Author: Andre Coleman

“Friends. How many of us have them? Friends. Ones that we can depend on.” This question about friendships was asked in the 1984 song “Friends” by Whodini. Humans have the need for social interaction and one of the ways that human beings fill this need is by forming friendships. From an early age, we form bonds with our peers. Initially these bonds start as surface friendships in childhood and as people grow older, the friendships they have take on a more profound meaning. Many different kinds of friendships can be found depicted in the media. From television shows like “Friends”, “Girlfriends”, and “Seinfeld” to movies that depict the ups and downs of friendships.

People typically have more same-sex than cross-sex friendships (Booth & Hess 1974; Ross, 1985). In this paper, I will discuss the differences and similarities of female-female and male-male friendships and use examples from two movies to show how the values and characteristics of these friendships differ and are alike. I will also be discussing cross-sex friendships (CSFs). There hasn’t been as much research or theory on cross-sex friendships because for a long time, theorists and researchers viewed cross-sex friendships as potential romantic relationships (Bleske-Recheck & Buss, 2001). This view has changed and there is now emerging research and study of difficulties and advantage of having and maintaining cross-sex friendships. I will also be discussing a movie that demonstrates the positive and negative features of cross-sex friendships.

Male-Male Friendships

Although there has been a rising popularity of depicting “bromances” (a term used to describe close male friendships) in the media, Traustadottir found that “research has found that males have significantly fewer friends than women, especially close friendships or best friends.” (2008 p.1) There are three main barriers that have been attributed to the lack of close friendships in men; competition between men, traditional masculine stereotypes about “real men”, and fear of homosexuality (Fasteau, 1991; McGill, 1985; Miller, 1983).

The movie The Wood, is about three male friends from Inglewood, California who have grown apart and reunite back in their hometown during one of their weddings. The movie shows present-day and also flashback scenes to their childhood to show how their friendship developed. One of the flash-back scenes gives an example of the three barriers attributed to lack of closeness. The three main characters; Mike, Roland, and Slim in a pizza parlor discussing how their luck with the women is going during their junior year of high school. All three are talking about their frustration at still being virgins as sophomores (traditional masculine stereotypes), they begin to argue about who will lose their virginity first (fear of homosexuality) and decide to make it a competition by making a “pot”. Every week, they add a dollar to the pot and whoever loses their virginity first will receive the money (competition).

Male friendships tend to emphasize activities and companionship and expressions of closeness felt between friends comes in the form of friendly teasing. Although male friendships are formed and maintained in ways that differ from female friendships, there are still some similarities that can be seen. Male friendships provide a release of stress and reduce depression in the same manner that women friendships do.

Female-Female Friendships

The differences in female friendships and male friendships is not in what is strived for in their close relationships i.e. intimacy, empathy, and trust; but in the means in which their friendship goals are accomplished. Women are naturally more apt to show emotions and this translates into the friendships they form as well.

Traustadottir (2009) examination of female friendships found:

Women typically describe their friendships in terms of closeness and emotional

attachment. What characterizes friendships between women is the willingness to

share important feelings, thoughts, experiences, and support. Women devote a good

deal of time and intensity of involvement to friends. (p.1)

Women are more open with affection and more likely to sincerely complimenting each other. While men use communication to accomplish things, communication is seen as a way to build and maintain intimacy and closeness in female friendships. This is why women are more likely to discuss personal thoughts, feelings, and problems with their friends (Greif 2009). In a survey done by Greif (2009) 71% of women stated that being understood (communication, sharing, caring, not being judged, and receiving feedback) to describe what friendship means. Only 51% of men surveyed answered the same. Demonstrating friendships with concrete acts (example. helping move, giving loan) was a choice that men responded to in the survey was not shown on the women’s responses.

In the movie, Waiting To Exhale, it depicts four female friends providing support and advice to each other through their dealing with men, families, and careers. This movie shows how female relationships are built on communication and emotional intimacy.

Cross-Sex Friendships

Because male and female same-sex friendships have different characteristic, it has been speculated that men and women cannot become and maintain strictly platonic friendships. Although much more difficult, successful cross-sex relationships are possible. There are at least four unique challenges facing individuals in cross-sex relationships: defining the relationship, managing sexual attraction, establishing equality, and managing interference of others (O’Meara, 1989).

The movie Brown Sugar is the story of two friends Dre and Sidney that met as children and have maintained their cross-sex friendship throughout their adulthood. In the movie, Dre starts dating a woman and they become engaged. This sparks questions and thoughts about Sidney and Dre’s own friendship and if there was any romantic feelings between them. One scene in the movie after Dre has become engaged, shows Sidney prepping and beautifying herself when Dre calls to say he’s coming to visit. As she looks at herself in the mirror and fixes her hair and make-up, she pauses and asks herself “What am I doing? It’s just him.” This scene shows how managing sexual attraction and clearly defining the relationship are concerns that come up even in long-term cross-sex friendships.

Although difficult, there are benefits from cross-sex friendships that cannot be seen in same-sex friendships. Those benefits include, an increase of the understanding about beliefs and values of the other sex (Canary, Emmers-Sommers, & Faulkner, 1997), verifying out attractiveness to the other sex (Rubin, 1985), protection, short-term sexual opportunities, self-expression, and intimacy (Bleske-Rechek and Buss 2000).

Conclusion

Developing and maintaining friendships is key in developing interpersonal skills. Although some friendships may be more easy to maintain than others, there are benefits to all types friendships and they are attainable if the parties involved value the relationship enough to put in the hard work and effort.

References

Alison P. LentonLaura Webber. (2006). Cross-sex Friendships: Who has More? Sex Roles, 54(11-12), 809-820. Retrieved April 12, 2010, from Psychology Module. (Document ID: 1175830101).

Diane H Felmlee. (1999). Social norms in same- and cross-gender friendships. Social Psychology Quarterly, 62(1), 53-67. Retrieved April 12, 2010, from Research Library Core. (Document ID: 40396565).

Greif, G. L. (2009). Buddy system: understanding male friendships. New york: Oxford Universtiy Press.

Matthijs Kalmijn. (2002). Sex Segregation of Friendship Networks. Individual and Structural Determinants of Having Cross-Sex Friends. European Sociological Review, 18(1), 101. Retrieved April 12, 2010, from Social Science Module. (Document ID: 323673221).

Traustadottir, R. (2008, April). Gender patterns in friendships. Retrieved from http://thechp.syr.edu/genpat.htm

Critically consider the relationship between culture and economy. To what extent is it true to suggest that decline of community and the growth of competitive individualism are produced by the shifting needs of the capitalist economy?
INDIVIDUALISM
independent self reliance
a doctrine that bases morality on the interests of the individual
a social theory maintaining the political and economic independence of the individual and stressing individual initiative (Penguin English Dictionary, 2001)
an economic system characterized by the profit motive and by private ownership and control of the means of production, distribution and exchange (Penguin English Dictionary, 2001)

The 15^th century saw the rise of humanism and the re-evaluation of the human condition in relation to his or her world. This was viewed as a journey from the dark ages of fear and oppression to the enlightened visions of individuality and hope. In reality, it was a journey that very few were privileged enough to afford. One arena for the exercise of this alternative approach was equating classical Greek and Roman cultures with what was then the rigours of contemporary religion. Already, the image of the individual is looking to another stereotype for definition. Yet how surprised these early scholars would be to find that with this individuality came loss of community spirit, apathy and destruction of the extended family in supposedly advanced societies. They would probably be less surprised to find that economics and politics are two of the tools which have been used to carve out and colour these new societies.

The following essay looks at how specific these factors operate within this changing framework of postmodern (Featherstone, 1991) society. It extends its scope beyond classical economic and political theory, which is due more consideration that given here. It considered some of the literature available on the subject of culture and economics, but, in order to get a balanced view, it also tries to see what other elements contribute to the decline of community.

To start with, it is necessary to understand the elements that go to make up contemporary society. To put it in Foucaultian (1983) terms, how are these discourses constructed and what are their requirements. How specific are they to each society?

“They [discourses] offer us social positions and statuses: the capitalist economy makes us into ‘workers’, ‘employers’ or ‘unemployed’”

(Burr, An Introduction to Social Constructivism, 1995, p.54)

Culture and economics have been much studied, investigated and written about but the relationship between the two has been a difficult one to define. Guiso, Sapienza, Zingales, (2005) argue for a “heterogeneity of preferences” as affecting peoples economic choices. If one agrees with this, then the roots of this heterogeneity have to include culture. However, each of these elements of human society have only the stability of the time in which they are created. They are shifting sands and manipulated by both internal and external factors. For example, in a democracy where politicians are elected by the people, it can be supposed that they are saying what the people like to hear and promising to do what the people who elect them want. It may be a cynical view, but once in power, it appears that one form of manipulation gives way to another. As Chomsky (1992) says, propaganda is to democracies what power is to dictatorships. Political ‘spin’ both reacts and leads. Yet, as the Frankfurt School of Philosophy shows, a depressingly negative conflict between applied reason and an ability for society to cope with, and adapt positively to, change. For example, the search for ‘panaceas’ (Horkheimer, 1987) disturbs explanations of society and economics. The panacea of the poor, as the saying goes, used to be religion. Theorists now point to consumerism as the new religion, yet it fails to provide the happiness it promises.

Horkheimer (1987) explores the roots from which these questions arise and examines the success of individuality and autonomy. Why, when advanced technological societies seem to provide such levels of individual choice, is there such discontent? Could it be that an undermining of certain values has rendered us instinctively insecure? Could it be that there is truth in the statement that “every aspect of culture is in the process of commodification and linkage to the sale of goods” (Herman, 1995)? If so, is individuality an illusion and humans purely commodities to be sold to whether through cultural conformity or adherence to contemporary ideals?

For the purpose of this essay, certain parameters need to be placed on the issues. For example, culture, as defined by the Penguin English Dictionary (2001), is a number of things. It is mental development, namely through education. It is the “intellectual and artistic enlightenment as distinguished from vocational and technical skills”. It is the customary beliefs and social forms of specific groups. Finally it is defined as “socially transmitted pattern of human behaviour that includes thought, speech, action, institutions and artefacts” (Penguin, 2001). This essay will mostly involve the last definition of culture. Economics seems simpler to define: “A social science concerned chiefly with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services” (Penguin, 2001). However, even in these general terms it is easy to see how culture and economy inter-depend. For the purpose of this essay, culture and economics will be put in the context of capitalist economies. It will start with questioning what the needs are of a capitalist economy according to theory and actuality. It will then examine how community has changed and whether both the past society and present individuality are ideals rather than realities. This will then be put in the context of contemporary society. Whilst this essay has a specific focus, it is understood that there are many other forms of political, social and economic systems and these can have different effects depending on their societies. For example, as Paecher, in agreement with Burr’s quotation above, points out;

“Different forms of discourse result in the prioritising of different forms of knowledge; change the power relations between discourses and the knowledge relations associated with them will change as well”

(Paechter, Educating the Other: gender, power and schooling, 2001)

This puts the issues within a cultural context. To do the same with regard to economics one could take the following example. Certain people who benefit from a technologically advanced capitalist economy would find survival extremely challenging in a subsistence economy. However, this is but one approach and one aspect of these issues. In order to see whether capitalism and the increase of individuality alone have been the reasons for a decline in the ideal of community, the ‘needs’ of all these elements of society have to be considered.

The ‘needs’ of a capitalist economy can perhaps both be guided and led by the society they are integrated with. A ‘need’ to understand and quantify the changes that occur within these economies has led to works such as that done by Webber and Rigby (in Albritton et al, 2001, pp. 246-262). To take a factual analysis as typical of the more classical economics, they study the slow down in world economy that took place in the 1970’s. They concluded that a lowering profitability in the advanced economies was to blame for the slow down. They took this overview and quantified the results of economic change in order to assess what the reasons were from an analytical perspective.

In reality, unemployment rose and wages, as Sennett shows, fell. He quotes a fall of 18% in American wages between 1973 and 1995 (Sennett, 1998, p.54). Whilst the division of rich and poor is as evident through history as today, the illusion that a capitalist society would benefit all individuals was dissolved. Discontent and disillusionment with political promises became part of the culture. It may be that the pressures felt by individuals to strive and survive through competitive application of business strategies has its roots in the depression and vulnerability of unemployment. Sennett talks about these changing pressures in terms of inequality within corporate structures. He has individuals required to out perform and increase skill diversity (p.55) in order to succeed. Work is therefore governed by economics on the one hand and culture on the other with politics as a mediator between desired forms of society and managed realities. In this light, the opposite of competitive individualism is unemployment and whilst fear of the latter keeps the former competitive, the cost of the latter encourages methods of achieving full employment. For example, Featherstone uses the actions of Seattle (1996) to develop its image as a “quality of life capital” (p.107). The aim was to reduce its mass unemployment by making itself attractive both within the cultural sphere above and as a thriving economic entity. This postmodernisation (Cooke, 1988; Zukin, 1988b cited in Featherstone, 1996) is, once again, a form of self-publicisation and image production – something that this essay will return to later.

