Author: Andre Coleman

Introduction

The focus of this essay is the role of youth work in modern Ireland, in addition, to providing examples from practice. Youth work can generally be defined as teaching young people in an informal context as it usually occurs out of school and consists of various activities that aim to provide new opportunities for ‘young people’s social development’( Hurley & Treacy, 1993). In Ireland, youth work has been regulated and State involvement has been visible under legislations such as Youth Work Act 2001 and the National Youth Work Development Plan 2003-2007 (Burgess & Herrman, 2010). Within youth work an individual can volunteer to help young people or can be a paid worker within the field. Throughout history Irish youth work has relied enormously on ‘voluntary effort’ both individual and institutional (Devlin, 2012). This will discuss the role of a volunteer, a paid youth worker, as well as comparing both of these roles.

Volunteerism

The goal of volunteering is to help individuals, groups, organization, cause, or a community, without expecting any material rewards (Musick &Wilson, 2007). Within the realm of youth work the service providers can either be paid or volunteer their time. However, there is much more to a community other than its geographic location, the community, is a ‘social and psychological entity that represents a place, its people, and their interaction’ (Luloff & Bridger, 2003; Wilkinson, 1991 cited in Brennan (2007). The majority of youth work in Ireland is voluntary, therefore, the voluntary action and social participation can be viewed as the key to the development of the community (Devlin, 2010) in Ireland volunteerism has been consistent with the youth work policy. Three major factors that contribute to volunteerism is that the service is not compulsory, not paid, and non-statutory (Devlin, 2010).

Voluntary youth work organisations are non-statutory an example of this can be seen in youth work organisations that have ‘voluntary management committee’ in comparison to paid ones that are appointed in other organizations (Doran, 2014a). Young people are not required to go to a youth work organization as it is not compulsory which is markedly different from their relationship with the formal education system (Devlin, 2010). There are different types of volunteering such as formal volunteering this consists of a volunteer having direct contact with young people of the service, this is much more directly linked to affluent areas wherein the voluntary youth services, have more volunteers in comparison to paid professionals. According to Doran (2014a), there is an average of ‘50 volunteers to 1 paid professional worker in voluntary services and 6 volunteers to 1 paid professional worker in community youth work projects’ (Doran, 2014a). Whilst there are formal volunteerism there is also informal this usually occurs in disadvantaged areas, and can more often occur when family or friends try to help out a parent or young person. Volunteers also help make aware of issues that are occurring within the community and encourage ‘outreach programs that partner with ongoing voluntary activities’ (Brennan, 2007). Thus, creating a greater result by coordinating efforts between group and may result in meeting young people’s needs.

Moreover, volunteering can also create a positive and friendly atmosphere for children as it allows different individuals with an array of skills to feature their many talents and abilities to the youth work setting (Doran, 2014a). Through voluntary efforts young people and volunteers are able to interact with one another and ‘begin to mutually understand common needs’ (Luloff & Swanson, 1995 cited in Brennan (2007). Further, this interaction should improve the social, cultural, and psychological needs of younger individuals (Brennan, 2007). Volunteers can also take part in activities within the community such as helping to coach kids sports, field trips, art classes, and mentoring, all of these activities should enhance a young person’s social development.

The role of a Youth Worker

Youth work in Ireland has become increasingly ‘professionalised over the last decade and has a greater sense of established identity’ (Jenkinson, 2013). Youth work that predominately correlates with paid youth work occurs mainly in disadvantages areas. Furthermore, within disadvantaged areas youth workers participate in a programme known as detached youth work. These programmes allow youth workers to go out and find young people either on the street or youth centres. Youth workers are able to meet young people and grow to develop relationships (Nuffield Foundation, 2008). This service is provided based on mutual trust and developing respect on the young person’s terms e.g. going to a local area at night where young people tend to be. The youth worker will be able to talk to the individuals and assess their needs as the relationship develops workers will be able to reach young people in a comfortable setting. The goal of detached youth work is to build effective relationships and gain trust. Youth workers act as role models for young people and relationships created supports the personal learning and development of young people (Doran, 2014b).Youth workers now have to work towards an established ‘youth work curriculum’ this is a targeted specified participation rates and evidence of young people’s progression towards and achievement (Nuffield Foundation, 2008).

Young people are generally portrayed as a group that are personally or socially lacking in terms ‘of education, morality or even the civilising effects that can only be accessed with the aid youth development worker’ in predominantly disadvantaged area (Belton, 2012). Youth workers have to work with an increasing policy that ‘emphasises targeted, intensive interventions, shaped by a ‘deficit’ model of youth’ (Lee, 2010) The Deficit Model of youth work, reflects a negative perception of young people it is in intended for individuals that are unable to take care of themselves (Lee, 2010). This model presumes that young people are difficult to understand, rebellious, misbehaved and have numerous shortcomings and weaknesses. However, the role of a youth worker should reject the deficit model, and promote a model that emphasises young people as optimistic.

Volunteerism and Youth Workers Roles

Volunteers and youth workers both work to help and support the community and the welfare of young people. However, while both are working towards a common goal, both fulfill different roles. A youth worker is in charge of doing an array of tasks to assist the youth such delivering programmes and assessing the needs of young people, working within community projects, monitoring and reviewing the quality of the local youth work provision, working with partnerships with professionals from other organisations that support young people such as ‘health, police, education, youth offending teams and local authorities’ (Prospects, n.d.) and drawing up business plans and making formal presentations to funding bodies. These are all significant to continue getting funded so that youth programmes are not ceased, thus, youth workers can continue to provide for young people within the area (Prospects, n.d.). In contrast, volunteers are unpaid and working freely on their own time. Volunteers work primarily face-to-face with the youth and help to provide a safe environment for young people as well as contributing to specific skills that may help young people e.g. social skills. Further, to encourage young people to be socially active and participate within their community. Both of these roles are different yet everyone is working towards helping young people.

Conclusion

Overall, the main objective of this essay was to describe the role of volunteers and youth workers within modern Ireland. Whilst this essay gave a clear understanding of both volunteers and youth workers it also gave an account of their roles within youth work and their similarities and differences. Thus, concluding that while both roles are different both of these groups are a valuable part of the community and in young people lives.

References

Belton, B. (2012) Professional Youth Work: A Concept and Strategies. Available at: http://thecommonwealth.org/sites/default/files/events/documents/Professional%20Youth%20Work.pdf. [Accessed 22 November 2014]

Brennan, M. A. (2005). Volunteerism and community development: A comparison of factors shaping volunteer behavior in Irish and American communities. (pp.61, 67) Journal of Volunteer Administration, 23(2), 20.

Burgess, P., & Herrmann, P. (Eds.). (2010). Highways, Crossroads and Cul de Sacs (Vol. 8).

(pp.72). BoD–Books on Demand.

Devlin, M. (2010) Youth work in Ireland–Some historical reflections. Available at: http://eprints.maynoothuniversity.ie/3063/1/MD_Youth_Work.pdf. [Accessed 22 November 2014]

Doran, C. (2014a). Detached Youth Work Lecture: Course Notes. Institute of Technology Blanchardstown.

Doran, C. (2014b). Volunteerism: Course Notes. Institute of Technology Blanchardstown.

Hurley, L., & Treacy, D. (1993). Models of youth work: a sociological framework. (pp.1) Irish YouthWork Press.

Jenkinson, Hilary (2013) “Youth Work in Ireland – A Decade On,” Irish Journal of Applied Social Studies: Vol. 13: Iss. 1, Article 1. Available at: http://arrow.dit.ie/ijass/vol13/iss1/1 [Accessed 22 November 2014]

Musick, M. A., & Wilson, J. (2007). Volunteers: A social profile.(pp.1) Indiana University Press.

Lee, F. W. L. (2010). Nurturing Pillars of Society: Understanding and Working with the Young Generation in Hong Kong (Vol. 1).(pp.29-31). Hong Kong University Press.

“Nuffield Review” (2008). Available at:http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/sites/default/files/files/11%20Lessons%20from%20Detached%20Youth%20Work%20Democratic%20Education2.pdf. [Accessed 19 November 2014]

Prospects (n.d.) Youth Worker. Available at:http://www.prospects.ac.uk/youth_worker_job_description.htm. [Accessed 14 November 2014]

1

Introduction to Social Work. David Gower and Jackie Plenty. S134487

The area I have chosen to discuss is Youth Offending and intend to look at options that will help prevent re-offending and how we, as Social Workers, work as part of a team within Youth Offending. I intend to look at what areas of society are more likely to offend or re-offend.

A young offender is defined as someone under 18 years of age who has committed an offence. The legal age of ‘criminal responsibility’ in England and Wales, is ten years old, therefore anyone under the age of 10 cannot be held responsible for their actions.

Anyone aged between 10 and 14 years old is presumed to understand the difference between right and wrong, so they can be convicted of a criminal offence if found guilty.

Teenagers between 14 and 17 years old are fully responsible for any crimes they commit, but they are sentenced differently in relation to adults. Young offenders are assessed by the (1) Youth Justice System (YJS). There are a number of risk factors which may make a young person more likely to become involved in committing crime or anti-social behaviour. Whilst not exhaustive these include a lack of education, poor family relationships, having family members or peers who have offended, and misuse of substances. The YJS aim to tackle these problems (www.yjb.gov.uk)

According to the Children Act 1989, the child’s welfare shall be the court’s paramount consideration. Therefore why do we lock so many children up, but allow terrorist to walk free under a control order? (Part 1 Welfare of the child)

In the United Kingdom we lock up more children than any other country in Europe. 90% of young offenders put in prison will reoffend within two years of release. The UK’s (2) Youth Justice Board spends 70% of its budget on custody, 5% on preventive methods; leaving just 25% for restorative and other methods. The age of criminal responsibility in England, Wales and Northern Ireland is 10 years old. In Scotland it’s eight.

‘Interviews with young offenders revealed litanies of jailed mothers, abuse at home, street living, and failed foster care. Almost all such children are excluded from school, and other attempts to divert them are laughable: youth clubs with “a pool table, one TV and one PlayStation to fight over”. ‘

(radio-youth justice)A

The Crime and Disorder Act was legislated in 1998 for the first time. Working together as part of the new Multi-agency (3) Youth Offending Team under section 39(5) a Youth Offending Team (YOT) would now consist of a Social worker, a police officer, a probation officer, a nominated person from the education department & a nominated person from the health authority. Working as part of a YOT involves being a member of possibly the most diverse and wide ranging multi-agency team within Social Care.

Under the (4)GSCC code of practice Social workers have 6 standards (5)that need to be maintained within Social Care settings ensuring that you can build up a relationship with your client and their carers, whilst using this we also need to take into account the National Occupational Standards and use these to provide a benchmark within our practice. Within Youth Justice the National Standards are set by the Home Secretary and issued by the YJB. The Standards provide a benchmark to measure good practice whilst working with children and young people who offend, as well as their families and victims.

‘Social work has little to contribute and little wish to contribute to the effectiveness of prisons if one takes the view that their primary purpose is to punish and humiliate their inmates. If, on the other hand, prisoners are there as a punishment, not for additional punishment, Social Work has an important role, prison based Social Workers can play a vital part in helping prisoners maintain contact with communities, preparing them for constructive activities after their release, and providing opportunities for reflection on their offending and planning for a better life. Social Work is based upon a belief in dignity and worth of all human beings, and in individual’s ability to change’. (Williams cited in)

The role of social work may be more effective if partnered with a service user using a Care & Control system, thus avoiding more custodial sentences. The service user would be well aware they had narrowly avoided a custodial sentence and would be guided by the Social Worker if they do not conform to the agreement that they could end up back in court and eventually back to Prison. Having a basic understanding of the Human Development as well as a good knowledge of Social Work Codes of Practice will help us to understand the service users’ role within society. We need to help empower the service user into making the right decision for them, by giving them the means and help to do it. By treating them with dignity and respect at a level they can understand without them feeling inferior or pressurised to make a decision by the Social Worker. Within this we can offer help with past problems they have suffered using (6)S.W.O.T. analysis, counselling, curfews, boundaries, mentoring, restorative work, talking to parents and working with multiple agencies to ensure the service user gets the service and support they need. Helping the service user to promote positive change and help reduce risk.

A service user is a term used to emphasis a professional relationship. Service user involvement is putting the people who use our services in control of the lives offering support they may need, to help them overcome their issues and empowering them to lead more fulfilling lives.

The anti-social behaviour orders were introduced by Tony Blair in 1998 and by 2005 55 per cent were being breached (cited in article-1228445 Daily Mail) is this because the courts and the police are making the (7)ASBO’s unrealistic , Setting out for the Young person to fail and break the order, so they can then go back to court to get the young person of the streets. Working as professionals within the Multiagency setting of YOT we should be looking for opportunities to empower the young person into meeting realistic targets and not setting ASBO’s which we know they will be unable to comply with for various reasons. Under the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) State Parties recognise the right of every child alleged as, accused of, or recognised as having infringed the penal law to be treated in a manner consistent with the promotion of the child’s sense of dignity and self worth.(Youth Justice and Social Work )

Piaget distinguished three stages in children’s awareness to rules by playingA games, 1st ages up to 4-5, rules not really understood,2nd stage 4-5 up to 9-10, rules were seen to be coming for a higher authority (e.g. adults, god, town council) 3rd stage 9-10 onwards rules could be mutually changed by others. (cited Understanding children’s development)

Many young people who become involved in violence and crime have experienced this type of behaviour from a parent or a peer, if they have learnt that this is the accepted way of dealing with a problem and have seen or experienced this kind of abuse they may have little self esteem and perceive this to be the correct way of dealing with an issue.

As discussed by Paiget about children learning and understanding rules, if a child is taught the wrong moral standings by an adult in stage 2, it could lead to them following the wrong path in life. Using this theory we can benchmark where a child should be.

There was a drop in the number of children entering the justice system for the first time in 2007/08. Numbers of ‘first time entrants’ aged 10 to 17 entering the Youth Justice System in England and Wales were around 87,400, a fall of about 7 per cent on the previous year. Slightly more than 2,700 of children in this age group were in custody in England and Wales in December 2008, including around 500 children aged 15 and under. The majority of young offenders in custody were boys (94 per cent). More than four-fifths (86 per cent) of young offenders were held in Young Offenders Institutions, 8 per cent were in Secure Training Centres and 6 per cent were in Secure Children’s Homes.

Around 51,000 children aged 10 to 17 were found guilty of indictable offences in 2007 and a further 75,000 were cautioned. Of those found guilty of an indictable offence, more than a third (36 per cent) were found guilty of theft and handling stolen goods and around 14 per cent were found guilty of violence against the person. Boys aged 15 to 17 accounted for 69 per cent of all children found guilty of indictable offences in 2007 including theft and handling stolen goods (11,200 offenders), violence against the person (5,500 offenders), drug offences (4,600 offenders) and burglary (4,500 offenders).

