Author: Andre Coleman

The purpose of this assessment is to identify and discuss the vulnerability issues arising from the scenario. Peter is a vulnerable adult and inclined to be forgetful therefore, reference will be made to the nursing and Midwifery Council’s code of professional conduct in respect of duty of care, safety, respecting client’s dignity, confidentiality, and consent to accept or refuse treatment. This case scenario is not a real client, therefore no consent was needed and no breach of confidence was made. An attempt will be made to explore whether Peter has the mental capacity to consent to the treatment himself. Guidelines on The Mental Health Act 2005 and the legislation will be included to support this. A discussion will be outlined to the nurse’s role in safeguarding vulnerable patients and their families, which will include the government’s policies and procedures, and the Nursing and Midwifery’s Council guidelines. The discussion will also include the consequences of the policies not being followed correctly and the outcome that would have on the nurse. The key vulnerability issues relating to Peter and his daughter within the scenario will be identified such as Peter’s age and his forgetfulness.

This assignment will contain the major role and responsibilities of a nurse in terms of ensuring that the rights of Peter are promoted and maintained and will be specifically around him not to be treated in a degrading manner. Autonomy and advocacy, and the interventions which are available to support Peter for his security to be assured and him needing confidence to increase his mobility. The Human Rights Act (2008) refers to individual’s rights to make decisions for himself and not to be discriminated against. Peter has a specific right of expression of thought and conscience to accept or refuse care. The assignment criteria require students to explain how Peter’s autonomy may be promoted by the nurse to gain the ability to make his own decision, including patient-centred care and acting as an advocate. A final requirement of students is to specify and justify appropriate professional behaviour and interventions for Peter. Reference will be made to therapeutic relationships between the nurse and Peter, highlighting the support the nurse should give to the patient and his family, and to discuss the importance of maintaining professional boundaries. The multi-disciplinary team will also have to assess Peter’s home to see if there were any adjustments needed to support him further with his mobility. Peter would also need further extensive health services if he agrees to go ahead with the surgery.

The paper is presented in accordance in line with the University’s academic guidelines presented as appendix 7 in the Student Handbook 2010. References will also be citied in line with the University’s own version of the Harvard referencing system.

Main Body
Vulnerability – Section 1

According to Rogers 1997, vulnerability is “Liable to damage or harm, especially from aggression or attack”.

Vulnerability is when a person is put into a situation where they are not familiar with, which makes them feel uncomfortable. A vulnerable adult is anyone over the age of 18 who is unable to protect themselves against harm or exploitation. The types of people who may be particularly vulnerable are children, the elderly, adults with visual, hearing or speech impairment. Other types of vulnerable adults include those with learning disabilities, mental health problems or a severe physical illness.

People who require care services may have an increase in their vulnerability as they are entering a new environment with unfamiliar surroundings. Another factor could be their age and if they are unable to take care of themselves. Therefore, they are not in control of the situation and could become fully dependant on a nurse to care for them which to the patient increases their risk of becoming vulnerable. Peter is particularly vulnerable due to him being 85 years old and inclined to be forgetful, also the fact his daughter is trying to force Peter’s decision in going ahead with the surgery yet he is no longer certain he wants too.

“Abuse is a violation of an individual’s human and civil rights by any other person or persons” (Department of Health, Pg 9).

Abuse can consist of a single act or repeated acts. It may be verbal, physical or psychological; it may be an act of neglect or an omission to act. It may occur when a vulnerable person is persuaded to enter into a financial or sexual transaction to which he or she has not consented, or cannot consent. Abuse can occur in any relationship and may result in significant harm to, or exploitation of the person subjected to it.

A nurse’s most important responsibility is to the client first. The NMC (2008), states that “Nurses have an absolute duty to safeguard and protect vulnerable adults from harm.”

The responsibility of a nurse is to promote health, prevent illness, restore health and alleviate suffering. A nurse should take appropriate action to safeguard the individual when their care is endangered by a co-worker or anyone else. Nurses have a right but also a responsibility to act on behalf of the client if they feel he or she is being mistreated.

Registered nurses hold a position of trust to the client and this must never be breached, they should also maintain professional relationships with vulnerable clients at all times. A nurse not only has a professional duty to protect vulnerable clients, but also a legal responsibility. If a nurse failed to comply with legal obligations they could be struck off the NMC register, but also it could be classed as a criminal offence.

The Independent Safeguarding Authority is a government policy which helps to prevent unsuitable people from working with vulnerable adults. They assess those individuals working or wishing to work in regulated activity that are referred to them on the grounds that they pose a possible risk of harm to vulnerable groups. The Government ensures the safety of vulnerable adults by integrating strategies, policies and services relevant to abuse within the framework of the NHS and Community Care Act 1990, and the Mental Health Act 1983.

The Mental Capacity Act 2005 and Code of Practice is another vitally important piece of legislation setup by the government. The Code of Practice provides guidance and support to anyone who is working with or caring for adults who may lack a decision making capacity. This includes professionals, carers and families who know the person best. It focuses on those who have a duty of care to someone who may lack the capacity to agree to the care that is being provided.

As the NMC (2008) states, “You must disclose information if you believe someone may be at risk of harm, in line with the law of the country in which you are practising.”

Section 2

The key vulnerability issues relating to Peter is that he is an elderly client of 85 years. He has not yet consented to the treatment as he is feeling apprehensive as there are major risks associated with the procedure. His daughter is very keen for the surgery to go ahead and Peter is seeking help from the nurse as he obviously feels he cannot discuss his fears with his daughter.

Section 3

Article 3 in the Human Rights Act states no one shall be tortured, or suffer inhuman or degrading treating or punishment.

Although there is no absolute right to receive care in the UK, all patients have certain rights in their dealings with health care professionals. In 1995, the government issued the patients charter to inform clients of their rights, it is designed to improve the services people receive and it lays down the level of care that people can expect from the National Health Service. The charter was made public so that clients know the standards they should expect, they can take steps to complain and have things put right if the standards are not met.

Client’s rights include the right to make their own decisions about their own lives and the right to be given appropriate information to make informed decisions. The right to privacy and confidentiality and to be given appropriate assistance in exercising their rights, when they are unable to themselves, such as having an advocate available. Clients also have the right to freedom from exploitative and abusive practice, and the right to have personal beliefs, preferences and choices including religion, culture and political beliefs.

Peter should expect the nurse to maintain his right’s by having his dignity and privacy maintained while care is being given. The right to be included when making his care plan, the right to accept or refuse treatment, and for his patient information to be kept confidential. Also as Peter asked the nurse to help him make the decision and due to him being vulnerable and inclined to be forgetful, the nurse should act as Peter’s advocate for him if needed.

As the NMC (2008) states: “You must uphold people’s rights to be fully involved in decisions about their care.”

Accountability

Accountability is based on three conditions including ability, responsibility and authority. Nurses hold a position of responsibility and to promote efficiency and safety as other people rely on them. They are professionally accountable to the NMC and to the law for their actions. Nurses use their professional judgement, knowledge and skills to make a decision based on evidence for best practice and for the client’s best interests. Nurses need to be able to justify the decisions they make. If you are a professional in charge of a task you can be called by law to account what happened, especially if something goes wrong. This is because if a nurse performs a task, they immediately take responsibility for that task and its outcomes

“As a professional, you are personally accountable for actions and omissions in your practice, and must always be able to justify your decisions” (NMC, 2008).

Duty of care

Any health care professional who undertakes the care of a client owes them a duty of care. A nurse’s duty of care includes managing risk appropriately, work effectively as part of a team, share information with colleagues and delegate effectively. Treat people as individuals and respect their dignity and confidentiality. Nurses should also need to ensure they gain consent, maintain clear professional boundaries, and collaborate with those in your care.

Confidentiality

The most essential element to confidentiality is it must be built on trust. The nurse’s need to know that the client trusts them but also that they trust the nurse’s professional judgement, knowledge and skills. It is also essential that the nurse feels the client will inform the nurse all that is necessary to deliver the most appropriate care. Confidentiality is an integral component of the nurse-patient relationship and a fundamental element of professional conduct and ethical practice. Sharing information with other professionals can only be done on a strict “need to know basis”, and patient confidentiality can only be breached in exceptional circumstances. Nurses must maintain confidence and respect the privacy of a patient’s health information at all times. Professionals must only disclose confidential information with consent from the client, if they are required to by the court of law or where they can justify that it was in the public’s interest.

Section 4 – Autonomy

Autonomy is about independence and the freedom to choose, and about not being coerced into doing something one would not otherwise choose to do. Autonomy has been defined as “the power of self-determination and freedom from alien domination and constraint” (Smith, 1967).

Autonomy involves clients making choices for themselves. As a nurse you should actively encourage clients to be involved in the decision making process and ensure that their voice is heard. Respecting client’s autonomy means to treat them as a person with rights and not as objects of care. This mainly involves discussing their care and treatment with them in an open and honest way and allowing them to make their own decision about what care they want to receive. For a nurse to be able to promote client’s autonomy there has to be a relationship and effective communication between them and the client. If their autonomy is to be respected, then nurse’s have to allow client’s to make decisions and then act upon them.

According to (Hendrick, 2004, pg 95) autonomy is defined as “The capacity to make reasoned decisions, the ability to think for oneself, to make decisions for oneself and to act on the basis of such thought.”

Patient-centred care includes all aspects of how services are delivered to our clients. This includes compassion, empathy, values, preferences and responding to all their needs. A nurse should be delivering this care at all times and make sure they are giving the patient all the information available, communicating to them at all times and educating them about their care and how processes and procedures work, using as little jargon as possible. Emotional support should be provided to help relieve client’s fears and anxieties as this can be important to a therapeutic relationship.

Advocacy

“Promoting and protecting the interest of people in your care, many of whom will be vulnerable and incapable of protecting their own interest” (NMC, 2008).

Advocacy is about acting on behalf of the client in a professional capacity who cannot speak themselves. Anyone could potentially need an advocate as any client may feel vulnerable as they are in unfamiliar surroundings. An advocate is acting as an intermediary between clients and family, significant others, and health care providers. It is a role of support for clients, both speaking and emotionally.

As a nurse you have a duty of care to encourage the client to participate or if they cannot speak for themselves then nurses should become that person’s advocate by putting their needs and views forward, and to ensure their rights are promoted.

“You must act as an advocate for those in your care, helping them to access relevant health and social care, information and support” (NMC, 2008).

Consent

Valid consent must be given by a competent person and must be given voluntarily. Nurses have three professional responsibilities with regard to obtaining consent. They need to make the care of people their first concern and ensure they gain consent before they begin any treatment or care, ensure that the process of establishing consent is transparent and demonstrate a clear level of professional accountability. After they have obtained consent they need to accurately record all discussions and decisions relating to obtaining consent.

“Every adult must be presumed to have the mental capacity to consent or refuse treatment, unless an assessment reveals they lack the capacity to consent” (NMC, 2008).

When a nurse needs to inform a client about proposed treatment or care it is important that they deliver the information in an understanding and sensitive way. It is essential that they are given sufficient information for them to make a decision whether to accept or refuse the treatment being offered. Nurses should also give the client enough time to consider the information and the opportunity to ask questions if they need too. Nurses should not assume that clients know even basic medical information and should explain every aspect with as little jargon as possible in order for the client to make their choice.

