powerful (ruling class). It is also vividly evident that the values imposed by capitalism push the working class to committing crimes. There is also the tendency of laws to imply that working class groups are the more likely wrong doers than the ruling class. As a result, there exists conflict between the working class individuals who also believe that they are enemies yet it is the ruling class who continuously exploit them every other day. (Greenberg, 1993)

The Marxist theories do not at all rely on the available statistics on crime. They insist on the fact they are actually biased and do not at all in a clear way represent the actual distribution of criminality. They also argue that the statistics do not include the crimes of the ruling class because the laws governing such information are hugely biased. They do not allow access to some crimes; those committed by the ruling class are protected.

As a result the Realists have criticized these views by the Marxists. They agree that the official statistics may be inaccurate but they still argue that the dismissal is too readily done. They argue that the statistics would be a huge basis for the explanations of crime and deviance. This therefore is a major weakness of the Marxist theories.

Another major criticism is based on the fact that the Marxist theories do not deal with matters of gender and crime. As such, the theories are viewed to be inconclusive. For instance, in terms of gender, the theories would have dealt with issues on domestic violence. It is more likely that the working class women would be more prone to domestic violence as compared to women of the ruling class. This could be partly because the available incomes do not meet the needs that present themselves and arguments therefore ensue resulting in domestic violence.

Generally, the level of crime is highly propagated by the fact that in our societies there exist classes and as a result there result conflicts between the different classes. The ruling class, which is more powerful, uses law to cover for their evil deeds that go unpunished. On the other hand, the working class is always punished for any crime because they are just mere subjects.

These crimes are majorly as a result of the capitalism system which only dehumanizes the individuals who have hardly any power and are therefore helpless. The only solution to all the suffering so that everyone will feel that they are receiving equal treatments is the capitalism system being scrapped off. This way, crime will be largely decreasing. For as long as people are not treated equally, criminal behavior will never cease since there will always be one group of people that will be being exploited. (Akers, 1999)

There have been suggestions by several scholars on peaceful solutions to criminology. This is such that in place of imprisonment, offenders should be practice of mediation so as to solve the arising problem. There should also be a theory why women commit less crime as compared to men, even in situations where the women are also part of the ruling class.

From the above evaluation, we all anticipate that the findings of the Marxist would be put into practice so as to ensure that there is equality all over the world. This is a free world and no one should be discriminated against just because they are not of a particular social divide. Policy makers in states should carefully choose the best economic system to ensure equality of its people. The interest of the people should always be prioritized. The Marxists’ findings are a basis for a better tomorrow.

Anthony Giddens, a famous writer on society, had developed his thoughts in his books year after year. His book titled, Constitution of Society, written in the year 1986, has leaded him far ahead to achieve his goals. Each of the chapter, in this book; has covered the agency and structure theory and proposes good statements (Giddens, 1986). The author has clearly described what he means with the agency term. He has also given due focus on time and the social actions for space. The discussion on the ways of handling different norms by the people, and the social constraints that exists in the society, are done as well. In addition, he uses empirical research in his book to elaborate further the aspects associated with structure and agency within the society.

The text thus discusses the routine practice, which becomes a social act as a principle of duality for the agency- structure relationship. It aims to understand what the strength areas covered in the text is. Additionally, weaker sections are also given consideration. Thus, the report here discusses about various aspects of relationship that exists between agency and structure. The notion of duality by the author is considered too, with due focus on the book ‘Constitution of Society’, by Giddens. The notion of studies done to relate the two terms is also covered within the scope of this report. Furthermore, the researchers involved to explore the term are also discussed hereon. This helps in understanding the extent to which both the terms are integrated in this society. These all have helped to reach to certain outcomes of the report at the end.

Discussion

Agency and structure have been termed as indispensible parts in the social context. These terms are required to relate at one or the other instance. Agency is termed as the capability of individuals to generate wide variety of powers in causal term, while the structure is the set of rules and regulations existing within the society (Frohlich et al., 2001). The relationship between these two instances is yet to explore. Some of the researchers stand in the point, that the two terms inter- relate in themselves, while others consider these as different terms.

There does not exist, any discussion of relationship between structure and agency in real terms (Macintyre, 1997; Frohlich et al., 2002) according to some of the researchers. While others state that, these structure and agency are considered as co- dependent and recursive in nature (Nussbaum and Sen, 1993; Sen, 1992). This clearly demonstrates how conflicting the terms are in social context. There is no generalized thought in this arena, instead complete satisfaction and dissatisfaction is noted for the question at hand. This needs to be further explored to understand the concepts associated with the terms. There are different contexts, which integrates the agency and structure. Structural forces are the main determinants for the relationship between agency and structure (Williams, 2003). Thus, the structural forces shall be considered in discussion to understand the concept associated with the terms. This might also help in exploring the text by Giddens in a better manner. Although, in his writings, the discussion of structural forces is missed, he has attempted to use time and geography as basic parameters in his studies.

There are number of authors who studied about the relationship of agency and structure (Musolf, 2003; Callinicos, 2004), however the work done by Giddens is important to note in his books such as Constitution of the Society (1986). Most of the writers believed that agency and structure are different terms; however, Giddens consider them as similar. Giddens consider these two as different ways to look one thing. Researchers contribute to routine activities, i.e. those that take place in a similar manner for continuation. Routine activities are considered as social for the organization, as these activities occur in regular fashion. This regular fashion further becomes the set of rules for the society. These rules act as the social orders for an organization.

Giddens also consider that time and space results into organizing us in a better manner. Time and place are being considered as important aspects not only for the agency but also for the structure of society. The author considers the time as an aspect, which affects the routine practices. Proper time management is helpful in attaining good routine activities. Thus, author lays focus on right use of time to obtain maximum outcomes. In case one wishes to generate results, there is the need to perform with dual nature. The collaborated approach of using structure and agency is required at such instances. This would entail proper use of time management technique to minimize the wastage of social time. The author thus lays importance on the time. Time is the aspect that demonstrates routine activities. Time is an indispensible part for one’s life. He considers people to utilize properly the daily schedule, to make optimal use of time. In case one does not use time in a proper manner, it might result in losses of one’s routine plan.

Giddens also discussed about the consequences attached with improper use of time management. In case, one does not use the time in a proper manner, it affects the routine activities of an individual. However, if one wishes to work on his knowledge, he can act well in this arena. This affects the agency structure by the mismatch that generates due to lack of control on structure concerned of an entity.

For the society to develop with its full potential, it shall discuss the relation between structure and agency (Hay and Wincott, 1998). This shall not be ignored. Giddens had worked to elaborate the point further. However, his writings were not able to describe clearly the point due to lack of clarity in his thought process. His attempt to contribute to agency structure relationship was though worth noting, but for a new reader, it becomes a point of confusion. Giddens, in his book named as Constitution of Society, had not given any clear definition of the terms considered in his writings. The content seems tough to be understood by a reader who has not gone through the previous writings of the author. Thus, it necessitates the basic concept to be clarified, before going through the book.

The relation between agency and structure is always at perennial (6). It is not a one-time process. The author thus attempted to describe the relationship considering the time-geography too. This was in line with the time management of the author. This demonstrates the importance of time, and its relation to the geographic unit. The ways geographical parameters change with time are also discussed. Additionally, the variation of structure and agency with different time and geographic locations is considered in the study as well.