(Source: Home Office, Ministry of Justice, Youth Justice Board )

In Order to help prevent this from happening the government launched a program called Youth Inclusion program (8)(YIP) which was established in 2000, and tailor-made programmes for 8 to 17-year-olds, who are identified as being at high risk of involvement in offending or anti-social behaviour. Whilst the programs are run for the identified children, YIPs are also open to other young people in the local area. The programme operates in110 of the most deprived/high crime estates in England and Wales.

YIPs aim to reduce youth crime and anti-social behaviour in neighbourhoods where they work. Young people on the YIP are identified through a number of different agencies including youth offending teams (YOTs), police, social services, local education authorities or schools, and other local agencies. YIP receives a grant each year from the Youth Justice Board annually via its Youth Offending Team and is required to find the same amount of funding via Local Agencies.

(Cited YJB/Prevention YIPS)

Working in genuine partnership with other agencies and being able to access more information will enable the social worker to assess the service users needs quicker and have a detailed history of the client, which will help everyone involved within the multiagency partnership. Most referrals will come via a common assessment form (9) CAF which is used to highlight the areas each individual agency feels the service user is at risk and working within the comprehensive framework for assessment.

An independent national evaluation of the first three years of YIPs found that:

arrest rates for the 50 young people considered to be most at risk of crime in each YIP had been reduced by 65%
of those who had offended before joining the programme, 73% were arrested for fewer offences after engaging with a YIP
of those who had not offended previously but who were at risk, 74% did not go on to be arrested after engaging with a YIP.

(Cited YJB/Prevention YIPS)

Even though these results prove YIP to be an effective project it struggles for the necessary funding. If YIP had more readily available funding there would be more opportunity to intervene early with the affected children.A Earlier invention would help to refocus the energies of children. This could mean that eventually that we can have early intervention programmes running in all areas where children are more at risk and this could potentially prevent my children becoming involved in crime.

‘The evidence shows that intervening early with the most challenging families in this country works.’ Ed Balls MP, Children’s Secretary (cited Children & Young People Now)

The conflict between Social work ethics and the legal systems is arguably more distinct in the practice of youth justice than any area within the Social work field. Positive, constructive achievement through social work intervention for a young person will encourage the young person to take responsibility for their actions and empower them to reflect their options whilst making decisions. For a young person, age discrimination and labeling often occur, which could give the young person an attitude and make them feel quite defensive, paranoid sometimes.

I think Society possibly needs to change its way of thinking, our New Labour government has passed over 900 new laws since coming to power. This has had an effect on how we view children and young people, 20 years ago we had 339 children in prison, today we have over 3000, does this mean that children have become 10 times more dangerous?. I don’t believe that children and young people have really changed as much as statistics say, I believe it is because we have too many laws and because some people live in such a dysfunctional manner, that they prefer to be in prison as they are warm, safe, can get qualifications, they have friends and they get 3 meals day and it is a routine for them, whereas living within a family that is dysfunctional could mean living with violence, drug or alcohol abuse and not having their basic needs met on a regular basis. Everything that happens within a service user’s life is logical to them.

A positivist believes that crime is not chosen but caused largely by factors beyond the offender’s control. In essence, the belief is that offenders simply can’t help themselves, certain genetic, psychological or environmental factors have influenced their behavior and the existence of these factors means that offenders are almost pre-programmed to become criminals. This is one of the great contradictions of the positivist approach to crime is its focus on reformation and rehabilitation. (Taylor et. Al. (1973) cited in Youth Justice and Social Work

Appendix
YJS- Youth Justice System
YJB – Youth Justice Board
YOT- Youth Offending Team
GSCC – General Social Care Council
GSCC-A 6 Standards
S.W.O.T – Strength, Weakness, Opportunities & Threats.
ASBO- Anti Social BehaviourA Order
YIP- Youth Inclusion Program
CAF- Common Assessment Form
General Social Care Council Standards: Code of practice.
As a social care worker, you must protect the rights and promote the interests of service users and carers.
As a social care worker, you must strive to establish and maintain the trust and confidence of service users and carers.
As a social care worker, you must promote the independence of service users while protecting them as far as possible from danger or harm.
As a social care worker, you must respect the rights of service users while seeking to ensure that their behaviour does not harm themselves or other people.
As a social care worker, you must uphold public trust and confidence in social care services.
As a social care worker, you must be accountable for the quality of your work and take responsibility for maintaining and improving your knowledge and skills.
Referencing
http://www.yjb.gov.uk/en-gb/yjs/Prevention/
http://www.guardian.co.uk/culture/2009/feb/15/radio-youthjustice

Oxford: Blackwell.
Davies, M. (2000) The Blackwell Companion To Social Work,Oxford: Blackwell.
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1228445/We-rein-ASBOs-Tories-plan-instant-penalties-control-yobs.htm
Dugmore, P. and Pickford, J. (2006) Youth Justice and Social Work,Exeter: Learning Matters.
Smith, P.K. and Cowie, H. (1996)A Understanding Children’s Development (2nd ed.),A A A A A A A A A A A A A Oxford: Blackwell. Page 198
Source: Home Office, Ministry of Justice, Youth Justice Board http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=2200)
http://www.yjb.gov.uk/en-gb/yjs/Prevention/YIP/
Ed Balls quote (Children & Young People Now) 3-9.12.09
Dugmore, P. and Pickford, J. (2006)A A A A A A A A A A A A A Youth Justice and Social Work,A A A A A A A A A A A A A Exeter: Learning Matters. Page 49 Taylor

Mental and substance use disorders are among the most important health issues facing Australians. They are a key health issue for young people in their teenage years and early 20s and, if these disorders persist, the constraints, distress and disability they cause can last for decades (McGorry et al., 2007). Associated with mental disorders among youth are high rates of enduring disability, including school failure, impaired or unstable employment, and poor family and social functioning. These problems lead to spirals of dysfunction and disadvantage that are difficult to reverse. (McGorry et al., 2007). As over 75% of mental disorders commence before the age of 25 years, reducing the economic, geographical, attitudinal and service organisation barriers for adolescents and young adults is an essential first step in addressing mental health problems (Hickie and McGorry, 2007).

In Australia, rates of mental illness among young people is higher than for any other population group and represented the major burden of disease for young people with depression making the greatest contribution to this burden. In addition, youth suicide and self-harm have both steadily increased during the 1990s (Williams et al., 2005). 60% of all health-related disability costs in 15 34-year-olds are attributable to mental health problems, and of the total disability years lived in Australia, 27% is attributable to mental disorders. Although most common mental disorders commence before 18 years of age, people aged 25 44 years and 45 64 years are more than twice as likely as those aged under 25 years to receive an active treatment when seen in general practice (Hickie et al., 2005).

Research has indicated that some mental health problems can be prevented through appropriate early intervention, and that the impact of existing mental illness can be mitigated through the early provision of appropriate services (Mental Health Policy and Planning Unit, ACT, 2006). It has been estimated that up to 60% of cases of alcohol or other substance misuse could be prevented by earlier treatment of common mental health problems (Hickie et al., 2005).

Despite the enthusiastic efforts of many clinicians around Australia, progress in service reform has plateaued, remains piecemeal and is frustratingly slow in contrast to what has been achieved in other countries, many of which began by emulating Australia. In addition, the specialist mental health system is seriously under-funded (McGorry and Yung, 2003). While Australia s national health spending continues to grow past $72 billion the total recurrent mental health spending has consistently remained below 7% of this figure (Hickie et al., 2005). The need for coordinated national health and welfare services for people with mental health and substance misuse problems has been recognised by all Australian governments, but insufficient investment, lack of accountability, divided systems of government and changing health care demands resulted in a very patchy set of reforms (Hickie and McGorry, 2007; Vimpani, 2005).

Statistics regarding the problem

Close to one in five people in Australia were affected by a mental health problem within a 12-month period, according to the National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing. Young adults were particularly affected, with more than one-quarter of Australians aged 18 to 24 years suffering from at least one mental disorder over a 12-month period (Mental Health Policy and Planning Unit, ACT, 2006).

In Australia, the prevalence of mental health problems among children aged 4 12 years lies between 7% and 14%, rises to 19% among adolescents aged 13 17 years, and increases again to 27% among young adults aged 18 24. Therefore, up to one in four young people in Australia are likely to be suffering from a mental health problem, with substance misuse or dependency, depression or anxiety disorder, or some combination of these the most common issues (McGorry et al., 2007). It is therefore more likely that mental health problems will develop between the ages of 12 and 26 than in any other stage of life (Orygen Youth Health, 2009).

This situation also exists among Australian Indigenous communities, where the continuing grief and trauma resulting from the loss of traditional lands and cultural practices as a result of colonization, past policies of child removal and the destruction of traditional governance arrangements within Aboriginal communities, are an ever-present cultural reality that plays out in some of the worst developmental health and well-being outcomes in advanced industrial society (Vimpani, 2005).

Risk taking by young people

Studies show that psychosocial issues form a great burden of disease for young people, including intentional and unintentional injuries, mental disorders, tobacco, alcohol and other substance misuse, and unprotected sexual intercourse (Tylee et al., 2007). The pathways to substance misuse in young people involve complex interplay between individual biological and psychological vulnerability, familial factors and broader societal influences. The impact on family and society is often painful, destructive and expensive (Vimpani, 2005).

In 2005, nearly half of all deaths of young men and a third of young women aged 15 34 years in NSW were due to suicide, transport accidents or accidental drug overdoses (418 persons; ABS, 2008b). In 2007, amongst young men in the age group 15-24 in NSW, the average age for first consumption of alcohol was around 15, and amongst women of the same age group, the average age for first use of alcohol was around 17 years. In addition to its potential direct health consequences, risky or high risk drinking can increase the likelihood of a person falling, or being involved in an accident or violence (ABS, 2008a). 71% of persons aged 14-19 and 89.4% of persons aged 20-29 were current drinkers. 27.6% of persons aged 14-19 (40.5% at the age of 20-29) were at risk of short term harm, while 10% (14.7% at the age of 20-29) were at risk of long term harm. Around 90% of Australian youth (aged 18 24 years) have drinking patterns that place them at high risk of acute harm (Lubmen et al., 2007). On average, 25 percent of hospitalisations of 15-24 year olds occur as a result of alcohol consumption (Prime Minister of Australia, 2008).

Almost one-quarter (23%) of people aged 15 24 years in Australia reported using illicit drugs during the last 12 months, around twice as high as the proportion of people aged 25 years and over (11%). Marijuana/cannabis was the most common drug used by 15 24 year olds (18%), followed by ecstasy (9%), and meth/amphetamines and pharmaceuticals (both 4%).

Barriers to provision and use of health services

Primary-care health services are sometimes still not available. They may be inaccessible for a variety of reasons such as cost, lack of convenience or lack of publicity and visibility. Health services might not be acceptable to young people, however, even if available and accessible. Fear about lack of confidentiality (particularly from parents) is a major reason for young people s reluctance to seek help, as well as possible stigma, fear of difficult questions. In addition, health professionals might not be trained in communicating with young people. If and when young people seek help, some may be unhappy with the consultation and determine not to go back. To ensure prevention and early intervention efforts, clinicians and public-health workers are increasingly recognising the pressing need to overcome the many barriers that hinder the provision and use of health services by young people, and to transform the negative image of health facilities to one of welcoming user-friendly settings (Tylee et al., 2007).

Spending in the area remains poor, and service access and tenure are actively withheld in most specialist mental health and substance misuse service systems until high levels of risk or danger are reached, or severe illness, sustained disability and chronicity are entrenched. Thus, just when mental health services are most needed by young people and their families, they are often inaccessible or unacceptable in design, style and quality. Moreover, numerous young people with distressing and disabling mental health difficulties struggle to find age-appropriate assistance. Young people with moderately severe non-psychotic disorders (eg, depression, anxiety disorders and personality disorders), and those with comorbid substance use and mental health issues, are particularly vulnerable. For many of these young people, if they survive (and many do not), their difficulties eventually become chronic and disabling (McGorry et al., 2007).

Another barrier is related to the manners in which young people seek help when they have a mental problem. The most recent national survey data for Australia show that only 29% of children and adolescents with a mental health problem had been in contact with a professional service of any type in a 12-month period. Some subgroups, such as young males, young Indigenous Australians and migrants may be even less likely to voluntarily seek professional help when needed. If young people want to talk to anyone, it is generally someone they know and trust and when they do seek professional help, it is from the more familiar sources family doctors and school-based counsellors. However, many young people at high risk of mental health problems do not have links to work, school, or even a family doctor (Rickwood, Deane and Wilson, 2007).

Furthermore, mental disorders are not well recognized by the public. The initial Australian survey of mental health literacy showed that many people cannot give the correct psychiatric label to a disorder portrayed in a depression or schizophrenia vignette. There is also a gap in beliefs about treatment between the public and mental-health professionals: the biggest gap is in beliefs about medication for both depression and schizophrenia, and admission to a psychiatric ward for schizophrenia (Jorm et al., 2006).

Existing resources: Knowledge, policy and programs

Existing knowledge: Manners of interventions

Prevention and early intervention programs are normally classified into four types: universal programs are presented to all regardless of symptoms; selective programs target children and adolescents who are at risk of developing a disorder by virtue of particular risk factors, such as being children of a depressed parent; indicated programs are delivered to students with early or mild symptoms of a disorder; and treatment programs are provided for those diagnosed with the disorder (Neil & Christensen, 2007). Universal prevention programs target all young people in the community regardless of their level of risk, and include economic measures, social marketing, and regulatory control and law enforcement initiatives, as well as a range of psychosocial programs (Lubmen et al., 2007).

In addition, interventions can be divided between promotion and prevention programs. Mental health promotion refers to activity designed to enhance emotional wellbeing, or increase public understanding of mental health issues and reduce the stigma surrounding mental illness. Prevention of mental illness may focus on at risk groups or sectors of the whole population. (Mental Health Policy and Planning Unit, ACT, 2006).

Source: Mental Health Policy and Planning Unit, ACT (2006).

Finally, collaborative care is typically described as a multifaceted intervention involving combinations of distinct professionals working collaboratively within the primary care setting. Collaborative care not only improves depression outcomes in months, but has been found to show benefits for up to 5 years (Hickie and McGorry, 2007).

The importance of early intervention

In the last two decades research demonstrated the high importance of early intervention to promote youth mental health and cope with mental disorders and substance misuse. Early intervention is required to minimise the impact of mental illness on a young person s learning, growth and development, thus improving the health outcome of those affected by mental illness. (Orygen Youth Health, 2009).

It was found that the duration of untreated psychosis (DUP) could be dramatically reduced by providing community education and mobile detection teams in an experimental study (McGorry, Killackey & Yung, 2007; McGorry et al., 2007). On the other hand, delayed treatment and prolonged duration of untreated psychosis is correlated with poorer response to treatment and worse outcomes. Thus, first-episode psychosis should be viewed as a psychiatric emergency and immediate treatment sought as a matter of urgency (McGorry and Yung, 2003).