To return to the UK situation. A percentage of the UK population became dependent on the Welfare State for survival and became known as the long-term unemployed. Politics and economics are at the forefront when it comes to paying for unemployment. Since the 70’s, politics has tried both a carrot and stick approach to reducing outgoings on the unemployed. Behind these initiatives is the Government budget and the premise that you can measure the success of a country by its National expenditure – this will be returned to later. Politics has continued to experiment with methods of cutting the costs of the Welfare State. Programs such as working for the dole were started. Limiting the time unemployment benefit is available for has been tried. Gradually, the programs and policies work there way back to education, the family and the community. For example the Back to Basics campaign could be seen as an attempt to introduce values that would apparently aid community cohesion. However, the ethics involved required a level of appreciation and agreement with the cultural capital (Bordieu, 1987, cited in Featherstone, 1991) of that discourse. Long-term unemployment undermined the expectation and value of educational cultural capital. Yet, “western governments [tended] to view education as a principal means for alleviating social disadvantage” (Webb, Schirato & Danaher, 2002, p.111). Therefore politics had to try and create the values to aid economics. For a section of society, there was no educational habitus, as Bordieu would put it, or familiarity with ‘mind sets’ that make education familiar. Again, politics needed to create these as ‘natural’ expectations. This is one demonstration of the links between economics, culture and individuality and already it shows how the elements are forced both to react and interact. It also shows a necessity for illusion, created ideals, stereotypes and manipulations.

A different approach looks at the ethics behind human society and puts parameters on the changes they incur. For example, market survival, success and failure through economic cycles brings in Sennett’s (1998) exploration of ‘flexibility’. Flexibility can take a global or local approach for businesses (and seems to be one of the manufactured ideals that consumerism needs to create within its target markets). When faced by falling profits in their domestic markets, the multi-nationals (cigarette firms, drinks etc) tend to expand into under-developed markets such as the third world, youth, specific racial groups (Herman, 1995). Other forms of flexibility worked on creating ‘needs’ in domestic markets (Sennett, 1998). They create niche markets and challenge the individual to be incomplete without compliance. These ‘needs’ may be defined as part of the basis of capitalist economies, but they also become part of the defining factors of their societies, part of their history and therefore their culture.

The next question is how is the actuality of ‘community’ affected by business. How do the ethics applied to financial success co-exist with a construction of community? A tendency to divide the community into constituent elements – business community, cultural community, class community etc has led to a range of definitions. Wenger (1998), for example, explains individual integration into business systems through the idea of a community of practise. The variables are at what level individuals are integrated into these systems and this is one way of viewing business and business community in contemporary society. It can also start to expose the isolation even within a workforce. For example an ITC worker can work from an office or home so long as the technology is in place. Although he or she is a member of this community of practise, they can be isolated from the control systems that lead it. Even if working from home, they are divided between which community they are contributing to.

To return to consumerism, it would seem that rather than focus on the destruction of the family as a form of power, consumerism and the business community uses it as an expression of individuality. Likewise, politics appears, when faced by a population that is demanding reform, to come up with an ideal that no longer exists and re-creates it in the form it requires – the Nuclear family becomes a unit of modernity, essential services become community actions.

The forms used to promote these needs range from local publicity to mass media, globalisation and spin politics. Herman (1995) looks at the affect of the market on culture. He identifies the tools of commercialisation on television, both in subliminal forms (brand placement) and straight-forward advertising. He looks at how commerce exploits certain pre-existing elements “which sell? (1995) (e.g. sex and violence). He suggests that the global popularity of American movies, music and escapisms “reflects the global decline in family and civil life, and loss of faith in politics.” (Herman, 1995, p.8) Whilst this has been a simplification of the intricacies of commercialisation, it agrees with those such as Slater who state that “culture as a whole has become consumer culture” (Slater, 1997, p121).

In the introductory section questions were raised as to why discontent should exist in an apparently free society. So far, the dichotomy of appearance and actuality in a capitalist society has been alluded to rather than explored. At the essence of this duality is perhaps the recognition that the “fundamental unit of meaning in capitalist and economic thought is the object,, that is, capitalism relies on the creation of a consumer culture” (Hooker, 1996). An object is controllable and manipulatable. However, if the object is a human being then it is that person’s individual choice that has to be appealed to. As the roots of commerce tend not be the same ethically as those applied to society, appealing to individual choice requires a certain degree of basic undermining of community values. This ethical difference is shown by the types of programs Governments use to support business, which they must in a market economy, as opposed to the types of programs used to re-construct community. Whilst the former takes a business community approach, the latter tends to work on the individual.

At one level, the individual is expected to rationalise, at the other to conform through consumerism and political acquiescence. Alexander (1997) explains that recognition of this duality of commerce and its society has existed for some time. In essence, he argues that an imbalance threatens society` when it becomes overly dominant and creates a “severed culture” (Alexander, 1997, p.209) and therefore artificially sustained. He quotes Disraeli and Snow as warning that a:

“similar gulf continues everywhere between the mind of commerce and industry on the one hand, and the mind of non-commercial people – most people – on the other.”

(Alexander, The Civilised Market, 1997, pp.208-209)

If this is the case, one of the needs of a capitalist economy from its community is complicity and another is apathy. When the USA and the UK became enamoured with the market, they did not fully comprehend that business is based on profits and that “present profits are offsets to future costs” (Alexander, 1997, p.124). Governments supported markets at the cost of small business, competitiveness and ultimately high unemployment. To support an artificial ethic, society must either be too powerless, and at worst apathetic, to demand change, or too comfortable believing the ideals of individuality. The price of this redefinition of ‘self’ has been loss of community cohesion. This brings us to the means of capitalist power and whether loss of community values are the price to be paid for individuality.

Slater examines how philosophies and theorists identify ‘alienation’ (Slater, 1997, p.104) of the individual where people become a commodity to be managed. For the majority, they no longer are integrated into a society within which they are part of the control system. It has been argued that there is the illusion of control maintained through choice (Slater, 1997). An idealistic example could be an individual in a self-sufficient but essentially subsistence economy such as a tribal village. Each person contributes to the survival of the whole village. Roles are understood. Culture is therefore a reflection of unity and survival. However, in the apparently ‘rich’, technologically advanced economies, the cult of the individual has placed specific values on success through materialism… and perhaps best supported this through the illusion of choice. Slater further examines this illusion of choice and its production through the media and suggests that:

“All consumption, but above all cultural consumption, has become compensatory, integrative and functional. It offers the illusions of freedom, choice and pleasure in exchange for the real loss of these qualities through alienated labour; it integrated people within the general system of exploitation by encouraging them to define their identities, desires and interests in terms of possessing commodities; and it is functional in that consumer culture offers experiences ideally designed to reproduce workers in the form of alienated labour.”

(Slater, Consumer Culture and Modernity, 1997, p121)

Slater comes to the above through his study of the development of political economics from Marx to Smith, the Frankfurt School to Soper (1981) and Doyal and Gough (1991). He uses the issue of modernity as his framework. In the above quote he talks of capitalism as essentially a cycle of loss. He also argues that culture produces the demand for this capitalism in the first place and that therefore if “all objects of consumption are meaningful [this] implicates them in the wider field of cultural reproduction” (Slater, 1997, p.5).

The following looks briefly at this social reproduction from the perspective of Bourdieu and education. It does this in order to see how individuality and community actually fit within contemporary society. This gives an opportunity to see how political mechanisms use social structures for the production of specific communities.

Bourdieu (1983, cited in Webb, Schirato & Donaher, 2000) argues that schools are mechanisms for social reproduction. In this example, they are mechanisms for reproducing social inequalities through their policies and practises. For example, Mercier and Harold (2003) demonstrate that the religiously and culturally generated westernised ideal of the heterosexual family unit finds expression in school documentation. This raises the question of discrimination. Whitton, Sinclair, Barker, Nanlohy and Nosworthy (2004) list the forms of discrimination likely to be met in teaching ranging from race to academic ability.

How each school accepts, rejects or translates these terms of reference seems to depend on its own cultural and educational version of Bourdieu’s habitus (Schirato & Yell, 2000). For example, schools that respect difference may act firmly to stamp out evidence of sexism under the banner or anti-bullying. Their reaction may be just as firm against the somewhat more recognised discriminatory forms of racism (Lareau & McNamara, 1999; Sandercock, 2003). In understanding the reactions to these issues, the values placed on social inclusion finds expression through applied social reproduction. For example, translation of another degree from another country into a qualification recognised abroad can take a renegotiation of Bourdieu’s cultural capital (Schirato & Yell, 2000). If the issue to be re-evaluated is race or sexuality, the space for it in the culture determines the procedures necessary to move from isolation to inclusion. This can be empowered or disabled by the values placed upon it.

To take this a step further would perhaps be to recognise this example as showing the vulnerability of individuality when it is beyond specific economic value systems. Social, economic and political discourses can perhaps be seen as reflecting and manipulating the value systems applied to educational institutions. As Robert Doherty (Journal of Educational Enquiry, 2003) puts it, social exclusion may be perpetuated through deliberate institutional, personal and political ambiguity. If there were an economic value to be placed on the people involved, the situation may be very different.

Berger asserts that “capitalism does operate by the principle of self-interest” (Religion and Liberty interview, 2004). However, he then goes on to divide the situations individuals occupy. For example, a business person may well be a parent and apply different ethics and attitudes to each area. Therefore, whilst successful businesses require an underlying self-interest, the same person may have a more altruistic approach in other areas. When Broom and Selznick (1979) explain culture from a framework of social organisation, they show how different underlying values affect the individual.

“Culture is the design and the prescription, the composite of guiding values and ideals”

(Broom & Selznick, Essentials of Sociology, 1979, p.57)

And

“Statements of need are by their very nature profoundly bound up with assumptions about how people would, could or should live in their society: needs are not only social but also political in that they involve statements about social interests and projects.”

(Slater, Consumer Culture and Modernity, 1997, introduction)

In this context, consumerism takes culture, re-designs or creates need and draws an illusion to create a contemporary image of individuality. The politics of a market economy apparently has to conform to support this in order to support its economy.

However, one way of assessing how individualism stands in relation to a balance of power between culture and economics is to look at some of the recent studies into ‘downsizing’. Whilst not new this is an individual choice and a reaction to discontent with contemporary society. In Hamilton’s (2003) examination of what he terms a sickness derived from affluence, he sees down shifters as the “standard bearers in the revolt against consumerism” (p.207). They represent a move away from humans as consumerist ‘objects’ and return to values based not on how much they own and earn, but on their value as people. However, this is still an expression of individuality and it is not a return to community or family values. In this book Hamilton tracks the changes from the classical economist’s view of economy where the aim was to quantify how to develop a society’s wealth. He takes in the voices of dissent such as Veblen (1925) and Galbraith (1958) that sought to warm against the growth of consumerism not as a panacea but more as a cultural poison. Other warnings came in the forms of nations approach to their pronunciations on economics. Where policy makers and politicians need seemingly factual tools to communicate with their electorate, economics can provide. However, Hamilton uses the example of Kuznets warnings regarding reducing a nation’s prosperity to a measurement based on national income (p.13). These provided something of a false floor above which consumerism and the individual continued to thrive but below which a widening gap was forming. It could be seen as a hollowing out, an undermining, of the values that had held people together, but perhaps that is too idealistic. When he comes to the unchallenged rise of ‘neo-liberalism’ (p.10) Hamilton uses the discontent within rich societies to demonstrate how wealth and consumerism have failed the individual. He points out the essential fact that individuals have to act in their own interests in order to support consumerism. From this point it is easy to make the jump to the illusion of the individual as some-one with free choice.

These illusory factors are perhaps products in themselves. For example, Lasch (1978) looks at the human condition as predisposed to narcissism. If this is so then illusions and ideals, as recognised by Bordieu (1990), are allowed to distance themselves from reality through altering systems of belief. For example, Bordieu uses the example of social roles such as monarchy to show how culture endows roles within specific structures (1990) and creates the person in that image. He recognises “social functions are social fictions” (p.195). Yet again, images are presented in place of realities. Applied to this is change. Lasch states that the ‘degeneration of politics in spectacle” (1978, p.81) has led to the transformations of “policy making into publicity” (1978, p.81). He continues with identification of this distance between image production and reality. He explains how disempowerment, and alienation, occurs due to these images becoming the focal points. Whilst these two points of view may diverge on other issues, they agree on idea that “images of power overshadow the reality” (Lasch, 1978, p.81). But where do these images and illusions find their genesis? In modernised reproduction of ideals? In the production of expected stereotypes? Is the notion of the family unit replaced not only by a unit of commercialism but by an image of itself and its role in social structures? Both Bordieu and Lasch recognise the impossibilities of endowing an illusion with responsibility.

Another method of judging how the community fits with politics is to look what happens with migration, such as with the Italian culture. This is historically strongly networked, in part due to the city state mentality and late unification of the country. Amici, vicini, parenti (friends, neighbours, relatives) as the saying goes are still a composite force in Italian society. The answers as to why community spirit should have resisted degradation better than in many other technologically advanced societies has been much explored. One answer stems from the weakness of the political bodies and lack of trust in the ability of a politics to support the nation. These seem to be one of the fundamental causes of continued community interdependence. If this is true, then the link between politics and a consumer society is evidently very strong. Whilst Italy does not in any way lack consumerist ideals, it maintains the community through a distrust of political spin and lack of longevity (although Berlusconi has succeeded where many have failed – perhaps aided by owning some of the television stations).

This can be taken further by looking at how Italian reacted to migration. For example, how did the Italians who migrated to America react? According to Gardaphe (undated), they were “constantly negotiating their relationship between the local cultures of their origin and of their land of immigration”. It is interesting to find that self-image of Italian American individuals is affected by whether they are integrated into the structures of power associated with that community:

Where the local identities are strong is where Italian Americans are an integral part of political and social infrastructure; it is weak where there is little or no connection to that community.

(Gardaphe, undated)

This would agree with the idea that competitive individualism plays two roles in society. It could be said that an egocentric, consumerist attitude where the self is important above all else plays into the hands of the illusion of modern society. However, the above Italian American example seems to show that community needs to involve all aspects of society in order to provide a strong, cohesive balance of powers.