This relationship between agency and structure is also well studied by researchers such as Rothstein and Hall (1993), Thelen, and Steinmo (1992). This is the reason, many researchers attempted to explore the relationship. However, the complexity associated with them in social context has acted as a hurdle to describe the two characteristics. Giddens further followed the tradition in his writings. He was unable to thoroughly explore the relationship between the two terms. The agency and structure were not thoroughly discussed in his writings. The discussion on duality of these terms was there though; the basic concepts associated with them were not described. Thus, on looking other side of the coin, we can see that the book of Giddens lacks in clearly describing the duality and social practice concept. It does not describe the ways in which practices are constituted, the way in which it relates social system etc. The book also misses practice concept, which is important to attain sustainable analysis. Thus, the book is tough to understand for someone, who has not read previous books of the author. It directly summarizes the duality structure for understanding the agency- structure relationship. This way, he created a sort of confusion situation in the minds of readers who have not read his previous writings. For an individual to understand the text by Giddens it becomes mandatory to understand the basic concepts associated with the topic; else, it would become tough for them to understand the discussion done in his writings. The authors lacks in discussing the reason, why people want certain things. It just discusses the wants of people. The subject here is constituted in a social manner. There is also the discussion laid that wants arise from the needs, which are related to ontological security. The theory discusses the way individuals can achieve proper results using the agents.

Thus, the concept of agency- structure relationship has always been a tough task. It is with not only Giddens, but also the researchers such as Dahlgren and Whitehead (1991) had failed to establish a relationship between these two characteristics of society in the daily life of the world. There is thus the need to understand the basic concepts in hand. The social context, with reference to time is to be understood at initial stages. This would help in creating a framework for the point at hand, and the integration of these two characteristics of society will be done in a better manner. The research in today’s life is exploring further the structure and relationship and the behavioural pattern (Williams, 1995). These further explorations are expected to help the society in analyzing these duality and routine practices in the right manner. There would be lack of clarity, and the outcomes will be with a stronger research background. Thus, the main point of confusion exists to know the relationship between structure and agency (Gerhardt, 1979), which if explored by the researchers, can lead to attain certain outcomes, which would help us in further understanding the concept at hand. This would entail the need to use proper time management techniques. The weak background of Giddens shall not be over- focused, but shall be given an opportunity of further exploration using the basic concepts at hand, to reach to the outcomes. This would help us to attain the results at a greater pace, and with clear outcomes, which does not have conflicting situations, as at present.

Conclusion

On considering the notion of duality and the social practice of relationship between agency and structure, we have come up with some important findings. We can interpret that the writings of Giddens are quite conflicting at certain instances. These act as the constraining and enabling at the same time. At certain instances, Giddens talk about the practical aspect of life. He considers time as real and factual to work out on the life. However, at other instances assumptions are encouraged by the author. This raises the problem of lack of clarity in his thought process. Additionally, the complexity involved with the writings of Giddens, enforce one to go through the basic concepts, prior to reading the text under review.

Thus, there was a mixed approach obtained. At some instances, it was noted that the structure and agency are well integrated with each other, while at others there was noted the lack of control and dependency of one characteristic on the other. This mixed approach has resulted in further elaboration of the associated concepts, which would help in understanding the point. Else, it would be tough to understand this text in hand, with lack of control over the text and lack of clarity by the author. The basic concepts can however be of great help in understanding the concept at hand, and the associated relationship. Thus, overall the text was a good collection of data, but lacks clarity and mandates the reader to go through basic concepts, prior to going through the text at hand. This way, one would be able to understand the associated characteristics in a better manner.

How can we explain gender segregation and what are its consequences? Relate your answer to theories and empirical evidence.

Gender segregation has been explained by a number of theories (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.513). The notion that the occupational structure work tends to be segregated on gender lines has been understood as significant not because it is just a description of a context, but rather it receives attention on account of the lower pay that female-dominated occupations tend to receive (Miller et al. 2004, p.522). Discerning a significant cause, or a prime mover, behind the prevalence of gender segregation has proved difficult (Tomlinson, 2009, p.349). The relationship between agency and structure is hotly debated in the ways in which it has an effect upon gender segregation (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.529). These issues will be considered as follows. First, rational choice and human capital theories will be considered. Second, the patriarchal theoretical contribution will be examined and the consequences that occur as the result of gender segregation. Finally, the extent to which the attempt to discern a monocausal explanation for this phenomenon is erroneous will be considered with the consideration that the phenomena inherent in gender segregation are too complex to be explained by a single argument in all cases.

Rational choice theories have significant drawbacks in explaining gender segregation (Gonas and Karlsson, 2006, p.4). In the first place, this theoretical contribution tends to ascribe a significant amount of agency to the individual (Blackburn et al. 2002, p.522). This therefore reduces the effect of structure upon the effect (Gonas and Karlsson, 2006, p.4). It is assumed in rational choice theories from the outset that people will act in a way that will best serve their interests, and this means there is an argument that by spending time on domestic work, women are thus prevented in investing in human capital. This holds some significant drawbacks as an explanation. In the first place, women tend to lead against men in education (Connolly, 2008, p.249). The number of women attending university now exceeds the number of men (Miller et al., 2004, p.7). Upon achieving adulthood, therefore, there is a greater level of human capital that has tended to be invested in women than exists in men at the same stage of entering work. At the very least there is a limited amount that can be held to have a significant effect upon the occupations (Tomlinson et al., 2009, p. 351).

Furthermore, the rational choice theory would suggest that there is rationalism for all aspects of human behaviour and if not, then the theory is changed in order to fit the phenomenon. Not all individuals will enter into professions that would provide the highest payment or the greatest chances of renumeration (Radford, 1998, p.64). There may be gender differences in this type of occupation, which might result from the prevalence of female role models in some types of occupations and males in others, resulting in the notion of the type of occupations that might be considered attractive (Simpson, 2004, p.351). The notion that individuals have agency do not mean that they will go for what can be considered the most ‘rational’ course of action as many different views exist as to what might be considered the benefit of different jobs (Blackburn et al., 523). The human capital argument would seem to be the most limited of the explanatory theses in many ways as it suggests that people are rewarded for their previous investment into their own education and training – and there does not seem to be a consistent difference between the sexes that can bear out this argument (Miller et al., 2004, p.29).

These objections to the rational choice argument do not suggest that there is no logical place for this argument in the debate (Miller et al., 2004, p.30). In particular, there might be a different notion of the relationship between the individual and the structures that affect occupational segregation (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.523). This can be seen in the argument of gender stereotypes prevailing in different occupations. The prevalence of gender segregation in occupations results in a class of jobs that is then subject to societal stereotypes (Miller et al., 2004, p. 27). Segregation occurs and then this becomes embodied within the stereotypes and the cultural norms and expectations that then create a circular argument that results in reinforcing the process of segregation (Miller et al., 2004, p.27). This would suggest an implicit influence of the individual’s perceptions of certain types of jobs and the roles that are inherent in different jobs, which would then result in the impression that certain jobs are differently desirable on the basis of gender (Tomlinson et al., 2009, p.351). This is an important aspect that is considered by a number of arguments in the field, and is supported by the notion of the relationship between gender and society as an interaction rather than one being imposed upon the other. Blackburn et al. (2002, p.526) point out that although adult female participation in the labour force has indeed become easier, we should not expect this to have immediately resulted in a sudden and abrupt change in the occupational structure. The prevalence of occupational segregation would seem an apt question to ask in a number of generations, but since the societal changes are relatively recent, there is a strong case to be made that the process is fluid, and is progressing in a direction that would suggest it would ultimately diminish.

The patriarchal explanation of gender segregation rests upon the notion that women are implicitly or explicitly given to consider that their nature is the domestic sphere (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.521). This can therefore result in several consequences. In the first place it can result in a structural relationship that means women are given less consideration for the more lucrative occupations (Tomlinson et al., 2009, p.355). It is the implicit consideration of the employer that female employees will not be as reliable as males in the long term and will ultimately result in long periods being taken off work, thus reducing their perceived value in the view of the employer (Radford, 1998, p.64). This element of a patriarchal structure and the way in which it affects the way individual employers function in society is given short shrift by Blackburn et al. (2002) among others, but it is certainly an element that has not fully been considered by them. First, this explanation depends upon the fact that the higher paid an occupation, the more likely it is that the employer is looking for a long-term commitment (Browne, 2006, p.2). The idea that women of a child-bearing age hold the potential to avoid making that commitment for the long term, and also result in some disruption through the provision of substitute work and the payment of maternity leave may well reduce the potential value of a female employee in such a situation (Miller, 2004, p.56). Secondly, the inability to maintain a consistent presence in an employment context that, if lucrative, may well be competitive, could also result in the reduced potential of the female employee to maintain an effective presence (Browne, 2006, p.3). This would suggest there is a strong potential for the selection theory that suggests that there is an element of biological determinism in a number of jobs, which is a view that was stated by Sir Alan Sugar (Sparrow, 2009).