There are three different types of consent including verbally, implied and written. Clients can express their agreement by either of these forms. With Peters surgery includes risks associated his agreement should be made by written consent. Written consent is a document which shows the patient’s choice and that discussions have taken place between them and a professional.

There can sometimes be difficulties with gaining consent. There are particular vulnerable groups such as older people, people with mental health problems, people with learning difficulties and children. Nurses need to keep these vulnerable groups at the centre of the decision making process. As Peter is a vulnerable elderly client he is weaker and inclined to be forgetful, therefore an assessment would need to be carried out by a nurse of doctor to assess his mental capacity; professionals should always presume that older people are able to make decisions.

In the same way a client can accept treatment, they can also make the choice to refuse treatment, even if this may harm them or cause death. Nurses should find out why they are refusing and then the consequences of declining the treatment and what will happen to their health if they don’t go ahead. If this happens it is important that you honour their rights and wishes and document fully any decisions made to refuse, and clearly record that this is the client’s choice.

“You must be aware of the legislation regarding mental capacity, ensuring that people who lack capacity remain at the centre of decision making and are full safeguarded” (NMC, 2008).

The Mental Capacity Act 2005 provides a statutory framework to empower and protect people who may lack the mental capacity to make an informed decision for themselves. The Act is underpinned by five main principles, the first one being that everyone is assumed to have the mental capacity to make a decision until proven otherwise. Every individual needs to be supported to make a decision and if a person makes what seems like an unwise decision, they should not be treated as lacking capacity.

Section 5-last bit

In order for a nurse to develop a therapeutic relationship with a client there must be effective communication involved. The very best of care is only achieved if the nurse is committed to getting to know the client in there care through effective assessment as individuals. This involves finding out how best to care for and communicate with them from their perspective, whilst ensuring respect, dignity and fairness are maintained.

This literature review focuses on sports volunteering as part of an investigation into the successfulness of leadership academies. By critically examining existing research and related literature, this review aims to draw up key issues and identify gaps in the current volunteering system. The scope of the searches for relevant literature was restricted to material dated from 1990 onwards, with to enable the literature review to concentrate on the most recent information. Literature was sourced through databases and websites linked to volunteering, sport, active citizenship and leadership. As such, this literature review draws on a variety of subjects which will be identified throughout the review. This paper reviews key literature, focusing on the need for continued involvement in leadership and volunteer opportunities within the school and community context.

Introduction

It is a cherished belief within physical activity and sport communities that participation in leadership and volunteering has the potential to offer young people a range of physical, psychological and social benefits, whilst also as a provider of sporting opportunities and in the development of sport, from increasing participation through to supporting excellence and elite performance. More recently in the UK, this belief has become prominent in government policies, are seeking to engage young people in order to inspire individuals and even though the London 2012 Olympic Games is 3 years away strong planning for volunteering is being put in place as the aspect of major events that has the potential to contribute to social regeneration and the strengthening of social capital.

The phrase ‘volunteering is the lifeblood of English sport’ is often used in todays sporting society. With it being well recognised that volunteers provide the core support for sport in the United Kingdom and without the 2 million adult volunteers who contribute at least one hour a week to volunteering in sport, community sport would simply grind to a halt (Sports Council, 1996). The research, commissioned by Sport England (2003) and carried out by the Leisure Industries Research Centre, provided the hard evidence to support this contention. It demonstrates the breadth and depth of support given by people across the country, who provide their time and rarely look for any reward beyond the personal satisfaction they get from the opportunities they provide for others to participate and achieve in sport. Volunteers also play an incredible role in staging some of England’s most prestigious sporting events. Volunteering in the UK has a long and established history (Ockenden, 2007) and without its volunteer workforce, events simply wouldn’t happen. Such reliance on volunteers in UK sport lead to the production of the government strategy, “A Sporting Future for All”. The policy has a major focus on ensures that volunteers get adequate training, support and strategic management (DCMS, 2000).

Defining volunteering

As suggested by Cluskey, et al (2006) defining volunteering is something that on the surface appears to be relatively simple, but in reality it is actually quite complex. Many researchers have stated that the term ‘volunteering’ is vague, covering different activities and participation at all levels of society, with volunteering traditions being affected by cultural and political contexts (Salamon & Anheier, 1997; Lukka & Ellis, 2002; United Nations, 2001). Although the word ‘volunteer’ may seem to have a common shared meaning, there is not universal consensus about the meaning of the term. It should be highlighted that there is no single meaning of volunteering or of a what volunteer is (Volunteering England, 2008).

Davis Smith (2000) and Nichols (2004) highlight four characteristics of volunteering within a UK context:

That it should be undertaken for no financial gain

That it should be undertaken in an environment of genuine freewill

That there are identifiable beneficiaries or a beneficiary

That there can be formal and informal types

Current context for sports volunteering in the UK

The voluntary sector plays a central role in sports development and the provision of sporting opportunities in the UK. Volunteers are key in the organisation of UK sport and the sector also provides a major economic contribution to the total value added of the industry (Shibli et al, 1999; Gratton and Taylor,2000).

Volunteering in the UK has a long and established history (Ockenden, 2007) and the valuable contribution volunteers make to society is increasingly being recognised. All levels of government are becoming more and more keen to raise active citizenship, and volunteering is promoted as one of the best examples of how individuals can make a meaningful contribution to civil society with volunteering seen as an important expression of citizenship and fundamental to democracy (EFSD, 2007).

There has been two main research documents both commissioned by Sport England, which look into sports volunteering in England. The latest “Active People Survey” (2006) showed that over 2.7 million people put some voluntary time into sport (at least one hour a week volunteering to sport). The “Sports Volunteering in England” (2002) found numerous results some of the headline information from this research is below:

There are 5,821,400 sport volunteers in England.

This represents 14% of the adult population.

26% of all volunteers cite ‘sport’ as their main area of interest.

That makes the sport sector the single biggest contribution to total volunteering in England.

Sport volunteers contribute one billion hours each year to sport – equivalent to 720,000 paid workers.

These results have seen a massive change as results from five years previous in the 1997 National Survey of Volunteering (Davis Smith, 1998) indicated a ‘sharp reduction in levels of participation by young people’. Volunteering by those aged 16 to 24 was down from 55% in 1991 to 43% in 1997, reversing the trend towards higher rates of volunteering in the previous decade (Lynn and Davis Smith, 1991).

Government change over time

Eley and Kirk (2002) identified during the 1990s there became a recognition of the benefits of volunteering which led to greater interest in volunteer activity among young people and the political parties developed strategies to help attract and encourage more young volunteers. The government has now identified engaging people in voluntary work as a key way to reaching out to those most at risk from social exclusion. This was linked with New Labour coming to power in 1997, as numerous initiatives recognised and supported volunteering were established:

Millennium Volunteers – an England wide scheme that aimed to increase volunteering for people aged 16 to 24 year olds. Now been re-branded as the ‘vinvolved programme’, currently funding voluntary organisations and encouraging young people to get involved in volunteering.

The Year of the Volunteer 2005 – a ?10 million campaign funded by the Home Office and aimed at raising the awareness of volunteering, increasing opportunities for people to become involved whilst also encouraging more individuals to volunteer

Although these programmes are generic volunteer programmes they include projects that take place within sport. ‘A Sporting Future for All’ (DCMS, 2000) and ‘Game Plan’ (DCMS, 2002) ensured that volunteering in sport appeared on the strategic agenda. Sport England was made responsible for raising the profile of and promoting volunteering within sport. Given the role assigned to sport in achieving new Labour’s social inclusion and active citizenship agendas (PAT 10 Report, DCMS, 1999), numerous nationally driven initiatives that promote volunteering in a specifically sporting context have appeared.

As stated by Volleyball England (2004) over the past few years leadership for young people within sport has become a hot topic on the Governments agenda leading to specifically targeted policies. The Physical Education and School Sport and Club Links (PESSYP) strategy which came into place in 2003, consisted of 8 strands which covered an array of areas aiming to enhance the take-up of sporting opportunities for pupils five to sixteen year olds. Step into Sport was one of the eight strands which focused on developing leadership. Now, the new PESSYP Strategy which shows the Governments continued interests in improving school PE, added 2 extra strands to the policy with ‘Volunteering and Leadership’ having its own priority.

Current Sport England programmes:

Recruit into Coaching – is part of the wider PE and Sport Strategy for Young People (PESSYP) coaching strand. Recruit into Coaching focuses on the 70 most deprived areas of England as identified through the highest ranked local authorities. It is flexible in terms of the sports it includes as it’s based very much on local need. Which meets to the view of Rochester (2006) of using volunteering for civic renewal and social inclusion.

The Young Ambassador Programme – was born and initiated in the summer of 2006 as a direct response to the promise that London would use the power of the Olympic and Paralympic Games to inspire millions of young people to choose sport.

London 2012 Olympics volunteering – The London 2012 games will depend on up to 70,000 volunteers to make sure they run smoothly and successfully. This has lead to the creation of a number of volunteer schemes, which are aiming to allow for the volunteer spirit spreading wider than the Games themselves by encouraging everyone to give their time to help others.

The ‘Young Leaders Programme’, supported by BP, is one of the volunteer scheme which is designed to give a group of disadvantaged young people the chance to make positive change to their lives by using the summer games as a catalyst.

Rochester (2006) suggests that within the UK, two broad policy streams encourage voluntary activity within sport and other contexts. These consist of, civil renewal and social inclusion. The aspect of civil renewal is aimed at targeting the increasing amount of people who are becoming disengaged from public life. Disengagement is regarded by the government as posing a threat to democracy and having a harmful impact on community cohesion, with individuals progressively losing their sense of common purpose and belonging within the society (Jochum et al., 2005).

Social inclusion has also become a hot topic for new Labour. The formation of the Social Exclusion Task Force, which was established in 2006 shows the commitment creating inclusive communities. It has been identified that participating in voluntary work as a way to reach out to people at risk of social exclusion and promoting correlative social inclusion (Social Exclusion Task Force, 2009).

Champion Coaching was the first nationwide scheme created to help the support volunteers.

Motives for volunteering

Whilst evidence shows that there is widespread commitment to increase numbers and strengthen the volunteer base, a clear picture of what we know about young volunteers does not exist. Gaskin (1998) created the most detailed and comprehensive information on young people’s attitudes and what they want from participation in volunteer activity. It established that the personal benefits gained by young people through volunteer and community service in sporting (Hellison, 1993) and general contexts (Pancer & Pratt, 1999) which include an increase in confidence, personal development and pro-social identity.

Many researchers have identified that people volunteer for a variety of reasons, both egoistic and altruistic, and the motivation for engaging in volunteer activity can vary greatly from person to person and over time for one person and many volunteers commonly cite multiple reasons for their involvement (Clary et al., 1998; Clary & Snyder, 1999, 2000; Farmer & Fedor, 1999; Wardell et al., 2000; Coleman, 2002; Taylor et al., 2003). Different age groups may also change their motives for volunteering, with younger groups regarding volunteering as a way of using and expanding their leadership skills, learning new skills and helping them with their future career prospects (Davis-Smith, 1998; Eley & Kirk, 2002; Coalter, 2004; Kay & Bradbury, 2009) while older volunteers more commonly mention a desire to fill up ‘spare’ time and cite involvement in volunteering as part of their philosophy of life (Doherty & Carron, 2003; Low et al., 2007). The contribution of young sport leaders takes an added significance because their leadership training in sport not only contributes to their own personal skills development but they also use those skills through volunteering to provide greater sport opportunities for other young people to participate in sport (Elay and Kirk, 2002).