To a degree, this essay has been broader in its approach than hoped. However, it has tried to substantiate the view that there are many elements responsible for community decline. It has looked at the rise of individuality from its roots as a part of historical community – the Enlightenment and Renaissance – to the extremes of alienation brought about by competitive individualism. The essay has looked briefly at education from the perspective of Bourdieu and his theories on social reproduction. It has also looked at migration to see what happens to a particular community then. In summary, the rise of competitive individualism seems to be more negative than positive. It has not provided the happiness that it promised, yet the illusion of freedom makes it worth while. Throughout the essay, illusion has been a focal point for both economy and culture. The essay has looked at propaganda and ‘spin’ as tools of the market place and politics and produces of illusion. This emphasises the division between reality and illusion. Whilst the essay agrees with Bourdieu that the reality of social institutions is that they do attempt to reproduce the societies and cultures they come from, it also agrees that politics and the market create the ideal for their own ends. Therefore, competitive individualism is just one part of the re-definition of community. However, where culture will change in accordance with society, individualism is a basic essential of a capitalist economy without which the market cannot operate in the form we now know it.

References

Achbar, M & Wintonick, P. (1992). Manufacturing Consent: Noem Chomsky and the Media. A feature documentary. Quebec, Canada: Necessary Illusions.

Albritton, R., Itoh, M., Westra, R. & Zeuge, A. (eds) (2001). Phases of Capitalist Development. Hampshire: Palgrave

Alexander, I. (1997) The Civilized Market: Corporations, Conviction and the Real Business of Capitalism. Oxford, UK: Capstone Publishing Ltd.

Allen, R. (consultant Ed) (2002). The Penguin Concise English Dictionary. London, UK: Penguin Books

Bourdieu, P. (1990). In Other Words: Essays Towards a Reflexive Sociology. Translated by M. Adamson. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press

Broom, L. & Selznick, P. (1979). Essentials of Sociology. (2^nd Ed) New York, NY: Harper and Row

Doherty, R. (2003). Social exclusion: licence through ambiguity Journal of Educational Enquiry, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2003. University of Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom

Carter, D. (Ed) (2004). The Ideas Market. Victoria, Australia: Melbourne University Press

Featherstone, M. (1991). Consumer Culture and Postmodernism. London, UK: Sage Publications

Foucault, M. (Oct-Nov. 1983). Discourse and Truth: The Problematiz

Alcohol is drinks such as beer and wine. It contains a substance that causes to loss of consciousness, which affect the thinking person. Drinking alcohol is one of the biggest problems facing the Australian community. The proportion of people at risk as a result of excessive drinking of alcohol 3200 people die and almost 81000 people admitted to hospital every year. The government is trying to reduce the risks that affect their health and their social situation because of it is impact on the public and especially minors. As a result, the government cares about its population and especially minors and believe that drinking alcohol has many threats to minors could lead to several problems and risks to lead of loss their lives and also because of its negative impact on health, mind and behaviour of minors. So, the government is trying to raise the drinking age to 21. This essay will discuss the positives and negatives for raising drinking age to 21.

There are several positives for raising drinking age to 21. Firstly, alcohol adversely affect their health. For example, alcohol is containing ethyl alcohol is the substance adversely affect the mind that affect thinking, mood, and emotion of the person. In addition, The mind of the person grows and develops from the age of 15 to 24. So, alcohol has a toxic effect on the brain of a minor. Secondly, reduce the fatality rate. For instance, Increase dose of drinking alcohol may cause death because their bodies and small brains do not bear it. Statistics show that half of the males and females aged 14 to 24 die each year from drinking alcohol. Moreover, many fatal accidents; such as traffic accidents while crossing the road as well as car accidents due to loss of concentration and awareness that caused by drinking alcohol. Also, may negatively affect a person life which may lead increased incidence of suicidal in minors. Thirdly, lift the legal drinking age to 21 has positive affects to their behaviour. An example of the affect a person life to increase in violence. The Government believes that raising the age of drinking to 21 is the best ways to address the problem of violence caused by drinking alcohol. Furthermore, for drinking alcohol affects the behaviour of the minors, such as aggression, anger and depression that caused by family problems and social. In fact, drinking alcohol negatively affects the lives of those people who under the legal age.

Raising drinking age to 21 has several negatives. First of all, raising the drinking age to the age of 21 deprives them of their rights as adults. some people believe the person who at 20 becoming an adult is entitled to vote, and live in private home away from their parents, and enter the military. For example, in the war withVietnamhas been reduced drinking to the age of 18 due to the death of many young people in the war to protect their country. So, they are considered adults and they can rely on themselves. In addition, raising the drinking age to 21 to prevent them from enjoying life and doing as adults. Many countries have the legal drinking age of 18 as well. Secondly, raising the legal age of drinking does not prevent a minor from drinking. For instance, a minor can find someone for brings the alcohol for him, many under the age of 17 drinking alcohol; even though, they are prevented from drinking. Also, raising the legal age of drinking that prevents them from drinking alcohol and can lead to minor went to the steals alcohol. In addition, raising the legal drinking age does not solve the problems resulting from underage drinking. For example, theUnited Statesthe legal age for drinking alcohol have the age of 21 but they have the same problems of countries with legal drinking age of 18. Indeed, raising the legal drinking age will creates many social problems instead solve the problems.

Raise the legal drinking age to 21 would not solve the problem of violence, suicide, car accidents and other problems. For example, can reduce loss of life and the risks resulting from drinking alcohol. placing limit for amount of drinking alcohol instead of changing the law at the age of drinking alcohol. Additionally, minors can learn how to drink alcohol responsibly and in an attempt to prevent addiction to alcohol instead of raising the legal drinking age to 21.

Inequality Essay

Racial inequality among blacks have long been a blatant circumstance of the American experience. Such circumstances range of from the horrible realities of African enslavement in the 1700s to the restrictions on human rights such asand unfair practices such as literacy tests before being permitted to housing and voting in the 1950s. Fast forward to modern day, and the progress that blacks have initiated in America is evident through legislation like the Voting Rights and Civil Rights Act. Both are pieces of legislation which stemmed from the Civil Rights Movement. Despite the advancement, the repercussions of such mistreatment of blacks by whites are still in effect today. The issue of “internalized racism” comes in part from the pressure of a majority white society and economy wanting blacks to be a “model minority,” while in fact the institution of a majority white society are the ones in “denial” of the ongoing problems that make blacks feel they should not be the “model.” All the terms have socioeconomic complexes pertaining to the inequality of backs in America. Each term will be defined in context of the paper as well as analyzed and interconnected with each other term through factual justification attained from a socioeconomic and historical basis.

The term internalized racism refers to the negative, condescending racial viewpoints that blacks have towards other blacks. Viewpoints such as seeing your own race as lesser than another race, not wanting to be of your own race, and wishing other people in your race were not associated with you are all forms of internalized racism. For hundreds of years, blacks were told that they were not equal to their white counterparts. They were told that having “dark skin was a mutation, and were made lower in society” (Smedley 59). These observations, as we know today, are completely absurd. However, such remarks were made and carried on for so long, and even acted on by white authority during periods of slavery where “lighter skinned Africans did not have to engage in harsher labor tasks as darker skinned Africans”(Colorism 1). Plus, majorities of American Congress agreed to the inequality of blacks with Jim Crow Laws and voting laws. Therefore, it is reasonable to see the internalized racism of blacks in previous generations where they would believe that they are not equal to whites or that their darker skin is a mistake. Furthermore, such ideologies from white society carried on in post-slavery eras such as the Industrial Revolution where blacks with lighter skin were more acceptable in society. Therefore, within black communities having fairer skin was seen as a positive physical attribute rather than having darker skin. This colorism among blacks was another form of internalized racism. Also, due to white supremacy, the “black” way of speaking which was primarily through ebonics was seen as uneducated. Therefore, in many Black communities internalized racism would arise when one spoke “white” because other members of the community would frown upon that and assume you were trying to be “white.”

Moreover, speaking “properly” refers to a way of speaking that does not comprise of ebonics or any other cultural dialect of English that does not derive form white colonialism. By doing this, whites would view blacks who spoke in such a matter as educated and reformed. With the notion of white supremacy which favors “whiteness” over “blackness,” the dialect more associated with whites would be what was deemed more acceptable and appropriate. Such viewpoints from model minority still have profound impact. I can recall my sister being teased by other blacks in middle school because she supposedly “talked white.” One of the black girls even went as far as to say, “you think you’re better than us?” With such a statement, it is apparent to see the internalized racism at work. Just because my sister spoke in a way in which was deemed by white society as “educated” and “pure,” other black girls actually believed that and saw that my sister’s “white” way of speaking was automatically better than their dialect even though my sister never made any statement or action of superiority over them. Furthermore, my sister’s way of speaking would be seen by whites as appropriate or the “model” way in which to speak. However, my sister was not trying to be something she was not. That was just the way she spoke. My sister has her own beliefs, culture, and influences that have all affected her dialect from birth. However, with white society forming an acceptable “norm” in which to speak; there is some vulnerability for instances internalized racism among blacks and other non-whites.

The socioeconomic implications from the experiences my sister has had as well as other African-Americans are evident as well. According to a poll conducted by Monster.com, one of the leading employment websites; it was concluded that employers are more likely to hire someone who has a similar dialect to themselves. Furthermore, with most employers being Caucasian, it is advantageous for African-Americans to develop a dialect that may not be natural to them. In my sister’s case it was natural since she is a first-generation American, therefore, her dialect can be easily derive from her life experiences. However, this can really be an issue to many African-Americans in the workforce because they feel they have to behave not authentically in order to just have a chance of being hired and contributing to the economy. In stating this, one could conclude why this could be one of the reasons why the highest rates of American unemployment are among African-Americans. This is crucial because that leaves a substantial vacancy for African-Americans in the workforce. Who knows the economic gains that could be derived if Americans tapped in to the potential human capital of all people rather than those they could most identify with? There has been legislation passed that makes some corporations meet a “quota” for minority employees, however, I believe corporations should really seek out to racially broaden their workforce rather than just meet a quota because you are forced to. Diversity promotes different perspectives, experiences, and knowledge that could all be beneficial to help a company grow. This is a circumstance that I believe more corporations should seriously look into.

The term model minority refers to the “proper” manner in which white society believes blacks should behave. Factors such as dialect, culture, and behavior are all effected under the model minority. The “proper” manner that white society believes blacks should engage in terms of this paper is a manner in which they “keep to themselves, don’t initiate any political change for the betterment of their race, speak without the use of ebonics, etc” (Model Minority). Basically the culture that derived from white colonialism is the culture white society wants blacks to take on. In addition, by white society wanting blacks to also keep to themselves and not try to initiate any political change; the notion of white supremacy will stay intact without their power being compromised. The term denial is a more refers to the ignorance of racial mistreatment that whites have towards blacks that the whites themselves fail to see. The inequality among blacks by whites has made substantial progress in modern-day from where it was even 50 years ago. Inequality based on race is illegal in nearly every facet of American life which allows blacks in America to succeed in ways unheard of in previous generations through affirmative action regulations set for universities, reformed voting laws, and more. However, despite the progression blacks have fought for, there is still a lot of inequality. The amount of blacks in prisons far “outnumber the number of whites although whites commit more crimes” (Weiser). Moreover, “blacks are the highest race targeted” with the Stop and Frisk laws placed in New York (Weiser). However, even with many racial inequalities that whites perform towards blacks; many whites believe that racism and prejudice is not alive, and that the lives of black people are just as equal and fair as whites when that is not true as evident through the preceding issues addressed. The issue of denial can be predicted for the following reasons: Since whites do not have to conform to the “model minority,” they don’t realize the struggle that many blacks go through with having to abandon who they really are as people in order to adopt model minority principles to be more accepted in society which could lead to their own personal, economic growth. Therefore, with blacks trying to be more accepted and play a part in a majority white economy, they have to deal with internalized racism stemming from condescendence among some blacks for abandoning their culture in order to “fit in.” Furthermore, since many whites are not really aware of this, it is easy to deny issues that many blacks face especially within their own cultural circles.

The socioeconomic impact of trying to be a “model minority” is prevalent among blacks as well. There is a renowned opportunity cost at stake when it comes to this issue. Should a black person act like “society” wants them to act in order to have a better shot at employment and advancement within the workforce, therefore forfeiting their cultural integrity to get ahead? Or should a black person stay true to themselves, and be looked at as “different,” therefore diminishing their opportunities for employment and career advancement? It’s a tough decision to make, and many blacks and minorities find themselves in a space where they have to balance the two worlds. Furthermore, having to work to find this “balance” takes away from the time that blacks could be using to be more efficient contributors of the economy. It brings an additional, psychological workload on top of what they already have to deal with in their respective economic situations.

Racial inequality among Blacks and Whites have long been a critical part of the American experience. The depiction of the model minority is a motivating factor behind some internalized racism within black communities and groups. Therefore, it can be easy for a white or non-white person who is not associated with any such group to deny some of the issues at hand. Furthermore, with the advancement of civil rights and privileges of modern-day that are somewhat due to blacks going against the model minority during the Civil Rights Movement; whites may believe that the fight for equality is over, and that blacks and whites are in fair, equal society. As we know by now, that is not the case, but with discussions such as the ones brought up in this paper even more progression can be made with race relations and inequalities in American society.