Nevertheless, the view put forward by Blackburn et al., (2002) must be considered as rooted in the correct interpretation of the evidence. Women are not necessarily pushed towards lower paid occupations that will not ‘mind’ if they are absent through child-bearing; indeed it is such occupations that might have problems with the provision of cover or the cost of maternity leave (England, 2005, p.266). Although we might consider that such biological determinism has potential as an argument and even is one that holds the occasional declaration of support in ‘big’ business, it is important to note that it does not explain gender segregation as a prime mover (England, 2005, p.267). ‘Arguments of patriarchal exploitation tend to be based on a selected rewriting of history and an interpretation of the past from a contemporary perspective’ (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.522). It can be argued that it would be difficult to obtain explicit admission of the motivation for denying certain occupations to women, and therefore any argument that suggests that evidence needs to be supplied would seem to be an unfair reading of the evidence, but even the evidence that can be discerned does not support this element of a gender determinism caused by a patriarchal structure of society (Miller et al., 2004, p.32). It is, of course, easy to see patriarchalism in every element of society, and although this theory may have much to offer as one element of the issue, it is not enough to explain the prevalence of gender segregation (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.529).

A particular objection to this line of argument is in the element to which the agency is assumed as not being exercised by the women in question (England, 2005, p.265). This argument, of course, reaches the nub of the problem by the fact that on the one side, the idea that women are being forced into a course of action would seem absurd; but on the other, the notion that occupational structure is wholly a product of decisions made on a rational basis to be equally odd. Hakim’s preference theory represented a method by which the rational choice and human capital theories could be combined into one interactive theory (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.522). Biological determinism is not ignored in this theoretical contribution, and from the perspective above it would appear that it may not be possible to entirely disregard the existence of this as a factor in affecting women’s life chances as is often assumed. Most counter-arguments to this point of view resting on the notion that it represents the full explanation for the phenomenon (Miller et al., 2004, p.32). Therefore, in contrast to Blackburn et al.’s (2002, p.523) disparagement for the thesis, it can be seen as a relatively useful concept. It is correct to suggest that individuals are not entirely autonomous and social context has an effect on life chances and in this department, Hakim’s thesis is limited (Radford, 1998, p.64). However, it is not effective to suggest that because it does not take full account of the influence of social structure, the entire theory can be discounted.

The main difficulty that appears to exist within the theories that attempt to explain gender segregation is that they all purport to be monocausal explanations of the phenomenon. This means that they can all individually be discounted, as is done by Blackburn et al. (2002), who find it easy to suggest that one theory is not effective on account of not being structural enough and considering that individuals are all autonomous beings when in fact their chances are empirically demonstrated to result from the social situation. It is also not an especially effective argument to demonstrate that any theories that place too much emphasis upon the structural features of the phenomenon run the risk of illustrating individuals as essentially following predefined destinies and are unable to reflect any control over their own options (Miller et al., 2004, p.32). It is problematic that many theories can be simply discounted through the use of effective evidence, or claims that such evidence cannot be found and therefore the theoretical contribution rests upon a naive presumption that such a phenomenon exists. Any attempts to synthesise the different theoretical contributions together would hold a significant problem in being prone to objections from two different perspectives. This is apparently the situation that occurs with reference to Blackburn et al.’s (2002, p.523) consideration of Hakim’s preference theory, which attempts to knit together the human capital argument with the rational choice consideration; the weakness of the explanations is demonstrated by the fact that they do not take proper account of the power and choices of the employers (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.525).

This would suggest that the main difficulty in analyzing this situation lies in the consideration that there is a monocausal explanation for the phenomenon, or at least the knitting together of several broad causes into one theoretical viewpoint. Monocausal explanations are logically reductive, as it is considered pertinent for us to understand different phenomena by the methodology of reduction to several broad areas, but it also would appear to be a limitation in that it attempts to suggest that there are basic elements to the argument to which a phenomenon can be reduced. In the first place, it is posited that the views of occupation are the same, and indeed the same between the genders (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.529). This might not be the case: occupations can be viewed as a vocation, or simply as a job. There might be a tenuous difference between the genders in the ways in which such occupations are viewed that might have a marginal effect upon any survey of attitudinal differences (Miller, 2004, p.65). This would allow this particular cause to be discounted in terms of it not providing an explanatory aspect to the debate. (England, 2005, p.265) However, it need not be the case that such a variable needs to explain the whole of the variation that is observed, but simply some of it. Other variables, such as the gender preference theory may also explain other aspects of it – but not all. When faced with a complex phenomenon of which there are many variables, some empirical and some qualitative, that contribute to the way in which this phenomenon interacts, it would seem remiss to attempt to reduce it to a theory that simplifies the notion. Occupational segregation is a significant element in a society, and perhaps there are as many explanations as there are views of occupation.

A result of gender segregation in occupations is the resultant uneven economic conditions that are suffered by different men and women. However, as has been suggested by Blackburn et al. (2002, p.519), we only know that women’s jobs are worth less because they are paid less, and they are paid less because they are worth less. This produces a circular argument: gender segregation does not necessarily result in uneven economic conditions per se. Different preferences between different genders for different occupations would not result in an unequal economic condition should each occupation be valued in society by the same criteria which would result in economic pay (Charles and Grusky, 2004, p.4). Furthermore, the different economic recompense offered to each occupation is not necessarily posited on the gender preferences of a role. A female dominated occupation is not necessarily considered to be of lower value because it is a female dominated occupation; the gender segregation may often come after the occupation is created rather than before. Restaurant work or service work, for example, was traditionally considered lower value work in contexts before it became an occupation that was dominated by women (Westword, 1988, p.51). The consequence of uneven economic conditions experienced by men and women according to different occupations does not strictly result from gender segregation as a structural influence. Different occupations do not result in different economic conditions unless there is an underlying cause that results in women’s choice of occupations that do not receive the highest recompense (Westwood, 1988, p.51).

The process of gender segregation would appear to be an ongoing process. It would seem impossible to suggest that it should not occur on account of the fact that there is no segregation in other areas of society, as it appears there is still an overall lag in women in terms of skills and training (Miller, 2004, p.iii). We can therefore only begin to judge the causes and effects of occupational segregation when we have the potential for two groups of people who are equal in all other ways except for gender. At this point we would have to discount the effect of socialization, which may have resulted in differential impressions of the type of jobs that each individual is likely to hold according to gender (Miller, 2004, p.51). If there is gender segregation in the society’s occupations during the socialization of the individuals, then there is likely to be gender segregation in the occupations that then develop. The notion of certain occupations drawing upon different skills that are more likely to be held by different gender groups may also be pertinent (England, 2005, p.271). The notion of intergroup theory may be relevant through its demonstration that common work and positions in an organizational hierarchy may result in certain gender-specific attributes being related to that group. (Miller et al., 2004, p.32). Nevertheless, this theory is not borne out by the evidence, even though it is limited in its evidential base.