Perhaps one of the most widely adopted theoretical approaches to understand volunteer motives is that of Clary and Snyder (1991) citied in Cluskeley, et al (2006) who argued that people act to satisfy socio-psychological goals and although individuals may be involved in similar voluntary activities, their goals can vary widely. Their perspective identified four key distinct functions which categorise the motives behind an individual’s involvement;

Expression of value – acting on the belief of the importance to help other

Understanding and knowledge – need to understand others

Social – engage in meeting others through volunteering

Ego defensive or protective – relieve negative feeling through service to others

Issues faced by volunteers

Volunteers are under increasing pressures in their roles, as indicated by Sport England studies (Taylor et al, 2003; Nichols et al, 2003; Gratton et al, 1996; Nichols, Shibli and Taylor, 1998). These include societal pressures – such as the constraints of time imposed by the paid workplace and family commitments – and some which are institutional: for example, heavier obligations as a result of legislation (e.g. health and safety, child protection) and greater demands from NGBs and Sport England (e.g. funding requirements, equal opportunities policies, accreditation schemes).

Findings published in Gaskin’s (1998) ‘Vanishing Volunteers’ created the message that volunteering has a poor image among young people. Although they generally approve of volunteering as beneficial to society and to individuals, its appeal to them is limited. An examination by the National Centre for Volunteering of the barriers to volunteering in 1995, for example, identified five obstacles for young people: lack of awareness of the benefits of volunteering, and negative images of voluntary work as boring, badly organised, the preserve of white, middle-aged, middleclass females, and expensive and time consuming (Niyazi, 1995). This view was also highlighted in the Millennium Volunteers scheme which concluded that for the programme to be successful it would need not only ‘to raise the profile of volunteering’ but also to ‘carry images of volunteering which are relevant and meaningful to young people’ (DfEE, 1998).

OLYMPIC VOLUNTEERING CHANGING THE IMAGE
Promoting active citizenship

The British government has been concerned with increasing citizenship and a sense of community spirit in young people for a number of years. In June 1998 the government published a policy framework for a scheme called the Millennium Volunteers. This programme created by the Department for Education and Skills was the one of the first to incorporate aims focused around increasing citizenship and rebuilding a sense of community among young people. Tony Blair, the British Prime Minister at the time expressed his concern about the need to support and recognise community involvement in order to bring about a ‘giving age’ (Heath, 2000).

The government is attempting to increase public engagement in civic institutions and society and respond to societal breakdown by promoting active citizenship and public participation as the responsibility of every individual. The government’s commitment to such policies can be seen by the promotion of volunteering in schools through the introduction of citizenship as a subject in the national curriculum, extra support made available for employee volunteering, the creation of institutions that promote citizenship and, new funding initiatives and policy proposals that link citizenship to volunteering (NCVO, 2009). This change to the national curriculum links closely to the view of Elay and Kirk (2002) who identified the benefits of volunteering are also evident from an educational perspective because it is central to the issue of how young people should be taught about their rights and responsibilities to the community.

Conclusion

This literature review has been able to identify that sport has had a long history on heavily relying on volunteers. It remains one of the most popular fields for engagement for volunteers, with between 13% and 26% of all voluntary work in the UK taking place in a sporting context. Although sport is so reliant on its volunteers it has only started to receive recognition and support from the government or the broader volunteering infrastructure in recent years. The significant difference now however is the substantial funding which is being invested into school leadership programmes designed at creating lifelong volunteers.

Volunteering may well be a catalyst for changing communities with excluded individuals, but there is no guarantee that this will always occur and it isn’t backed up with enough solid information to create a solid case. Although volunteering does have a vast array of people involved the message from young people is that it needs a make-over to gain further participants. By improving its image, broadening its access and provide what today’s and tomorrow’s young people need. Volunteering suffers from outdated associations with worthy philanthropy and conjures up images that do not appeal to the young. However, it is recognised as potentially offering opportunities to young people that are scarcely available anywhere else. The research suggests that there is a vast pool of young people who could benefit from voluntary work, if certain conditions are met. (Gaskin, 1998)

Chanchez M. Smith
Abstract

In this paper, I will discuss generalist social work practice with victims of a violent crime. The following elements will be included: a clearly defined victim population of my choice; the nature of the crime; ethical issues that may affect social work practice or that could impact practice with the population that I chose, or value conflicts that a social worker may experience (such as conflicts between professional and personal values, personal and client values, or professional values and client values). Policy issues that may influence social work practice will also be included.

Violent crime is defined as an action or deed that results to causation of bodily harm and physical injury to another person. Violence has been a part of human history (Garland, 2012). Since the onslaught of evolution when early men settled their scores by means of brawl to the present day when the vice has taken up a widespread and more encompassing concept, it seems that violence will remain a part of human history for the foreseeable future. Previously, violence was used as means of indicating displeasure at a second party’s sayings or deeds. It was also used as a way of marking territory and making conquests. In some communities and groups, violence was used in induction and initiation into certain levels of the society. Today, apart from the factors mentioned above, violence has taken up a different form and is a target of both the defenceless and otherwise. There are different types of violent crime. These include assault, armed robbery, kidnapping, homicide (for instance murder) and sexual assault crimes among a host of others. People from virtually all walks of life can fall victim to these types of crimes. In particular, violence against women and children has become common in today’s society. Women have been on the receiving end of violent crimes of various types, most commonly rape and sexual assault (Stith, McCollum, Amanoraˆ?Boadu, & Smith, 2012). Children on the other hand are more commonly the victims of kidnap and assault.

The role of the society with regard to occurrence of violent crimes is of immense importance when trying to establish the causative factors and means and measures of countering the vice. As social beings, our interactions, thoughts, actions and sayings are largely determined by our environment and upbringing. Thus, the society is largely involved in the making of violent people. Research reveals that most people who exhibit elements of violent behaviour have an underlying problem attributable to the society. This could be due to a troubled childhood in which the parents divorced when the offender was young, or lack of parental care (due to other causes such as being raised up in a children’s home), drug and substance abuse, mental problems or even poverty. Poverty is strongly linked to a number of violent crimes, most commonly robbery, kidnappings and gun violence. The society is also involved in the punishment accorded to such people and the way forward in terms of correction and rehabilitation. Through legislation of laws and making of rules that govern a people, the repercussions of violent crimes are and should be spelt out. In that way, those tempted to engage in such crimes are deterred. This aspect should be two sided such that the correctional aspect should also be factored in. The role of the society in rehabilitation of offenders with regard to violent crimes is immensely important. A system that allows the offender to realize the mistakes he/she made and work towards amending them will serve a greater purpose than that which only highlights the faults made without a clear means of overcoming and changing the violent nature.

Victim Population

This paper highlights women and children as the victim population that bears the brunt of the most commonly committed and the most heinous violent crimes. In the case of children, those aged between five and twelve years have a higher predisposition while in the case of women, all age groups are generally susceptible (Barner & Carney, 2011). Notwithstanding the country or region, violence against women and children is becoming increasingly common. Further, the rate at which such offences are being carried out is alarming with research revealing that in spite of this, most cases go unreported altogether. Take an example of Australia, a country largely considered to be peaceful and exemplary with regard to crime management. A research conducted by the Australian Bureau of Statistics with regard to Personal Safety revealed what was becoming a disturbing trend. The research was carried out in 2005 to measure domestic violence and sexual assault directed towards women. According to the findings, about 5 percent (363,000) of the women in the country experienced some form of violence, either by people known to them or unknown offenders in that year alone. Among the people known to the victims, most cases involved husbands, particularly with regard to domestic violence. Findings from the study also revealed that 1.6 per cent (126,100) of the female population had experienced sexual violence. Further, 33 per cent (2.56 million) of women in the country have experienced physical violence since they were fifteen years old. 19 per cent (1.47 million) have experienced sexual violence since they were 15. From the results, one can draw that one out of every five women has experienced sexual assault since they were fifteen while one out of three has experienced some form of violence (Daly, 2012).

As regards children, kidnapping is arguably the most common type of violence faced by most countries around the world although there are a significant number of cases involving child battery and assault too. A country synonymous with child kidnappings is Mexico. In Mexico, drug cartels have formed a formidable force and combining this with connections in the justice system and money to burn, are causing all sorts of trouble to authorities. However, the people with the greatest headache are parents, particularly rich folks. In Mexico, child abduction is often carried out with the intention of demanding ransom. The money is then used to service and propagate other criminal activities. On the other hand, killing of children is carried out for a more disturbing purpose; to prove to the world their ruthlessness and to exert their authority! Human rights groups in Mexico estimate that between 2006 and 2010, 994 youngsters (below 18 years) had been killed in drug related violence. Adding the number of those abducted and exposed to other forms of violent crime results to the figures multiplying more than 100 fold. Interestingly, when it comes to international abductions, Mexico and the United States have a lot in common. This is highlighted by the fact that most children abducted in the US find their way to Mexico where they can be used as bait to demand ransom or sold to childless couples. In the same way, a good number of kidnapped children in Mexico are moved to the US where they find new families.

Nature of Sexual Assault and Child Abduction

Sexual assault and domestic violence against women is not only demeaning and degrading but also comes with a great deal of emotional turmoil to the victims. There have been cases of women committing suicide after falling victim to sexual assault. In other cases reported, the victims become withdrawn and may develop a negative attitude towards men. It is also common to find women suffering from mental problems such as stress and depression after incidents of sexual assault and violence. In some communities and regions, the blame is usually placed on the woman’s head (Daly, 2012). This makes the recovery process even more difficult as the victim is made to feel like she brought the misfortune upon herself.

Child abduction usually culminates to a whole lot of problems, not only to the victim but also to the society. Many abducted children are used as a bargaining chip for demanding ransom. However, in other cases, child abduction is carried out with a different intention, one of which is child pornography. This has been an emerging issue in which children are kidnapped and forced into engaging into sexual acts. These are then taped, recorded and sold. The business of sexual exploitation of children is becoming common. This is attributable to the high levels of profits made by the people engaging in such outlawed activities. For instance, in Atlanta, children as young as eleven years of age have fallen victim to the activities of unscrupulous people in the name of pimps. To the child victim, the introduction to a corrupted world at such a tender age may change the outlook of their lives and the nature of their future. Such children usually end up becoming drug addicts posing a new challenge to governments and the society. They may become social misfits, who end up engaging in outlawed activities as a way of ‘paying back’ for what they went through. The victims may also become withdrawn and develop psychological problems as a result.

Ethical Issues involved

Most studies reveal that a significant number of cases of violence go unreported. In particular, cases of domestic violence against women are usually hushed up within the confines of the house. Domestic violence and even sexual assault are usually regarded as private incidences that need not be shared with the rest of the world. In some communities and regions in the world, a woman suffering physical violence in the hands of their husbands is quite normal. In others women who fall victim to sexual assault are largely viewed as the orchestrators of their own downfall; they are often believed to be the reason for the assault in the first place. This could be through their way of dressing, mannerisms or other factors. As a result, women in such communities suffer in silence knowing that the community would judge them harshly if they reveal the goings-on. What victims who fail to report cases of violence do not realize is that keeping quiet instead of reporting or talking about it does more harm than good (Garland, 2012).