The existing evidence also highlights the importance of prevention and early intervention programs on substance abuse. Such programs focus on delaying the age of onset of drug experimentation; reducing the number of young people who progress to regular or problem use; and encouraging current users to minimise or reduce risky patterns of use. Universal school-based drug education programs have been found to be effective in preventing and delaying the onset of drug use and reducing drug consumption (Lubmen et al., 2007).

Early andeffective intervention, targeting young people aged 12 25 years, is a community priority. A robust focus on young people s mental health has the capacity to generate greater personal, social and economic benefits than similar intervention in other age groups, and is therefore one of the best buys for future reforms (McGorry et al., 2007).

Importance of other players

During the early phases of a mental disorder, members of a person s social network (including parents, peers and GPs) can play an important role in providing support and encouraging appropriate help-seeking. For mental-health problems, young people tend to seek help from friends and family rather than health services. In developing countries, young people are even less willing to seek professional help for more sensitive matters (Tylee et al., 2007). As friends and family are often consulted first by young people, they constitute and important part of the pathway to professional mental health services (Rickwood, Deane and Wilson, 2007).

In a survey with young Australians and their parents, it was found that the most common response was to listen, talk or support the person, followed by listen, talk orsupport family and encourage professional help-seeking. Counsellor and GP/doctor/medical were the most frequently mentioned types of professional help that would be encouraged, but when young people were asked open ended questions about how they would help a peer, only a minority mentioned that they would encourage professional help. Among parents, encouraging professional help was a common response both in open-ended and direct questions (Jorm, Wright and Morgan, 2007).

General practice is essential to young people s mental health and is often the point of initial contact with professional services. However, there is a need to improve the ability of GPs to recognise mental health problems in young people As well asensuring privacy and clearly explaining confidentiality. Finally, GPs can provide reassurance that it is common to feel distress at times, and that symptoms can be a normal response to stressful events (Rickwood et al., 2007).

Schools

For the small percentage of youth who do receive service, this typically occurs in a school setting. School-based mental health (SBMH) programs and services not only enhance access to services for youth, but also reduce stigma for help seeking, increase opportunities to promote generalization and enhance capacity for mental health promotion and problem prevention efforts (Paternite, 2005). There is compelling evidence of the effectiveness of a range of school-based interventions in primary and secondary schools for children and young people at risk of substance abuse (Vimpani, 2005). One study found that participation in a school-based intervention beginning in preschool was associated with a wide range of positive outcomes, including less depressive symptoms (Reynolds et al., 2009).

Best elements for SBMH include: (a) school family community agency partnerships, (b) commitment to a full continuum of mental health education, mental health promotion, assessment, problem prevention, early intervention, and treatment, and (c) services for all youth, including those in general and special education. A strong connection between schools and other community agencies and programs also assists in moving a community toward a system of care, and promotes opportunities for developing more comprehensive and responsive programs and services (Paternite, 2005).

Government policy

There are a number of examples of governmental policy and program to enhance youth mental health. The new Medicare-based scheme now includes a suite of measures designed to increase access to appropriate and affordable forms of evidence-based psychological care. Unfortunately, it largely reverts to traditional individual fee-for-service structures. There are no requirements for geographical distribution of services, despite the evidence of gross mal-distribution of mental health specialist services in Australia and the proven contribution of lack of mental health services to increased suicide rates in rural and regional communities (Hickie and McGorry, 2007).

Transformation is also occurring in primary care in Australia. GPs are increasing their skills, providing new evidence-based medication and psychological treatments, and beginning to emphasise long term functional outcomes rather than short-term relief of symptoms. Early-intervention paradigms depend on earlier presentation for treatment. Future progress now depends on development of an effective and accessible youth-health and related primary care network. (Hickie et al., 2005).

As for substance abuse, The National Campaign Against Drug Abuse (now known as the National Drug Strategy) was established in 1985. It is an inter-governmental and strategic approach based on national and state government cooperation and planning. The campaign has been adopted to bring together research and practice relevant to the treatment and prevention to protect the healthy development of children and youth (Williams et al., 2005).

Existing programs

There are several existing programs which address youth mental health and substance abuse. Knowing which programs exist may help us in understanding existing resources and knowledge, learning best practices, and recognising what else needs to be done.

Australian programs:

* The National Youth Mental Health Foundation headspace: providing mental and health wellbeing support, information and services to young people aged 12 to 25 years and their families across Australia. www.headspace.org.au

* MindMatters is a national mental health initiative funded by the Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing. It is a professional development program supporting Australian secondary schools in promoting and protecting the mental health, social and emotional wellbeing of all the members of school communities. www.mindmatters.edu.au

* Mindframe: a national Australian Government’s program aimed at improving media reporting on mental health issues, providing access to accurate information about suicide and mental illness and portraying these issues in the news media and on stage and screen in Australia. www.mindframe-media.info

* The Personal Assessment and Crises Evaluation (PACE) clinic provides treatment for young people who are identified as being at ultra high risk. It involves facilitated groups using adult learning principles based on a curriculum addressing adolescent communication, conflict resolution and adolescent development. http://cp.oyh.org.au/ClinicalPrograms/pace

* The Gatehouse Project has been developed in Australia as an enhancement program for use in the secondary school environment. It incorporates professional training for teachers and an emotional competence curriculum for students and is designed to make changes in the social and learning environments of the school as well as promoting change at the individual level. www.rch.org.au/gatehouseproject

* Pathways to Prevention: a universal, early intervention , developmental prevention project focused on the transition to school in one of the most disadvantaged urban areas in Queensland.

* The Positive Parenting Program (Triple P), which has been implemented widely in Australia and elsewhere for parents of preschool children, has also been implemented for parents of primary school-aged children. http://www1.triplep.net

* The Family Partnerships training program, now established in several Australian states and already incorporated into maternal and child health and home visitor training, is designed to improve the establishment of an effective respectful partnership between health workers and their clients.

Other international programs:

* ARC (Availability, Responsiveness and Continuity): an organizational and community intervention model that was designed to support the improvement of social and mental health services for children. The ARC model incorporates intervention components from organizational development, inter-organizational domain development, the diffusion of innovation, and technology transfer that target social, strategic, and technological factors in effective children s services.

* Preparing for the Drug Free Years (PDFY) is a universal prevention programme targeted at parents of pre-adolescents (aged 8 -14 years) that has been subjected to several large-scale dissemination and effectiveness studies across 30 states of the United States and Canada involving 120000 families.

Future directions

This paper suggests that despite a wealth of knowledge and information on appropriate interventional methods, services to address youth mental health in Australia are not consistently provided and are often under-funded. New evidence is continuously available for professionals; however this knowledge has often failed to filter through to the community and those in need. As Bertolote & McGorry (2005) asserted, despite the availability of interventions that can reduce relapses by more than 50%, not all affected individuals have access to them, and when they do, it is not always in a timely and sustained way.

The major health problems for young people are largely preventable. Access to primary-health services is seen as an important component of care, including preventive health for young people. Young people need services that are sensitive to their unique stage of biological, cognitive, and psychosocial transition into adulthood, and an impression of how health services can be made more youth-friendly has emerged (Tylee et al., 2007).

Existing and new extended community networks, including business, schools, sporting bodies, government sectors, community agencies and the broader community are asked to play their part in mental health promotion and illness prevention. These networks will:

* bring together all service sectors and the broader community in closer collaboration in the promotion of mental health;

* exchange information about, and increase understanding of existing activities, and encourage new ones;

* develop and strengthen the mental health promoting aspects of existing activities; develop greater mental health promotion skills right across the community; and

* encourage an environment that fosters and welcomes new ideas, and supports adaptation and innovation to respond to a new environment (Mental Health Policy and Planning Unit, ACT, 2006).

As for substance misuse, despite acknowledgement of the substantial costs associated with alcohol misuse within Australia, there have not been serious attempts to reduce alcohol harm using the major levers of mass-marketing campaigns, accompanied by significant changes to alcohol price and regulatory controls. Young people continue to be given conflicting messages regarding the social acceptability of consuming alcohol (Lubmen et al., 2007).

According to the Mental Health Policy and Planning Unit (2006), ideas about the best strategies for supporting the mental health of the community are undergoing great change in Australia and internationally, with a growing focus on preventative approaches. Mental health promotion and prevention are roles for the whole community and all sectors of government. Although Australia has slipped behind in early intervention reform, it is now emerging that the situation can improve and that Australia can again be at the forefront of early intervention work. Here are some proposals as to how this can best be achieved:

1. Guaranteed access to specialist mental health services for a minimum period of 3 years post-diagnosis for all young people aged 15 25 with a first-episode of psychosis. New funding is clearly required to support this.

2. Such funding must be quarantined into new structures, programmes and teams.

3. The child versus adult psychiatry service model split is a serious flaw for early intervention and for modern and appropriate developmental psychiatry models. It needs to be transcended by proactive youth-orientated models. Early detection and engagement can be radically improved through such reforms and specialist mental health care can also be delivered in a less salient and stigmatized manner.

McGorry et al. (2007) suggested four service levels that are required to fully manage mental illness among young people:

1. Improving community capacity to deal with mental health problems in young people through e-health, provision of information, first aid training and self-care initiatives;

2. Primary care services provided by general practitioners and other frontline service providers, such as school counsellors, community health workers, and non-government agency youth workers;

3. Enhanced primary care services provided by GPs (ideally working in collaboration with specialist mental health service providers in co-located multidisciplinary service centres) as well as team-based virtual networks;

4. Specialist youth-specific (12 25 years) mental health services providing comprehensive assessment, treatment and social and vocational recovery services (McGorry et al., 2007).

Elements of successful programs (best practices)

Revising the vast research on preventing mental disorders and promoting mental health among youth, particularly in Australia, as well as examining some of the successful and effective programs in the field, the following items summarise elements of current best practice:

1. Holistic approaches and community engagement:

a. Adopt holistic approaches which integrate mental health promotion with other aspects of community and individual wellbeing

b. Balance between universal and targeted programmes and their relative cost-effectiveness.

c. Engage young people, the community and youth support services in working together to build the resilience of young people, and encourage early help and help seeking when problems occur

d. Community engagement with the youth, and youth engagement with the community

e. Outreach workers, selected community members and young people themselves are involved in reaching out with health services to young people in the community

f. Promote community-based health facility: including stand-alone units (which are generally run by non-governmental organisations or by private individuals or institutions), and units that are an integral part of a district or municipal health system (that are run by the government).

2. Access to services and information:

a. Make services more accessible to youth by collaborating with schools, GPs, parents etc.

b. Social marketing to reduce stigma and make information more accessible

c. Have more information online for young people with mental health issues, their families and peers. Promote understanding among community members of the benefits that young people will gain by obtaining health services

a. Reduce costs

b. Improve convenience of point of delivery working hours and locations

3. Assure youth-friendly primary-care services

a. Have other players in the community involved in promotion of youth mental health, such as schools, GPs, and community centres

b. Practitioners training

c. Ensure confidentiality and privacy (including discreet entrance)

d. Addressing inequities (including gender inequities) and easing the respect, protection, and fulfilment of human rights

4. Inter-sectoral and inter-organisational collaboration:

a. Enable organisations to work in partnership towards shared goals

b. Lead to multi agency, client centred service delivery and care

5. Research and support:

a. Provide support such as information and training for the community and for mental health carers and consumers to plan and participate in mental health promotion activity

b. Acknowledge formal and informal knowledge

6. Policy:

a. Promoting a whole-of-government response to support optimal development health and well-being outcomes

b. Policies and procedures are in place that ensure health services that are either free or affordable to all young people

Introduction

Youth homelessness is a major concern of society due to how vulnerable this population is. There has been a large amount of research pertaining to the topic of youth homelessness and different factors affecting their rehabilitation. The literature shows similar findings of family influence being a factor in a homeless (Tyler et Al., 2013; Stein et al., 2002). Additionally literature shows that a drug use and unstable housing conditions are found among homeless youth’s families (Ringwalt et al., 1998; Bucker et al. 1997; Hagen & McCarthy, 1997).

Although there is many studies addressing that there are multiple family moves, none of them address the specific reasons of why they moved. This family dysfunction has found to harbor cases of emotional, psychical, and sexual abuse (Colette & Stephen, 2002; Bucker et al., 1997; Maclean et al., 1999; Ryan et al., 2000; Tyler et al., 2000). Youth may make attempts to leave the family home only to be returned home by authorities (Ferguson, 2009). This creates a cycle of running away and a distrust for authorities and services that can hinder the homeless youth’s rehabilitation into society.

Family dysfunction and unstable housing can introduce traumatic events onto a youth giving way to mental disorders which are further developed while on the street (Kidd, 2004; Tyler et al., 2013; Dubas et al., 1996; Davidson & Mansion, 1996). High victimization rates among homeless youth is a major factor creating traumatic events in their lives.

The needs for a successful transition into adulthood will be addressed as well as a comparison of housed and homeless youth as they transition into adulthood. Both the housed and their unhoused counterparts share the same needs but the availability to access those needs differs ((Dubas et al., 1996; Fingerman et al., 2012; Tyler et al., 2013), showing the need for social services to fulfill those needs.

Literature has also found that once a youth is on the streets they search for relationships usually with peers with similar backgrounds. (Ferguson, 2009). Furthermore literature states that being in a stable relationship helps with the rehabilitation out of homelessness (Toro et al., 2007 ; Chamberlain & Johnson, 2008). However an unstable relationship may hinder a youth’s transition out of homelessness (Chris et al. 2008). Some relationships may also be two sided (Colette et al. 2002). This literature will be examined further on in the paper.

The daily activities of homeless youth pose numerous threats and can coincide with the homeless youth population’s high rate of victimization (Hagen & McCarthy, 1997; Tyler et al., 2010). Victimization can happen directly or indirectly to the homeless youth and both types share similar consequences (Tyler et al., 2010; Hoyt et al., 1999; Hagen & McCarthy, 1997; Ferguson, 2009; Stewart et al., 2004; Kipke et al., 1997).

Lastly the purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the factors surrounding youth homelessness so that measurements as well as policy recommendations may be made to further develop intervention methods. Furthermore this paper aims to produce the following things; a measure of family moves among homeless youth, recommendations for early intervention on perspectives of social services, as well as a measurement of relationship strength.

Literature Review

Parental influence

One of the most important factors in rehabilitation from youth homelessness is the stable relationships that the youth have. Family relationships for these youth are often clouded with neglect as well as abuse (Claudine, 2006; Toro et al., 2007; Tyler et al., 2013). Criminality, as well as drug use is common in the parents of homeless youth, and research has found found that most families of homeless youth were relying on social assistance (Ringwalt et al., 1998; Bucker et al. 1997). Stein et al. (2002), state that parental substance abuse can be linked to a youth’s own use of substances. Greene Ennett, and Ringwalt (1997) gathered and analyzed data from national representative survey and found that 75% of homeless youth used marijuana; 25% of them having used crack, cocaine, or inhalants; and 17% having engaged in injection drug use. Other family members such as siblings may influence a youth by exposing them to drug us as well. One youth who used marijuana stated that she didn’t have any friends and her older sisters were the ones who introduced her to drugs (Tyler et Al., 2013).