Our explanations of gender segregation therefore would most effectively take the position that societal change of this nature is not necessarily immediate. If individuals are given agency, a revolution is not immediate but gradual as the notion of an occupational group that demonstrates a limited level of gender segregation becomes normalized (Miller et al., 2004, p.29). Likewise the structures in society may be altered in an explicit legislative sense, but the culture that exists within certain occupations may take some time to become normalized (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.529). As a result, the questions that should be asked of this context are not simply the notion of why gender segregation has not occurred yet, but the extent to which it should be expected to have occurred. In particular, alarm bells should not be ringing at the presence of occupational segregation, but at the notion that it is not proceeding effectively in the direction of more limited segregation. Likewise, it should not be presumed that occupational segregation can be represented as a negative aspect in itself, it is the accompanying problems of low pay and poor conditions for female-dominated work that is actually the issue; occupational segregation is no the issue if the two varieties of work are valued in the same way (Gonas and Karlsson, 2006, p.5). Progress towards a lower level of inequality on account of gender in occupations appears to be proceeding in a relatively effective way, and therefore the results of occupational segregation are being slowly diminished. In the long term, therefore, it seems likely it will ultimately cease to be a problem.

Pick any rural area that you are familiar with. Describe its socio economic background including approximate broadband penetration. Describe occupations that are existing there, demographics and geographies lay out including major buildings and geographical locations.

What are rural areas? According to an online source, the definition of rural areas is areas that are largely isolated in an open country with low population density. Many people often have a misconception between the terms “countryside” and “rural areas”. Countryside is often referred to rural areas that are open. Areas such as forest, wetlands and others that have low population density are associated with rural areas. However the definition between the terms countryside, rural and urban areas differ from one country to another. In Malaysia’s early days, urban areas often equated to gazetted administration districts with a population of 1000 or more inhabitants where most of its economy are mainly professional-based. Most of the people living in urban areas work as

Figure : Malaysia – Rural Populationdoctors, lawyers, engineers and others. However, this definition is no longer applicable in today’s world. In Malaysia, the economy of the rural areas on the other hand is mainly agricultural-based. Most of the settlers are smallholder operators in agricultural sector and labourers. The smallholder agricultural sector includes oil palm plantation, rubber plantation, fishermen, and estate workers, just to name a few. From Figure : Malaysia – Rural Population graph, it can be seen that there are many rural settlers in the 90’s. However, according to World Bank statistics, it is reported that in the year 2008 itself, the population of rural settlers was 8007029.29 people. From the graph itself, it can be seen that after the year 2000, the rural populations start to decrease. One of the reasons that cause the reduction of rural population is the migration of rural settlers to urban areas.

Since decades ago, the main occupations of the rural settlers in Peninsular Malaysia are fishing or farming. Most of these settlers live in villages which are often known as kampongs. These villages consist of houses that are built on stilts with wooden or bamboo walls and floors, and thatched palm roofs. However, just as urban areas, there are higher income earners too in these villages. Higher income earners are often to live in houses that have either tin or tile roofs. Since the main occupation of these villages is farming, most of the rural settlers grow rice. Thus, rice will be their staple food. In Malaysia, most of the rural settlers are farmers due to the ideal climate and environment in Malaysia throughout the year that allows paddy to be planted. Besides paddy cultivating, fresh vegetables plantation and fishing in nearby streams or rivers are part of their daily chores. Raising rubber trees for rubber collection is carried out to increase the family income. Those living along the coast will earn their living through fishing. In Sabah and Sarawak, the rural settlers differ from Peninsular Malaysia. In the western of Malaysia, most of the people live in isolated villages. They preferred to stay together in a large long house that can accommodate lots of families. Their daily chores include raising vegetables, hunting, fishing and gathering edible plants in the jungles. In most rural villages whether in Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah or Sarawak, there will a few shops that will be operated by Chinese merchants. These shops will sell items that rural settlers could not produce. They include coffee, milks, utensils and others. However, in Sabah and Sarawak, some Chinese peddlers are willing to travel to the isolated villages by boat. Once they reached the isolated villages, they will exchange their goods with the forest products that the rural settlers have. Most of the rural settlers live in poverty. There are many factors that drive poverty among the rural settlers. One of the factors is multidimensional in nature ranging from social to economic factors. One of the researchers, Ungku Aziz (1964) stated that poverty is usually associated with lack infrastructures, low income, low productivity and unemployment. In conclusion, poverty in rural areas is due to lack of infrastructure development, welfare programmes and agricultural development.

Figure 1: Jengka Triangle LocationUntil today, in Malaysia there are many rural areas that are scattered around. In this write up, the rural area that is picked is FELDA Jengka. FELDA Jengka or Bandar Pusat Jengka is located in the state of Pahang, Peniinsular Malaysia as shown in Figure 1. Bandar Pusat Jengka is one of the major cities and is located in the centre of the triangle Jengka which is also known as Felda Jengka. Bandar Pusat Jengka is under the supervision and administration of FELDA. It is located near to Gunung Senyum Recreational Forest which serves as a tourist destination. Gunung Senyum is believed that since Mesolithic era, there are human settlements in this area. Next to Gunung Senyum is Gunung Puyuh which consists of 18 caves. FELDA stands for Federal Land Development Authority which is established in 1st July 1956 by the Malaysian Government to handle the resettlement of rural poor to much more developed areas. FELDA provide the initial models to the rural settlers to start their career in farming. This scheme is only applicable to ethnic Malays. Currently, according to a study carried out, FELDA is one of the world’s largest plantation owners. FELDA has about 811140 hectares of oil palms across Peninsular Malaysia.

The location of Jengka Triangle or FELDA Jengka where 25 settlements are found in this Triangle.

Figure 1: Location of Jengka Triangle Development Area http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/ccgi/archives/HASH9312.dir/80636e01.gif

Figure 2: Jengka Triangle Development Area

Jengka was first found in the year 1967 and today its population is reaching almost 300 thousand people. Jengka is located in between three regions namely Temerloh, Maran and Jerantut. This small town obtained its name from a nearby river called Sungai Jengka. According to some residents there, this river obtained its name from a story where a woman by the named Yang Jangka who drowned in this river. The Lembaga Kemajuan Wilayah Jengka (LKWJ) administered this town from the year 1967 to 1997. Then from 1997 until today, Jengka is administered by Majlis Daerah Maran (MDM). Bandar Pusat Jengka got its name from Jengka town. Jengka town originally is a settlement that specially built for workers who work in Kilang Syarikat Jengka Sdn. Bhd. (SJSB) in 1969. Kilang Syarikat Jengka Sdn. Bhd. (SJSB) is a subsidiary of the Pahang State Government.

Jengka settlers came from all over Malaysia since 1986. They are the poor people who have the living standard of below poverty level. According to a study done, the majority of the FELDA Jengka settlers’ ancestors are mostly deployed from the northern states such as Perak, Perlis, Kedah and Penang. However, there are some who came from eastern states and southern states such as Kelantan, Melaka, and Selangor, just to name a few. This will leads to a blend of different cultures and traditions as different settlers from different states will try to preserve their ancestry customs and culture. Besides the majority Malays settlers, there are also Chinese and Indians settlers. Table 1 shows the breakdown of the Jengka settlers by state origin. It can be seen that most of the settlers are from the state of Pahang itself.

Table 1: Jengka Settlers by state of origin

Today under the administration of FELDA, in Bandar Pusat Jengka itself, there are about 25 FELDA settlements. They include FELDA Anggerik Jengka 1, FELDA Cempaka Jengka 2, FELDA Dahlia Jengka 3, FELDA Kemboja Jengka 4, FELDA Kekwa Jengka 5, FELDA Keembong Jengka 6, FELDA Kenanga Jengka 7, FELDA Kesidang Jengka 8, FELDA Kesumba Jengka 9, FELDA Mawar Jengka 10, FELDA Melati Jengka 11, FELDA Melor Jengka 12, FELDA Puteri Malu Jengka 13, FELDA Raya Jengka 14, FELDA Semarak Jengka 15,FELDA Sena Jengka 16, FELDA Seri Pagi Jengka 17, FELDA Seroja Jengka 18, FELDA Siantan Jengka 19, FELDA Tanjung Jengka 20 ,FELDA Teratai Jengka 21, FELDA Terkis Jengka 22, FELDA Tonkin Jengka 23, FELDA Jengka 24, and FELDA Jengka 25. These FELDA settlements are located a few kilometres away from each others. In each settlement there are about 300 to 500 of settlers occupying.