Failure to report the crimes may pose a challenge with regard to development of strategies and solutions for overcoming the vices. To begin with, it is difficult to point out victims of sexual assault and domestic violence. Even if they could be pointed out, without their willingness and cooperation it would be difficult to come up with a solution. Failure to report the ordeal in the first place amounts to lack of cooperation. In addition, by failing to report the crime, the victims directly and indirectly contribute to the continuation of the crime. For example, in the case of sexual assault, failure to report rules out the chance of tracking and nabbing the offender. This means that any other woman out there is a potential victim. In the case of domestic violence, failure to report denies other victims the courage to speak out and potential victims are also denied justice as they come into a society where the status quo is already predetermined.

A social worker is also likely to come against values that challenge his/her own beliefs. For instance, coming from a more free and liberal society to interact with a community in which violence against women is considered part and parcel of life, the social worker may find it hard to adjust to the new set up. What he/she consistently views as wrong and unacceptable is, on the contrary tolerated.

In Mexico, reporting of crimes is almost certain not to occur. The ruthlessness with which the drug cartels handle their victims is beyond imagination. Reporting such crimes only earn the persons involved a ticket for graver repercussions. Research reveals that even the media, including newspapers are forbidden by the cartels not to report incidences of crime; they have no choice but to abide. More specifically, child abduction is a common occurrence but which occurs right under the noses of the authorities and the society but the cases are hardly reported. In the same way, the activities that the children are made to undertake (such as child pornography) are difficult to report even by those who are not directly involved in the crimes due to ethical concerns. For example, it may appear ethically inappropriate to report cases of sexual molestation and exploitation of children in light of the unspoken taboos that revolve around sex. Even to a social worker, sometimes it may come with a level of discomfort when talking about sexual issues with children as the centre stage. This may directly contradict the values of a social worker who does not believe in premarital sex or any other kind of sex apart from that between married people.

Policy Issues that may Influence practice

Violence directed towards children and women can only be successfully managed with input from all stakeholders. This includes the victims, the society and governments. In particular, governments have a major role to play as they determine much to do with policies and legislations (Garland, 2012). If the government supports and encourages a free and liberal society, it will advocate for measures that provide a platform for reporting and subsequently dealing with offenders. This will serve to give the victims a voice and an assurance that their plight is taken into account. Provision of such an avenue should also be accompanied with measures that help the victims recover from the ordeal. This may include providing counselling programs and keeping the victims under watch to observe their progress and recovery In addition, policies that promote the role of the society and social workers in aiding victims of violence go a long way in aiding the management of the vice.

Social Work Practice with Victims of Violent Crime

The role of social work with regard to helping victims of violent crime cope is vital for their recovery and healing. In most cases, social workers engage victims in talks that though may seem and sound simple yet actually achieve a lot. The experience of sharing alone is enough to take a whole load of burden off the victim’s shoulder (Gitterman, 2013). In the process of sharing, the social worker gets the chance to interact with the victim at a personal level and to empathize. This is very important for the recovery of the victim. He/she needs to feel that someone understands the ordeal they went through, the predicament they are in and that the person is willing to listen and even offer pieces of advice.

Social work may also act as an eye-opener to the goings-on in the society. Through knowledge, skills and experience, the social worker may be able to unearth facts about the community that were previously unknown. Facts to do with their beliefs, values and culture may offer insight into their way of life (Gitterman, 2013).

Conclusion

Violence against women and children is not a problem restricted to particular countries or regions. Rather it is a global menace (Barner & Carney, 2011). According a 2013 global review of data, 35 per cent of women all around the world have experienced some form of violence. In some countries, the findings are even more alarming with reports of up to 70 percent of women having fallen victim to violence. Research also reveals that of all women who were killed in 2012, about half died in the hands family members or better halves. With this information in mind, it is important that communities and countries around the world demand for more from their governments and from themselves in the fight against violence directed towards women and children. The causes and the outcomes of violence against women and children stem from and affect the society at the end of the day. Therefore, the solution should come from the society in the first place.

References

Barner, J. R., & Carney, M. M. (2011). Interventions for Intimate Partner Violence: A Historical Review. Journal of Family Violence, 26(3), 235-244.

Daly, K. (2012). Conferences and Gendered Violence: Practices, Politics, and Evidence. Conferencing and restorative justice: International Practices and Perspectives, 117-135.

Garland, D. (2012). The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society. University of Chicago Press.

Gitterman, A. (Ed.). (2013). Handbook of Social Work Practice with Vulnerable and Resilient Populations. Columbia University Press.

Stith, S. M., McCollum, E. E., Amanoraˆ?Boadu, Y., & Smith, D. (2012). Systemic Perspectives on Intimate Partner Violence Treatment. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 38(1), 220-240.

Introduction

Management of a violent or aggressive client plays an important role in health care setting. This is very critical in mental health sector and as well as the prevention of violence and aggression is very essential since the main concern of the modern world has been directed towards preventive measures rather curative and therapeutic actions.

Researchers have found out that violence and aggression are common among mentally disordered clients than community controls. It is more common among schizophrenic and drug addictive clients than other mentally disordered clients. Furthermore this article reveals that the number of homicidal events for last few decades remains constant in UK although the technology has been improved. (Davison, 2005)

Furthermore some articles reveals that hundred percent of nurses who are working at mental health settings have experienced some kind of violent behavior from clients towards them. The more important thing is these behaviors vary from verbal threat to sexual harassments. And also this article reveals that nurses and health care workers who directly work with such clients are getting assaulted more often than doctors who visit them periodically. (Richter & Whittington, 2006) These facts prove the important of developing more effective strategies to manage violent and aggressive clients.

Since they are not completely independent and since they seek care it is very essential to plan strategies to cope with and to prevent or minimize such incidences while maintaining clients’ rights and dignity as health care workers.

The other important aspect of this discussion is to minimize or prevent injuries or harm to the coworkers while managing such clients in a dignified and well accepted manner.

Before look in to the management and the prevention it will be useful to be familiar with technical terms.

What is violence?

Violence has been defined as an intentional behavior towards any person or a property to damage, Injure, hurt, abuse or kill with a physical force. (Dictionary, 2012)

What is aggression?

Aggression is a set of behaviors which can cause physical and psychological injury, damage of harm to oneself, others or properties. (Cherry)

What causes aggression and violence?

It is critical to figure out the reason or the cause, why violence and aggression occurs in health care setting. Despite clients mental health condition or the physiology of the disease the environment and the way staff approach the client is important. Most of the articles reveals that clients with antisocial behaviors, schizophrenia, drug addictives and clients who are having problems with the insight may become aggressive than other traits. But it is important to notice that apart from above conditions the environment which is discomforting to clients and actions of outsiders may play a role towards clients’ violence and aggression. This may be common among health care settings the onset of aggression due to certain actions taken by staff members which can justify due to lack of systematic techniques and understanding even though it is unethical. Because with the more often aggression and harassment towards staff make their mind to take aggression and violence as a job related threat or hazard and make them helpless during a such incident. This will make their mind to be more focus on safety rather clients rights and dignity.

Prevention of Aggression & Violation
Identify your client

It is essential and critical to know your client very well before you approach your client. This includes the condition of your client, medical, social history & violent history. Knowing you clients medical & social history may help you to recognize what makes you client aggressive while violent history will reveal lot of important facts about you behaviors. Simply you should know likes & dislikes of your client, what makes them aggressive, how they express when they were above to behave aggressively & what would they do when they become aggressive. So you can anticipate & get prepared if you know above information about your client.

Pay your attention to aggravating factors

If you know your client, you can figure out what makes them aggressive. May be certain topics, actions, words or behaviors will make them aggressive. You need to avoid them as much as possible when you approach a client. This will help a healthcare worker to prevent such incidents.

Take precautions

Once you identify your client properly, you should take necessary precautions. Based on above assessment firstly you need to rule out factors which makes them aggressive. Secondly you should pay your attention and find out a way to identify such incidents before it occurs by your client’s expressions, specific behaviors, or gestures. Then you should know what they would do when they are aggressive or violent. Based on that information you should take necessary precautions. You may keep your coworkers informed before you approach your client, & keep an emergency communication system ready such as a call bell to use in case.

Arrange the environment

It is very essential to arrange your client’s environment. That should be calm, comforting environment with no clutters & threats. The surrounding should not posses any sharp objects, ropes, wires, tubes which can be use to harm self or others.

Managing Aggression & Violation

If your client become violent or aggressive; by using following measures you can try to control the situation.

Talk on behalf of your client

Always show your client that you agree with him or her and always take you client’s side though you strongly disagree with him or her. Because, your client becomes aggressive or violent since they are not fully mentally competent at the moment. Realize that this is not the best moment to discuss & prove your client is wrong or his or her actions are unacceptable. Talking on behalf of your client will help you to gain your client’s trust & faith which will be useful to calm down your client. Send victims or opponents out immediately while you are having someone around to assist you. Because seen his or her opponent would make your client more discomforting.

Try to calm down you client

Once you gain faith of your client you can control you client up an extent. Don’t try to over control your client. Calm down you client by giving them suggestions while listening to him or her. Offer him or her a seat to make your client comfortable. Give your client enough time without rushing.

Remove aggravating factors from your client’s sight

If aggression or violation has being occurred due to a person, send him out, the factor may be a picture, word which has being used or any behavior or can be any minor thing. You must avoid them & remove them immediately if it is possible to support him to calm down.

Keep supportive measures ready all the time

All the time the emergency alert system, urgent medicines such as sedatives, supportive staff should keep ready when you deal with such a client. This will help healthcare workers to minimize the damage if an incident occurs.

Go with a crowd

When you approach a client who is highly possible to become violent or aggressive it is preferable to go with one or more coworkers. In case if client becomes violent supportive staff can help you to restrain at least until medications has being administered. And it is very important that you should keep your eye on your client and should be at your sight whenever you are at your client’s room or area. This will provide your safety. By having your client at your sight all the time, you can see what they are doing & for what they are getting ready for. Your client may try to harm you since he is mentally incompetent. If you do not pay your attention to your client; it will make it easier for your client to harm you.

IM rout is preferable for emergency medicines

Always intramuscular route is preferable to administer medications such as sedatives during an violent or aggressive situation. The reason is you don’t need much of coordination to administer IM injections as IV. Even though IV act fast administering as IV medication will be difficult with a non cooperative client unless they are restrained or an IV canula has being inserted.

Do not Criticize

Once an incident occurred do not label your client since that will lead you client to become more aggressive when people treat them differently as well as that will help to recur the same situation. Treat them similarly as for the others & do not show them a difference.

Conclusion

Aggression and violence is common in health care related to mentally incompetent people such as patient with anti social behaviors, schizophrenia, personality disorders & drug addictives. Poor techniques, protocols and systems to deal with them put both clients and health care workers at a risk. Furthermore this will cause breaching client’s dignity, rights & health status while healthcare workers consider them as a job related risk. Proper education and awareness of healthcare workers would improve healthcare workers coping with such incidents & proper management of incidents. Knowing you client & being prepared is the best way to minimize aggression & violence in healthcare.

Outline:

I. Introduction:

1. What is violence?

2. Children in daycares.

3. Violence against children in daycares.

II. Situations:

Violence against children in Vietnam.

2. The consequences of the violent using.

3. Parents’ responsibilities.

III. Problems:

Public daycares overload.
Risks of private daycares.
The careless of parents.