Housing Transitions

It is also common that homeless youth experienced multiple house and school transitions prior to becoming homeless (Buckner et al., 1997). Moving multiple times creates an instability in the youth’s lives because they need to find new friends and do not have a stable household. Research has also found that homeless youth often report that they have not lived with both of their biological parents (Hagen & McCarthy, 1997) However there is no measurements on the type of move as there may be different reasons for moving, with some circumstances causing more instability than others. This is an important gap to research because it can provide information on how certain types of house transitions affect the youth into becoming homeless. Also the distance moved should be accounted for because a move down the street may affect a youth differently than moving over larger distances

Past Abuse

Also Youth interviewed by Colette and Stephen(2002) generally shared a common dysfunctional family dynamic prior to becoming homeless which shows the similarities in the individuals. Previous literature backs this up as it was found that contributing to the familial dysfunction, domestic violence is a common experience in these homeless youth’s homes (Buckner et al. 1997). Emotional as well as physical abuse in the family home are consistently high in the homeless youth population (Maclean et al., 1999). Histories of family abuse and neglect can be seen in a study done by Ryan et al. (2000), which found that 33% of the participants did not experience either sexual or physical abuse in their family home which shows how high the rate of abuse is in this population. Findings of high emotional, sexual, and physical abuse has also been discovered by Tyler et al. (2000), who states that at least thirty percent of homeless youth have experienced sexual abuse in the home.

Abused and neglected youth may try to escape their household only to be returned home by the police and social services. Repeated running away and being returned home by authorizes creates a cycle of running away, as youth view the streets as freedom from the neglect and abuses at home (Ferguson, 2009). There is a flaw in the way these youth are dealt with by the authorities and it can be related to the homeless youth’s reluctance to access services later on. There is no research highlighting a homeless youths early experiences with social services and how those experiences may affect their decision to access services later on.

The problems associated with family dysfunction and abuse include poor school performance, conflict with peers and teachers, as well as conduct problems (Hagan et at., 1997; Bassuk et al., 1996). Previous literature backs up this claim that children and youth who experience neglect and abuse feel isolated, ostracized, seeing others as a threat, with a fear of rejection (Wagner et al., 2007; Bassuk et al., 1996). These early experiences can lead to a distrust of other people including social service workers, which hinders their ability for rehabilitation into contemporary society. The homeless youth’s family history leading to their perception on social services should be taken into account to further develop intervention strategies to encourage participation.

Trauma

Mental illness is an important factor when it comes to the rehabilitation of homeless youth and their transition into contemporary society. Kidd (2004), states that homeless youth and children are a high risk population who suffer from multiple problems including mental health. Family dysfunction is a major contributor to the poor mental health of homeless youth (Tyler et al., 2013). Many factors of family dysfunction can hinder a youth’s ability to develop mentally at the same rate as peers from non-dysfunctional families (Dubas et al., 1996). In addition to a hindered mental development, homeless youth have a higher risk of experiencing traumatic events in dysfunctional families (Dubas et al., 1996). It has been found that youth deal with their mental illnesses through peer guidance rather than through professionals (Davidson & Manion, 1996). Without strong bonds youth who experience traumatic events often use drugs to mask those events with substance dependence (Greene et al., 1996). Because the youth use their peers for advice more than professionals, strategies must be implemented in order show youth that professional help is the rational choice for advice.

Transition to adulthood

The departure from home is an expectation in North American society, and is also a major step into adulthood (Dubas et al., 1996). This stage of life is important because it shapes the way a youth live their life’s (Tyler et al., 2013), showing the need for stability in this stage of a youth’s life. Youth from stable family homes are still not prepared to make the transition into adulthood, often relying of family for both emotional as well as financial support to become self-sufficient (Fingerman et al., 2012). With youths in stable homes relying on their family bonds both emotionally and financially the dilemma with homeless youth transitioning into adulthood is apparent because of their lack of bonds and financial support. Seeing as homeless youth often come from poverty, their families may not have the means to support them financially as they gain skills to become self-sufficient. Also due to a families drug use, absence due to incarceration, and physical abuse, and emotional abuse, the emotional support that is needed to make the transition into adulthood may not be available. These findings back up the need to implement early intervention strategies to show youth that the services are there to help them.

Seeking Relationships

After leaving the home, youth seek out relationships usually with peers with similar past experiences (Ferguson, 2009). In a study done on homeless youth between the ages of 14 and 26, it was found that being in a stable relationship positively influences the transition out of homelessness (Toro et al., 2007). These findings are corroborated through multiple qualitative interviews done by Chamberlain and Johnson (2008), which found that while the homeless youths had unstable or non-existent relationships at home, they had a network of peers with similar backgrounds in the streets. When homeless youth socialize with each other they gain a sense of belonging that they desire which seems like the reasonable decision to them (Chris et al., 2008). Toro and Johnston (2008) also state that once people become homeless they develop peer relationships with others that share their life experiences, and create a sense of belonging. Newly homeless youth who are seeking a sense of belonging should be able to find it through social services, although it has been found that participants in these services are un-cohesive (Fingerman et al., 2012).

It is important to decide whether these relationships are actually positive or just perceived as positive by the youth. These street experienced peers influence the homeless youth into the subculture of homelessness, leading them to multiple risk factors which further entangles the homeless youth in the lifestyle and greatens the need for social services. An example of a relationship that could be either positive or negative would be what Colette and Stephen (2002) describe as street mentorship. These mentors can see the weakness in a newly homeless youth and will use them in exchange for street knowledge (Colette et al. 2002; Wilks et al., 2008). There needs to be a measurement created to more accurately measure relationship strengths taking into account that some relationships may be double edged.

Street Victimization

Once a youth is on the streets they face further stressors as well as well as a high rate of victimization (Tyler et al., 2010). Different activities these homeless youth may participate in include attempts to find work, asking for money from their family and peers, panhandling, prostitution, survival sex, dealing drugs, and theft (Hagen & McCarthy, 1997; Tyler et al., 2010). The types of victimization experienced include verbal, physical, as well as sexual (Ferguson, 2009). A study done by Stewart et al., (2004) estimated the number of direct violent experiences of victimization to be 83% among homeless youth. This victimization can further develop existing mental health issues as well as develop new ones (Tyler et al., 2010). The consequences of victimization relating to mental health include post-traumatic stress disorder, depressive cycles, self-harm, drug use, and suicidal thoughts (Tyler et al., 2010; Hoyt et al., 1999).

Indirect victimization is found to be almost as harmful as directly being victimized (Ferguson, 2009). Indirect victimization can include losing a loved one, experiencing threats, and the victimization of others (Ferguson, 2009; Kipke et al., 1997). Homeless youth often lose loved ones due to high rates of mortality among the population with suicide being the leading cause (Kidd & Davidson, 2006). The mortality rate among homeless youth in Canada is eleven times higher than their peers (Shaw & Dorling, 1998), showing that homeless youth are likely to experience the loss of one of their peers. Kipke et al. (1997) interviewed homeless youth and found that 16% have witnessed someone being sexually assaulted, 20% have seen someone get killed, and 72% have witnessed a violent attack.

Developed measures/ Policy Recommendations

Measures of Family Moves among Homeless Youth

After reviewing the literature gaps relating to measurement as well as areas important to study have become apparent. First of all there are no comparative studies done on different circumstances in which families of homeless youth move homes and its relationship to a youth becoming homeless. This area is important to study so that a better understanding on the effect of multiple moves and their circumstances as they relate to a youth becoming homeless. This may help inform social workers on at risk children and youth at becoming homeless. First of all in order to measure the type of move a scale from zero to three will be devised. Youth who report having a more negative experience with a move will answer closer to three and a youth who has a more positive experience will choose closer to zero. All the scores of a youth will be added together depending on how many moves they have experienced. The higher the score the more at risk the youth is to becoming homeless. Each individual move can be examined to see what circumstances of moves creates a more negative experience for the youth.

Also there is no data showing the relationship between distance that the youth’s family moves and the youth’s likelihood at becoming homeless. In order for this area to be researched a youth must be able to remember general addresses in order for the distanced moved to be measured. Multiple move distances can be added together in order to gain an insight on the total distance of moves the youth experiences. Also two groups need to be surveyed including a control group compromising of housed youth, and a study group who are currently homeless. I hypothesize that the study group will have significantly higher distances moved when compared to the control group. Youth whose families move over longer distances may have to break off relationships they have made as they enter a new area with no bonds to rely on. The youth who is in a new area may make they feel isolated due to the unfamiliarity. On the other hand I hypothesize that youth who are housed will have a lower distance of family moves. Shorter family moves allows the youth to stay in contact with friends and teachers and they give them emotional support.

Early experiences with Social services and Current Perception of Social Services

The early experiences that youth have with social services likely will have an impact on the way they perceive and use social services. In order to gain an insight on the way a youth perceives social services a qualitative interview should be used in order to gather thoughts and emotions felt by the homeless youth. A study should consist of homeless youth and should take into account the early experiences that a youth has with social services. These early experiences could include removal of siblings by a children’s aid worker, returning the homeless youth home due to police picking them up, interactions with teachers, as well as interactions with councilors. The early experiences can then be compared to the youth’s current perception on social services. This research will provide social workers with an insight on the reasons why social services are not used to their potential so that they can employ practices that can accompany these homeless youth’s needs.

Relationship Strength

Street relationships are hard to measure due to their negative and positive attributes. In order to find the strengths and weaknesses in street relationships a survey can be implemented accessing each relationship a homeless youth may have with another homeless youth. The following questions can be asked to represent different aspects of a relationship and can be evaluated to see whether street relationships are positive or negative. 0 will be looked at as negative and 5 will be looked at as positive. Overall these questions can determine the strengths and flaws of street relationships:

How much comfort do you feel knowing that this person is there for you
Could you rely on this person in an emergency
Are drugs used when hanging around each other
Are crimes committed when hanging around each other
Has this person given advice that has allowed you to survive on the street?
Has this person taken advantage of you(Selling drugs for them, or committed a crime for them)

Discussion/ Conclusion

Each individual homeless youth has a variety of factors that lead them to the streets and hinders their ability to leave. The previous literature done on homeless youth have done a good job finding the factors behind a youth becoming homeless but fail to go into detail on each individual factor. Using the scales developed above, further interviews can extract valuable information that can influence early intervention strategies.

Also there is a sufficient amount of research done on the reasons why homeless youth avoid using social services. Little research is done the early experiences with social services but it remains important to research because it is unknown how these experiences have an effect of a homeless youth’s decision to use social services.

There is also a large amount of literature showing that the type of relationship significantly affects whether or not a youth can escape homelessness. This survey can measure relationship strength and therefore evaluate whether or not that relationship is positive or negative.

Finally future research can use these developed measures and policy recommendations to further research in the field. It is important that youth are exposed to positive experiences with social services early, so social service workers should educate youth early on about their programs and services available. Overall this paper examines the details that have been overlooked by the previous literature.

Shaw, mortality among street youth in the UK

Davidson and mansion facing the challenge: mental health and illness in Canadian youth 1996

Drug abuse is nowadays a more and more urgency youth problem all over the world. As an international commercial city, Hong Kong is exposed to this social problem as well, which bring enormous social and economic cost to individuals, families, communities and the whole society there. It is really an issue which requires the public to pay much attention to.

In this paper, the author introduced the contemporary situation of teenager psychoactive drug abuse in Hong Kong (including these young people’s population and age, as well as the tendency, the most often use chemicals and arenas), the negative impacts of drug taking on youths in the context of the timing points in human development. Then, the author utilized a bio-psychosocial model, discussed about the original risk elements conducing youth problematic behavior of drug abuse from three aspects: individual, family, and peers. At last, in terms with these relevant reasons, the author brought forward some suggestions for social worker profession, which may serve as useful strategies in coping with youth drug abuse in Hong Kong.

Keywords: young, drug abuse, social work

Introduction
Literature review
Definition

Drug

Is it a concept too simple to define? In fact, ‘drug’ contains various components. After long-time being influenced by social-cultural context, it becomes more complicated to clarify. For example, is drug therapeutic, or not, or both?

The World Health Organization (WHO) described “drug” in 1981 as “any substance or chemical that alters the structure or functioning of a living being”. Rassool went further on this phase in his book Alcohol and Drug Abuse (2001) as:

A drug, in the broadest sense, is a chemical substance that has an effect on bodily systems and behavior. This includes a wide range of prescribed drugs and illegal and socially accepted substances.

Many methods have been used to categorize drugs. For instance, counting in legal and moral, drug is divided into “prescription medicine”, “illegal” or “illicit” drug, and “over-the-counter medication”. However, they are often intersectional in actual society.

Drug abuse

Drug abuse, also known as substance abuse, has its public health definitions and medical definitions, all of which express an implication of negative value judgment (Jenkins 1999). In universal meaning, it refers to the taking of drugs without following medical advice or prescription, or the indiscreet use of dangerous drugs for non-treatment purposes.

An estimation the UN made tells us there are over 50 million regular drug users all around the world. Though the total number shows a decreasing trend recent years, the age begin to use drug evidently constantly lower.

How people take drugs? Existing researches state that Narcotic, Marijuana, Hallucinogen, Cocaine and Amphetamine are all gebraeuchlich drugs, while Cocaine is always reputed as the “champagne of drugs” and enjoys the greatest appeal for drug users. To further extend oral, smoking, inhalation or sniffing, injecting are the most often routes of drug administration.

Drug abuse not only makes impairment on users’ physical and psychological health, but also brings a host of social and economic problems to the domestic families and the whole community. Furthermore, illicit substance misuse is usually companied with many other deviant behaviors, like alcohol, organized crimes, anti-social activities and so on. It is no surprise at all that drug abuse is a serious social problem now owning to its enormous social and economic cost.

Young people

Young people, also called young person, youth, shares a communal meaning with teen and teenager, but is different from another purely scientifically-oriented phrase—adolescent. In fact, the term “youth” is ambiguously the time between childhood and adulthood, thus its age boundary line is varied all over the world. In Hong Kong, as a rule, people between 14 to 21 years old are considered as “youth”.

Youth is a predominantly important phrase in human development. Naturally, it is the time that young people:

are encountered with dramatic changes in physics, psyche, emotion and social network;

commence self-identity forming;

urge and begin to seize power on experiencing, adventuring, risk-taking and authority challenging;

are particularly possible to be influenced by surroundings on behaviors and lifestyle;

are not so close to family and parents as before while attaching importance to peer group membership and peer approval.

As far as we can see from below, youths are resourceful, while vulnerable at the same time.

Current situation of Youth drug abuse in Hong Kong

As stated by the Central Registry of Drug Abuse’s report in 2008, while the total number of reported drug abusers continually declined, young people below twenty-one years old showed a dramatically-increasing trend: 1002 youths involved in drug abuse in 2002, and then decreased to 2186 in 2004. After that, the number ceaselessly rose to 2894 in 2007. It should be mentioned that the age of lifetime trying of drugs has been dropping apparently (The 2004 Survey of Drug Use among Students, November 2005; Narcotics Division, Security Bureau, HKSAR; Chan, Chu, Wong, & Yu, 2005; Chen, et al., 2005; N. W. T. Cheung & Cheung, 2005; Ho & Liu, 2005; Laidler & Pianpiano, 2005; Lam, Weng, Wong, & Tse, 2004; Sung, 2001; Youth in Hong Kong Statistical Profile, 2005: report submitted to the Commission On Youth). However, we shouldn’t overlook that the real number of youth drug use should be far more.