Each of the male settlers is known as “Peneroka FELDA” and their wives are known as “Penerokawati”. The wives of the settlers are under the supervision of a manager that is appointed by the FELDA. For example in FELDA Jengka 25, there are about 152 families living in this settlement. FELDA Jengka 25 opened its door in the year 1986. The years before that, which is in between the year 1983 and 1984, development and deployment in FELDA Jengka 25 begin. In this settlement, farming land is divided into two categories which are Level 002 and Level 004. Level 002 consists of 95 people and Level 004 consists of 57 people. Level 003 do not have any settlers. The main occupations of the FELDA settlers are mainly agriculture based as more than half of the populations in FELDA Jengka are involved in agricultural activities. Table 2 shows the distribution of settlers in the FELDA Jengka Triangle according to scheme. From Table 2, it can be seen that FELDA Jengka settlers are mainly involve in oil plantation and rubber. Thus, it can be concluded that in Jengka Triangle the main crops are oil palm and rubber.

FELDA Jengka 24 is one of the 25 settlements in FELDA Jengka. It is found that up to year 2008, the population of this settlement is about 5000 people. Most of the settlers are involved in small businesses through the Small and Medium Enterprise (SME) which was established few years back. Most of the older generations that settle in this settlement are involved in land cultivating, and working in farms and orchards. The younger generations have further their studies at the tie tertiary level in other states. Some of the younger generations seek jobs in big cities like Kuala Lumpur. As stated in the beginning of the writing, plantation sector is the source of income for most settlers in Jengka Triangle. Most of the settlers in FELDA Jengka 24 and also others settlements in the Jengka Triangle regions are involved in oil palm plantation. Besides involving in oil palm plantation, the settlers are brave enough to take the risk of investing in agarwood tree plantation. Agarwood is said to be one of the most expensive and good quality plant product. It is said that this plants required eight months to reap and a total of five years are needed for the trees to be cut. All the settlers work very closely with FELDA in this sector. Mature oil palms will be collected by the settlers and will be transported to FELDA’s Oil Palm Processing Plant to be processed. FELDA play an important role in ensuring that the settlers will be paid for their hard work. Besides, it is also found that there is an average of 13 shops per scheme. Most of the shops sell basic necessities such as rice, sugar, canned food and others. There are also shops that operate as coffee shops that sell various types of cakes, drinks and noodles. Sundry shops and coffee shops are commonly found in the settlements. Besides, sundry shops and coffee shops, there are shops that repair motors, hardware shops, bookshops and others. Recently, a youth from FELDA Jengka involved in aquaculture field. Leech farming has been initiated by Mohd Khairul Nizam Che Anuar and his friends. They will rear leeches in canvas containers and after 60 days, they will sell these leeches at the price of RM200 per kilogram. These leeches will be processed into leech oil.

Table 2: Distribution of Jengka Settlers based on the scheme

In Bandar Pusat Jengka, there are about eight schools, two colleges and a university. The Government realized that education is really important in shaping the future of the younger generations. Besides, in Malaysia’s constitution, every citizens of Malaysia have the right to obtain a proper education. Thus, schools such as Sekolah Kebangsaan Jengka Pusat, Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Jengka Pusat, Maahad As-Sultan Ahmad Shah Ad-Dini, Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Jengka 6 and others were built. FELDA too provides monetary support for the settlers’ children who are furthering their studies to tertiary level. Besides, the Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) Cawangan Pahang – Kampus Bandar Jengka was built so that standard of living of the settlers in Bandar Pusat Jengka can be improved. The Government have been developed Bandar Pusat Jengka by introducing new facilities to accommodate the needs of the people living in Bandar Pusat Jengka. The Government realized that new facilities should be built in rural areas like Bandar Pusat Jengka to ensure that the rural settlers are not left behind in the country’s development. Bandar Pusat Jengka has been given many public facilities. They include Jengka Hospitals, Masjid Sultan Ahmad Shah, Bandar Jengka, public library, bus terminal Nadi Kota Bandar Pusat Jengka and Urban Community Polyclinic Jengka. Besides these facilities, the Government too have bring some of the Government agencies such as , Islamic Council and the Office of Customs Pahang , police station, Fire and Rescue Department , National Registration Department, Department of Road Transport, Office of National Energy and Office of the NSW Department of Water Supply to this area so that the rural settlers need not need to travel to the nearest town some 40 kilometres away to make a visit to any of these agencies. In addition to that, the Government too built some sports facilities such as golf courses, sports complex and mini stadium to allow the rural settlers to involve themselves in sports. Financial institutions such as Maybank, Bank Rakyat, Tabung Haji and Affin Bank just to name a few have established in Bandar Pusat Jengka. These financial institutions provide facilities such as loans, financial management and others to help the rural settlers to increase their crops production. The welfare and safety of the settlers in each settlement in FELDA Jengka is well taken care of by the Scheme Development and Security Committee (JKKR) which is formed under FELDA entrusted. The Scheme Development and Security Committee (JKKR) will uphold a high responsibility in giving co-operations and help to the settlers so that the settlers will be able to progress further which is part of the government’s aspirations.

In the recent Budget, the Government has allocated a huge amount of allocation to develop the rural areas around Malaysia. This is to ensure that the settlers in the rural areas will be able to obtain adequate facilities. It can be seen that in most rural areas, most of the residents are able to enjoy electricity and water supply in their homes. Currently the one of the Government inspirations is to connect the rural areas with the urban areas. In order to achieve this, penetration of broadband should be introduced to rural areas. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in the Centre Line Community (CBC) is introduced to FELDA Jengka 23 and 25 in April 2010. This main aim of this facility is to help the younger generations in the rural settlement to be ICT literacy and to fill their leisure time. By having internet facility in the rural settlements, the younger generations will be able to communicate with the outside world as bridging between the rural and urban community could be formed. This will able to widen their knowledge. CBC was introduced to rural settlements due to the inspiration from the Government to ensure that all Malaysians have knowledge about the internet and are able to connect to the world. Besides, this will bring changes to the mentality of the FELDA younger generations settlers. According to CBC FELDA Jengka 23 Manager, Mohd Shahrir Md Yusof, he said that this facility is a joint venture project between the Government with Suruhanjaya Komunikasi Dan Multimedia Malaysia (SKMM) and Telekom Malaysia. Broadband penetration in rural areas such as FELDA Jengka has brought changes to the living standard of the settlers. With the internet facility at Centre Line Community (CBC), the settlers are able to save time, money and energy. Moreover, their daily activities such as paying monthly utility bills, business online payment (money transfer), communicate with outstation family members and products ordering by consumers; just to name a few will be easier to be carried out. With this broadband penetration in FELDA Jengka, the settlers need not need to travel more than 40 kilometres to the nearest town such as Termerloh to carry out their activities. Currently in FELDA Jengka 23 itself, the Government and other organizations have allocated 20 units of computers. The settlers are able to use the facility from 9am to 6pm throughout the week. Besides, the CBC too provides basic computer classes to educate the settlers on the operations of the computer and some of the programmes. According to Mohd Shahrir, there is a high respond from the settlers on this facility where the average users of the facility are more than 100 settlers per day. Besides FELDA Jengka 23, other settlements such as FELDA Jengka 24 too are equipped with the broadband facility. In FELDA Jengka 24, the CBC is located together with the Rural Clinic. According to Khairul Nizam Che Anuar or Along who is a youth living in FELDA Jengka 24, he said that he usually visit the CBC to surf the internet and to learn more about leech farming. CBC too can surf as a place where the settlers are able to meet up and communicate with other settlers. Thus, this will leads to a better bonding between the settlers. In FELDA Jengka 24, there are only two computers, a scanner and printer.