Introduction

It goes without saying that education equality has always been one of the most important questions in Afro-American struggle for equality. It is essential that the Southern states has always been the stronghold of racial inequality and treatment to the Afro- Americans was worse than anyone else is one the most important places in the struggle for equal education. This paper would examine the endless struggle of the black minority in St. Louis for getting the equal education, as good as the white majority gets. The analysis of the struggle for the primary civil rights of the Afro-American nation would help to realize how important was reaching educational equality in the area where the blacks were always considered to be unequal members of the society, who does not have right for the equal jobs, rights and education as well. This struggle for the equal education would be the best illustration for the further generations and help them to understand what a difficult way. “What happens inside the classroom is only a small part of education. What, where, and how students learn is a function of the organization of the school system, prevailing theories about learning, local political pressures, and, of course, financial realities. The history of education in St. Louis is little different than that of most American cities, in that it forms another framework through which to view the community’s past” (St. Lois Government, 1996). The aim of this essay to reveal the difficulties the black minority met while fighting for the equality in the educational sphere

St. Louis. The beginning of the struggle for equal education of Afro-Americans

It is a well known fact that even in the 20th century it could be hardly spoken about equal rights for the backs and the whites in the educational sphere and Southern states of the U.S. The education of the black minorities, if it is was possible, was separated from the white children and it goes without saying there was no even slight mention about the equal educational facilities: “Schools were segregated by race. Churches operated the first schools for African-American children until 1847, when Missouri law forbade teaching African-Americans to read and write. First Baptist Church pastor John Berry Meachum responded by opening the “Freedom School” on a barge in the Mississippi River, which was federally owned, and thus beyond the reach of state law” (St. Lois Government, 1996). The segregated schools became legal in 1896 by the United States Supreme Court (Plessy v. Ferguson case). Back and white children in St. Louis studied separately for more than 50 years and only after the World War II the first steps towards the desegregation were made. The black children were mistreated at school as were as well their parents at work and what is the most poor in this case that it was legally supported over the whole country: “Giving the power of law to the separate-but-equal doctrine, school systems nationally kept black and white children apart. The problem was that separate wasn’t equal” (St. Lois Government, 1996). Hence after the war the civil rights movement was developing quite quickly. Afro-Americand understood that they could not live under the white oppression and the most burning area were Southern States of the United States. : “In its landmark Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka decision in 1954, the court reversed itself, saying that separate education was, by definition, unequal. Amidst a rising tide of social awareness about racial equality, Catholic schools in St. Louis had already figured this out, desegregating the Archdiocese system in 1948. The Brown decision did bring about one immediate change in St. Louis education” (St. Lois Government, 1996). The first step towards the changes which were so much needed was made. It goes without saying that the whole system needed desegregation as equality of education is one of the primary rights of the person. It is essential that representatives of the Afro-American nation were seeking for the equal education and equal work facilities with the whites. They were not intended to yield the places in public transport to the whites and were intended to provide for their children equal with the whites education. The schools were poorly equipped compared to the white communities’ schools: “East St. Louis Senior High School, whose biology lab has no laboratory tables or usable dissecting kits, with nearby suburban schools where children enjoy a computer hookup to Dow Jones to study stock transactions and science laboratories that rival those in some industries” (Linda Darling-Hammond, 2010). The primary equipment needs in the schools of racial minorities were still severely violated and it is not surprising that the educational level of the black children was significantly lower that the white ones and they could not get equal job and get equal income in future. The problem was really burning and it got to be solved, either by the local government or by Afro-American community itself. As it usually happens the problem solution was found by the the black themselves. It is a well known fact that one of the most significant problems in segregated schools was teaching. The white teachers did not appreciate teaching of the black children that the Afro-American community of St. Louis was eager to train black teachers themselves to raise the quality of the black teachers and the level of the black children education: “Stowe Teachers College evolved out of the Sumner High School program to train black school teachers since 1890. But Brown v. Topeka Board didn’t fully address the issue of de facto segregation brought on by housing patterns. Blacks were relegated to their own city neighborhoods, where their children attended neighborhood schools. When housing is segregated, so too are the schools. Funding, and therefore educational quality, receded during the 1950s and 1960s as well. What had once been one of the best public school systems in the United States had plummeted. Black students especially suffered as public schools declined in a core city with a disproportionately high African-American population. Three in four students in the St. Louis Public Schools were black in 1980, while more than two in five white youngsters attended school outside the system. Public education in St. Louis came under court supervision in 1980, with the goal of desegregating St. Louis Public Schools” (St. Lois Government, 1996). More than hundred years have passed after declining of slavery and starting of the fight for the equal rights of Afro-Americans with the white majority, when in St. Louis the desegregation program started. It is not surprising that being separated from the equal education from the very beginning the Black Minority did not chanced to protect themselves and seek for the better future. Low rating of the Afro-American schools and their segregation from the white children also had a significant impact on the crime rate in the region, the level of unemployment among the Afro-Americans and other significant factors that form the whole economical vision of the city. Such a poor treatment and late start of desegregation program negatively influenced St. Louis as resort area and economical center of the region as desegregation program was not started earlier, but only in the late 20th century. The following chapter would reveal how desegregation program was started and what were the results of it.

St. Lois. Desegregation program of primary and secondary educational systems in the area. Its beginning, results and decisions.

Desegregation plan was started in 1983 and since then it has a controlling eye of media, civil rights foundation and other on it. It is essential that development of the blacks segregation in the certain areas in the late 20th century, when the civil rights were not just an empty words, but people struggles for equality for more than hundred years and finally reached it. Then we see that desegregation was started to assimilate the white majority and black minority as the human rights should be observed and the Afro-American community could not stay aside the social life of the country: “Five years ago, St. Louis pioneered a metropolitan wide school desegregation plan that tried to fuse the predominantly black and poor inner city with 16 mostly white and wealthy suburbs. The plan, which resulted from a Federal District Court settlement that postponed threatened litigation for five years, involves no mandatory busing and became the largest voluntary school transfer program in the country, with 12,000 children attending schools outside of their designated districts each day. It has also met most of its goals for integrating blacks into suburban St. Louis County schools” (Amy Stuart Wells, 1988). It was the first attempt which was under the strict control and attention from the federal government. And it should be mentioned that even after just five years of this program operation in St. Louis the other areas took some significant parts of this particular program to solve the typical questions in their local place. It is not surprising that being the pioneer is very difficult task and St. Louis as the area of traditional confrontation between the black and the white communities had to overcome certain difficulties in order to reach the desired effect. The core idea of the program was the ability of parents to chose the schools for the their children studies outside the area of their dwelling: “Once hailed as “one of the most creative social experiments of our time” by William H. Hungate, the judge who oversaw its design, the plan has fostered many problems. Among them are what some parents and educators in the city call a brain drain of the city’s best black students, too few white students coming into the city system and high operating costs, financed mostly, and reluctantly, by the state. Concept’s National Appeal. Still, the main component of the plan, the concept of allowing parents to choose schools well outside their local districts, has gained national appeal as a way to extend to inner-city children the better educational opportunities often available in suburban districts” (Amy Stuart Wells, 1988). Different civil rights foundation often relate to the St. Louis desegration program as one of the most significant attempts of the past century and consider that it has incorporated the core elements of the school changes involving expansion of such an element as freedom of school choice and accountability. The researches consider that St. Louis desegregation program is one of the most significant achievements in the fight for the civil rights of Afro-American community and it was the largest school choice plan, which let with 13,000 to 15,000 to break through the boundaries of the suburb, the boundaries of inequality, and the boundaries of racial discrimination: “It permits parents of children in failing schools to send their children to more successful public schools. The St. Louis desegregation plan reconstitutes failing schools with new principals and educational programs-elements of the education reform program supported by President George W. Bush and Senator Edward M. Kennedy” (William H. Freivogel, 2002, p. 209).

The same time analytical investigation of the school reform in St. Louis provided by the investigator of the Century Foundation (Task Force on the Common School) William H. Freivogel came to the conclusion that even desegregation did not solve one of the most significant problems for American secondary system and the St. Louis reform has a number lessons to take for the further reforms all over the world: “the St. Louis desegregation plan has lessons to offer the rest of the nation. Neither school desegregation nor accountability magically creates a level playing field for African-American children. But an entire generation of students-black and white-has had an opportunity for a high-quality education in an integrated setting. African-American students, who took advantage of this opportunity, gained significant, if not dramatic, improvements in achievement, graduation rates, and college attendance” (William H. Freivogel, 2002, p. 210). The increasing of secondary education of drop out rate is probably one of the most significant problem for the white majority and the black minority of the area met. The data provided by the different educational establishment showed that the black minority used their advantage and actively participated within the desegregation. The following data give the compared results to the other cities of the U.S.: “Data from the 1990 census show that, in Florida and Texas, urban districts generally have a greater percentage of minority students as part of the total student body than rural districts. This is a national trend as well. It has been estimated that in the mid-1990s, for example, 53.8 percent of urban schools had predominantly African-American student populations. In some cities the number is higher: Milwaukee, 61 percent; Philadelphia, 64 percent; St. Louis, 80 percent; Atlanta, 92 percent; and Birmingham, 94 percent” (Matthew Ladner and Christopher Hammons, 2000, p. 94). We see that the drop out rate increasing is not just the problem of the St. Louis Area and it even yet it may have connection to the desegregation, It should be noted that the Black minority after the years of suffering from inequality and mistreating within the different educational establishment took their chance. The success of the desegregation should be undertaken as one the positive example of the racial struggle for equal right for the education and freedom of choice. Understanding the mistakes of the past the government developed the plan which corresponded to the needs of the racially discriminated African-Americans. The final edition of the plan included five main components. One of them was so called interdistrict transfer program it “required mostly white suburban districts to either increase the number of African-American students by fifteen percentage points, or to reach and maintain the plan goal of a student population that was 25 percent black” (William H. Freivogel, 2002, p 213). One of the core features of this plan was that the student would apply for the district she or he would like to study in. The same time the district should identify the children, who need special education and screen for any discipline problems, but it should be noted that they could not send the student off due the academic disorders. Another element of the program was creation of magnet schools in the city and their aim was to create balanced student bodies, which would be attended by the white students from the surburb: “After a decade of slow growth, the number of white students from the suburbs traveling to schools in the city climbed above 1,100, reaching a peak of 1,478 in 1997” (William H. Freivogel, 2002, p 214).. The third part of the plan was quality of educational component. The thing the black segregated schools always suffered its aim was “to make capital improvements in city schoolhouses and to improve the education of those students left behind in all-black schools-a number expected to be from 10,000 to 15,000 students” (William H. Freivogel, 2002, p 214). The forth element included financial part, which was aimed to make the first three components working. The prosperous areas received nearly $ 10, 000 per pupil for accommodation and less prosperous from $ 3,000 to 4,000. And the fifth element was to provide 5 year lasting stay of the interdistrict case. It would help to evaluate critically the effect and the results of the first step.

It is essential that each step of this plan contributed a lot to the unending struggle of the Black minority for its educational rights. It goes without saying that this desegregation plan was one of the most important decisions in the fight of Afro- American society for the equal educational facilities and it actually reached the aim. It goes without saying that it was the great victory in unending struggle for equality.

Conclusion

In the end it would be essential to make a stress on the fact that this desegregation program provided a significant impact on the whole country. The positive elements were undertaken in other areas, when they started their personal desegregation programs celebrating cultural diversity and racial equality. Personally I support the idea, that it was the great victory of Afro-American community in their fight for equal education and now not only in St. Louis but in many other cities all over the United States people could choose the school despite the district we live. The racial question is still one of the most important in the present day United Sates but such reforms help a number of Afro-American children to find their place and the white ones to understand the necessity of interracial equality and communication.

References:
William H. Freivogel. St Louis: Desegregation and School Choice. Century Foundation Press. 2002
Matthew Ladner and Christopher Hammons. Special but Unequal: Race and Special Education. Houston Baptist University. 2000
Linda Darling-Hammond. Unequal Opportunity: Race and Education. Education, Race. Education, Race. Spring 1998
St. Lois Government. 1996. St. Louis Historic Context. Education. 28. 04.2010. Official web site of St. Louis city.
Amy Stuart Wells. St. Louis Evaluates Its Pioneer Integration Plan. The New York Times. June 8, 1988

Have Gun, Will Travel . . . to Work

Do you have a moral, not only a legal, right to own a gun? Assume that either the Second Amendment or state law gives you a legal right to keep a gun in your car when you drive. Do you also have a moral right to do this? Do you have either a moral or a legal right to park a car with a loaded gun in a privately owned public parking lot regard-less of what the lot’s owner wants?

I as a citizen am of the opinion that I do have a moral right to own a gun. I earn a right to protect myself from any danger or threat, legally. Therefore It is morally acceptable too if somebody wants to own a gun without hurting the innocent. When the state law allows a person legally to keep the gun, it is morally correct to have the gun in the car or anywhere else until and unless the owner of the place does not have any problem with it. But in conditions where the owner of the parking-lot doesn’t support the decision, it is legally and morally incorrect to practice your own will in somebody else’s property.

. In your view, do employees have either a moral or a legal right to park cars with guns in them in the company parking lot? If so, what about the property rights and safety concerns of employers? If employees don’t have this right, would it be good policy for companies to allow them to stow guns in their cars anyway? Do companies have good grounds for being concerned about weapons in their parking lots?

In my opinion, employees have the moral and legal right to park cars with guns in the company parking lot if the company allows. If the company I concerned about the property rights and safety issues of the employers and stops the employees to stow the guns in the cars, it is legally incorrect and the employees would be charged of practicing illegal acts without the consent of the owner. Companies have grounds for being concerned about the issues as any kind of mishap can take place in the parking area if the place would be loaded with guns and therefore the company would be held responsible for the issue. In order to avoid that, companies have all the right to stop the employees from stowing guns without their permission.