Memo ammonia ketone, which is also called K Tsui, is young people’s most frequently used drug, following is ecstasy and cannabis. Additionally, they often “enjoy” drugs in their own or friend’ houses, or public disco/karaoke.

All in all, youth drug abuse in Hong Kong is already an alarming matter which should be tackled as soon as possible. It has posed a great threat to the families, the government, and the whole society.

Impacts on youths

Drug use in teenager group is usually association with physical and psychological morbidity, social disabilities, and presented as a mixture of them. WHO’s discovery (2003-04) may offer us a clear angle of view about drug misuse’ influences on young people:

Physical

Peri-oral and peri-lesions caused by inhalation or snorting; physical injuries incurred during intoxication; agitation after poly-drug or prolonged use; needle tracks, thrombosis or abscesses owing to intravenous use; withdrawal syndromes; changing in brain structure.

Psychological

Mood changes (especially depression and anxiety); confusion; personality disorder; depression on withdrawal of simulants; irritability as part of withdrawal syndrome; deliberate self-harm or suicide attempt; psychosis due to drugs’ effects on neurotransmissions.

Social

Deteriorating educational performance; family conflict; crime such as petty associated with intoxication, theft to provide funds, ‘dealing’ as part of more serious association with drug culture.

However, many problematic youths preferably evade reporting their drug abusing problem due to two main reasons. Firstly, young people pursue freedom and independence, and resist pressure from legal, family or society on their difficulties with drugs (Milgram & Rubin 1992). Moreover, most early drug users do not look themselves as substance reliers so that they do not seek any professional treatments until the problem gets too serious to recover. Latent drug abuse may go further to be a lifelong problem for teenagers.

Origin of youth drug abuse

In the last half a century, there has been a surge of interest in, and a plethora of studies on substance abuse in youths. Foremost among these are studies on drug abuse. Several theories are in the way to explain the original reasons for youth drug abuse, such as moral theory, disease theory, genetic theory, psychological theories and socio-cultural theories. Integrating all of their conclusions related to the origin of youth drug abuse, it is not a single factor but a combined effect of several risk factors predisposing young people to use illicit drugs, which can be divided into five levels in accordance with bio-psychosocial perspectives: biological determinations, youth psychological development characteristics, interpersonal elements (include family functioning elements and peer influencing elements), community variables, and societal factors.

Weiner (1992) made a splendid contribution on clarifying causes of youth drug abuse. He referred to the achievements of Brook with his collaborators (Brook, Nomura, & Cohen, 1989; Brook, Whiteman, & Gordon, 1983), pointing out that personality, family, and peer determinants are the most closely related factors for teenager substance abuse. On the word of Weiner (1992), “one factor exerting a particularly strong influence can be sufficient enough for a young person to become drug-involved, even though the other two factors are minimal.” The triad of primary elements-teenagers’ personal variables, family functioning, and peer relationships-serves as the center of bio-psychosocial model related to young people’s involvement into substance abuse. Thus, we will focus point on these three and go over community and society as well.

Personal factors

When negative psychological characteristics, personality and personal experiences work together, young individuals will inevitably have ability of resiliency weaken. In other words, they will lack coping skills in case of environmental challenges, and lean to drugs either voluntarily or passively.

Psychological characteristics of developing phase

As what has been discussed above, youth is such a time people urge to grasp any chance to take adventure, challenge authority and enjoy the pleasure of independence. So, it is understandable that young people consider taking drug as an approach to show ‘recreation’, to alleviate boredom, to feel confident, and to be ‘hard’ (Home Office, 2007).

personality

It has been demonstrated that lower teenagers’ self-efficacy, self-esteem and sense of competence are, more stress-vulnerable they are (Cowen et al., 1990). When internal or external difficulties happen, the ones will have more risk to take drugs, get ‘buzz’ so as to escape from their problems, which winds them into a bigger possibility of indulging psychoactive substance.

personal experience

Young people who have miserable personal experiences now or in the past are especially vulnerable to problematic drug use. These groups include: truants, those excluded from school, the homeless, those ‘look after’ by local authorities or in foster care, young offenders, those involved in prostitution, children from families with substance-abusing parents or siblings and young people with conduct or depressive disorders (Lloyd 1998).

Family functioning

As the primary environment for individuals’ growth, family shares a powerful and intimate connection to youngsters’ involvement, exacerbation, and relapse of drug problems. Family calls attention here because it shares a codependent relationship with youth drug problem, which means while addiction affects abuser’s family, the family are making effect on individual’s substance taking at the same time.

According to Muisener (1994), four categories of factors related to family’s function in teenager drug misuse are:

Major family life: changes in family structure, family composition, geography, ethnicity, socioeconomic status

Family dynamics: leadership, boundaries, affectivity, communication, and task/goal performance

Family dysfunction especially substance-abusing parent(s)

Family relationship especially relationships between parents and youths

In considering these four, relationship factors are most consisted with the children’s drug using problems (Brook, Arencibia-Mireles, Richter & Whiteman, 2001). Parenting practices including low or excessive monitoring, ineffective discipline, and poor communication with children are all imperative variables in youths’ initiation and maintenance of drug abuse problems (Liddle, Rowe, Dakof & Lyke, 1998; McGillicuddy, Rychtarik, Duquette & Morsheimer, 2001).

Peer relationship

In the phase of youth, peer group is able to be as important as youngsters’ “second family”, and makes heavy impacts on their values, beliefs, and behaviors through interpersonal relationships with each other. As like family environment, peer relationships also serve as a perpetuating environment for teenagers’ involvement into substance abuse, mainly by two categories:

Peer crisis

It is also called as “peer shock” by Elkind (1984), and can be broken down into three types: the shock of exclusion, the shock of betrayal, and the shock of disillusionment.

Substance-abusing peers

This “peer cluster” can be a strong influence in youngsters’ initial and ongoing usage of chemicals (Oetting & Beauvais, 1986). Friends reinforce other’s drug habit through driving them into this group activity, encouraging them to carry on drug using, and fostering their denial of drug problem (Shilts, 1991).

In most cases, peer crisis and abusing peers are interacting with each other. For example, a young man who has been excluded from other friends enjoying psychoactive drugs together will have to pay the price of participation into the shared group activity, so as to maintain the membership in this peer group. Later on, he will suddenly find that he is eliminated by other groups. In order to have sense of belonging, he has no other choices but to stay there and develop into a drug abuser. Additionally, peer influence may become more powerful in situations where a young person lacks support, understanding or affection from parental figures.

Community and society

As part of youngsters’ surroundings, community—which is composed of schools, community organizations, police departments and criminal justice systems, other local government institutions and services—can also act as risk factors increasing their likelihood of using psychoactive substances. In a larger scope of the whole society, youth culture and music, social acceptability and the media, may also lead to teenagers’ initiation and continuation of drug misuse. More direct and special, illicit chemicals are accessibility for youths in Hong Kong society.

It is worth mentioning there are extra elements in continued substance use. Rather than by rational decisions, the reasons why people don’t cut out taking drugs may be more related to combined factors, such as individuals’ physiological dependence on psychoactive chemicals, chaotic use, psychological fear of withdrawal symptoms, social exclusions, mental health problems and other environmental elements. Such situation is very common for most drug misusers: they actually have tried to stop taking drugs, but are only able to rationally do this for short periods of time rather than everlasting withdrawal from illegal substances.

Strategies for social work on youth drug abuse

Basing on information from the Narcotics Division, Security Bureau, HKSAR, the Hong Kong government has taken a number of measures related to youth’s drug abuse into action. These include law requirement, policy reinforcement, and promotion activities. On the other side, the jointed work of social worker and doctors is another universal type in running drug treatment and rehabilitation programmes in Hong Kong, such as compulsory placement programme, counseling programme and substance abuse clinic. Nevertheless, as new drugs are endlessly brought in, or old drugs are experienced again by a new generation, all the efforts only have a short-term effect on substance abuse among young people, and continued progress in eliminating drug abuse has gradually slowed down as well (Johnston et al., 2008).

Social work is such a profession best prepared to deal with social problems and assist disadvantaged groups. In terms with the original reasons of youth drug abuse, social worker may also initially handle this problem from three aspects: individual, family, and peers.

Individual

Prevention and health education

This method is widely conducted by doctors, government, mass-media and community. It is mainly used in drug preventive process and emphasis publicizing knowledge of drugs, consequences of use and promoting antidrug use attitudes to public at large.

Social workers bring professional features in this process. For instance, social work may host discussion, experiential activities, and group problem-solving exercises in school, communities, and other public places.

Further causes probing

Since variety of negative factors are able to bring young people risk for contacting illicit drugs, social workers should try them best to find hidden and real causations, and prevent or healing problematic individual through coping with latent issues first. Individual counseling can be conducted this part.

Self-potency enhancing

According to Shamai (1994), some personality traits can typify youth in distress, such as impaired self-control, low self-esteem, self-confidence and self-satisfactory, sense of coherence, low level of aspirations and little hope for the future.

Empowerment is one of the major measures social work profession utilizes. Setting in substance addicted teenagers, what social workers can do includes to bring youths a positive attitude towards their drug dependence, to help them develop skills against peer influence and pressure, improve self-efficacy and self-control capacity. Cognitive-behavior therapy is considered useful in self-potency enhancing for youth involved in substance abuse, which processes of instruction, demonstration, practice, feedback and reinforcement.

Personal and social skills training

Individual resources are qualities that enable youth to contend with negative life events and stressful situations (Ben-Sira 1993; Lazarus and Folkman 1984). Social worker may work with organization such as youth centers, communities here.

To assist young people, either who have already taken psychoactive chemicals or who have the danger for touching drugs, to gain personal anti-drug skills, social work will teach them how to reduce their anxiety, how to apply generic skills to resist substance-use influences, to establish non-substance-use norms, and so forth. Useful methods include recreational activities, behavioral rehearsal, resistance-skills training, and practice via behavioral “homework”.

In terms with social skills training, communication, use of same age or older peer leaders, vocational training, social and assertive skills, participation in community service projects are all possible methods social workers can make use of.

Family

According to a recent view of environment’s role in addiction (Nader and Czoty 2005), owning a less stressful and more privileged environment may help individuals enlarge the protection from addiction or relapse during recovery process. In this way, teenager’s original family should be considered as a recovery environment and a focus of treatment.

While family recovery and family therapy are widely used in recent years, social workers’ roles there are mainly releasing risk elements associated to youth drug abuse, and assist families to offer continuum of care and support for problematic young people in drug recovery. Family recovery skills can be categorized into family addiction awareness, family development awareness and strengthening family dynamics, in which social workers can serve as assistances and organizers.

Peers

In or before the process of giving up drugs, most of these problematic teenagers are usually faced with exclusion from young persons who do not take illicit chemicals. However, to get out of drug abuse, they should complete dual challenges or missions: giving up former young companions, and making new friends with others who do not abuse chemicals.

Rather than force youths to get out of “old friends”, social workers should assist youths to make new friends for his support and social needs. Group work is an effective method here. One is group treatment, which includes chemical awareness group and abstinence support group. Teenagers in recovery get together, share their experiences, thoughts, feelings, and skills to avoid drugs. They can also claim to give up taking chemicals, which is demonstrated an impactful way. About another kind of group work, several addicted young people will be planned to stay with others who don’t take drugs. By sharing their experiences and decision to avoid chemicals, the disadvantaged ones will enjoy the chance to make new friends, as well as get support from them, which is extremely important in preventing their doom to relapse in recovery.

Much of the researches available on young parenthood have focused on the experiences of teenage mothers and mainly those separated from the young fathers. Subsequently, efforts have been made to ascertain the proportional involvement of fathers in various aspects of parenting and the distinctive contributions of fathers (knight et. Al, 2006). There are significant gaps in the provision of service for teenage fathers (Cater et al 2006). Practitioners wishing to offer support for the young fathers face a number of barriers such as the difficultly in finding young fathers, the lack of adequate support for young fathers when they are identified, complicated family issues, educational difficulties and the negative attitudes of individual professionals.

Despite the growing research on young fathers, there remains a dearth of research that recognises the wide diversity of young fatherhood and the different needs young fathers may have (e.g. young fathers in care, young fathers in prison, non-resident fathers, young fathers from ethnic minority groups). Young fathers are invisible as a group, yet they are more likely to require support services and be affected by unemployment, poor housing, and a lack of education (Speak et al., 1997). It is therefore not surprising that little is known about the expectations and experiences of young fathers in accessing support and the barriers they face.

The study arose from the observation that there is limited information available in current research on the views and experiences of young fathers in Outer London Borough. Much of the research that is available on young parents focuses on the experiences of young mothers. This study sought to establish, from the perspective of young fathers and the organisations that worked with them their expectations and experiences in accessing support and the effectiveness of the support available.

Research questions

How accessible and effective are the support available to young fathers in meeting their socio-economic needs in Outer London Borough?

Aims

The aims of my research are:

to identify which organisations are offering support to young fathers and how they worked with them;

to explore young fathers’ view of support available to them and the obstacles they face in accessing it;

to establish, from the view point of young fathers and the organisations that worked with them the effectiveness of the support.

Research methodology

The qualitative paradigm aims to understand the social world from the viewpoint of respondents, through detailed descriptions of their cognitive and symbolic actions, and through the richness of meaning associated with observable behavior (Wildemuth, 1993).

The research would be undertaken using the following qualitative research techniques:

Desk scoping.

Structured interviews with young fathers and service providers.

Case study review of projects and initiatives that provide practical support to young fathers.

Desk Scoping

Desk Scoping focused on investigating into the existing evidence. This included searching the following sources:

An extensive search was made of all relevant databases, libraries and journals for literature sources pertaining to the project issue. In addition a comprehensive review of internet based literature and resources were made. Using the London South Bank University library online resources via http://library.lsbu.ac.uk, ASSIA (Applied Social Sciences Index and Abstracts), an electronic resource, was searched, 51 results were found using the term young parenthood (search was from 2001 to current), 33 results were found using the term teenage father (search was from 2002 to current to reduce the search result to a manageable number) and 9 results were found using the terms young father and support. ASSIA covers English language journals in applied social sciences and includes health, economics, social issues & social policy, organisational behaviour and communication.

Relevant governmental organisations’ websites were searched for information gathering.

As relevant reports were identified through these avenues, the references within these reports were followed as a way of further identifying relevant research reports.

Interviews

The most common forms of collecting qualitative data are participant observation and in-depth interviewing (Kenworth, Snowley & Gilling 2004). Cohen & Manion (1993) interviews are initiated by the reviewer for the specific purpose of obtaining research-relevant information and focused by (her or) him on content specified by research objectives of systematic description, prediction or explanation.