In conclusion

During the mid 1900s, China’s population was growing at an alarming rate, increasing by at least 2 or more percent each year (Potts 2006:361). Estimated to reach 1.3 billion by the year 2000, Chinese government officials were worried that such extreme growth would serve to harm the potential for future economic growth. Even maintaining acceptable living standards was becoming difficult, with much of the population living in poverty. It was clear that action had to be taken in order to rapidly slow the growth at which China’s population was expanding. Fertility rates-the average number of children born per woman-needed to drastically decrease so that China would be able to develop as a country able to have influence on a world scale. The One-Child Policy was created and put into action in 1979 in an attempt to limit the number of offspring that families could produce. The majority of families were restricted to bearing only one child, reducing the size of each subsequent generation. Attempts to abide by these laws has led to many potential children being aborted, and many others being put up for adoption. Further impacting the fates of these children is China’s long standing traditional preference for boys. Many female children have been selectively aborted or put up for adoption, so that families can have another chance at producing a son. The One-Child Policy has been the determinant of two very significant parts of my family. At four years old, my cousin Emma was born. When I was five, she joined our family. Four years later, Darci arrived. Neither girl was born into a Canadian family, nor do they bear any physical resemblances to their parents. Both adopted by my aunt and uncle as infants, my cousins became part of our family as a result of China’s one-child policy. The majority of others in their adoptive groups are also girls. In my paper, I am going to explore the consequences of China’s One-Child policy, especially focusing on gender roles, and how the policy has impacted the way in which individuals of different genders are valued and treated. I will analyze the effects that the policy has had based on familial desires, economical incentives, and educational goals. Finally, I will comment on how the policy must be adapted if China wishes to maintain control over its population, both in terms of growth and citizen compliance.

Family

Traditionally, Chinese culture has followed a very patriarchal structure. As in most countries, males were more valued than females and took on the responsibilities of providing for his family. Women were submissive to the men in the household, and when a marriage occurred, it was the bride’s duty to leave her birth family in order to become a part of her new husband’s (Deutsch 2006:367). In 1979, and even today, many families are of the mindset that a son is more valuable to them than a daughter. Allowed only one offspring, a son is often the more desirable choice for households (ibid:367). There are a few reasons for this. Especially in China, the male’s ability to carry on the family name is a major factor. As many women take on their husband’s last name upon marriage, her maiden name ceases to be a part of her, in practical usage. If a family is allowed to have multiple children, one daughter does not necessarily mean that the family lineage will be discontinued. There is always the possibility for a new son to be born, able to represent the family name his entire life. However, when this option is taken away, many couples feel increased pressure to bear a son on the first try. The development of ultrasound technology in recent years allows couples to learn the gender of their child before it is born. Although this can be an advantage in many ways, knowledge of a female daughter means that there is an opportunity to abort the pregnancy before its advanced stages. While I am not going to comment on the moral issues associated with the abortion itself, frequent abortions of female fetuses has led to a severe imbalance of girls and boys. This will be discussed in more detail later.

Economics

There is also an economical incentive to take into account here. No different from many other places, males tend to earn higher salaries than females and obtain jobs in more skilled and demanding work placements. While this was not an effect created by the One-Child Policy, the differences in employment between men and women began to increase around the same time as the policy was enacted. Economic reforms introduced in the 1970s gave greater independence to businesses in regards to their labour and operations policies. Rather than a goal of equal labour, businesses were now allowed to make the majority of their hiring decisions and assign what they felt were appropriate wage rates for their employees (Wang and Cai 2008:442). This only served to increase the value differential between males and females. Overall wages gradually increased over time, with males eventually taking over many of the top sector jobs and earning higher wages. A study done (ibid:444) determined that even though women make up a larger percentage of the lower three job sectors, it is still men that are taking home the greater amount. For whatever reason, whether it is for educational reasons or pure gender role discrimination, employers have a clear tendency to prefer male workers over female employees. This gender preference has translated itself into an effect on the One-Child Policy, where families desire sons more heavily than daughters. As the parents of the first generation of One-Child offspring move into retirement age, they will have only one child on whom to rely for financial support. As opposed to previous generations, in which the burden of caring for one’s parents could be split between multiple siblings, One-Child adults are faced with the burden of caring for parents individually. Granted, with fewer children to bring up, the cost of parenting is lower which allows for greater saving, however China’s lack of a substantial pension plan makes it difficult for Chinese citizens to save enough to support themselves entirely throughout retirement (Potts 2006: 361). Nor do children have the option of defecting care of their parents to a third party: Article 21 of the Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China (1980) specifically renders children with “the duty to support and assist their parents”. This forces only children to bear both the fiscal and social responsibilities of caring for their elderly parents. While it is not ludicrous to ask a child to care for a parent, the One-Child Policy simply intensifies this responsibility, especially if the child is not in substantial financial situation for only him or herself. A daughter, hurt with the plausibility of a lower paying workplace, is more likely to have a harder time supporting her parents than a son would, more able to obtain a financially lucrative position.

For these reasons, among others, Chinese couples often weight the value of a son as higher than that of a daughter. However, the higher value placed on male children causes many potential daughters to be aborted, abandoned as infants, or put up for adoption (Martinez 2008:86). Since the one child policy was enacted in 1979, there has been a gradual, but significant, increase in the ratio of males to females, with approximately 33 million more boys than girls under 20 reported in the 2005 census (Nature 2009:1). The shortage of women available to wed leaves many potential grooms unable to find matches, affecting the lives of many Chinese citizens. The One-Child Policy negatively affects Chinese society in this manner, as well as intensifying gender stereotypes that have been persistent in the history of the Chinese people. On the other hand, couples that do end up bearing only one daughter tend to internalize an alternate set of perceptions than those with a single son.

Education

Despite the frequent prejudices held against females in China, daughters brought up in an only child environment often receive certain advantages. In families of multiple children, with both girls and boys, girls were often treated as lesser family members. With largely predetermined plans, most women did not maintain a prominent position in their birth families through most of their adult life. Instead they would commit themselves to their husband’s lives, integrating themselves into his family and adopting their new roles as wives and daughters-in-law. These temporary statuses often ‘devalued’ daughters in the eyes of their birth families and therefore they were often denied certain opportunities and privileges than their male counterparts (Deutsch 2008:368). Although this specific mindset may be mostly outdated today, statistics show that women still tend to receive less education than men. The Chinese census taken in the year 2000 reflected a difference of approximately 1.1 years of schooling between the sexes (Cai and Wang 2008:443). However, couples that raise only one female child have only one child to rely on during their old age. As lesser schooling often leads to a lesser wage, and given the likelihood of females to earn a lower wage no matter what, parents of single daughters are more likely to invest more time and effort into their education than they might otherwise. Though still not expected to receive a higher level of education than boys, surveys taken in the late 1990s and early 2000s indicated a strong desire for equal education of both sexes (Cai and Wang 2008:443). There is a possibility that this could just be the reflection of the evolution of gender perceptions, though it is very likely that in China at the very least, the One-Child Policy had some effect on this new mentality. As touched upon earlier, the Policy forces elderly parents to rely on a single child for support in their old age. Having the option of relying solely on a female child with a lesser degree of education points towards a less lucrative financial future. A parent’s desire for a more stable financial future may lead to the provision of a higher degree of education for his or her only daughter. Further adding onto the instability of a parent’s retirement well being is the fear of losing a daughter to the family of her husband. Without the possibility of additional children to depend on, parents of only daughters are less willing to give up their only child to the household of another family, and therefore tend to value self-sufficiency and education more, promoting increased gender equality. From this perspective, China’s One-Child Policy creates both negative and positive effects.