IV. Solutions:

Increase the nannies’ knowledge in teaching and caring children skill.
Enhance daycares’ facilities and infrastructure.
Increase inspection and supervision of the authority at private daycares.

V. Evaluation

1. Advantages

2. Disadvantages

VI. Conclusion

Nowadays, violence against children is become one of the most alert issues; especially in Vietnamese daycares. The children are physically and mentally ill-treated. Firstly, violence means using physical force against people and an act of aggression against a person who resist or not (definitions.net). In that sense, toddlers, children aged from two to four years old are the victims of violence in daycares. Using violence against toddlers is seriously violating the human rights, especially the children rights. According to UNICEF, “ Governments should ensure that children are properly cared for, and protect them from violence, abuse and neglect by their parents, or anyone else who looks after them” (Article 19,unicef.org). In recent years, Vietnamese daycares are facing a lot of doubtful legal cases. Many of these daycares are caught in the act of hitting and persecuting small kids. The government, especially the child-care organizations also takes a part in this alarming issue. One of the first responsibilities belongs to Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MOET). The issue which has been originated from the insufficient skills of management operation in children-care centers has led to a lot of severe and social and educational consequences. As a result, the Vietnamese government and local organizations are now making the revolution in the child-care system to calm parents’ mind.

II. Situation

First of all, the toddlers have the right to learning and growing with love. They are not deserved to be ill-treated that some adults have done. For example, the case which causes a tide in Vietnamese public opinion happens in Phuong Anh daycare in Thu Duc District. The scene was based on the video clip which people living around the daycare have been recording; the babysitters hit and forced small kids with violent actions. Although they were crying, the babysitter still throttled and slapped them. This is just one of cases which involve the violence against children in daycares. “The violence against children phenomenon is not popular however it’s not so rare”, said Ngo The Minh, the Deputy Chairman of Committees of cultural and educational youth and children of Congress (24h.com.vn). However, Vietnam is not the only country having the violence against small kids. This phenomenon happens everywhere in the world, especially the developing and poor countries. Below is the statistics showing the percentage of children from some countries experiencing violent discipline, psychological aggression or physical punishment (unicef.org):

Children are the future of every country. They make the world become a better place and more complete day by day. If they were treated badly in the past, they would become the one who will treat their children the same in future. Particularly in daycares, the kids begin to learn and understand about the world. Therefore, when they grow up, they remember how the adults rose and taught them. The fact that nannies apply violence with kids just makes them more hard-headed and stubborn. As a result, parents are the people who suffer the most because of the kids’ misbehaviors and inappropriate attitudes. Parents also take important responsibilities in this issue. They don’t have time with their children because of their busy works. In Vietnam, the parents who don’t have time to take care of their children such as workers, office staff or even doctors having some busy jobs usually send their children to daycares. Some of them even send their kids to the not-officially-certified daycares. As a consequence, this carelessness leads to a lot of unfortunate accidents which have been written a lot in various newspapers.

III. Problems

In recent years, the violence against children is the most concern issue in Vietnam. There are a lot of toddlers being abused in illegal daycares. Some of them are badly injured and the others are dead because of nannies’ brutal act. Thus, there are many reasons for these tragic accidents which happen every year. The first reason is public daycares are having an oversupply of kids. Families who have toddlers living in the big city or the capital are having difficulty in finding public daycares, especially families with low income or don’t have city household. The Vietnamese daycares are oversupplied with kids because the population growing faster in recent years. Every mother and father wants their children sent to the place with good education and skillfully teacher. Consequently, the late ones don’t get the chance to send their children to public daycares so they must take their children to private daycares.

Secondly, the percentage of using violence against children in private daycares is usually high. Private daycares were opened to help the children who didn’t get a place to study because of the public daycares’ overload. However, most of the private daycares fail to meet the requirements in the facilities, infrastructure and teaching qualifications. Moreover, normal people even can open the daycares at homes without officially-certified papers. As a result, there are so many accidents happen at home daycares such as the story happen at Thu Duc district. The nanny name’s Nho who is the criminal for killing the eighteen-month kid name’s Long. “When Nho was getting the breakfast for Long, she saw the kid cried. Then she yelled at Long and threatened him to eat the food. However, Long still cried which make Nho became angry and lost control. Therefore, she lifted up the boy and threw him in the air without catching the boy back. The falling make Long got badly injured then he cried out loud which was the reason make Nho stomped on the baby’s chest and head two times. Unfortunately, the kid didn’t survive the thrashing of the nanny” (vtc.vn). Thus, this issue also takes a part in the responsibilities of parents.

Thirdly, the careless of parents are one of the reasons that make children being ill-treated. They didn’t learn carefully about the daycares where they entrusted their children. Parents absolutely trust in the babysitters. If something happen to their children, they will often ask the babysitters instead of finding the reasons from their kids. Some parents give nannies that take care of their children some extra tips on special events. For this reason, low-income families may have disadvantages with the nannies even so their children. Which means parents know that violence is exist in daycares and they accept that by bribing the nannies. Consequently, when the violence is finding out, they take all the blame on the daycares as well as the nannies. Besides, people who live around the daycares also be the accomplice in most of the violence issues. They knew what happened in these illegal daycares everyday but they are indifferent with that. If they have a parent’s heart, they should tell the abused children’ parents as well as the newspaper office to accuse the illegal daycares. In this manner, the unfortunate events could be prevented.

IV. Solutions:

The child abuse phenomenon can’t be stop immediately; it requires time and lots of solutions. Therefore, there are many possible solutions being proposed to stop this phenomenon. Accordingly, the first solution is “Increase training and periodic retraining to improve professional skills in the work of nurturing, caring and education for young nannies”, said Trinh Viet Then, lecturer of psychology at Van Hien university (vnexpress.net). Small children such as toddlers are very hard to teaching and caring which lead to many acts of violence. Even the well-trained nannies sometimes think about using violence to kids. Toddlers don’t conceive things right or wrong which make the nannies sometimes become furious and cannot control the behaviors. Consequently, if the nannies have both of these skills, the child abuse in daycares will decrease dramatically. According to Thuy Nguyen Radio Station, Dong Son daycare has applied this solution in 2014. The daycare gives the nannies the opportunities to learning and training. In present, most of the babysitters in Dong Son daycare meet the requirement of teaching qualifications (haiphong.gov.vn).

In addition, daycares should enhance the infrastructure and as well as the facilities to serve for the teaching purpose. Pham Hien, psychological expert said: “Daycares must have cameras to help parents easier to observe their kids every day” (youtube.com). Better equipment and infrastructure, the more effective in teaching and caring children. Moreover, daycares having cameras in the classes make the nannies have more self-conscious in their behaviors towards toddlers. This solution also helps parents and researchers easier to keep an eye on kids and avoid problems for the daycares itself. Additionally, daycares with good equipment make kids feel comfortable and easily learning the lessons. For example, the Vietnam Women’s Union (VWU) has donated a large amount of money to enhance the facilities and infrastructure of two kindergartens at Long An province and Binh Duong province (baomoi.com). As a consequence, children studying at these kindergartens are prevented from the violence using of nannies.

However, the authority’s inspection and supervision at kindergarten is indispensable. In addition, private daycares without officially certificates must be banned and stop working. Nguyen Thi Loc, vice-director at Hoa Mai semi-public kindergarten said: “The authority should permanently increase the inspection toward the nannies such as examine the employment records or the nannies’ license” (mamnon.com). Besides, the MOET should investigate and total up the documents of violent victims such as toddlers. Based on the documents, the authority proposes solutions to prevent the violence. Furthermore, people should using banners of anti-violence against children near daycares. People who live near the daycares should encourage others to find out the illegal one and report to the nearby authorities. For example, the Women’s Union at District 8 has made a monitoring at three daycares in November, 2014. The reason is through the monitoring, they can raise awareness and sense of responsibility for those who have the responsibility of raising children, and to prevent and promptly handle those who abuse children (gov.vn).

V. Evaluations:

What are the advantages and disadvantages of viewing behaviour through a lifespan perspective for social work practice?

This assignment will look at the advantages and disadvantages a social worker viewing behaviour through a lifespan perspective may encounter. It will look at developmental theories that relate to the chosen service user group, and how, as a social worker, this knowledge would increase understanding of the service user and how this in turn may affect the role of a social worker in practice. The service users age group being explored in this assignment will be older adults aged from 65+.

Lifespan development starts from conception and finishes with the death of each individual. During each individual’s lifespan there are constant changes and developments taking place, the majority of stages and life changes each individual passes through are due to their common psychological and biological heritage as humans and are shared by all people. Culture and social class, and the individual’s environment are all factors that help shape the course of development (Niven. N.1989). There are five main theoretical approaches for lifespan development; these are biological, cognitive, humanist, behaviourist and the psychodynamic approach.

Ageing in late life is shaped by the accumulation of life events and the proximity of death; a misperception about ageing is that disability and poor health in later adult life are inevitable (Davies, M, 2002). During each individual’s lifespan, they will experience a series of crises and life transitions. Throughout the lifespan there are certain periods or stages where each individual will face a transition from one state to another. These periods have been referred to as life crises by some psychologists, each crisis needing to be resolved in order to progress to the next stage. Each individual proceeds through the stages of development, and the way in which they deal with each crisis in each stage of development shapes their personality (Niven, N, 1989). Other approaches agree that there are certain stages in development that have significance for each individual, but they state that there are also other events that can also shape development – these being experienced by some individuals but not all.

Retirement is just one of a number of changes that need to be adjusted to in late adulthood, among the others are declining health and physical strength along with physical and sensory impairment which can result in increased dependency on others in late adulthood (Beckett.C.2002).

Several physical and cognitive changes also take place in old age (Bee & Mitchell, 1984) cited in (Sugarman. L. 1990. Pg 53). The bodily changes that are associated with ageing are summarized in five words- slower, weaker, lesser, fewer and smaller. As ageing occurs experience gained throughout the lifespan helps the individual and they learn to compensate for the many gradual declines that accompany old age. (Corse 1975) cited in (Sugarman. L. 1990. Pg 53) concludes that experience, intelligence, and education can help maintain normal perceptual and sensory functioning.

Many changes in appearance take place in old age. Outward appearances begin to show ageing, older people’s skin begins to lose elasticity, which causes lines and wrinkles to appear, hair loss and grey hair may be one of the first signs of ageing, and hearing and eye sight now begin to deteriorate (Windmill.V.1987). Internally the kidneys, lungs, heart and intestinal tract all begin to function less and there may be deterioration of muscles which can literally cause old people to shrink. The reduction of calcium in the bones makes the old person more prone to fractures and brittleness of the bones is also a problem in the older population. Arthritis is one of the more serious health problems affecting older people and for most people these changes may be gradual (Windmill.V.1987).

A social worker needs the basic insight of childhood studies, as without them it would be difficult to assess adults on adulthood theories alone.

Freud is credited with beginning the psychoanalytic approach. The central assumption of this approach is that behaviour is governed by the unconscious as well as the conscious processes; some are present at birth while others develop over time. (Beckett.C.2002) The second assumption of the psychoanalytic theory is that our personalities have a structure that develops over time. Freud proposed three parts of the personality- the id, the ego, and the superego. Freud’s key assumptions were that adult’s personalities depend on childhood experiences; he assumed children go through five psychosexual stages. The first being the oral stage, the second the anal stage, and the remaining stages being the phallic stage, the latency period and the genital stage. (Beckett.C.2002).