7 semi-structured interviews will be conducted with service delivery personnel from those organisations offering specialist support to young fathers (social services, connexions, parenting support, parentingUK, first housing, health agency, and employment support). These interviews would be conducted by telephone to identify common/different support practices and to evaluate their perceived effectiveness.

In addition to the interviews, local service providers would take part in informal meetings. Some would be interviewed at the start of the study and provide information on the local context. Others would provide ongoing dialogue during the time of the study, particularly those from maternity services in the study localities. A roundtable dissemination event would be held towards the end of the study to discuss findings and their relevance for local practice and policy.

A minimum of 10 semi-structured interviews would be held with young fathers (young fathers in care, young fathers in prison, non-resident fathers and young fathers from ethnic minority groups) who have either received or not received support. Due to the delicate nature of these interviews and the potential vulnerability of the participants, an appropriate qualified researcher, following the strictest ethical guidelines, will sensitively conduct interview. Prior to any interviews, the researcher will update their Child Protection Training to ensure that s/he is fully aware of current relevant issues.

The core themes to be explored through the structured interviews are:

identifying the support needs of young fathers;

local services available to young fathers, both practical and emotional;

partnership working among agencies that provide young fathers with support;

opportunities and challenges to providing practical support to young fathers.

Interview will be conducted in the participants’ homes and supported by adult family member or friend. Parental/guardian consent will be confirmed prior to the interview and all interviews will be recorded digitally. Data will be held in accordance with the Data Protection Act 1998.

Their names and other identifying information would be anonymised in the presentation of finding. The young people taking part would be assured in writing and verbally that the narratives they shared would be treated in confidence and that confidentiality would be breached only in the event of disclosure or child protection concerns being revealed regarding issues not already known to the relevant agencies.

A semi-structured interview will be used by the same researcher to ensure consistency; all interviews will be digitally recorded with consent and lasted between 20 and 60 minutes. Digital recording the interviews would enhance the reliability of the interview. Using semi-structured interviews in this study enables the interviewer to be guided by the participant who should be encouraged to talk freely, even though the interviewer may have certain points to cover.

Participant will be recruited in the following way:

Young fathers who have used organisations offering specialist (social services, connexions, parenting support, parentingUK, first housing, health agency, and employment support) support will be contacted via a list to be provided by the agencies and invited to join the study only after securing the young person’s agreement and parental/guardian consent. For others who have not used specialist services, would be recruited through their children’s mothers or via local contacts and word of mouth.

Young fathers will be encouraged to participate in the study, through awarding a ?10 ASDA voucher to all participants. Should sufficient participants be identified, selection through criteria including age, gender and ethnicity type will be made to ensure a broad representation of demographic groups.

Case Study

To explore in more depth the experiences of young fathers and to understand more fully the practice of those organisations offering activities to young fathers, three case studies were reviewed. These case studies are examples of projects or initiatives that provide practical support to young fathers. The aim of the review was to explore the range of approaches that have been developed to support the practical needs of young fathers, highlighting successes, challenges faced and lessons learned.

The findings reported here centre mainly on the experiences of becoming and being a father from the viewpoints of the young men involved in the case studies. Additionally the report includes some young women’s perspectives on the young men as fathers.

Research design

It is anticipated that in order to complement existing longitudinal survey data, the current study will employ primarily qualitative methods to explore the young fathers expectations and experiences in accessing support and the effectiveness of the support they receive. The aim of a qualitative researcher is to explore people’s experiences, feelings and beliefs so that statements about how people interpret and structure their lives can be made (Holloway & Wheeler 1996).

The Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) approach would be used for this study and will provide an insight and understanding of young fathers expectations and experiences in accessing support and the effectiveness of the support. IPA was chosen over the ‘Grounded Theory’ approach (Glaser & Strauss 1967), as we do not want to develop a theory but to understand and explore how the participants understood their personal and social environment and what experiences and events meant for them.

It is envisage that a retrospective, life-history approach, including a range of groups (e.g. young fathers in care, young fathers in prison, non-resident fathers, young fathers from ethnic minority groups and practitioners) will give insights into young fathers’ expectations and experiences in accessing support and the effectiveness of the support they receive. I expect the sample to reflect a sufficient range of potentially significant variables such as gender, age, ethnicity and social background.

The ethical committee within the London South Bank University (LSBU) would consider the study for approval. All participants would be given information sheets explaining the procedure. Before giving signed consent, participants would be advised that they were free to leave at any time. Pilot studies would be done of the questions being asked to check the clarity of the language.

Beck & Hungler (2001) suggest that four ethical principles must be considered when participating in research: (1) the right not to be harmed, (2) the right to be fully informed on all aspects of the study, (3) the right to decide to take part or not (and the right to withdraw at any time) and (4) the right to privacy, anonymity and confidentiality.

Qualitative research commences during the process of data collection. While the researcher processes the information patterns are then looked for during the interview and then select a theme to follow. The data analysis continues throughout the interviews and also once data is collected. Two researchers will independently undertake the analysis and checked and re-checked with each other for emergent themes.

Diversity within the sample would allow for the exploration of young fathers’ experiences across a range of circumstances relating to their age, locality, education and employment, living arrangements, relationships with their partner, support from family and friends, contact with formal services, etc.

Social work and qualitative research share the mutual goals of dealing with subjectivity, describing the complexity of lived experience, and appreciating realities where intuition is valued. Qualitative methodology is, therefore, in my view a suitable method to be employed in researching the expectations and experiences of young fathers in accessing support.

Researchers would take necessary steps not to introduce bias by accidentally reporting their interpretation of participants’ feelings. At the beginning of the study researchers would declare and record their feelings. The researchers would also ensure that the level of subjectivity remains at a relatively neutral level.

Ethical issues are important and would be considered at every step of the research process. This is not just about obtaining ‘ethical approval’ for a study but also ensuring the rights of participants are not violated. When reporting the findings of the research, participants’ anonymity and confidentiality would not be breached.

The role of the interviewer is to encourage participants to discuss their experiences of the phenomenon. It is possible that in the cause of the interview participants could inadvertently discuss personal information that they had not planned to reveal, or that may rekindle tragic or uncomfortable experiences related to this study. Researchers would continue to negotiate with participants to ascertain whether they wish to continue with the interview or not. Psychological support would be in place to manage any emotional distress that may result from the interview. Everything would be done in the course of the study to protect the rights of vulnerable respondents.

The researchers would not make any exaggerated claims as to the significance of the research and implications for practice, and further research would be located in the study’s findings. Moreover, the researcher would relate the findings of the study back to the original research purpose, and illustrate whether or not it has been adequately addressed (Thorne et al., 2005). The researchers would conclude by placing the findings in a context that indicates how this new information is of interest, and its implications for social work. These conclusions would reflect the study’s findings and ideally would offer recommendations as to how they may be developed.

The most common criteria used to evaluate qualitative research studies are credibility, dependability, transferability and confirmability (Lincoln et al., 1985). It is therefore important that the readers are able to identify the criteria used and are able to clearly follow each step of the research process.

To ensure the credibility of the study process, the study would address the issue of whether there is consistency between the participants’ views and the researcher’s representation of them. The participants would be consulted at every stage of the study and they would be allowed to read and discuss the study findings. The researcher would also describe and interpret his experience as a researcher.

The study would provide evidence of a decision trail at each stage of the research process. Future researchers would clearly be able to follow the trail used by the researchers and potentially arrive at the same or comparable conclusions. The researchers would demonstrate how conclusions and interpretations have been derived from the data. It’s hoped that the findings would be transferable to other context outside the study situation and people who were not involved in the research study would find the results meaningful.

One of the shortcomings of a qualitative research based study of this nature is their lack of objectivity and generalisation of their findings. The study has been designed to seek answers to how persons or groups make sense of their experiences. In my view small qualitative studies can gain a more personal understanding of the phenomenon and the results can potentially contribute valuable knowledge to the community. Hamilton (1980) asserts that the value of a study is established by reference to the phenomena it seeks to comprehend and the understandings it aspires to develop. Stake (1980) suggests that using qualitative methodology in this type of study may be in conceptual harmony with the service users’ experience and thus be a natural basis for generalization.

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The World Health Organisation (WHO) describes health promotion as:

‘the process of enabling people to increase control over, and to improve their health.’ (WHO 1986, p.11)

Through discussion with the Head of Establishment and members of staff at Kirklandpark Nursery, staff wished to incorporate diet and nutrition into their room planning. They felt this would be an effective area of focus as the nursery was working towards its silver award in the Health Promoting Nurseries. Staff also informed me that what I carried out would be used as evidence towards this.

One of the strategies that educators can use to promote the health and wellbeing within children’s services is the enablement strategy. This aims to ensure there are equal chances for all to reach optimum health (Naidoo and Wills, 2000:86).

This strategy also helps people expand their knowledge and skills in health matters, so they can recognise and deal with health issues in their lives (Naidoo and Wills, 2009:62).

Within the Curriculum for Excellence (CfE) there is a significant focus on the curriculum area ‘health and wellbeing’. In the experiences and outcomes there is a section on ‘Food and Health’, which aspires children to build on their existing skills and knowledge to make better food choices for a healthier future.

According to the Curriculum for Excellence:principles and practice:

‘A poorly balanced diet can contribute to the risk of developing a number of diseases and conditions including tooth decay, obesity, certain cancers, diabetes, coronary heart disease and stroke’ (Scottish Executive 2007, p.7)

With the CfE’s assessment in mind, and having liaised with children and staff, I planned an experience and used the enablement strategy to promote this. Observation 5 demonstrates that children were enabled with information and knowledge about the reasons for their own health, as we discussed why healthy/unhealthy foods were good and not so good for our bodies.

While confident about the general promotion of health and wellbeing, when educating the children on the causes of their own health. I initially found it difficult to explain exactly what unhealthy foods can do to our bodies. I consulted my mentor for ideas and she provided me with suggestions on how I could implement this. I strongly feel this is an area for development.

The enablement strategy resembles the empowerment strategy as it requires practitioner’s to act as a facilitator, then step back, giving control to society (Naidoo and Wills, 2009)

Adventures in Foodland is a pack which aims to direct educators in positively inspiring children to acquire a taste for eating healthily at a young age. (NHS Health Scotland, 2003). I used the enablement strategy to do this.

As an educator I found this pack extremely relevant and helpful. In observation 7 the children were given control as they informed me which foods they would like to try. I listened and acted as the facilitator by purchasing the foods, helping to prepare them and then stepping back, allowing the children to be in control. The children were given the choice to try the foods which I provided them. A social learning theorist, Albert Bandura believed that children copy others who have more power than them e.g. adults (Sayers, 2008 cited in Flanagan 2004) In observation 7 I was a good role model and tried the foods with the children, which encouraged others to try as well.

I also used the educational strategy. This is similar to the enablement strategy as it aims to provide people with knowledge and information, in order for them to make a choice about the way they feel about their health. (Naidoo and Wills, 2000)

The educational strategy differs from the behaviour change strategy as it does not make a person change the way they do things but instead encourages change (Naidoo and Wills 2000).

The National Care Standards, Standard 3.3 aa‚¬” Health and Wellbeing states:

‘children and young people have opportunities to learn about healthy lifestyles and relationships, hygiene, diet and personal safety’ (Scottish Executive, 2009).

Diet and nutrition relates to this standard and links with the educational and enablement strategy I used. The children were given equal opportunities to learn about these stated in standard 3.3. In observation 7 I used a big book with the children to gather their ideas on hygiene and personal safety. I strongly believe that doing this was a useful and effective way in gathering ideas to promote the health and well-being to everyone in the setting.

I explained to the children what the book would be used for, I listened to their ideas and worked in a team with all partners. I was also assertive in speaking to children about the big book, and consulting them about ideas.

My mentor offered valuable feedback and encouraged me to consult more with parents and show them their child’s work.

A publication by Her Majestyaa‚¬a„?s Inspectorate of Education’s (HMIE) titled How good is our school? The Journey to Excellence promotes well-being and respect. In dimension 9 there is an aspect on ‘promoting positive healthy attitudes and behaviours’ (HMIE, 2006)

This links with the educational strategy I used as it encourages and provides people with the knowledge and information they need to make choices.

Observation 6 demonstrates how important the educational strategy is in providing children with knowledge of a healthy balanced diet. This allowed children to think about what they eat. Some children thought differently and changed their views in a positive way. However, I found it difficult to explain what was meant by a healthy balanced diet in words that children would understand. I came across ‘the eatwell plate’ after finishing the project which would have been a fantastic resource to use with the children and help further their understanding. For my continuing professional development I aim to focus on how to better myself in finding other ways to communicate with children effectively when explaining what is meant by a healthy balanced diet.

Advocacy is a further strategy used to promote health and wellbeing. Advocacy means talking on out for someone, such as a child, parent or a subject matter (Hall and Elliman 2007).

Advocacy is also about expanding people’s knowledge on the health matter. (Naidoo and Wills 2009)

Improving Health in Scotland: The Challenge aims to better the health of people living in Scotland (Scottish Executive, 2003) I used advocacy to do so by speaking out for the children in regards to their diet and nutrition. Observation 2 helped to expand knowledge among children, parents and staff regarding this. I helped change the home corner into a fruit and vegetable shop. Multi-agency working was used and I demonstrated assertiveness in putting my point across when communicating with staff about which ways to promote health and wellbeing.

I also employed the enablement and the empowerment strategy when I acted as the facilitator and allowed the children to take control of the experience, as they chose which resources they wanted to go in their shop.

The Schools (Health Promotion and Nutrition) (Scotland) Act 2007 puts emphasis on health promotion being a huge part of the activities provided in schools.

(Scottish Government, 2007) The 10 learning experiences I carried out played a significant part in promoting the health and wellbeing of others.

I feel the enablement and empowerment strategy was successful in promoting health and wellbeing to all partners. The children were given choice and were in control. Parents were also empowered to take control and choose to take on board the knowledge provided. I involved parents by writing on the white board to inform them of what the children had been learning. This ties in with the Nutritional Guidelines for Early Years as it encourages educators to speak to parents daily to inform them what was available for snack (Scottish Executive, 2006) In observation 10 M’s grandfather told me he had never considered making fruit kebabs before but he liked the idea and intended to make them for M’s birthday party at the weekend. A further area I can improve on is building relationships with all parents.

I also feel the educational strategy worked in the sense that some children made healthier choices at snack and at home. This also promoted health and wellbeing for parents as their child was influencing healthier choices at home. A few children continued to make unhealthy choices by asking for a biscuit at snack. As the educational strategy encourages rather than instructs change, this did not work well with a couple of the children/parents.

If I had more time, I would involve parents and other commercial partners more, such as Sainsburyaa‚¬a„?s and deepen children and parents understanding further.

My mentor also said if I had longer I could make parents more involved, by inviting them for snack and encouraging them to help out, such as taking the children to the shops to buy snack.