The Future of the Policy

Numerous times in recent years, spokespeople for the National Population and Family Planning Commission of China have stated that the current family planning policy will not be revoked within the near future (Family Planning 2009:1). As a country with an estimated 1.3 billion people at the close of 2010, an efficient tactic for preventing overexpansion is a necessary component of national policy. The One-Child policy is still considered to be of the utmost importance for maintaining effective population control. However, as it currently exists, it is vital that a re-evaluation and revision of the policy take place. A 2009 survey indicated a desire for the allowance of second children by approximately 78% of the population (Family Planning 2010:1). As China’s population continues to grow, it will be increasingly difficult to ensure that the policy is followed properly. Already, the policy has become harder to enforce, as the independence and wealth of the Chinese people continues to escalate (Hesketh, Lu and Xing 2005:17). The development of the country is such that the One-Child policy may not be practically feasible very shortly. An adaptation is necessary in order to upkeep the efficiency of the policy. In fact, those responsible for the policy seem to have already become aware of this. In 2002, while no major changes were made to its fundamentals elements, specific aspects of the policy were softened gently. Influenced by rising tensions between the Chinese government and its people, the strict quotas based around reproduction were done away with and couples no longer need to obtain permission to have their child (ibid:21). This was a positive step towards the future long-term continuation of the policy.

In addition to the concerns of enforcement, there are other worrying issues surrounding the policy. As mentioned earlier, the insufficient numbers of females below 20 years of age is alarming. By the year 2020, it is estimated that the difference between men and women of marriageable age will be dangerously close to the 24 million mark. Authorities from within the Population Association of China are foreshadowing a spike in the sex industry of China, including the trafficking and solicitation of prostitution and pornography (Mcleod 2010:17). This severe imbalance poses an issue that must be addressed, so as to avoid continued long term damage to Chinese citizens and society. As the disproportion increases, it will become all the more necessary for the Chinese to review their Family Planning Policy and patch up the holes that are creating these issues.

Conclusion

Out of all the countries in the world, China is home to the greatest number of people. Shanghai, one of its most prominent cities, recently hit a landmark population of 23 million people (CNNGO 2011:4). Its population is showing no sign of slowing down naturally any time soon. China’s rapid expansion makes a policy designated to control population a necessary element of governance. All the same, the current program working towards this goal is causing its own issues. Looking purely at the numbers, the One-Child Policy is working admirably, no doubt one of the reasons for why those in charge are hesitant to retract it. It is estimated that an astounding 250 to 300 million births have been prevented via this policy (Hesketh et al 2005:6). However, now the issues is not so much how many people make up the total population, but what people comprise it. The desire for sons has left many daughters unborn, abandoned, or put up for adoption as infants. This policy is the reason that I have two of my cousins, both girls adopted from China at a very young age, as part of my family. Through analyzing the effect that the One-Child Policy has had in the past 30 years, it is clear that in order to continue to be successful in the future, something must be done to re-balance the male-female demographic, as well as change the perception that many have of females as being less valuable than males. While an important part of Chinese government, the One-Child Policy must be adapted if it wishes to remain effective.

The essay is a critical analysis from a sociological point of view of the book ain’t No Making it, third edition by Jay McLeod and published in 2008. The author divided the book into three distinct parts; part one The Hallway Hangers and the Brothers as Teenagers, part two Eight Years Later; Low income, Low income and the last part Ain’t No makin’ It. Through the eyes of the two groups used by McLeod, the brothers (black minority boys) and the Hallways (white boys) we are able to clearly see what transpires in an American societal setting.

The two groups lived and studied in the same conditions but each has varied expectations and aspiration, this is on the basis of their race. The Brothers viewed an open society as the way life should be lived and held the opinion that the difficulties they are going through is due to racism their ancestors underwent. For this reason, they try as much as possible to engage in socially acceptable manners. This group does have high expectation as well as aspiration. On the other hand, the Hallways do not accept the same achievement ideology held by the Brothers. The individuals in this group have lost hope, do drugs, drop from school plus engaging in a myriad of other activities deemed illegal. From the author, the two groups did not get themselves out of poverty. The reason I bet is that there are numerous barriers in the society that blocked their quest of getting themselves out of poverty. It is worth noting that a number of other concepts from sociological point of view clearly emerge. These include social conflict, poverty, gender and racial inequality, males as role model, political power, defeatism, education and society/elites and generational mobility (McLeod 17).

Social conflict

From social conflict theory which argues that human beings as well as groups in a given society do at any given time have varied amount of both material and non material resources. For this reason, those deemed wealthy or rich and more powerful exploit the less privileged. Another theory that will be analyzed along the social conflict one is Bourdieu social reproductive theory which asserts that those kids born by working class parents will automatically end up finding better jobs.

It is evident that the Brothers did acknowledge that the difficulties in life they are facing at present are nothing but as a result of the serious racial discrimination their fore fathers went through. A typical example of social conflict is in the field of education in the book. Those kids from lower class families are treated in a manner by the teachers that suggest they (students) are less competent. Thus they are placed in a lower track as they lack opportunities to develop their language. In this category, these students are only trained to later in life take blue color jobs while those from affluent families are trained to take white color jobs. Additionally, the two kinds of school, public and private provide us with a clear distinction between where kids from wealthy and poor background attend school (McLeod 287). On the same note, students from less privileged families are disadvantaged by their manners, the way they talk, dress and deemed not to be fit and valued in the education systems

Social conflict also arise when the Hallways view their skin as being discriminated against by the American affirmative action which aim at providing equal opportunities to all Americans. They are of the opinion that the black are favored due to their skin color and the whit boys even curse their color. Frankie said, “Well I look today, and if anyone should had a chance to make it, it’s fuckin’, it’s black people. They got a chance to make it. Cuz there’s fucking quotas to be filled.” (McLeod 187)

It is from this perspective that the two groups hold varied achievement ideology. It is apparent that despite their hardship, the Brothers see themselves as individuals who will beat all odds and make it in life through education and taking part in constructive activities. On the other hand, the Hallways have no hopes of making it in life and are under defeatism. One thing seems apparent, that structural barriers block both the Brothers and the Hallways from getting out of poverty. From a close examination of events, it is in my view that hard work do pay while other factors such as race, sex among others are just secondary or play very minimal role in future success of individuals.

Gender and racial inequality

Gender and racial inequality is a concept that refers to unfair treatment of an individual because of his sex/gender and his/her race or skin color. In the book, the author through his well thought and painted characters bring out clearly discrimination in terms of race. From the view point of the Hallways, lacking male role model brings to their mind some aspect of gender inequality. They Lack the guidance as well as the opportunity to learn from them, and for that matter, they do not deem their mothers and elder sisters as being in a position to provide them the guidance they need in life. Lack of male role model have renders these guys (Hallways) to be hopeless in life and when asked what they will be in the next twenty, years, their response is amazing, they say they will be in jail or even dead (McLeod 341).

The issue of racism has been facing Americans from as long as human race came into being and started migrating to America. From the onset of the book, the Brothers claim that they are in their difficult situation as a result of how unfair their forefathers were treated. This resulted to them (forefathers) being denied equal employment and education opportunities. The Brothers are brave enough to come out of this narrow kind of thinking to fight very hard so as to reclaim their status thanks to numerous reforms such as affirmative actions and equal employment opportunities. On the other hand, the Hallways despite the fact that they are white which would translate to being in a better position to get better education and jobs are in more anguish just like their black counter parts. They assert that the black are favored as they have taken all jobs due to the government policies, Hallways further claim that they see their skin color as working a against them, for this reason they are practicing racism as they do not see eye to eye with the blacks. Contrary to this, the Brothers upon seeing an element of racism just work away from it (McLeod 442).

Generational mobility

Generational mobility a concept used to describe how a given human generation finds their ways to the next social class has is evident in McLeod book. Historically, human race have struggled to make their live better by doing all things possible within their reach. One is the quest to climb the social ladder. Varied school of thought exist that try to justify how this is attained. There are those who hold that one’s family background dictates how far an individual will rise in societal stratification. On the other hand, achievement ideologists strongly believe that all these societal aspects such as sex, race, family background are secondary and play no or minimal role in dictating how one generation will rise from one level to another. What is important is the desire and hard work of doing so.