3. Do you agree with the NRA that if companies ban guns from their parking lots, this restriction would take “a wrecking ball to the Second Amendment” or nullify the right of people to have weapons for self- defense? Explain why or why not. In your view, have gun advocates been guilty of politicizing this issue? Do you think state legislatures are right to get involved, or should the matter be left to companies and employees to settle?

I agree with NRA that if the companies ban guns from their parking lots, this would nullify the right of the people to have weapons for self-defense, because even though the second Amendment allows the use of guns foe the self-defense, it does not allow to practice something without permission of the owner on a private property. Therefore In my view, the gun advocates should have been guilty because there is no second thought about it. If the owner does not allow the guns, they cannot be forced. Rules are defined by the owner of the property. State legislatures should not get involved in the matter as the legislature allows the keeping of guns and also to abide the rules of the owner. Therefore it is a matter of the employee and the companies to handle the issue.

Because the workplace is the company’s private property, the company could choose, if it wished, to allow employ-ees to bring guns not only into the parking lot but also into the workplace itself. Are there ever circumstances in which doing so might be reasonable? Or would the presence of guns automatically violate the rights of other employees to be guaranteed a safe working environment?

If the company does not allow the employees to bring guns into the parking lot, there is no condition that it might be reasonable to bring in the guns until and unless the company allows the particular employee or all the employees to stow in their guns on a given day. Otherwise it will be against the law and would be illegal. It would violate the laws and the rights of the other employees. Rule defined by the companies is that do not put guns in the cars, then keeping them would be considered a violation of the rule.

What would a libertarian say about this issue? What considerations would a utilitarian have to take into account? What conclusion might he or she draw?

The libertarian would be against the ban on having guns in the cars of the parking lots of the companies as their basic concern would be the employee’s right to keep whatever the state has allowed him to. He will be of the opinion that the employees can keep anything they want to keep themselves safe from any sort of danger on their way from home and office. They have a right to protect themselves on their own. He would conclude that the companies are irrational in putting such demands and they are being self-centered by not giving a thought to the employee’s security. The state should be involved in the matter as if the state allows the legal right to keep the guns, the companies should not prohibit it.

If you were on a company’s board of directors, what policy would you recommend regarding handguns, rifles, or other weapons in employees’ cars? In making your recommendation, what factors would you take into account? Would it make a difference how large the company was, the nature of its workforce, or where it was located? If you support banning firearms from the parking lot, what steps, if any, do you think the company should take to enforce that policy?

If I were on the company’s board of directors, I would make a policy to partially ban the stowing of guns and rifles in the cars. I would suggest to make a safe place where every day my employees who wish to keep their guns with them can deposit them and can claim those on their way back to home. Keeping the guns in the parking lot is not safe, therefore they can be kept in a well-guarded place. This would please the employees that their issues are taken care of and thus wont effect the company’s policies as well. The nature of workforce and the location would not make a difference as the policies are same everywhere.

Explain whether (and why) you agree or disagree with the following argument: “ If employees have a right to keep guns in the parking lot, then they also have a right to bring them into workplace. After all, we’re only talking about licensed, responsible owners, and the same rationale applies: An employee might need a weapon for self- protection. What if a lunatic starts shooting up the company?” No I do not agree with the argument mentioned above as that is totally based on the owners will that what does he/she permits its employee’s and to what extent. If the company allows the employee’s to bring in the guns in the parking lot and does not allow the guns in the company, the employees cannot practice that. No body earns a right to practice something on other’s property without the permission of the owner. The safety concerns of the company are justified and I support the decision of the company. It is the responsibility of the company to take care of its employees.

Union Discrimination:

Assuming the Foundation’s description of the case is accurate, was Paul Robertson treated unfairly? Was this a case of discrimination? If Robertson was an “at- will” employee, does he have any legitimate grounds for complaint?

Considering the given issue and assuming that the description is accurate, I am of the opinion that yes Paul Robertson was treated unfairly. No state rules that if the employee does not join a union or pay union dues, he or she cannot work. It is the basic human right that he can work without any external policies. It is up to the employee if he/she wants to get associated with a union or not. Companies cannot force or make a deal with the union that they will hire only employees that will deal with union. It was a strong case of discrimination as Paul Robertson was deprived of his basic rights without any legal reason. If Robertson was an “at-will” employees he might not have any legitimate grounds for the complaint as he won’t be treated differently and unjustly and would to be able to complain.

Does it make a difference to your assessment of the case whether someone like Robertson knows, when he accepts a job, that he must join the union or that non- union employees will be the first to be laid off?

No, this might not make any difference to my assessment as any company cannot put such allegations on the employees. It is on the free will of the employees that they could join or do not join the union. The employees are hired on the basis of their skills and aptitude regardless of the fact that they will join the union or not. This an extreme case of discrimination as the future employees are judged on the basis of their willingness to join the union or not despite of their skills and hard work. My assessment that this is a case of discrimination would remain intact even in the given scenario.

If union employees negotiate a contract with management, part of which specifies that management will not hire non- union employees, does this violate anyone’s rights? Would a libertarian agree that the resulting union shop was perfectly acceptable?

Libertarian would never agree on this company and union setup. Every person should be hired for a job he is eligible of and fills in the criteria. Keeping such restrictions would be a biased decision and the violation of human rights. Every person has the freedom to choose what they want. This is not an acceptable scenario. A person should be rejected from a job if he doesn’t have the skills to fulfill the job not on the basis of tagging them as union or non-union employees.

Presumably Paul Robertson could have joined the union, but he chose not to. What principle, if any, do you think he was fighting for? Assess the union charge that people like Paul Robertson are “free riders” who want the benefits and wages that unionization has brought but try to avoid paying the dues that make those benefits and wages possible.

Paul Robertson could have joined the union but he did not because he was fighting against the discrimination policy that the company had utilized. His basic fight was for the rights that he possess even if he does not join the union. The Union’s charge of Paul Robertson as a “free rider” is inacceptable ad vague. The wages and the benefits that employees like Paul Robertson enjoy are the benefits they get because of their hard work and their job. They do not need to be associated with any union to get tat. Those are the benefits they earn it through hard work.

What do you see as the likely motivations of Bechtel Power and the union? How would they justify their conduct?

The Bechtel Power and the union wished to hire the employees that would join the union and pay the union in order to earn money and increase the union employees. They would justify their conduct that they offered Paul Robertson to join the union if the employee cannot meet the demands of the organization, the company bears the right to fire him/her. The company would justify by implying that meeting the criteria of the company is the basic need of the company and Paul or employees who do not join the union are not meeting the criteria so it is not a discrimination case if they do not hire such individuals.

Why did the Foundation run this ad? Is the ad anti- union propaganda? Do you think the Foundation is sincerely interested in the rights of individual workers? Or is it simply interested in weakening unions vis- a- vis management?

In my opinion, the foundation run this ad to help the people and to aware those individuals that actions are taken against the discrimination. It is not an anti- union propaganda but an effort to help the individual workers who are deprived of their basic rights. The foundation is boosting the people to speak up for their rights and building a trust that they are there to help them in such circumstances and they should fight for their basic rights. The aim of the ad is not to target the union or to propagate against the union. It was to highlight the issues of the individuals.

Assess union shops from the moral point of view. What ­conflicting rights, interests, and ideals are at stake? What are the positive and negative consequences of permitting union shops?

Morally, the union shops are incorrect. The rights of individuals are at stake. The right to work without any restriction is sacrifices. Even form the company’s point of view it might lose hardworking individuals because they might not be willing to join the unions. The company could be at stake too with such restrictions. The positives of permitting union shops is that the company could bloom with the employees paying the union charges but keeping in account the negatives, it might lose skilled employees and only those will be hired that would be willing to accept the union and pay charges.

Migrant Workers and the Development of Dubai.
Introduction

Dubai is part of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), one of the seven emirates that make up the UAE. Dubai attracts millions of visitors for both business and pleasure each year. Dubai is a relatively new city. The last 30 years have seen mass construction as can clearly be seen from the pictures of Sheikh Zayed Road at Annex 1 and from the NASA pictures at Annex 2. As in any developing city numerous construction cranes dot the horizon. Dubai is very much a tale of two cities… the stunning modern city and the workers subject to labour conditions of those in the dark ages. Dubai has achieved economic success due to both its abundance of natural resource and because of its tax free shopping but at whose expense and with what future potential problems has this stunning modern city emerged? While Dubai has emerged as a global city, hosting sporting events and conferences and attracting both media attention and the attention of the rich and famous for its beautiful buildings, villas and apartment, criticism of their treatment of immigrant workers and of human rights violations have also emerged.

This essay looks at who is operating those cranes, the people who are building this new, ultra modern city and examines the Government’s policy towards them. The first section provides a demographic profile of the population of Dubai. The second section looks at the socio-economic stratifications that exist in Dubai and the potential here for conflict, particularly in relation to the migrant workers. The third section looks at some of the UAE Government policy towards migrants, in particular it looks at the issue of human rights examines the criticisms of human rights violations. In conclusion it is argued that if the Government of the United Arab Emirates does not act to support and protect and integrate the people that are building their leading city then there is potential for great repercussions.

The fast urban development that followed the 1971 federation completely changed the character of Dubai. The local citizens now represent only a minority of the population of which the great majority consists of immigrants from different societies with different planning ideologies (Haggag, 2003). The Table below clearly details this with 83.02% of the total population of Dubai being foreign born. The cultural and economic implications of this are discussed in the following section.

Dubai – Metropolitan Statistical Area – Foreign Born – 2005

(http://www.gstudynet.org/gum/UAE/Dubai2005.htm, 31/03/07)

Country of Birth

Population

% of Foreign Born

% of Total Population

India

538,560

51%

42.34%

Pakistan

168,960

16%

13.28%

Arab (from SW Asia and North Africa)

116,160

11%

9.13%

Bangladesh

95,040

9%

7.47%

Philippines

31,680

3%

2.49%

Sri Lanka

19,008

1.8%

1.49%

Europe

11,616

1.1%

0.91%

USA

3,168

0.3%

0.25%

Other Countries

71,808

6.8%

5.65%

Total Foreign Born

1,056,000

100%

83.02%

Total Population*

1,272,000

Source: Ministry of Labor (2005 Statistics)

* 2004 Estimate, UAE in Figures

(www.uae.gov.ae/mop?UAE_figure/UAE_%2004_files/sheet001.htm)

There are very distinct cultural (social) and economic stratifications in Dubai. Nicholson describes this as the ‘Dubai sandwich: at the bottom, cheap and exploited Asian labour; in the middle, white northern professional services, plus tourist hunger for glamour in the sun and… at the top, enormous quantities of invested oil money, combined with fearsome social and political control’ (Nicolson, 2006)

Although a Muslim emirate, Dubai has largely developed upon Western lines. large-scale projects have been imported and implemented by western professionals, using their own modern building technologies. Many practical decisions, which ultimately affect the structure of society, education and administration systems, and the shaping of the physical environment, are taken largely according to western ideologies. In many cases, major planning policies, development strategies, and even legal codes follow western models (Haggag, 2003). Arab cities are fundamentally laid out differently to western ones and the impact of western planning ideologies on the traditional pattern of Arab cities has been significant. There is a cultural dichotomy between western and Arabic. The complex pattern of architectural concept and style, the development of building processes, are all impacted by changes in socio-economic, political and cultural development (Haggag, 2003). As a result Dubai is a Westernised city in an Arabic state. This is true culturally as well as bars and restaurants serve alcohol, women are free to go out alone (not usual in most Arabic countries). There is concern over this but herein lies the crux of the issue for Dubai how can a minority ideology rule? Dubai has strict policy on public behaviour, it is an arrest able offence for a man and woman to kiss in public and it’s an offence do dress inappropriately during Ramadan. Recently there has been debate in Dubai about the problems associated with multiculturalism in Dubai. (Fattah 19/10/06) Western liberalism in terms of dress combined with the traditional Muslim beliefs in the Arab country does not sit well together. Indeed Dubai can be seen as the place where Huntington’s Clash of Civilisations is actually in one country (Huntingdon, 1993). How can Dubai balance the Arabic beliefs with what would become a cultural melting pot based on the multi-ethnic composition of it’s populace. Haggag gives an excellent account of this dichotomy explaining that the adoption of Western concepts and ideologies in the cultural domain contradict the traditional way of life and yet although a driving a concern in most modern Arabic societies, there has been little debate about the potential conflicts arising from this situation. Dubai is catering to the needs of the rich Western investor and needs to find a balance with the more traditional Arab way of life in order to prevent any future conflict.

There is a clear economic stratification in the ethnic groups in Dubai also. ‘Locals are typically owners, Westerners earn the top salaries and South Asians do the menial labor’. (Fattah, 19/10/06) Locals will remain owners, as non-locals cannot buy land in Dubai. The inequality in pay in itself has potential for conflict as the workers cannot be part of the city that they themselves are helping to create. ‘An army of some 250,000 men, largely from India and Pakistan, are labouring to create the new glimmer fantasy, earning on average ?150 a month, and living in camps, four to a room, 12ft by 12ft, hidden away in the industrial quarters of al Quoz. One night in one of the luxury hotels would cost six months’ wages of one of the men who built it.’(Nicolson, 2006)

Government Policy towards Migrant Workers

With regards to citizenship there are strict regulations, foreigners are ineligible for citizenship therefore preventing Dubai from becoming a cultural melting pot even though it has been built by non-residents. Given that there are no means of gaining permanent residency in Dubai (or any of the other Emirates) the UAE Government has ruled that anyone born in the UAE takes on the nationality as their father and not that of the UAE. So should all those currently in Dubai remain there the ethnic make up will not change and the Arabs will remain a minority group in their own country.