When looking at human lifespan development, Erik Erikson’s theories can be of use to a social worker. Erikson was a student of Freud; however he had some very different ideas. He thought development was psychosocial and due partly to maturation and partly due to society. Erikson also thought that personality development continued across the lifespan, unlike Freud, who suggest personality development finished in adolescence. Erikson (1980) cited in (Niven, N, 1989, pg 155) proposed eight stages of development which he called ‘developmental crises’, these being viewed more as a period of difficulty or dilemma. They are times when individuals face a turning point or transition in their lives often involving a degree of stress associated with having to resolve each dilemma. Not only do these transitions of change affect the individual’s behaviour they also affect their family and friends. Erikson’s stages are phrased in terms of an opposition between two characteristics and each individual must successfully negotiate the task or stage in order to be able to move on to the next one. Eriksson’s eighth stage (late adulthood) is integrity vs despair; this suggests if the individual has managed to negotiate the previous stages, then the individual will have developed a sense of integrity. This refers to the acceptance of the limitations of life, with the sense of being a part of a larger whole which includes previous generations. It enables the individual to approach death without fear, if one looks back on one’s life and sees it as unsatisfactory, despair occurs and a feeling of ‘what if’ prevails. Erikson suggests that at each transition individuals may need to revisit unresolved issues from previous stages. The main strength of Erikson’s theory is that it offers a framework for explaining changes in childhood and adulthood. His work has been criticised in that it represents a set of assumptions instead of precise descriptions of relationships and causes. A disadvantage here is the lack of empirical evidence- this is also another criticism of Erikson’s work. The advantages for a social worker using Erikson’s theory is that it provides markers for those events in a service user’s life that may be proving difficult and in using this approach, social workers can highlight the problems that are likely to affect people during specific stages of their life. (Niven. N. 1989).

An area of life course development most associated with older adults relates to end of life issues. In the later stages of adulthood the end of life is expected. Death is the end of biological and physical functioning of the body. Factors to be taken in to account for social workers working with service users who have suffered a loss, are gender and cultural differences, as these can affect a social worker’s understanding of what may count as a loss and what in turn can be done about it (Currer. C 2007). Each individual’s reaction to grief and emotional trauma is as unique as a fingerprint. When thinking about bereavement and loss it is useful to look at attachment theory, Bowlby’s (1946) cited in (Davies, M, 2002), major work was Attachment and Loss; sadly it is the case for many individuals in later adulthood that there is a price to pay for the benefits of forming attachments. According to Bowlby’s attachment theory adults, who as children had secure attachments with their carers, are able to form satisfactory relationships in adult life and this will help them to cope with the pain of bereavement in later life. Bowlby’s aim of this originally was to explain the consequences for personality development and how severe disruption of attachments between infant and mother could have negative effects on development. (Butterworth. H. & Harris. M. 2002). Adults who did not have secure attachments as children can be identified, according to Howe (1995) cited in (Davies, M, 2002), who suggests that avoidant individuals are the ones who show self reliance. They may display delayed reactions to grief, they attempt to be emotionally self reliant and are wary of forming relationships. This means the loss of someone who is close to them usually triggers defence mechanisms- they may not cry or appear to be upset but are vulnerable to future losses. Exaggerated reactions to grief can be accounted for when the individual has not adjusted or come to terms with earlier loss of an important attachment relationship. On the other hand ambivalently attached individuals may experience self-blame and guilt when their partner dies. Where there has been an insecure attachment in childhood (an attachment that does not meet the child’s needs- the need for safety and security etc) Bowlby (1998) cited in (Beckett. C. 2006) suggests the anxious child will try to protect themselves against anxious situations. The child uses a variety of psychological manoeuvres and this results in what Bowlby called a faulty working model of themselves and of other relationships. To maintain this model the child will use defensive exclusion to avoid feelings that may threaten the child’s already precarious stability. Attachment theory is backed up by empirical evidence. This is beneficial as it can help social workers identify causes from an individual’s past and this helps to provide explanations for present behaviours and their ability to deal with change (Beckett. C.2006). Each individual’s reaction to grief and emotional trauma are as unique as a fingerprint.

When looking at loss it is important to remember that older people may lose friends, abilities, connections and many other things that are important to them. The significance of grief and loss in old age is dismissed by the ageist stereotype that older people will be used to loss because they are at an age where they have experienced lots of it. However the reality is that loss can be cumulative at this age and this results in negative experiences for those whose loss or grief is not recognized or addressed (Thompson.N. et al. 2008).

It is important that social workers take a holistic approach to understanding life course development in older adults, as life course is central to any understanding of ageing. A social worker should be aware that an individual’s life experiences and life course developments are affected by several factors- these include economic and social aspects, historical, cultural, psychological, and cognitive and physiological influences. (Crawford, K, & Walker, J, 2007). All transitions expected or unexpected, sudden and unplanned, present opportunities and challenges for the individual’s development and growth.

Each individual will have different experiences of transitions even when the life event is common to many in society, each person will respond and adapt to that change in a unique way. (Crawford, K, & Walker, J, 2007). There are disadvantages for social workers when viewing individuals through a lifespan perspective as most of the theories being used are Euro centric (European studies) and cannot be applied to all cultures.

As a social worker care must be taken when using any of the behavioural approaches as they raise the issues concerning the use of power and oppression. The social worker should not focus too much on narrow behavioural issues at the expense of the larger picture (Beckett.C.2006).

It is in a social worker’s interest not to oppress or discriminate service users but to treat them with unconditional positive regard, not forgetting to treat each service user as an individual with their own opinions and values. The theories used do have limitations as not all individuals or cultures fit the suggested norms and each person develops at a different rate. As a social worker knowing about the different viewpoints from theorists and their suggested viewpoints may enable a better understanding of what problems a service user may be experiencing. When working with service users from any age range, it is important that the social worker does not influence these transitions with their own life experiences.

References

Beckett.C.(2006).Essential Theory for Social Work Practice. Sage Publications Ltd. London.

Beckett.C. (2002). Human Growth & Development. Sage Publications Ltd. London.

Bee.H. & Boyd. H. (2003) 3rd Ed. Lifespan development. Pearson Education Inc. Boston. USA

Butterworth. G. and Harris. M. (2002). Developmental Psychology. A Students Handbook. Psychology Press Ltd. Hove. East Sussex.

Crawford. K. & Walker. J. (2007) 2nd Ed, Social Work and Human Development. Learning Matters Ltd. Exeter.

Currer. C. (2007). Loss and Social Work. Learning Matters Ltd. Exeter.

Davies. M. (2002) 2nd Ed. The Blackwell Companion to Social Work. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.Oxford.

Niven. N. (1989) Health Psychology. An Introduction for Nurses & other Health Care Professionals. Churchill Livingstone.

Sugarman. L. (1990). Lifespan development. Concepts, Theories and Interventions. Routledge. London.

Thompson.N.& Thompson. S. (2008) The Social work Companion. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke.

Windmill.V. (1987). Human Growth & Development. Hodder and Stoughton Ltd. Kent.

Victims of a Serial Killer
Vangerlena Smith

Violent crimes happen to certain individuals or groups every day. Sometimes the victims have the same characteristics, and sometimes there is no trace of recidivism pertaining to the victims at all. Some of those characteristics may include sex, gender roles, age, ethnicity, economic status, goals, education level, area of residence, stature or body type, etc. There is one particular case where the victims had similar characteristics. The case is that of Jeffrey Dahmer, a famous serial killer who lured, killed, and dismembered all of his victims’ body. All of Dahmer victims were male, mostly African American. According to the research I have done majority of Jeffrey Dahmer’s victims were hitchhikers, travelers, homosexuals, in some type of desperate need, or in the areas where Dahmer resided. He never went out of his way to go and find his victims; they just of sort of came to him. They were all also obviously young because he would meet them in clubs, bars, or at parties. The ages of the victims are listed as follow: 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 31, 33, and 36. Dahmer also had victims who had a chance at living. Before he became the serial killer that he is known as today, Dahmer was arrested multiple times for fondling and molesting younger boys in public plays; such as, fairs, carnival, etc.

In the following paper the nature(s) of the crime that Dahmer committed will be addressed. How to deal with the victims and their families on a micro, mezzo, and macro level will also be explained. Also, as any human being, social workers have personal values and ethics that sometimes conflict with those of their professional values and ethics.

Nature of the Crime

The violent gruesome acts of what Dahmer did to his victims could fit many natures of crime. Dahmer’s first victim was a nineteen year old hitchhiker whom he just picked up. Later the two got drunk and engaged in sexual activities, and the victim simply wanted to leave afterwards. Dahmer did not want him to so he killed him, dismembered his body, and disposed of him. This is where the pattern started. The previous information shows that one of the natures is obviously control. It was said that Dahmer never really had any friends, so he was a loner. He obviously got the victim drunk so he would become totally vulnerable to the situation, so that he could take advantage of the victim. The victim deciding to leave was totally out of Dahmer’s control, so he made it where he was in control; he hit the victim over the head with a dumb bell where he then proceeded to kill him. It’s debatable that Dahmer’s first murder was unplanned, so the sense of control that he felt afterward his first murder, he wanted to continue to feel. This is the starting point of his recidivism.

According to:

“Sadism, a term introduced by Krafft-Ebing (1898) late in the nineteenth century, originally referred to sexual pleasure derived through inflicting pain and suffering on others. Over time, the term was expanded to include nonsexual enjoyment derived from sadistic acts” (Marten & Kahn, 2011)

Dahmer acts also could be labeled as perversion. For some of the victims they did not willing have sex with the offender. Also, some sexual acts were also done to some of victims’ corpse after death. Dahmer, in his teen years had struggled with his homosexual desires; combined with his years of being a loner, he decided to just take actions and deal with those desires. Lastly, the nature of Dahmer’s crime could be labeled as revenge. As stated earlier, Dahmer was a loner growing up. Yes, he had sexual desires like any other human being, but no one wanted to engage with him in any type of way because he was seen as an outcast. It could be possible that Dahmer’s act on his victims could have been one of revenge from earlier stages of his life.

Micro, Mezzo, and Macro Levels

Assessing the victims, families, community, and nation on the level of micro, mezzo, and macro scales is a critical level in evidenced-base practice. According to Hull & Ashman (2012): “Practice with individuals is considered as micro practice, practice with families as micro/mezzo practice, practice with group as mezzo practice, and practice with larger systems, including organizations and communities, as macro practice” (Ashman & Hull, 2010).

Dealing With the Situation on a Micro Level

On the smallest level, the micro level, for this case it is much easier to start with the live victims of molestation and fondling. This level could be used to work with the individuals to get some understanding on how they are coping with what had happened to him and also throw out suggestions. I’m sure at this level it’s easier to find out what each of the young men are probably wondering why did this happen to them, and what did they do to deserve it. On this level, it’s easier for a social worker to handle because they get to work with the individual one on one. In a mezzo group setting the victim may be ashamed to open up about what happened to them, and in return never get the proper help they need for moving on or coping. Some victims who has had things done to them and never told or got properly treated sometimes become the perpetrator of that same crime later on in life.

According to Davis (1991): Dahmer’s probation officer noted that, “When Jeffrey was eight, his father said, a neighborhood boy had sexually molested him. Perhaps this may be the reason why Jeffrey has sexuality issues” (Davis, 1991).