Both the Brothers and the Hallways are brought from impoverished family background. One group, the Brothers, the black minority in America society despite being brought up in a disadvantaged society; they are painted as individuals who are highly optimistic and work very hard to attain their dreams and desires. They engage themselves in activities that are in line with positive living as well as in line with the country’s law. They work very work very hard in school in order to attain better grades. It is worth noting that despite the fact that their parents were oppressed previously and did not get the opportunities to attend school, they against all odd support their kids in all ways possible. However, the Brothers failed to achieve their desired success and blame themselves for this failure (McLeod 271). On the other hand, the Hallways were demoralized by their self defeat and found themselves indulging in drugs, dropping from school. They blame all other individuals in the society for instance schools, parents, the community the society and every one around them but forget to see what role they have played in making their lives the way it is. It is for holding the idea of defeatism, pessimists and disregarding achievement ideology that the Hallways did not achieve any mobility that could have helped them and the coming generation to move up the ladder. From my point of view, for any future human generation to realize mobility, the present generation need not to focus on what was done wrong but to make improvement on what was done wrong.

From my analysis, there is no one better social theory that can adequately explain sociological aspects in any societal settings. Due to the fact that all sociological concepts and perspective are closely linked to one another, ascribing one to be of more importance in my opinion is not being rational and sound enough in trying to address these effects.

Poverty

The author has laid an emphasis on the issue of poverty in the society. In the book ain’t no making it, excellent insights I to lives of teenage boys who live in a low income neighborhood Clarendon Heights where the reader is forced to reconsider ones notions and perceptions of poverty as well as its causes in the society. The book looks at the American ideology on achievement and puts into question its effect son the society. The book goes to justify the fact that people are not poor simply because they are lazy but rather as a result of numerous structural barriers in the society that traps them into the vicious cycle of poverty. It goes ahead to show how the social structure and the way the society is close-minded and the especially the upper and the middle class people who view that those who occupy the lesser social standing the lazy ones. The 11 year old Freddie is self-defeated despite growing in America perceived as a nation of dreams because he feels trapped in such position by the inherited poverty. The poverty handed down from earlier generations especially from their uneducated parent greatly impacted on the work, school and even shattered or limited their dreams and ambitions (MacLeod, 447).

Defeatism

The author mentions in his book about the hallway hangers which is predominantly whites and spend great deal of their time hanging in a specific hallway section of the housing project. This peer group is self-destructing and self defeating as its members poses a very narrow view of their futures being destined with expectations. They don’t see any glimpse of hope and are very pessimistic of their future endeavors. On the other hand is the very optimistic per group the brother who despite their low income current life they detrimentally held the American dream close to their hearts. The hallway hungers have been isolated from the society and they feel bitter about it as they are the minority group. The alienation as a result of poverty has made them give up in a life and that they have dully accepted. The hallways hangers then engage themselves in criminal activities, alcoholics and become junkies who are addicted to losing. Way down the line they still don’t realize any upward social mobility.

On the other hand the group of the poor black catapulted by their optimism and American dream turns their desolate situation in to a better one by struggling very hard and this later earns them a slight upward movement in the social ladder. Through this the author embedded the Marxist theory which he argues against assuming that all educated people as Marx stated. MacLeod shows another evidence that poor people stay poor because of the generational inheritance of poverty because there are numerous pressures that act against them especially when the struggle to lift themselves sup and these end as limiting their rise in the society so far ant rise in social status effort of several generations have to be considered.

The defeatism portrayed by the Hallway Hangers in the book ain’t a making it making is explained by the social learning theory which argues that students are often socialized from their early ages and thus hold various values and own experiences based on their social situations. It further argues that students raised from backgrounds characterized by failure and under achievement always see their parents or preceding generations as failures and tend to often internalize such values at end up perceiving their own success also as unlikely. This theory thus justifies the action and decisions that are made by the peer group Hallways Hangers who saw their uneducated and poor parents and became self -defeated for the rest of their lives.

The author also describe the consequences that result when the poor are false defeated and do nothing if not worse by making wrong decisions in their current lives. The Hallways hungers saw falsehood in the American dream and believed that everything they ought to have done to salvage their situation as was empty ventures and turned to be absolute losers who in their future lives had crummy jobs, poor living standards and many regrets like if they had been serious in getting educated they would have bee leading better lives with better past.

Macleod proves that nothing good comes for free and one has to keep on struggling to attain it just as the way the brother never gave up on their dreams despite their poverty and alienation from the rest of the society. It proves that if one is to succeed. The author shows how the lives of the poor in a well off society are self-defeated by their poverty levels and end up worsening their situation as they are alienated from the rest of the society (MacLeod,347).The brothers stayed focused in their struggles to see their dream of progressing into the social ladder into the middles class coma true and later reaped its benefit of their optimism and handwork, their behavior is supported by the ideology of achievement called Need for Achievement theory which argues that the level of ones achievement is the product of their motivation to succeed and hence avoid failure thus individual tend to weigh their expectancy of success by the values placed on that success. The brothers despite being from poor families kept their dreams alive by motivating themselves with good thoughts of enjoying better life when they rose to the middle class. The values they placed in middle social class motivated them to keep on struggling hard and being optimistic of a better life ahead.

Drugs use

The Hallways hangers see falsehood in the education system and thinks that teachers no nothing and sees no values of getting educated and if they go to class they get expelled and are teachers nightmare. There parents work in low paying jobs and for them to get quick bucks they get themselves is doing drugs like selling of crack cocaine in the neighborhood. In addition to doing drugs the group engage sin alcoholism and other forma of crimes. Doing of drugs inhibits the group members from getting educated and obtain their goals as it makes them concentrate on them and as they get high they care less of their lives hence limiting their progress in life. The hallways hangers derived their name fro always found hanging in a specific hallway in the project, a place they would get drunk and high. They have given up in life and don’t see any possibility of getting out of the housing projects so they opted to doing drugs hence becoming depressed and eventually hindering their motivation (MacLeod, 147).

This peer group use drugs as a shortcut to happiness and a way of avoiding the effects of poverty. Doing drugs also made them quick money which they believed could not be obtained from work. From doing drugs one could get more than twenty dollars as compared to seven dollar salary from work. Hangers saw drugs as an n easy way out of debt but this denied them an n opportunity of going to school to better their future lives and for those who attempted to school always got in problems with their teachers and administration as result of drug use.

Male Figures Role Models

Most of the male parents of the hallways hangers are either gone and brothers are dead or in jail and this denies such them a male role models in their upbringing .On the other hand the brother have more male authority figures and they therefore respect their families more than their counter parts hallways hangers (MacLeod,47).The brothers also are more optimistic in life and hope to get their families out of the housing projects by graduating from school and getting white jobs which are well paying. This shows that the male role models in the family plays a critical role in the lives of the younger siblings or their kids as they instill some values that the male figures ca not. For example the skills of appreciating family are related to the role played by the male family figures as seen from the brothers who show some love and respect towards family members and this is attributed to the numbers of male figure in their lives as compared to the Hallway hungers whose fathers were dead and big brothers dead or in jail. The male figures in the families of the hallway hungers showed a bad example influencing the members also get engaged in activities that would lead the to imprisonment or even lead to their death.

Conclusion

The book outplays the idea of doing away of ideologies that deny acknowledgement of ones social conditions for instance the achievement ideology which made the brothers to believe that by ignoring their impoverished conditions they can make in life by trying harder and they ended up in limited progress. Most teachers believe the ideology motivates all students but that is not true as there halfway hangers needed a support in self esteem in order to get motivated. Ina addition to that in order for students to get motivated in schools materials should be provided especially those in inner-cities where schools have deteriorated to a dangerous point.

In addition, a social change is not achieved overnight but takes sometimes and appreciation of ones social problem leads to a progressive change and through education one is able to critically understand such social problems. Finally to make any political change in the society people especially the dormant dogma should discard the long time held belief that poverty is caused by personal vices and cultural pathologies of the poor.