In the period since 1971, public policy in Dubai has been characterised by a rush to construct. In order to do so it needed people to do the construction and so to sustain and enable the growth desired by the Government in Dubai thousands of migrant workers have come to the emirate. While the influx of people into Dubai and the construction has happened rapidly, there has been concern over the implementation of thought out and effective urban policy, or in other words policy development has not been in line with the development of the skyline of Dubai.

There have been some reforms introduced but they have been met with opposition from the construction and business communities. In 2005 the Government put limits on when workers could work during the hottest months of July and August after an increase in heat related injuries and fined companies who did not allow for an afternoon break between 12.30pm and 4.30pm. This resulted in a lot of companies just paying the fines. (Human Rights Watch Report, 2007 p. 45) A new draft labour law from the UAE has been criticised for failing to meet international standards, for example it does not protect the workers right to strike in fact it punishes those workers who do strike. If Dubai and the rest of the UAE do not act to improve the treatment and rights of migrant workers they face potential for conflict not only from workers revolting but also increased international pressure, for a developing first class world city they need to balance the needs of the development with the needs of the people who are helping to make the development dreams real.

Dubai is quite unique in that its indigenous population are a minority ethnic group. The Governments policy and desire of rapid urbanisation and a first class world city brought with it an influx of cheap migrant labour, thus changing the ethnic demographic of the emirate. As this essay has shown this has not come without problems and unless effective policies are put in place there is great potential for further clashes along the different, interlinked stratifications that exist in society in Dubai. One of the most pressing issues facing the Government and of course those affected is that of human rights violations. Although this essay has shown that the Government has taken some steps towards addressing human rights abuses, those steps have not been big enough nor have they covered enough ground. The Government needs to find a balance between their needs and those of the people who are building their vision.

Bibliography and references:

Fattah, H. M., (04/12/05) ‘Young Iranians Follow Dreams to Dubai’ The New York Times

Haggag, M.A. (2003) The western influence on traditional Arab cities: With particular reference to Dubai, UAE Sustainable Planning and Development, pp. 801-811

Nicolson A, (13/02/06) ‘Boom town’ The Guardian

United Nations (1990) International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families

Human Rights Watch Report (2006) Swept Under the Rug, Abuses against Domestic Workers Around the World ,Volume 18, Number 7(C)

Human Rights Watch Report (2006) Building Towers, Cheating Workers, United Nations Human Rights Commission

Human Rights Watch Report (2007) World Report UAE, United Nations Human Rights Commission

Huntingdon, S. (1993) The Clash of Civilizations? Foreign Affairs pp. 22-49

Websites

www.gstudynet.org/gum

Globalisation Urbanisation Migration

http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/uae12233.htm

Human Rights Watch

Marriage normally brings together men and women who complement each other in extraordinary ways (Willard and Harley, n. d.). However, there is an existence of another form of marriage which is a same-sex marriage. Same-sex marriage is legally and socially defined as marriage between two adults of the same gender identity or biological sex (Oxford Dictionaries, 2014). In the earlier century such as ancient Egypt, the marriage between two persons of same gender was encouraged (Altergott, 2012). At that time, attraction between two people with same sexuality is normal and it is considered as an action to express love. In late twentieth century, legalization of this form of marriage becomes a wide debated issue in many nations. However, there are around seventeen countries has approved the freedom to marry for same-sex couples nationwide such as Netherlands which is the first country to offer marriage equality (Pew Research Center, 2013). As of May 2014 in America, same-sex marriage has been legalized in the following states such as Massachusetts, New York, Washington and Delaware (Gay Marriage, 2014). In addition, both Vietnam and Thailand became the first Southeast Asian countries that allow and accept gay marriages but Malaysia is far from adopting the similar accepting attitude to this issue (Michelle, 2013). The issues on religious beliefs and adopted children are the common reason of opponents to affirm their stand. Despite there are some arguments that against gay marriage, there are some reasons that our country and nationwide should consider seriously on the issue of allowing gay couples the equal right of marriage.

People usually condemn same-sex marriage based on their religious beliefs. However, it is morally wrong to discriminate homosexual couples solely based on their sexual orientations. In fact, eliminating the right of homosexual couples to get marriage is meant to denying the healthy relationships among gay communities. Therefore, same-sex marriage should be allowed for protecting the right of same-sex couples although there are many arguments against it.

Legally allowing gay marriage in our society is able to give basic human right as well as freedom for those who have same-sex orientation based on their behavior preference. The equality principle of human rights is meant by the availability of civil marriage without discrimination to all couple (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2012). Therefore, the right to marriage should be given to everyone as long as that kind of marriage does not hurt anyone. One of the civil right is pursuing the happiness but happiness unable to be chased by homosexual communities when people denying gay marriage (Delano, 2013). In this situation, couples with same gender have no right to marry with the person they love and this is obvious that unequal right of marriage may violate their freedom. In fact, no one should have the right to choose the partner for marriage of other people because this is also morally wrong to eliminate the right of marriage for two people who feel affection for one another.

Furthermore, allowing gay couples the right to marry in a legal way is able to foster true freedom of religion (Corner, 2014). Many people are not willing to accept gay marriage as they believe that this form of marriage is morally wrong in their religious belief. However, this is a violation of the true freedom that should be deserved by everyone. In the view of religion, everyone should have the right to get married with the one they love regardless of gender, race or other social category (Faith in America, n.d.). However, banning the gay marriage is actually against the natural and original principles of religious belief. People should be given the right to stay together with another one by concerning on the condition that they will contribute their true love to each other, regardless of sexuality. Therefore, it is no reason to ban the gay marriage based on the religion beliefs.

Also, giving the right of marriage for same-sex couples can promote social equality. When gay marriage or same-sex union is in force, this can directly eliminate the minority discrimination towards gay and lesbian. So, this will automatically increase the societal acceptance towards this form of marriage. Based on the statistics, public support to same-sex marriage has risen 8% from the year which gay marriage was first legalized in United States (Saad, 2012). By allowing gay marriage, people will learn to accept and understand the real nature of homosexuality. Therefore, this will able to help in reducing social misunderstanding over the definition of same-gender relationship. Also, permitting gay communities the right to marriage is meant to allow them the right to deserve their dignity and respect. Since everyone has their own dignity, people should not treat gay couples unfairly but respect should be shown to them anytime to prevent them to believe that they are inferior and not worthy to be treated equally. So, this will directly reduce the social stress faced by the gay couples by showing true equality to gay couples in society.

In addition, marriage equality will allow gay couples to enjoy benefits and protection legally. Everyone should be treated equal regardless sexuality. By allowing them the right of marriage, gay couples are able to access government benefits and protections of the law which is same with the heterosexual communities (Nolo Law, 2014). Additionally, marriage equality may integrate homosexual individuals into the community. This allows government to provide well protection and benefits to them in an easier way to prevent this community to be treated unfairly in society such the housing benefits and insurance protections to their partner. A strong sense of belonging of gay and lesbian to community can be built with the benefits and support given by government. This is will lead the homosexual couples to be more motivated to make contribution to the society. This is also a cornerstone to create a stable society.

Allowing same-sex marriage also can reduce social misunderstanding towards this form of marriage by insisting the right concept on this issue to the people. The ideas of society which think that gay relationships are shallow and uncommitted are inaccurate. Therefore, allowing gay marriage is able to reduce such form of harm to the gay and lesbian. In fact, the unstable relationship is just like in the straight society, where such relationships will also exists but this is merely occupied the minority part within gay communities and exist primarily among the young people (Bidstrup, n.d.). As we know, the relationship will last longer and become more stable as people getting aged and becoming more mature. This natural scenario not only exists within heterosexual communities but also the homosexual communities. So, gay couples should not be denied to marry with the reason of they build shallow and uncommitted relationships all the time.

Other than that, allowing gay marriage is able to overcome the problem of misunderstanding over the nature of homosexual relationship. Over the years, people always consider homosexuality as a form of deviant sexual behavior (Messerli, 2009). However, there is a statement about homosexual relationships have existed for around 600 years according to the historical evidence (Bryner, 2007). Also, people always misunderstand that sexual orientation is a choice so that gay and lesbian are able to reform their same-sex orientation to be an opposite-sex anytime they want. However, many researches were being done for proving that there is a biological causation for homosexuality. Scientists stated that the sexual orientation is congenital and unable to be altered (Law Teacher, n. d.). That means if an individual is born to be gay, they cannot made any changes on their sexual orientation. So, it is not fair to treat them in a different way as this is not their choice to be different.

Permitting same-sex marriage in a legal way can also improve the health of gay, lesbian and bisexual community. In contrast, banning the same-sex marriage is able to damage the health of those who are identified as sexual minority (Schwecherl, 2013). This decrease both physical and mental related health risk in gay communities. In term of physical health, allowing gay marriage in a legal way may reduce sexually transmitted diseases by discouraging the promiscuous sex. According to the research of scientists, there is an obvious improvement of heath by legalizing same-sex marriage. This is because medical visits about physical problems among homosexual individuals has significantly decreased associated with the reduce in healthcare cost in the twelve months following the change in marriage law as compared to the twelve months before the changes made (Hatzenbuehler et.al., 2012).

In addition, allowing gay marriage in a legal way may bring a lot of health benefit regarding the mental health. Since marriage allow couples to become happier they can stay together with the one they love, marriage equality should be promoted to allow the same-gender couples to pursue their happiness (Anderson, n. d.). In addition, unwed people seems less mature in thought and less concern about their discipline. This leads them to be more likely to take some unnecessary risks. So, the homosexual marriage should be promoted to allow same-sex individuals to marry as married people often consider the feeling of their partner before taking risky actions since they are committed to take care of their partner. In addition, since allowing gay marriage is able to reduce or even eliminate the social discrimination, married individuals will less likely to deal with problems of psychological health includes depression (Hatzenbuehler, et. al., 2012). Mental health among sexual minority also can be reduced as they can share their problem to each other and they can solve the problem together.

On the other hand, there are opponents who argue that allowing same-sex marriage will destroy traditional family values in our society. They always affirm that marriage will only make sense when it happens between opposite-sex couples and allowing this form of marriage will merely alter the natural definition of marriage. Besides, opponents also have considerations about the right given for gay to marriage will directly reduce the normal rates of reproduction. They believe that gay couples are will directly affect the future reproduction level since they do not have the ability of having own children. Opponents argue that allowing same-sex marriage will increase the health risk of gay couples and the heterosexual communities as well. They think that allowing gay marriage will lead to highly promiscuous and bring many related diseases though same-sex couples demonstrate that homosexuality will not harm anyone by trying to segregate their behavior from such diseases (Slick, n.d.).

Allowing gay couple the right to marriage will also help in improving their family stability. This is able to promote children well-being in many aspects (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2013). Since children represent the future of the nation, their development should be supported by the society regardless of whom they are parented by. Nowadays, there are about six millions of children are being raised or adopted in households led by gay couples in America (Gates, 2013). However, there are many of them who adopt children are prohibited to get marry legally and this leads the children who are raised by gay couples to be disadvantaged. The lacking of support for gay families denies children within these families the same protections which are afforded by children in heterosexual families. Therefore, this will mislead the children within gay families to believe that their parents are inferior who are not worthy to be treated equally in society. Also, this can avoid the family members of gay community to be adversely affected. This is because lack of opportunity for gay couples to marry family will add family stress within it. Giving the right of marriage to gay couples can increase the social acceptance and prevent impacts caused on the health and welfare of all household members. Also, the close bond if kinship will be formed by people with a more committed relationship as they are interdependence to each other. So, this definitely will stabilize a family. Therefore, allowing gay marriage can help to support the family stability within gay communities by addressing this injustice.

With deeper understanding over gay marriage, it can be known that allowing gay marriage may also bring financial gain or income to government and the society. One of the benefits in term of financial that brought to government and society is the increasing in tax revenue on marriage licenses and tax revenue on sales of wedding items (Ramos et. al., 2009). Since everyone will spend money on their wedding ceremony, this will definitely boost the domestic economic within a gay marriage legalized state. Since permitting same-sex marriage may discourage promiscuous sexual activities and decrease the sexually transmitted illness, it may also reduce the costs of organizing healthy program and campaign. As the marriage equality is able to resolve the problem of psychological health within gay communities, this will also improve their abilities and performance of job which is good for any business and employers. As we know that married couples are happier and become more optimistic and energetic than singles, they will be more productive. Therefore, this allows them to be more concentrate in doing their works. By an indirectly way, this can improve the business competitiveness and economic conditions within our country.

It is also obvious that allowing same-sex marriage does not harm the opposite-sex marriages and communities as well as the traditional family values. This is because society will continue to function well with the existence of gay marriage. There is no proximity between implementation of same sex marriage laws and rates of opposite sex marriage (Ferro, 2013). There is a research of United States recognize that there is no significant changes in rates of opposite-sex marriage as compared the rates after and before the legalization of same-sex marriage (Diebold, 2013). This means same-sex marriage does not bringing down the venerated institution of marriage. Allowing this form of marriage will not alter any previous set legal framework of the marriage institution as gay couples will accept to the same duties that are currently imposed on married opposite-sex couples (Mormons for Marriage, 2014). Apart from that, people always condemn that gay marriage is exposed at high divorce rate as the relationship between gay couples is uncommitted. In fact, divorce rates do not correlate directly with gay marriage. This is because data shows that divorce rate in the states such as Massachusetts that allow marriage equality is lower than in states that gay marriage is not recognized (Aldridge, 2012). Also, decreasing reproduction rates which always condemn by heterosexual communities towards same-sex couples is not only caused by same-sex marriage but also infertile couples. Since infertile couples are still gaining the equal right of marriage, gay marriage should not be the exception.