In conclusion, I feel my ability to promote the health and wellbeing in the area diet and nutrition to service users in Kirklandpark nursery was done well considering the short period of time I had. I took account of literature, national advice and my mentors feedback. The strategies I used were effective and my findings from literature, government publications and initiatives helped me discuss this. By doing this project it has made me realise there are strategies I need to work on in order to professionally develop.

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References

Hall, D. and Elliman, D. (2003). Health For All Children (4th Edition). Oxford: Medical Publications.

HMIE (2006) How good is our school? A Journey to Excellence, Livingston

Naidoo, J. and Wills, J. (2009) Foundations for Health Promotion (3rd Edition)

Naidoo, J. and Wills, J (2000) Health Promotion: Foundations for Practice (2nd Edition)

NHS Scotland (2003) Adventures in Foodland, Edinburgh

Sayers, S. (2008) HNC Early Education and Childcare Heinemann

Scottish Executive (2007) Curriculum for Excellence: health and wellbeing principles and practice,Learning and Teaching Scotland

Scottish Executive (2003) Improving Health in Scotland: The Challenge, Edinburgh

Scottish Executive (2006) Nutritional guidelines for early years: food choices for children aged 1-5 years in early education and childcare settings, Edinburgh

Scottish Executive (2009) The National Care Standards for Early Education and Childcare up to the Age of 16; Standard 3 Health and Wellbeing

World Health Organization (1998) Health Promotion Glossary Switzerland : World Health Organization

Sexual abuse has been a growing concern in our society. The statistics on sexual abuse in America are alarming. According to Finkelhor (1994) “approximately 150,000 confirmed cases of child sexual abuse were reported to child welfare authorities in the United States during 1993” (p.31). Lucinda stated, “I have worked with children who have been sexually abused and it is a devastating experience for the individual”.

Working with an individual who has a history of sexual abuse would be very difficult. The individual will likely be guarded and possibly closed off from the surrounding environment. He or she may not want to talk about what happened in their past, and want to shut it away so they never have to relive the horror that happened to them. Since this abuse is not as visible as physical abuse, it is harder for people outside the abuse to recognize it. The individual in the abuse may feel that it is their fault, or they are inviting the abuser into the relationship. The abused individual may also feel that when speaking about the abuse to another person, that person will judge them think it is the fault of the abused.

Core Issues

Some of the core issues in treatment while working with someone diagnosed with a history of sexual abuse is gaining the clients trust so that they may disclose their history of being sexually abused and feeling safe and not being judged. Lucinda stated, “For me, the most important factor for the clinician is to gain the trust of the individual first before the client feels safe enough to share such an experience with a total stranger”. Sexual abuse is a touchy subject to some and some individuals do not disclose having been sexually abused because they feel ashamed or guilty or they fear being judge has damaged goods. According to Lev’s post, “88% of cases of sexual abuse are never disclosed by the child.” In agreement, Alaggia (2005) states, “50% to 80% of victims do not purposefully disclose childhood sexual abuse before adulthood” (p.454).

Another core issue is the ability to gain that initial trust between the client and the clinician. For someone that has had a history of sexual abuse this can be a hard aspect to have happen. This is understandable because at some point in that person’s life they lost the ability to trust when someone took that opportunity away from them. It’s like that individual had their bond of trust violated and that may carry over as an adult for the ability to trust their own feelings and judgment. Additional core issues noticed with those sexually abused would be placing the blame on themselves or taking the responsibility for what has occurred to that individual. Also, having a constant fear instilled in them that something is wrong with them. Perhaps even issues with power and control because one may feel that was stripped away from them. An abused child will not open up unless they can trust again (trust is obviously something that is tarnished and even lost through the abuse).

Another core issue in treatment while working with someone diagnosed with a history of sexual abuse is using memory to work through the trauma. As Courtois (1992) points out, “Therapy is geared not only to the retrieval of autobiographical memory, but towards the integration of affect with recall to achieve resolution of the trauma.” Because so many feelings, emotions of the memories are difficult to deal with on a day to day basis, many victims of sexual abuse tend to dissociate and therefore can suffer from dissociative disorder and PTSD. I think it is extremely important to address sexual assault of males. So often is hard to come forward about the assault but as Hopper (2010) addresses, “Approximately one in six boys is sexually abused before age 16.” He goes on to talk about the long lasting affect’s of sexual abuse and how it can become a perpetuated cycle of being hurt: “Avoiding getting close to people and trying to hide all of one’s pain and vulnerabilities may creating a sense of safety. But this approach to relationships leads to a great deal of loneliness, prevents experiences and learning about developing true intimacy and trust, and makes one vulnerable to desperately and naively putting trust in the wrong people and being betrayed again.” A core factor for many that are abused is that they are not alone. Many times knowing that others are dealing with a similar situation can make a huge difference.

Therapeutic Models

The types of therapeutic modality that works best for someone who has been abused should be determined based on the individual and the therapist preference. In the article by Courtois (1999) discusses that the resolution of sexual abuse trauma requiring retrieval of memory and the working through of the associated affect. This is important so the individual can heal by having fully acknowledged what has occurred to them in the past. The article further states, memory retrieval is an important component of the therapeutic process. As a therapist, an essential task when working with the client, would be having them acknowledge the abuse that has happened to them and be able to retrieve the full memory to proceed in the healing process. Courtois (1999) notes how memory deficits “are quite characteristic of trauma response and are utilized in the interest of defense and protection. This is an essential point for the clinician to understand in working on trauma resolution in general and memory retrieval in particular”. The strengths perspective acknowledges the client as the expert, which allows the memory retrieval to be a lot easier, and to be more accurate from the client.

It is crucial that clinicians be educated when working with individuals who have a history of childhood sexual abuse. Stearn (1988) states, “to diagnostically assess and treat clients in the most effective manner, social workers need to discover how each sexual abused clients views himself or herself, significant others, and the world” (p.466). Jennings (1994) “examines ways of using a broad spectrum of creative approaches, such as art, play, dance, music and drama, and combinations of those, to work with people who have been traumatized by experiences of sexual abuse” (p.471). Lucinda stated, “In my opinion, the best therapeutic modality that would work best with clients who have a history of childhood sexual abuse is using the strengths perspective”. The client is the expert on his or her own experience because only they know how they felt and what actually occurred during those moments. Bell (2003) believes

“the strengths perspective involves turning away from rational, empirical models that order and codify reality, toward a constructivist view, which holds that the identification of human problems reflects not objective reality, but the perspective of the one doing the looking. With this constructivist understanding, three assumptions emerge from the strengths perspective. First, clients have personal and environmental strengths and are more likely to act on those strengths when they are affirmed and supported. Second, the strengths perspective views the client as the expert on his or her own experience. Third, the roles of the social workers shift from expert and “fixer” to collaborator who respects and fosters the strengths of the client” (p.513).

Lucinda stated, “I feel that being empathetic, understanding, and compassionate are important in working with these clients”. According to Calof (1993) “listening to their stories and helping them explore the truth of their experiences has enabled many to turn their lives around” (p.45).

Family therapy is also important. Acknowledging the important and loving family members and their role in the victim’s life can help. With their love and support, the abused can work with the family to form treatment plans and other means of support.

As social workers, we have to not only listen to what our clients are saying but also read their body language as well as anything else they give us as clues. They are children who have been violated and are reluctant to speak because in their minds they did something wrong. We have to work collaboratively with the non-offending family (if that is obvious), schools, doctors, and other professionals so that we can get a full picture of the child’s symptoms, behaviors, and problems. Once we establish there has been abuse and from whom, we must remove the abuser if that has not already been done. Only then will we be able to work with the child towards a state of healing. Healing cannot happen when someone is still being abused. However literature does state most do not disclose what has happened until they are adults. Sometimes, it is not possible to remove the abuser if nothing is said about the abuse. As social workers, we would have to take every incident as it comes and deal with it as soon as possible. Unfortunately and sadly, most sexual abusers get off with a slap in the hand while the children they abuse suffer for the rest of their lives.

Essential Task for Therapists

An essential task for the therapist is providing a safe environment. Ensuring that a victim of sexual abuse feels comfortable in their setting is a pertinent factor in providing treatment. Also, maybe the sex of the therapist will matter. If the victim is female and was sexually abuse by a male, she may only feel comfortable speaking with another female. Lana stated, “The women in my placement have expressed many times their fears and anxieties when in groups with men after sexual assaults that they faced both as children and adults”.

As therapist we should not only be treating for sexual abuse, we should also be doing more about prevention and education to all young children. It should not take years for a person to disclose that they were abused as child without having the ability to address the abuse. They should not have to go through the feelings that it was their fault or the one to blame. Laura stated, ” I think it is very important for children to understand that it is often an adult that they know who becomes an abuser. Schools teach stranger-danger, and to fear the stranger, when often the threat comes from an individual close to or seen by the child.” Children need to be aware that there are monsters who can appear as nice people, who are not only strangers, and the only way to make something bad go away they have to talk. Some ways to do this is by using examples of what is appropriate from different people is the best way to get things across. Also, using child-like language is very important as well. Using characters from TV and books can be used as examples of love and family as long as the child can relate and understand in a certain way.

A therapist of someone who has a history of sexual abuse would need to patient and empathetic, while urging the individual to share their story. The individual has likely lived many years of hiding the abuse and trying to act like it never happened, while trying to live a “normal” life. This is not possible, as the horrible history will present itself in varying disorders, such as borderline personality disorder, dissociative disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder and create upset in their life. The therapist must create an era of trust and safety in which the individual can feel comfortable and able to speak about their past. I think the therapist needs to ease into the revelations in order to help the individual to feel more comfortable; with each small piece, followed by safety and reassurance, another may follow, allowing the individual to reveal their past. This is really the ideal, and the therapist will need to be able to help the person overcome the varying disorders and other issues in their life.

Why People Develop Problems with Substances

Psychological and sociological theories as to why people develop problems with substances and their application vary; some theories relate to genetics others to the environment. Most Theories focus on particular features of the rate of drug use: Illicit drugs, Alcoholism, Addiction, The drug experience-how and why people use them, Individuals, Society, Career.

Social learning is just one of the theories that try to explain the use of substance misuse. A degree of difference is found in society’s attitudes and behaviours. Learning depends on priority, intensity, time and involves practice, motivation, attitude, and meaning. (Edwin Sutherland 1939).

Thinking about different theories on behaviour can help us to understand why and how some people have substance problems, for example,

Behavioral theories: behavioural psychology or behaviourism is based on all behaviours being learned through conditioning. Cognitive theories:focus on internal thoughts such as motivation, attention, decision making and problem solving. Developmental theories: think about learning, development and growth. Humanistic theories: look at human beings being basicaly good. Personality theories: looks at the behaviours, thoughts and feelings that make each person an individual. Social psycology theories: focus on explaining social behaviours. (Psychologist World)

Applying these theories can assist in understanding why some people depend on substances while others do not.

Looking at society as a whole does not give a clear picture as to why some people develop substance dependency. If you look at different areas of society you start to see deprived areas, poverty, unemployment, peer pressure, boredom or pressures from work, family history or a pre-disposition to substance problems as well as the environment that a person is brought up in could influence someone’s substance dependency.

If a child is born to a mother that is dependant on drugs or alcohol then the child may be born with a predisposition to that specific dependency, if a child is raised in an area where drugs and alcohol are freely available then they could be pressured by peers to consume the available substances. This is seen commonly among teenagers when they start to experiment with new things and where peer pressure to be the same as everyone else can entice a young person to start taking a substance to please or maintain relationships with peers. This can lead to long term dependency that can continue into adult hood especially if the child has a predisposition to substances or has an addictive tendency, causing the cycle to continue. Society’s attitude towards alcohol problems has been largely accepted as the “Scottish way of life” according to the 2004 Scottish social attitudes survey carried out by the Scottish government.

Cultural Attitudes

“Every person in Scotland has a part to play in reviewing their attitudes and behaviours, and contributing to the debate about how we collectively address these problems.” (Carolyn Churchill, 2010)

Alcohol problems are estimated to cost Scotland around ?3.56 billion per year in NHS, social work, police, emergency services, and the wider economic and human costs. Alcohol misuse not only affects the health and wellbeing of individual drinkers, but also have a major impact on family relationships, the wider communities as well as society as a whole. (Alcohol Focus Scotland)

Through using these services society is trying to reduce the amount of substance abuse within Scotland. This is however an uphill struggle and until attitudes change it will be left to the medical profession, police and emergency services and the social work department to fire fight the problems within the Scottish communities. Social justice is concerned with equality of justice, not just in the courts, but in society as a whole. This idea stresses that people have to have equal rights and opportunities from the poorest to the wealthiest in society deserve equal chances and opportunities. New legislation may assist the problem however it is the attitude of the individual that will ultimately start to change the attitude of society as a whole.

Criminal Justice law changed in 2010 this gave courts more flexibility in the way they were able to sentence people that passed through the courts. This now allows courts to look at ways of reparation without using short term imprisonments.

Statutory Orders are those non-custodial sentencing options available to all Sheriff Courts in Scotland. This allows greater choice of sentance for the sherriff. Using Social Enquiry Reports, Community Service Orders, Probation Orders (including those with a requirement of unpaid work), Probation Orders with a Requirement of Unpaid Work, Supervised Attendance Orders, Drug Treatment and Testing Orders, Restriction of Liberty Orders, Statutory Throughcare, Voluntary Assistance and the Throughcare Addiction Service, Home Circumstances Reports, Diversion from Prosecution and Bail Information, the sheriff can now look at the crime and the persons background and apply a decision/sentence that is proportionate to the crime. (Criminal Justice Act 2010)

Safer and stronger communities are at the heart of Scottish Government policy. Communities that people are proud to belong to, where they feel safe and have confidence that justice and fairness will prevail, where people take responsibility for each other and for their own actions. (People and the Law)

Youth justice is closely connected to Getting it Right for Every Child which underpins the principals of agencies involved with young people. Getting It Right For Every Child is the Government’s policy for addressing the needs of all children – and it provides the framework within which public agencies can work better together with a focus on improving outcomes for children. Building the capacity of families and communities to engage in activities that support children is central to this approach. The Early Years and Early Intervention Framework being developed jointly by the Scottish Government and CoSLA will ensure a strong focus on what needs to be done to ensure that all children, including the most vulnerable, get the best start in life. (The Road to Recovery)

Youth justice is about intervening at an appropriate time with a plan and a good framework for the intervention. Multi agency co-operation is needed for this to work effectively using a range of procedures and practices dealing with young people who are putting themselves and/or others at risk or offending.

Scotland’s children’s hearing system was initiated by a change to the Social Work (Scotland) Act 1968 and is now part of the Children (Scotland) Act 1995 and is at the heart of youth justice. Since its introduction children under the age of 16 are only considered for prosecution in an adult court if the crime they have committed is deemed to be very serious such as murder. The hearing system deals with children and young people who are in need of care and protection as well as those who have displayed offending behaviours.