So Dahmer’s actions are a product of child molestation, and what could possibly happen if one stays quiet.

It is also important to work with the individual family because family support when dealing with these types of things is vital. The social worker could encourage the family to do things such as, not help the victim stay the victim. They can do this by not treating the victim like something’s always wrong. Of course it’s a given that they will probably never forget the incident, but the reminder of it does not help them cope. For those who lost their lives as victims of Dahmer, families could be assessed individually on a micro level as well. Everyone has a different experience when it comes to death of a loved one, so they cope in different ways. It would be very inaccurate to marginalized them all into one category and help them to all cope in one way. It isn’t possible. Also, close friends, neighbors, teachers, classmates, could all be assessed on an individual level; depending on the level of closeness to the victim.

According to Social Work License Map (2012):

“Micro practice is the most common kind of social work, and is how most people imagine social workers providing services. In micro social work, the social worker engages with individuals or families to solve problems. Common examples include helping individuals to find appropriate housing, health care and social services. Family therapy and individual counseling would also fall under the auspices of micro practice, as would the medical care of an individual or family, and the treatment of people suffering from a mental health condition or substance abuse problem. Micro-practice may even include military social work, where the social worker helps military service members cope with the challenges accompanying military life and access the benefits entitled to them by their service. Many social workers engage in micro and mezzo practice simultaneously. Even the most ambitious macro-level interventions have their roots in the conversations between a single social worker and a single client” (Social Work License Map, 2012).

Dealing With the Situation on a Mezzo Level

Mezzo is the level of assessment dealing with group settings. Pertaining to the victims of Jeffrey Dahmer; this is where a social work could get all the molested victims in one room, and maybe have them share their experience and how it affected them. There is such a thing called self-help groups and in these groups the individuals all have something in common. Within these groups they help one another cope with the particular problem. They sometimes do this by expressing their feelings. If these victims could come together and talk about how Dahmer affected them, they may just be able to move on. Also, on this level the victims along with their families could be assessed. Once assessed on a micro level, if the individual could open up about how they were affected to their families, then maybe the family would know how to assist them in helping them cope. “Those skills used in working with individuals provide the foundation for work with larger groups, organizations, and communities” (Ashman & Hull, 2010). One victim may not want the family to baby them because of what happened to them; where on the other hand, another victim may need that extra attention from their parents, siblings, etc. For the deceased victims, their families could also be assessed together. They need to know how one another feel, to emotionally support each other about the loss of their loved one. For instance, if a couple’s child was one of Dahmer’s victims they may deal with it differently. The husband may keep it boggled all in and the wife may cry all the time. Well they need to know how to communicate with those different feelings to help one another maintain emotional stability. The husband could comfort the wife during her times where she feels as if she wants to cry. On the other hand, the wife could encourage the husband to talk about his feelings more often, or at least let him know she’s there if he ever feels the need to talk about the loss.

According to Social Work License Map(2012):

“Mezzo social work practice deals with small-to-medium-sized groups, such as neighborhoods, schools or other local organizations. Examples of mezzo social work include community organizing, management of a social work organization or focus on institutional or cultural change rather than individual clients. Social workers engaged in mezzo practice are often also engaged in micro and/or macro social work. This ensures the needs and challenges of individual clients are understood and addressed in tandem with larger social issues” (Social Work License Map, 2012).

Dealing With the Situation on a Macro Level

On the Macro level, a social worker deals with the community which consists of the families, individual victims, close friends, etc. In the community where Dahmer did all his murdering, could rise up a scare amongst some people and be of a shock to others. On this level, a social worker could be effective by going to meet with parents and plan ways that they could make the community a safer place where their children could live, play, etc. Setting up a neighborhood watch team, parents making sure they know where there children are going when they leave home, and making sure that the children be alert of strangers are all ways in solving some of the problems in a community of uproar. As for the community of Dahmer’s victims who didn’t survive, a social worker could advocate for more police security in that area, just to watch for things of suspicion. Because not only were those communities afraid of Dahmer, but they were afraid that there were more killer out there like him. This is where the macro level gets broader. What Jeffrey Dahmer did to his victims become known nationally. This created worry all over the United States. How would social workers address the issue to a community as broad as the whole nation? First, they could brainstorm ideas for the nation to keep themselves self. For example, they could encourage people not to hitchhike at night. They could also warn that all hitchhikers should not be picked up as well. As stated before, another safety precaution is that parents know where their children are at all times. For those who are of age, encouragement to not leave from clubs, bars, parties, etc. with strangers would be a great gesture. A killer who has the intent to kill cannot be dissuaded to kill, but those who could possibly fall victim could set up precautions for their safety to prevent the incidents that happened to Dahmer’s victims from happening to them.

According to Social Work License Map (2012):

“The practice of macro social work is the effort to help clients by intervening in large systems. Examples include lobbying to change a health care law, organizing a state-wide activist group or advocating for large-scale social policy change. Macro practice is one of the key distinctions between social work and other helping professions, such as psychiatric therapy. Macro social work generally addresses issues experienced in mezzo or micro social work practice, as well as social work research. Macro practice empowers clients by involving them in systemic change” (Social Work License Map, 2012).

All in all, every victim, their family, their friends, etc. could be assessed on either a micro, mezzo, or macro level. Not all people are going to deal with every crisis the same way, so they should not be expected to cope the same way. Some don’t mind speaking in group settings where others may want to talk on a more individual basis. In the Dahmer’s case the level of macro got as broad as the United States, but in some cases the issue on a macro level could become global.

Ethical Issues/Values Conflict

As a social worker I would personally be all for the victim, not matter the evidence behind what Dahmer did. For example, Dahmer had some psychological issues so that calls for the need of treatment. As far as professional value goes, it’s clear after a psychological evaluation was done that Dahmer needed help; however, my own personal values says that he was not right for taking the lives of innocent people, therefore he should spend the rest of his life in prison. For the same reason, I would also want him to spend his life in prison because some of those victims were teenagers. Also, not only did he kill all of his victims but he removed the flesh from their bones, he cut some of their hearts out, crushed their bones, had sex with the corpses; that is completely inhumane.

According to O’meara (2009): “Dahmer drilled holes in his living victims’ heads; poured in chemicals to “zombify” them, had sex with the corpses’ viscera, and kept some body parts in his refrigerator, occasionally eating them” (O’Meara, 2009).

As for the victims, I think it would be unethical, so to speak, of me to say that they could have prevented things from happening to them; such as, not leaving the club with Dahmer, not leaving with a stranger period, not getting drunk and falling into a stupor, etc. However, every social work knows or should know that it’s never the victim’s fault about what happened to them (Gough & Spencer, 2014). Also, they would not only be some ethical issues and values conflict when it comes to the social worker, but also everyone engaged in Dahmer’s case. Once the prosecutor present all the evidence without thinking some, not all, or the jury will want in him jail; some would even vote death penalty because of their values.

Policy Issues

Policy issues on the Jeffrey Dahmer case would definitely be his sentencing. It is obvious in my research that Jeffrey Dahmer was psychologically ill, and need major help. However, the argument was that Dahmer disposed of the bodies, which means he was afraid of consequences. If he didn’t dispose the body he probably could have got sent to get some type of treatment.

The Jeffrey Dahmer case is rare out of many. As stated before violent crimes happen to certain individuals or groups every day around the world. Murders sometimes just go on a random killing spree, but in Jeffrey Dahmer’s case all of his victims have common characteristics and trait. All of his victims were male, majority of them being black for some odd reason. They all were also of young ages. Some of those characteristics of Dahmer’s victims were their sex, gender roles, age, ethnicity, economic status, goals, education level, area of residence, stature or body type, etc. He mostly picked up hitchhikers, drunken people, or people who just needed a couple of bucks and were willing to do anything. Jeffrey Dahmer’s criminal acts started with the molestation of younger boys. The above content discusses how to help the victims who survived and the loved ones of the victims whose lives were lost cope on a micro, mezzo, and macro level. On the micro level each individual victim is assessed for counseling. The micro level gives the individual more space to be open about what happened without being judged in any kind of way, or with being afraid. The micro level is a vital step to the mezzo and macro levels. On the mezzo level the victim could then be assessed in a group setting with people such as, their families, other victims, their friends, and so forth. The macro level is the largest level of all. On this level, communities, neighborhoods, and even the nation are included. It just depends on how broad the crime is and in Dahmer’s case the murders made national news, frightening many parents out there with young male children.

References

(2012, July 20). Retrieved November 12, 2014, from Social Work License Map: http://socialworklicensemap.com/macro-mezzo-and-micro-social-work/

Ashman, K., & Hull, G. (2010). Understanding Generalist Practice. Stamford: Cengage Learning.

Davis, D. (1991). The Jeffrey Dahmer Story: An American Nightmare. New York City: St. Martin’s Paperback Press.

Gough, J., & Spencer, E. (2014). Ethics in Action: An Exploratory Survey of Social Worker’s Ethical Decision Making and Value Conflicts. Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Vol. 11 Issue 2, p23-40. 18p.

Marten, W., & Kahn, W. (2011). Sadism linked to loneliness: psychodynamic dimensions of the sadistic serial killer Jeffrey Dahmer. Psychoanalytic Review, Vol. 98 (4), pp. 493-514.

O’Meara, G. J. (2009). He Speaks Not, Yet He Says Everything; What of That?: Text, Context, and Pretext in State v. Jeffrey Dahmer.. Denver University Law Review, Vol. 87 Issue 1, p97-137, 41p.

When working in health and social care, there are certain laws and policies which we have to follow. Some of them are the policies and procedures made by our organizations while some are rules and regulations set up by the government. Principle of practice means abiding by all of the rules; policies and procedures so as to fulfil the requirements which we need to follow in order to be an ideal professional in health and social care.

VALUES OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE

In health and social care, values are the beliefs and ideas that guide us about the way we are supposed to care for others.

Examples from experience

We can understand and learn more about the values in health and social care working as a care worker in different roles and settings. It is not mandatory that an individual should only be cared for in a nursing home or a residential home. It can even be his/her home. Different types of care settings are as follows:

Primary care

When someone notices the early symptoms of health disorder then they often visit the GPs. If the GPs find out that the case is rather more serious then the GP suggests that person to go to a specialist. However the individual can return to the GP for follow up care and monitoring of his disorder. Nursing treatments, physiotherapy, radiography and other specialist care may be undertaken at the GP’s surgery.

Hospital care

Sometimes when the patients reach the later stages of a disease or if they need intensive care then they might be subjected to hospitals.

Domiciliary care

There is often a negative belief among the elderly people that they might not return home if they are sent to a care home or a hospital. In these cases, they want care to be provided in their own homes. When the care worker provides care by travelling to the client’s home then it is called domiciliary care. Agencies that provide home care workers should be obliged under the 1973 Act and should make sure that the staffs have undergone proper training and should provide them with necessary equipments. A good agency will have a different department for recruitment and training of staffs and a different one for client enquiries. Domiciliary care can be a problematic process especially when a single care worker has to attend many clients.

Residential care

In the further stages of a disease, a patient needs to be under care 24 hours a day. Such people need to be sent to a residential care home where they can be looked after by a team of staffs. People with dementia, Alzheimer’s disease or arthritis need advanced care and hence they can be admitted to a nursing home. It is not necessary that every client in a residential care home is suffering from a disease. When families and relatives are unable to look after the elderly people in their home due to their busy schedules then also they may trust residential care homes to keep the elderly people. According to best care home awards, Morton Grange is Britain’s best residential care home in 2009.