In conclusion, same-sex marriage should be allowed and accepted by government and society since it is uncivilized and unmerited but it promotes the social equality in the way that it does not harm anyone. However, it must be controlled under strictly regulations to protect the equally welfare of both homosexual and heterosexual communities. Therefore, in order to allow the gay marriage by not affecting the other communities, governments should be take a more serious view on the legislation of this form of marriage to ensure the basic human right of everyone being protected. Educational programs should also be supported and developed to change the social view towards this issue.

Managing the Aftermath of the London Bombings

Introduction

The Aftermath

European Union

Governmental Agencies in the United Kingdom

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The 7th of July 2005 will always be remembered as an infamous date representing the day when a coordinated attack was conducted by terrorists on the public transport system of the city of London during the heavily trafficked morning rush hour period (CNN.com, 2006). The series of attacks occurred aboard three underground trains all within a minute of each other starting at 8:50 a.m., with a fourth occurring on a bus that was traveling in Travistock Square at 9:47 a.m. (CNN.com, 2006). That day saw a death toll of fifty-two civilians, along with the four suicide bombers, and approximately seven hundred and seventy individuals injured (BBC.co.uk, 2006). The incident was reportedly motivated by the United Kingdom’s inclusion in the United States backed invasion and occupation of Iraq (Altermedia.info, 2005). The attack was highly reminiscent of the train bombings in Madrid, with both coming after Spain and the United Kingdom had reduced their troops stationed in Iraq (Dhimmi Watch, 2005).

The events preceding the attacks in London strongly suggested that a similar occurrence might happen in the United Kingdom. With the attacks taking place as the G8 Summit was being held in Scotland, the probability of an attack should have been higher on the British threat assessment scale than it was (World Socialist Web Site, 2005). In addition, London was also in the middle of celebrating the fact that it had made a successful bid for the hosting of the Olympics in 2012, thus the attacks were targeted to achieve maximum effect and exposure (Rasmussen, 2005). But, that view is open to conjecture as the target, timing and nature of the attack could have occurred in any number of possible ways, thus making the potential to suggest its prevention as a rather moot point. The nature of terrorist attacks is their surprise and use of individuals who purportedly can fly beneath the surveillance radar of the authorities seeking to uncover them.

Subsequent information and reports have linked the bombings to Al-Qaeda (Philpott, 2005). The developments resulting from the occupation of Iraq, Al-Qaeda and global terrorism have changed the manner in which governments view, react and prepare for potential occurances. What happened on that fateful day could have occurred in any country at any time, and that propensity is still open. This examination will look at the aftermath of the London bombings and the events that transpired as well as the larger implications and actions that it triggered. And while various plans where in place as a result of the events of 9-11, action after such an event can be subject to variables that even the most prepared plan could not make contingencies for. The following will chronicle those events as well as investigations, inquiries, changes, legislation and findings made in the aftermath from varied quarters.

The initial reports indicated that there were six explosions which was reported as a result of them occurring between stations, thus causing passengers to exit at points located to the front as well as rear of the train streaming them into two opposite directions thereby creating confusion as to the initial damage and explosion count. That development caused additional confusion for the various agencies responding to the attacks until the situation entailing three train attacks was revealed. After the initial confusion cleared it was determined that (CNN.com, 2006):

The first explosion took place on the eastbound Circle Line train traveling from Liverpool Street to Aldgate.
Explosion number two occurred on the westbound Circle Line train between Edgware Road and Paddington approximately.
The third explosion took place on the southbound Piccadilly Line between King’s Cross Street Pancras and Russell Square

The London Underground suspended service throughout the entire network after all trains were brought into the nearest stations thus causing massive displacement for individuals throughout the city. The Tavistock Square double decker bus explosion represented the final of the explosions, where it first passed by Euston as evacuees where exiting from the underground station. It had to divert its route and the final incident occurred (Rasmussen, 2005).

The investigation into the bombings uncovered that the bombs went off as another train was passing in the opposite direction, thus leading to the conclusion that the attacks were timed for maximum effect, however for some reason the bombers did not escape (Sky News, 2005). The investigation uncovered that there were possessions found on the bombers that aided in the identification of the attackers as they where carrying identification as well as other information that subsequently led to the discovery of their factory in Leeds where the explosive devices were made (Edwards, 2005). All of the attackers carried “… return rail tickets … and display car park tickets …” prior to their boarding the trains (Edwards, 2005). Further evidence to supported Edwards (2005) contention, which aligns with of the statements made by Tony Blair (2005) is illustrated by the fact that the explosive devices where contained in large sized rucksacks that could have easily been dumped, and personal effects such as drivers licences, banking cards and other items were found on their remains further supporting his theory that they were deceived by their superiors and the bombs were set to explode in advance as suicide bombers customarily remove all forms of identification and links. The importance of the discovery of the manner in which the events unfolded as well as the origin of the attackers was an outgrowth of the investigation into the affiliations of the attackers. The individuals involved were unknown to authorities by name, however they were caught by surveillance techniques that included a large sweep of activities thus relegating them to lesser status. Through re-tracing their steps based upon the receipts found on their remains it was clear that they traveled to Luton via vehicle, and then onto London by train (Campbell and Laville, 2005). They were captured on the King’s Cross CCTV system at 8:30 a.m..

The Aftermath

In a statement released by the Rt. Hon. Paul Murphy, the MP Chairman of the United Kingdom’s Intelligence and Security Committee, he commented as to whether there was any intelligence information that could have aided in the prevention of the attacks (Community Central, 2005). The official statement and position was if there had been prior suspicions or information, then the authorities would have intervened. In all probability the audacity of the attack, even after the events if September 11th in the United States and Madrid, caught authorities by surprise even though planning for the potential of such an occurrence had been undertaken. There were and are scores of reports commenting on the probability of advance knowledge as well as one of the bombers being spotted a full year prior to the event (officialconfusion.com, 2006a). In addition to the preceding, the government is purported to have had advance knowledge that such an attack would be carried out on London’s underground through information gathered by intelligence services (occificalconfusion.com 2006b). In hindsight it is easy to shift through mountains of information that had been gathered and or observed and put the pieces together after the fact, but the vagueness of data, the many sources and potential endings they suggest makes foresight more difficult.

In one report, the London Metropolitan Police had contracted the private company of Visor Consultants to look into planning a simulated drill concerning the potential of multiple explosive attacks being made upon the London underground system (Chossudovsky, 2005). Interestingly enough a drill simulating such an attack was being conducted at 9:30 that very morning with the participants having to switch in mid drill to an active status. These drills represented crisis management on the part of the London Metropolitan Police (Chossudovsky, 2005). The preceding indicates that the varied reports as documented by Officalconfusion.com (2006a&b) and other web sites in the aftermath had some validity. As the inquiry into this aspect of the London bombings represents as important an area in crisis management procedures either planned or in place prior to the attacks and hence, further investigation is warranted.

A Report to Parliament by Prime Minister Blair concerning the “Government Response to the Intelligence and Security Committee’s Report into the London Terrorist Attacks on 7 July 2005” was presented on May 2006 (Prime Minister’s Office, 2006). The Report stated that the existence of Siddeque Khan was known to authorities, however his identity was not. It, the Report, also stated that Shazad Tanweer was also unknown by name, and that surveillance did pick him up through routine activity, however, since the activity was routine, no special significance was made. Said Report did indicate that the outcome of the 7 July attacks might have been prevented if the Security Service had come to different conclusions concerning the intelligence it gathered before the event.

Blair’s Report also covered the subject of the reduction of the threat level and alert systems which was reduced from severe general to substantial (Prime Minister’s Office, 2006). The Report stated that the intelligence gathered prior to and up to the event did not indicate the likelihood of such an occurrence, and that a high alert level reflects a substantial indicator which did not affect the security aspects being lowered concerning transport systems. With regard to police systems the Report recommended their merging information and operative systems to provide increased communication regarding strategic and national issues as represented by terrorism, with more information passed down to lower levels (Prime Minister’s Office, 2006). The foregoing also indicated an increase in police community support officers from 6,300 to 16,000, with further increases through 2008 to heighten the ability to cover more intelligence areas and retrieve information. In conjunction with the preceding, the Security Service along with Special Forces units have embarked on expansion putting more regional offices in place along with increased fiscal and resource support (Prime Minister’s Office, 2006). Resources from the Home Office were increased by ?30 million, with the level of increase rising to ?60 million for the budget period 2007 through 2008 (Prime Minister’s Office, 2006).

European Union

On a broader plane, the European Union implemented measures representing key priorities as a response to the bombings in London via the Council of the European Union’s Counter Terrorism Coordinator issued a special report concerning the “Implementation of the Action Plan to Combat Terrorism” (European Union Counter Terrorism Coordinator, 2005). While the Report was one of a regular series issued every six months as the result of an adoption by the Council of the European Union, it made special reference to the London Bombings and that this Report contained a response to that event. The European Union, as the governing body for its member states and the center resource in implementing plans and planning of their behalf that takes into consideration past, present and future considerations, the Declaration of March 2004 to combat terrorism was set forth to be a priority for the European Union. As a direct outgrowth of the London bombing the ‘Money Laundering Directive’ was issued and put into action, along with the ‘Directive on Enhancing Port Security’ ” (European Union Counter Terrorism Coordinator, 2005). Additionally, Europol, Frontex and Eurotrust increased their support to the national law enforcement authorities of member nations as well as increased cooperation with national governmental agencies of other non-member nations. Specifically, the Report gave priority and urgency to the London bombings and various measures as a result of it.

The vulnerability exposed by the successful terrorist attacks in London heightened the Council’s sense of urgency to identify, arrest and prevent such occurances. The use of the Internet as a communications medium by terrorists was highlighted, along with their ability to obtain weapons and employ non-conventional explosive devices” (European Union Counter Terrorism Coordinator, 2005). Such developments indicated that additional measures, techniques and strategies were needed in the face of the preceding. New directives included the information exchange program to provide criminal record data to appropriate agencies as well as the improvement of mechanisms in consort with the preceding. The directive made it mandatory that information and cooperation be exchanged between member states along with Europol and Eurojust for all pending investigations as well as prosecutions ” (European Union Counter Terrorism Coordinator, 2005).

Important to the preceding is the access to databases under the Schengen Information System which is to be made fully operational by 2007. Present implementations included the Visa Information System and its consolidation to permit faster detection, information, investigation and prevention by virtue of cross data access and matching ” (European Union Counter Terrorism Coordinator, 2005). A direct implementation coming out of the London bombings was the adoption of biometric identifiers for residence permits along with national identity cards. The implementation of enhanced measures for security regarding explosives, equipment to make bombs and firearms was also put into place (European Union Counter Terrorism Coordinator, 2005). Heightened training for police departments in terrorism, and Customs protocols were also adopted. The areas of Port security along with Airport security were increased through the adding of additional screening measures, new technologies in equipment as well as increased personnel and surveillance systems.

Risk management measures were also upgraded through enhanced Civil Protection Mechanisms, along with crisis management techniques to provide guidance in pre attack, in the event of their occurrence, preparedness and post attack response ” (European Union Counter Terrorism Coordinator, 2005). The London bombings resulted in the Council putting forth a plan to devise crisis coordination as a result of a special adoption of the Council made on 13 July 2005. The foregoing entailed increased information sharing in emergencies and in particular, terrorist attacks when such involves more than one member state, with such measures to be in place by June 2006 ” (European Union Counter Terrorism Coordinator, 2005).

The importance of the foregoing is the increased funding, inter agency cooperation and information sharing for all European Union member states as well as national governments not a part of the EU.

Governmental Agencies in the United Kingdom

The events of 7 July 2005 involved the following agencies and departments, the Metropolitan Police Service, London Fire Brigade, City of London Police, London Underground, London Ambulance Service and the Gold Coordinating Group, MI5 as well as outside intelligence reports. MI5 represents one of the more important agencies in the preceding list and maintains a web site for reference by the general public. It provides information on response levels and threats, however no update on measures either directly taken or in progress as a result of the 7 July bombings is available on their web site (MI5, 2006). Equally important is the Ministry of Defence which maintains a web site as well. It as well did not and does not contain any relevant information concerning departmental updates in the aftermath of the bombings (UK Ministry of Defence, 2006). The same search was conducted for The Secret Intelligence Service (2006) that yielded the like results. The preceding is understandable in that disseminating internal information regarding the conduct of affairs in relationship to measures in place or being put into place, does not represent an intelligent option. Internal measures and developments on the part of governmental agencies are secretive areas, thus new plans and activities represent aspects that are unavailable to the public.

Public sentiment and anxiety in the United Kingdom over the 7 July bombings represent an area of intense concern within the country for all of its citizens. The aftermath of this event resulted in the country developing “… stronger counter terrorism measures … as represented by legislation (Lawson, 2005). As the attacks were carried out by homegrown terrorists, the difficulty in preventive measures has increased dramatically as the identification means take in individuals already inside the country’s borders.

The response by the Emergency Medical Service represents a major component plan that worked from the standpoint of crisis management. With a wounded total in excess of 700 people, the importance of getting medical personnel to the sites, performing emergency services and transporting them to hospitals, coordinating which location was a major undertaking. The London Ambulance Service deployed vehicles throughout the four sites and had to respond accordingly to the level of the incident as developments became known (Heightman, 2005). A situation of this type calls for on the spot reactions, decision making and judgment.