Youth justice traditionally worked with children from the age of 8 to 16 but has recognised the need to start preventative work with younger children to support them in the transition from children to adults in a more positive way. In recognising this youth justice introduced several preventative measures including restorative justice in schools, safer school partnership, and positive activities for young people, targeted youth support and targeted mental health in schools. The government also introduced the Youth Justice Re-investment Pathfinder Initiative this allows local authorities to act as “Pathfinders” to develop ways locally of reducing offending and re-offending without a custodial sentence.

Assessing, Planning and Intervention

Getting It Right for Every Child (GIRFEC) is a good place to start when assessing the needs of children and their families. GIRFEC takes a holistic view of the child GIRFEC has an integrated, common approach to gathering information about a child’s well-being. It uses three tools, the Well-being Indicators: identify record and share concerns, and take action as appropriate My World Triangle: Triangle helps practitioners gather relevant information to look at the strengths and pressures affecting a child and their family. The triangle is deliberately offered from the child’s view to reinforce the Getting it right for every child principle that children should always be kept at the centre. The Resilience Matrix: help organise and analyse information.

All children can be: Confident Individuals, Effective Contributors, Responsible Citizens and Successful Learners. To achieve this all children need to be Safe, Healthy, Active, Nurtured, Achieving, Respected and Responsible and Included. These are known as the ‘wellbeing indicators’ and are remembered by the acronym S.H.A.N.A.R.I. (GIRFEC)

Doing a GIRFEC assessment takes a multi agency view where social work, health and education professionals have a part to play in the assessment process. An assessment should be appropriate, proportionate and timely, once an assessment is done a more holistic picture about the needs of the children and the family has been obtained allowing the practitioner to plan a course of action for the children and family. Through careful planning strategies and interventions can be put into place to allow the children and family to move forward. All interventions and strategies need to be consensual so the whole family need to be involved in the planning and decisions made to ensure their commitment to the action plan. Intervention strategies will vary depending on the family and the problems they are facing. Using evidence based practice the best relevant information based on the best practices in the field of social work, health and education will achieve the most desirable outcome for the family, this also allows for the assessment and intervention to be transparent and informed.

The Key Capabilities document has four headings which together form the Key Capabilities in Child Care and Protection:

Effective Communication, The Scottish Social Services Council (SSSC) codes of practice describe communicating as being done in an appropriate, open, accurate and straightforward way. Knowledge and Understanding, this includes keeping up to date with relevant legislation, being accountable, using professional judgment and knowledge based social work practice, working effectively as a professional. Professional Confidence and Competence include, carrying out duties accountably, using professional judgment and knowledge based social work practice. Values and Ethical Practice, Work at all times within the professional codes of practice, ethical principles and service standards that underpin high quality social work practice, by applying these to any assessments or interventions it is possible for the practitioner to take an non-judgemental and anti discriminatory approach to the clients and there issues.

Assessment of the Key Issues Affecting this Family

Dean has already been involved in a previous incident involving alcohol where he had assaulted Sandra and her brother in front of the children while he was under the influence of alcohol. Dean has been working with the social worker in an attempt to rectify his relationship with Sandra. Through getting drunk and losing control he has committed a serious offence Dean needs help with his problematic drinking, aggression and anger management as his actions will have a lasting effect on the children and Sandra.

Resilience varies from child to child some children do not develop any problems either as children or adults. Families being together in harmony and good social networks are just two of the ways a child builds their resilience however the issues faced by Nathan and Jordan are numerous, they may have to take on responsibilities far beyond their years which effects their education and peer relationships, they may suffer physical and psychological health issues, domestic violence and child abuse, there are concerns regarding anti social behaviour increasing the risk of aggression towards others, hyperactivity or conduct disorders, emotional and attachment disorders and neglect. Building resilience in this situation will need a good level of self esteem, confidence and self efficiency as well as the ability to adjust to change and problem solving skills. There are implications for the children’s safety and welfare which may become a child protection issue.

Dean and Sandra are in crisis which would imply that a short piece of intervention work could be used to rectify this situation. Working with Dean and Sandra on new skills to avoid this type of situation and setting achievable goals and supporting them they should be able to continue to work on their relationship as they were before this incident happened.

As a longer term intervention such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy could be a useful tool in this situation, by getting Dean to think about his own thoughts, emotions, physical feelings and actions may assist Dean at looking at his behaviours thoughts and feelings differently and try to take a more positive look at how he can deal with similar situations in the future. This is about getting Dean to view situations in a more positive way therefore being able to handle the situation in a more positive way. This work is not a quick fix for Dean’s behaviours and he needs to want to take part for it to work. Sandra should be included in part of this therapy as she seems to be one of the objects of Dean’s anger as does Sandra’s brother. (PSYCH)

Dean would also benefit from working with people who have experience in substance related problems such as his GP or a voluntary group. Dean would have to be in agreement with these strategies for them to work. Giving Dean options allows him to take charge of the situation and enables him to move forward at a pace he is comfortable with.

If Dean is working voluntarily towards resolving his alcohol, anger and aggression issues it may help his assault case when it goes to court.

The impact on the family will be minimized if dean and Sandra are working together to tackle this situation and work through the problems they are now facing as a family unit supporting each other and the children to a mutually beneficial outcome for the family and wider society.

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Case Study

The role of the social worker in criminal justice

From 1 February 2011 a Social Enquiry Report will be called a Criminal Justice Social Work Report.

When a sheriff or judge wants to know more about an accused persons background, they will ask for a Criminal Justice Social Work Report. If a person is likely to be going to jail for the first time, the court must have a report. The report provides the court with the information needed to decide the most appropriate way to deal with offender. A Criminal Justice Social Work Report is written by a social worker, who contacts you by letter and asks you to attend an interview. The social worker will ask for information about your, current circumstances, personal and social history, previous offences, and current or previous supervision.

At the end of the interview the social worker will explain to you what sentencing options are available to the court.

Explore the challenges faced by the differences in working with three Service User Groups – adults, older people and children. Discuss how, by drawing on relevant life course theories, your communication skills would need to be modified in order to meet these challenges and remain effective, anti-discriminatory and anti-oppressive.

Interacting via communication with Service users is of one of the highest important aims for social / care workers providing care. Each individual case is unique and I will be explaining how communication skills differ from each person to the next.

There are many different life course theories that can be used to explain how a person develops through the stages of life. In this assignment I will be looking at Eric Berne’s Transactional analysis for the adult group and showing how adults have to change their tone and manner as they are seen as the teachers for the next generation. I will be explaining Cunning and Henry’s Disengagement theory as this is a very important phase for older people and communication can be limited because of the perils of old age. Also I will be looking at Piaget’s cognitive development theory and Bolwby’s attachment theory in relation to children and how these theories affect communication. Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development contains elements for all three age groups so I will be looking briefly at the different stages involved, and I will also be looking at any challenges that occur within the groups and what skills are needed to overcome this via social work / care workers.

Interacting via communication with Service users is of one of the highest important aims for social / care workers providing care. Each individual case is unique and I will be explaining how communication skills differ from each one person to the next. There are many different life course theories that can be used to explain how a person goes through the stages of life. For adults I will be taking you through Eric Berne’s Transactional analysis and for the elderly group I will look at Cunning and Henry Disengagement Theory and how this affects communication for the older generation and then I will be looking at Piaget’s cognitive development theory and Bowlby’s attachment theory and how these theories affect communication within the children’s group. Then I will be showing how Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development are involved in all three service user groups and I will also be looking at any challenges that occur within the groups and what skills are needed to overcome this via social work / care workers.

A life course is the advancement a person takes from birth to cessation (Crawford and Walker, 2003 p. 3) Also (Newman and Newman, 2007 p. 185) shows the life course as a perspective which helps to explain how altering societal predicaments affect development and combination of the phases of family and work life over a number of years. (Fiske, 1982 p. 2) explains communication as being an action that every person can identify with, by talking, listening to the television or distributing knowledge these are all forms of communication. He describes two main studies of communication as being either an expression of words or a creation and replacement of meanings.

If we take a look at the Transactional analysis theory (Woods, 2010) shows that Eric Berne’s theory was about ego states which are parent, adult and child. It covers a wide range of exclusive advancement including communication, behaviour and personality. Looking at adult communication he saw this as being the main voice used to influence the whole learning process. He believes that if someone is talking in a childish manner automatically the adult will respond with a voice of authority, either in a sarcastic tone or a caring parenting manner. (Chapman, 1995) also shows that transactional analysis is used for therapeutic, personal development and communication; it helps a person understand one’s self. To communicate we use our own feelings which can shift at any one given time, and to reply we will use the exact way of thinking. So to have stable conversations an adult needs to act interested to what is being said and show the person speaking that they have their full attention and this will make for a stronger relationship between them both.

Favourable communication according to (Weger and Polcar, 2002) is the basic domain of an interpersonal friendship. If you offer support and are willing to provide comfort through good and bad times then this will in turn be a healthy natural relationship.

(Wolvin, 2010 p.144) believes the art of communication is to listen, with doing this you are better able to understand the concept of communicating, and then you can identify and evaluate the question helping you to make sense of it.

Behavioural issues can be defined by a person’s determined state, they show up as objectives and by using these objectives a person will come up with a way of achieving their potential via talking. So by communicating it is up to the individual to put as much information into the conversation so the recipient can define their answer to make it a purposeful state (Ackoff, 1958)

(Nussbaum, 2000) states that elderly people have to regularly change their lifestyle to adapt to adjustments associated with getting older. Age can cause many challenges for communication, examples are: memory loss or loss of hearing. Because of these it could take considerable time for any acknowledgement whilst trying to communicate, they may tend to make inaccurate sentences and be less sensitive about issues that may otherwise hurt someone else’s feelings. There are many theories linked to prosperous aging examples of these are: continuity theory, activity theory, socioemotional selectivity theory and disengagement theory.

Looking at the disengagement theory (Maddox, 1964) states that the disengagement is the final stage of the life course process. Life goals are a very important phrase in everybody’s life and this seems to extend through to the older generation also. The belief is that psychological departure leads to total exclusion from the older person’s social life, and without this communication will be very limited as they may not have any family of friends visiting on a daily basis.

Communication with older people can be a complicated process. At the time when it is needed the most communication seems to be a burden because of the life processes which come with the old age. To overcome some of the frustrations of speaking to an older person if you allow extra time for them to speak and sit face to face with them, then if there is any hearing loss at least the person can watch your lips to understand what you are saying to them. If you speak slowly and clearly or even write down some of the conversation to explain in a bit more detail this then will help the person immensely and by doing this you are showing respect and helpfulness towards to person you are talking to (Robinson et al. 2006)

There are many challenges involved with working with older people, (Hepple, 2004) shows there are many approaches that can be used to try and boost communication issues. Group and behavioural approach or reality familiarisation is widely used to try and amend the forgotten memories. Whichever approach is used will depend mainly on the resources of the institution that is providing the care plan for the service users involved.

Looking at Piaget’s cognitive development (Feldman, 2004) believes that his work was not the dominant competitor for a while but now it has accomplished extensive significance to researchers again. Some critics thought his work was to complex and to widespread but his stages still form the basis of the developing mind. (Boeree, 1999) shows the stages of development for a child as being the Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations and the formal operations stage. According to (Koprowska, 2005 p. 97) a baby within the first couple of months will try and make blubbering noises in response to you talking to them and will only start trying to develop simple words by the age of one. So the best means of communication with young children would be via play and interaction. Children do not enjoy sitting for long periods of time so by drawing or innovative games could be the easiest way for communication to take place for the younger age groups in Piaget’s stages.

(Geddes, 2007) believes that using Bowlby’s attachment theory will help in the understanding of sensitive experiences which in turn helps you to communicate with young children. The basis of communication is to show your inner self via your feelings, thoughts and creativity. So by looking at Bowlby, the attachment for a child will help with their future experiences if the start of their life is one of security within a family unit. The child then will be able to examine the world and if there are any pressures they can always return to their safe haven for security. With a negative attachment a child will struggle with communication and relationships. They tend to be insecure and prefer to keep themselves to themselves as they don’t respond well to any attention and can start to be disruptive and aggressive because they feel vulnerable and out of their depth.

The Children Act 1989 sets out the rights of the child, so the child needs to engage in any outcomes that will modify their lives and future. Social workers need impressive skills in communication as there are many barriers that can stop any interaction with the child so they need the ability to be able to cope under any form of pressure or obstacle placed before them. Social workers deal with many families and young children all with very different backgrounds examples of these are: children who are leaving care, children who have behavioural problems and children who may have health problems or disabilities, each case is different so the social worker needs to be able to produce a care plan and have the skills in place to communicate on every different level to provide the best possible care for the service users involved. (Koprowska, 2005 p. 94)

Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development involve all three age groups, when looking at children Erikson’s stages progress through at least four of them. (Adoption media, 1995) states that if a child wants to proceed onto the next stage they need to complete the one before. A child will develop trust if well cared for and be insecure if not; this will show up in all the stages there is a negative to every positive. So a child will only learn from what they are taught and if they are shown the right way to develop through the various stages then as they become parents they will be secure and happy to show their children the right upbringing to carry on the process to the next generation.

(Zastrow and Ashman, 2007 p. 444) states that the seventh stage of Erikson’s life development is Generativity versus stagnation. Generativity is instructing family and friends to make improvements in their lives to make the future better for their offspring. This will involve safeguarding and improving the lives of future generations for a better quality of life. Stagnation on the other hand is the selfish side of the stage, adults who only think about their own needs and are not willing to take anyone else’s feeling’s into consideration.

(Greene and Kropf, 2009 p. 90) shows Erikson’s final stage as being Integrity versus Despair. Absoluteness is achieved if the person involved has leaded a full and complete life, dealing with everyday disappointments as well as accomplishments successfully. Despair on the other hand is for the people who fear death and the ones who have not accomplished everything they wanted to do in their lives and wish for another chance to achieve this.

If communication is not sort in the identity stage (Sanchez, 2002) states that this could affect self confidence in later life. New ideas start from communication, a person needs to be able to express their thoughts and feelings. Interpersonal communication through all of Erikson’s stages will help an individual have a healthy developed identity.

(SCIE 2010) shows how social workers have to work by their codes of ethics and values showing respect, empathy and a genuine helpfulness towards the service user they are working with. They will always provide a complete care package to help empower the individual to deliver the best possible outcome. If the social care worker uses an interpersonal approach this in turn will guide the service user to help them decide how their care is achieved and help make the decision process a group decision, so communication is a key element to this approach which will then help with the relationship between the user and the social care worker.

To summarise there are many different ways to communicate with the three service user groups. People who work in the social work/care sector are trained to be able to customise their expertise to care and communicate at all levels. If the care worker shows empathy and helpfulness they will get more back from the service user then they would if you started the conversation with an aggressive attitude. Service users what to be listened to, they want you to understand what care they expect. You will have to change the way you speak in all different circumstances, speaking to children will be completely different to speaking to an adult or an elderly person. Body language and facial gestures also show as an important part of communicating with someone, even repeating what the other has said will show that you are taking them seriously. You need to be able to change your approach for all different situations and use different interventions to cater for each individual seeking care.

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