As part of emergency preparedness, the London Ambulance Service had researched various plans scenarios to respond to such incidents as a result of the events of September 11^th in the United States, briefings with government officials and the threat of such a disaster occurring in London as a result of the country’s participation in Iraq and the train attack in Madrid some sixteen months prior. The personnel total exceeded 250 emergency staff, supplemented by a contingency of volunteers who responded to the situation, with approximately 100 ambulances used to transfer injured individuals to various medical facilities (Heightman, 2005). The total or injured exceeded the London Ambulance Service capacity, so under the contingency plans developed, it called in aid from Bedfordshire, Kent, Essex, Herefordshire and Surrey as well as St. John Ambulance and the British Red Cross (Heightman, 2005).

Per the crisis management operational plan the vehicles were staged at locations that had been planned in advance where a large contingent of vehicles could have easy access and departure. Local managers arrived at these locations to coordinated activities and schedule departures as well as points to ferry the injured to as well as aiding in making determinations of whom to carry out first and whom to treat on the scene (Heightman, 2005). In total, the London Ambulance Service oversaw the treatment of 645 individuals, of which 45 represented critical and serious injuries such as burns, amputations, fractured limbs and blast burns, with an additional 300 treated on scene and 300 ferried to various hospitals (Heightman, 2005). Working in conjunction with the London Metropolitan Police the entire operation was seamless and one of the bright spots in a day of disaster.

In the immediate aftermath of the bombings the government’s COBRA crisis management team, along with the Joint Terrorism Analysis Center swung into action which combines MI5 and MI6, domestic and foreign intelligence, Government Communications Headquarters and the police together to coordinate response, investigation and management of the situation (Philpott, 2005). The entire operation went global in hours, pulling in intelligence and research from the United States, United Nations, The European Union, and other countries to review briefings, documents, surveillance and other materials. The inter-agency team London Resilience that was put into operation after September 11^th, coordinated emergency services, health, fire, transport, utilities and business under its umbrella (London Resilience, 2006). London Resilience ‘Strategic Emergency Plan’ represents a blueprint designed for the effective handling of crisis situations in London as a collaborative effort.

The London Metropolitan Police were also prepared for the situation, as stated by Ian Blair, Commissioner, “This is the biggest crime scene in England’s history … a situation for which we have planned and prepared …” (Philpott, 2005). Critical in the immediate investigation of the incident where the 400,000 CCTV cameras throughout London that helped to identify the bombers at King’s Cross when they arrived. (Wikipedia, 2006). It recorded them splitting up and talking, and the investigation team spotted the four bombers on Monday through matching their images with documents found at the explosions (Philpott, 2005). The CCTV system was designed and developed as a result of the 1985 IRA bombings, and the trial program was so successful that it was expanded (Wikipedia, 2006). As one of the most sophisticated CCTV systems in the world, the United Kingdom has one camera for every 14 individuals when home, business, and governmental systems are added together (Wikipedia, 2006).

The events of 7 July has resulted in all major cities increasing their security efforts with respect to subway bombings, however, the measure of scanning all backpacks, pocketbooks, suitcases and other carry one items is not only impractical, but impossible. Thus, in the aftermath the underground system in the United Kingdom is safer, but still vulnerable, much less so than prior to the incident, but vulnerable nevertheless. In London a major impediment to more security measures on top of the additional personnel which has been put into place is fiscal. The present budget does not allow for security officer patrolling enough trains, as well as having at least one officer per station to eye scan passengers (Philpott, 2005). Funds to provide added cameras, hardening of tunnels, fences, radiation detection and intrusion systems, control and command tools for security and track monitoring along with rolling stock have been estimated at ?1 billion (Philpott, 2005).

All in all, the emergency services, police, MI5, intelligence arms and government responded favorably to the largest incident in the country’s history, save for World War II. The planning, preparations, and coordination that the government put into place after September 11^th helped to quickly identify the bombers, although the evidence strongly suggests that they were sacrificed in the process by devices that were timed to go off quicker than they were led to believe thus capturing them in the explosions as well (BBC News, 2005). The fact they were carrying their personal identification, bank cards, and the parking ticket points to their belief that they were deceived by their superiors (Edwards, 2005).

Conclusion

The surprise nature of the bombings could not have been forecast, even in the face of the advance knowledge of the Madrid train attack, as to location, date and timing. Pre terrorist planning by the Metropolitan Police, London Ambulance Service, Fire Brigade and other governmental agencies has not been identified as being sub-standard or negligent. In a Report made to Parliament concerning the “Government Response to the Intelligence and Security Committee’s Report into the London Terrorist Attacks on 7 July 2005”, a full briefing of all of the salient facets were covered. The Security Service did pick up Shazad Tanweer and Siddeque Khan, but their name identities were unknown and they were not identified as significant participants at that time. Said Report made a number of important recommendations regarding the merging of police systems along with increasing police community support officers to heighten departmental capabilities in the future which were enacted. Additionally allocation increases for the police budget were immediately granted.

The blasts also prompted the Council of the European Union to adopt a number of measures concerning intra country intelligence and cooperation protocols. The Declaration of March 2004 to combat terrorism was set forth to be a priority for the European Union. Money laundering,, enhanced Port and Airport security measures were increased and various agencies were provided with directives to devise increased security and cooperation methods and measures. The Council Report also increased Civil Protection Mechanisms, crisis management and pre attack preparedness. The London Ambulance Service performed admirably in response to the attack handling in excess of 600 patients and coordinating the activities of a number of regional ambulances services and volunteer units to effectively ferry the injured to hospitals. Their performance lessened the loss of live and was a bright spot in an otherwise dreadful historic day.

Internal security measures and inter agency cooperation has been enhanced in the aftermath of the attacks to better coordinate activities in the pre terrorist phase through investigation, detainment and arrest. The system has prevented two such occurances and continues to seek ways to improve upon their operational standards. Thanks to the 400,000 police CCTV cameras in operation in the target area, visual identification was made in short order, resulting in arrests as well as the discovery of the factory where the devices were made.

The lessons learned from the 7 July attacks represented severe and costly teachings that the country as well as European Union and the United states have taken to heart. It again provided evidence regarding the need to be ever vigilant in techniques, surveillance and preemptive action to prevent occurances of this type in the future. The loss of live by civilians represents an unacceptable price in a battle of idealism that encompasses the quest of a small group, Al-Qaeda, to impose its will on nations.

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When considering the immensity of accessible knowledge today in our high-tech society it seems more than evident that social change is in equation. The vast scope of fields in which ICT’s (information, communication, technologies) have invaded the global market with it’s unfathomable possibilities just might start a revolution. Knowledge societies now have freely accessible information transmitted instantaneously serving as a support for all essential needs. This capacity to meet the overall needs of the world and the reperccusions of global knowledge on mankind may conceal unthinkable changes.

Education, environmental issues, government issues, religion, science ,wealth and risk management have become ressources through internet of intellectual sharing and education. Valuable information at the touch of the keyboard is not without the responsability that this implies.This massive information giving has caused considerable change in the personal development of each individual having access to a computer and internet, therefore allowing fulfilment in once unthinkable places, enabling the inclusion of disadvantaged people.

On the other hand this may become another reason that accentuates social exclusion in developing countries. The gap between internet users and non internet users may become unbridgeable at some point. Computer savvy and computer illiterate may plunge the needy into even a greater abyss.

What will the side effects be when highly educated masses meet their extreme opposite counterparts?

Imagine the freedom of expression in any given language due to training, an inquisitive eye for other cultures, other lands, other ways of being and expressions of life. The cultural shock would jolt our high-tech societies into facing the fact that with all this information there are still huge discepansies of social classes throughout the world. We frankly need to’ mind the gap’!

This social exclusion for the sake and risk of revolutionary technologies may also cause our downfall. The incredible benefits for those that have access as compared to those who don’t is reinforcing the idea of social power.

Companies and individuals have become direct advocates of risk management and wealth management. On a daily basis right from your home or office you can consult any of your personal investments 24 hours a day. People have become their own financial partners having consequently earned their financial freedom. This freedom has made considerable social changes .People are more and more aware of the myriad of finacial placement possibilites and their options. Without having to leave the ofice they are able to orchestrate their choices by internet which not only brings them to finacial freedom, but to more leisure time.People are planning their future in an industrious way.

What can we say for the risk society in social changes? We can probably say that the stakes are even higher than they were before. Social contrast, environmental pollution, nuclear and chemical weapons, transportation, the crime rate, drug abuse, war, civilian protection, military mangement; all of which through globalisation have created a state of international insecurity. Awareness on a daily basis of this state of unsafeness has

largely contributed to either ignoring the situation and living with your head in the sand, or doing something about it. The person playing the ostrich will still feel insecure. The person that employs his energy in doing something about it may also feel insecure although he has made the choice to make a small step towards change on another level. Neither one of the two cases illustrated is a comfortable situation to be in .

Generations of wearing blinders makes for more generations of wearing blinders which can only ignite the steaming anger of the disadvantaged. On the other hand there are those who give their support doing their best to nuture a feeling of solidarity towards the less fortunate.

Social changes are also produced by the risk society for several other outstanding reasons.

The fact that a high rate of divorce means children coming from mono-parental homes and the precariousness therein is a risk foundation factor of today’s society; Children are left to their own sort,while women are making up for lost time in executive positions on the work force. This new work pattern will affect the structure of the society in it’s roots.

Medicine has made astounding technological advancements in disease prevention and treatments.Which means we have a high increase in population of people over fifty.

Science and medicine alike have progressed in all areas through consequent research.

The outmost prepoderance today is in the domain of bioethics. How are we as citizens of the world going to respect, encourage, develop, the the safekeeping of humanity through scientific practices?

Therefore using those creations for the good of mankind excluding any attempt to manipulate, exploit, destroy,or govern others through these practices. We have come to the stage of our development when it might seem as if we were all reading a former science fiction scenario which has finally come true.

How have religious beliefs changed with knowledge?

Religion has always been subjective whereas science is prouvable knowledge. In the light of the fact that’ faith’ is’ faith ‘ religion has basically remained the same. Few or little changes have occured in the basic concepts. What has changed is the participation and questioning of how faith is transposed. Recently at a conference a woman in the audience made the remark that when the chips are down people turn to their faith and to their God. What awareness has changed are the blossoming number of charities in the world today. People are using their faith and expressing it through social services to the disadvantaged. If church attendance is ‘down’ the charitiy services are’ up’ putting faith into action. Advocates of human rights charities, NGO’s, and humanitarian services combined represent a great influence in counter balancing political issues. Interdenomonational efforts are being made for problem solving, empowerment, and conscience raising. Since the emphasis s not put on the doctrines but more on the strengths of uniting forces, yet another social pattern is changing in the face of new knowledge. In Europe this plurality is especially changing patterns when it comes to world peace. You may find at the same peace movement Muslims, Communists, Catholics all with the same amount of exploitable energy for world peace.

A wave of interest for self-help litterature and New Age spirituality are allowing people to commit themselves in a more individually expressed way. Some choose community service, others NGO’s which may have a more political priority towards human rights, politics, clubs, or groups of people with standards and values to uphold that do not necessarily have a religious doctrine connotation but with a sense of mankind. Globalisation of thoughts has brought about many changes. We need to take into consideration that readily available knowledge influences thought and produces changes in patterns. Whenever there is a change in patterns society is directly implicated as a result of those changes. Globalisation has lead to localization. People may suffer a loss of the individual being drowned by the mass in his identification process. He will therefore feel a need to imply himself on a lesser scale to connect with non virtual existences and to have real life contact. The tendancy will be to form small groups as opposed to immense circles. Business has already predomonated the patterns by imposing it’s multinational structures upon the world.

People will feel a need for real human contact on a smaller scale to be able to face the more universal scale they observe everyday on television. Taking good care of oneself has also become a new priority. A sort of self-awareness that has it’s repercissions on the choice of knowledge saught and it’s resulting change in patterns of thought. Change the thought patterns and society is highly affected as people with self- help in mind and individual emergence are evolving.

Innovative skills and knowledge are at our disposal for inner growth. Perhaps the awakening of the ‘self’ will allow individuals to meet global needs when their own needs are fulfilled.

Media has changed our vision through worlwide news reports. Terrorist attacks have been presented live on TV throughout the entire world. The risk society is even more exposed to insecurity by what is said than by what remains unsaid. Commercials have shaped the image of men and women and given children role models that impress upon them neurotic behaviour as being quite normal. Reality shows are allowing us to enter into somebody’s living room and experience their daily life in every aspect. This is bound to have an effect on our vision of others and our opinion of the world and it’s inhabitants. Our reasoning has been greatly influenced by the everyday aspect of media use through television, radio, magazines, newspapers. This constant focusing of visual and auditive input has also been a determining factor in social change.

In conclusion, countless examples of how knowledge is linked to social change have lead me to believe that without knowledge in the first place there would be little room for change in the first place. When the expression’ ignorance is bliss’ is used it might just be that with the acceptance of knowledge the notion of responsability is heavy with meaning. The inevitable social changes that will occur stemming from cognitive growth are perhaps not always what we would hope them to be. Citizens of the world need to assume their knowledge and the forthcoming responsibilities that it will engender.

References:

Bauman Zygmunt (1992)

Intimations of Postmodernity, London, Rutledge

Beck, Ulrich (1992) Risk Society;

Towards a New Modernity, London: Sage (1992)

Convention Concerning the Protection of the World

Cultural and Natural Heritage

Whc.unesco.org/world-he.htm

The Development of Common Risk ‘society’ a theoretical overview

Shaw Martin

www.sussex.ac.uk

Rethinking Science: knowledge and the Public in the Age of Uncertainty (2001)

Nowontny Helga, Scott Peter, Gibbons Michael (2001) Cambridge Polity Press