Requirements

The requirements for maintaining the values of health and social care are as follows:

Equality

Different people have different needs. It is essential that the same principle of fairness is used to meet their needs. Therefore, the definition of equality is not only equal treatment of all the individuals but it the similar treatment of individuals in similar conditions. Let us suppose that in a hospital, there are a number of patients with a particular type of brain tumour. In this situation, they should be offered the same option for treatment even if their choices may differ based on a range of factors. Equal opportunities should always be available for everyone.

Diversity

The word diversity refers to the variations found in the characteristics and nature present among the individuals within a population. When we look at a population then we can notice that people are different from one another in their own ways. We can feel the differences in the language, religion, race, tradition, norms and values of people. For instance, According to National Statistics Online 2007, UK population consists of 71.7 % Christians, 3.1% Muslims, 1.1% Hindus, 0.6% Sikhs, 0.3% Jewish and 0.3% Buddhists. This statistics shows the diversity in religion of the UK population in 2007. As a care worker, it is important to realize the social context in order to understand our service users and accept diversity with all our hearts.

Dignity

According to the Social Care Institute for Excellence (2006), dignity refers to the state, quality or manner worthy of esteem or respect; and (by extension) self-respect. In the field of health and social care, one should not forget that every person has his own individuality. Being a care worker, one should intend to promote the self esteem of the service users and we should have a sense of respect for everybody regardless of any sort of differences in order to express that we value their dignity. Let us put forward the example of old people who tend to find happiness in small things such as the weather and flowers and try to maintain their dignity and self respect by remembering their past achievements. Listening to them and giving them priority can really help to enhance their dignity.

Protect

The values of health and social care are likely to be disturbed in some cases. The steps to be considered in order to protect the values in health and social care are:

Taking account of limitations

We have got our own sets of rights but this sometimes while using our rights we might forget what our limits are. If we forget our limits then we may be successful in hurting other people’s feelings and also violate their rights. Suppose somebody is a popular author. He has the right to express his views, ideas and creativity through his works. However, this does not necessarily mean that he can write negative things about people of a particular group or culture. He cannot mix something like racism in his writings and hurt others. That is not his right. Hence, we should take account of our limitations.

Use relationships to promote rights

Gilchrist (1992) suggests a number of ways to ensure that discrimination does not exists in our society, they are:

Recognise prejudice and discriminatory practice that it can lead to;

Value diversity;

Understand a need to find ways to empower others;

Combat discrimination and encourage others to combat discrimination;

Reflect on the organisation and the policies, procedures, practices and facilities which might support anti discriminatory practices.

Impact of discrimination on others

The unequal treatment and attitude that we show to others is known as an act of discrimination. People can discriminate on the basis of sex, religion, social class, ethnicity, race, etc. We have to abide by the anti-discriminatory acts such as sex discrimination act, Race Relations Act, etc. because discrimination can have only negative impact on the following aspects:

Identity

When someone is discriminated then he/she may start losing the honour which should possess regarding their identities. For example, when someone is discriminated on the basis of his religion then he may adapt some other religion just to be accepted by others.

Self-esteem and confidence

Discriminatory acts hinder one’s dignity and decrease one’s willingness to participate in social activities. For example, due to the sexual discrimination faced by gays, lesbians and transgendered people, they grow up feeling isolated and conscious about difference between them and others. According to www.citizenship.ahsonline.co.uk, over 70% of transsexuals have contemplated suicide in their lives.

Colleen Rothwell-Murray. Commissioning domiciliary care: a practical guide to purchasing services. 2000. Oxon: Radcliffe Medical Press Ltd.

Sue Cuthbert, Jan Quallington, Values for care practice. 2008. Devon: Reflect Press Ltd.

www.pressdispensary.co.uk

Values and EthicsThe Value base of Social Work and the Development of my own Values

This essay will firstly discuss what values are and the value base of Social Work. It will then proceed to analyse the origin and evolution of my own values. Followed by reflection on them and how they relate to the value base of social work. I will summarise by identifying areas of my personal values that I think require further development.

It makes sense to start off by exploring what is meant by the word ‘value’. It is a somewhat vague term, most people would claim to have values but struggle to elaborate when asked what their values are. Banks makes a good analysis, ‘ ‘values’ is often used to refer to one or all of religious, moral, political or ideological principles, beliefs or attitudes.’ (cited in Thompson 2005, p108) Values can vary greatly from one culture to another, from family to family and differ between each individual. Values and what they mean to each person in my opinion are unique for everyone. As Thompson suggests ‘….a value is something we hold dear, something we see as important and worthy of safeguarding.’ (2005, p109)

The British Association of Social Workers, (BASW), promote a Code of Ethics, that they expect each and every social worker to adhere to. The key principles of these are human dignity and worth, social justice, service to humanity, integrity and competence (1999). Each of these principles contains core values that are imperative for good social work practice. Examples of such values are ‘Respect for human dignity and for individual and cultural diversity’, ‘Value for every human being, their beliefs, goals, preferences and needs’, also ‘Respect for human rights and self-determination’. When I first read the code of ethics, at the very beginning of studying social work, it appeared very simple. I asked myself “Surely it can’t be complicated to follow these basic values?”. Nevertheless, through the teaching I’ve had so far and the questions it has raised, I realise that social workers must keep a constant check on themselves, reflecting regularly so as their service users receive a consistent quality of service.

Biestek (1961 cited in Dominelli 2004) put together seven points that he felt formed the traditional social work values. These are, Individualisation of the client, treating each service user as an individual. Purposeful expression of feelings, allowing service users to talk about and express the feeling they have. Controlled emotional environment, obtaining the right balance of emotions. Unconditional acceptance, accepting that person for who they are. Non-judgemental attitude, not judging a person on the way they choose to live their life or the decisions they have made. Client self-determination, similar to empowerment, playing a part in helping a service user realise their goals. Lastly, Confidentiality, respecting that everything discussed with a client is personal to them and they may not want others to know their private business. Although Biestek defined these values as important nearly fifty years ago, they still remain significant and can be applied to social work today.

With this is in mind a common traditional value to explore would be respect. This is a value held by many different cultures and religions, mostly seen as respect towards elders and also towards people in authority. In the General Social Care Council’s Codes of practice, respect is referred to throughout, one instance being ‘Respecting and maintaining the dignity and privacy of service users’ (2002).

This value although stemming from good intentions is open to exploitation, for instance when the older individual or person in authority abuses the power that respect gives them. It is widely agreed that one should have unquestionable respect for anyone older than them or toward a person in a position of authority, whether that respect is deserved is often not open for discussion.

So how do values apply to social work? Values are something people make use of in their lives everyday, probably without even realising so. However values also form a significant part of social work practice, as Trevithick points out, ‘Social work is not unique in its values perspective, but other professions may not have given this issue the same importance…’ (2005, p4). For instance, if a social worker cannot empathise with a service user it is going to be very difficult to understand how best to assist that person. As Thompson suggests ‘(empathy)…is a very skilful activity, as it involves having a degree of control over our own feelings while remaining open and sensitive to the other person’s feelings.’ (2005, p119). This is an area of my values I can detect require improvement. I will need to ensure I achieve the appropriate balance of caring without becoming so emotionally involved that I find myself in a position where I am unable to support the individual.

My own values stem from my upbringing. We hold very strong family values, encouraging each other completely in whatever we are undertaking. If a member of the family has a decision to make, we will share our views and opinions, but ultimately always support and respect the final choice made. I benefited from this support immensely when I became a mother at just eighteen years old, I received an incredible amount of assistance and encouragement from my family. I am in no doubt this made a huge difference to how confident I was as a mother.

However, I was unable understand my partner’s family values. Within their family they lead much more separate, independent lives. At eighteen I couldn’t fathom this way of thinking, I thought, naively, that all families shared my family’s values. My Mother-in-law expressed her disappointment that her son was becoming a young father. I perceived this as a rejection. I deliberated for a long time as to why we didn’t share the same outlook, identifying it as a disapproval of her son’s choice of partner. After many years, and several heated confrontations, I came to realise that it wasn’t a personal attack against me. It is simply that my in-laws hold different family values to myself and I can now appreciate and understand this.

It was growing more mature that enabled me to distinguish that other peoples’ values are different to my own. It was not my place to judge my mother-in-law and I can now recognise my over-sensitivity. I believe this was all part of a process that inspired me to form a non-judgemental attitude. I accept others for who they are and do not judge them on how they choose to live their life and the decisions they make. This is a quality that, I hope, will contribute positively towards my social work career.

Another value I was raised with is respect; I mentioned this nearer the beginning of my essay and feel that it is an area of my values that has developed. As a child I was expected to show total courtesy to all adults, it was inconceivable that I could question an adult. Although secure that I was completely loved, I was a child and couldn’t possibly argue with an elder. An adult would certainly not say sorry to a child, fundamentally this was not a reciprocal value. One occasion I can recall is my mother thinking I had stolen a cake from the kitchen cupboard, my brother had in fact taken it. Even though she was made aware of the truth, I was never apologised to.

The concept was that adults, and more so parents, were never wrong. I like to think that now, as an adult myself, I still strongly hold this value of respect and encourage my children to show regard and consideration toward others. Although, for me personally, the value has evolved. I foster the belief that respect should be shown toward all persons, young and old. I aim to show equal respect to children and adults alike and I feel with my own children that, if I have made a mistake in any way, I should always apologise to them.

It is vital when interacting with a service user I am aware of the values I hold, as Dominelli points out, ‘…. the social and knowledge contexts within which values are embedded impact upon their use,….’ (2004, p65). For example, I am against abortion once the pregnancy has gone past the twelve week stage, but I am fully aware that if a service user was in this situation, it would be totally unprofessional for me to allow the client become aware of my personal opinion. It is certainly not my position to impact upon any decision the service user may make.

I am also attentive to the fact that there are other areas of my personal values that require further development. One aspect that I am conscious I will need to work on is showing respect to persons that have committed certain offences, for example, a paedophile that has molested or murdered children. Having young children myself I find this sensitive issue quite upsetting. Still, I am aware that even though an individual has chosen to carry out this act it doesn’t mean that they are not entitled to services. It would be my job to offer that person the services they hold a right to receive and, as before with my views on abortion, I must exercise the non-judgemental area of my values to effectively provide this.

To conclude this essay I believe that I am able to recognise the values that I possess and I aspire to remain attentive to these and the areas that require further strengthening. I also feel the values I hold relate to social work practice and I hope they will contribute toward my career, in a positive manner, for many years to come.

Theory is every systematic collection of ideas that relate to a specific subject. Observations that can be explained by a structure designed to analyze them is called a theory. It can also be a series of principles applying to something and describing a set of phenomena. A theory should be able to identify this set of phenomena and make allegation about the reality of a coherent collection of ideas. Theories are supposed to be practical and they are never considered right or wrong. They are supported only by observations and there is some significant truth in every one of them but no single one of all these theories says it all.

On every field, practitioners make decisions and give advice based on principles, theories. A good practitioner needs to predict the effects of action and if he’s not able to do that he is hardly responsible or professional. Each career theory should describe the important features of the situation and find proof of what really happens. Theory asks “why does it happen this way?” and tries to give a reason based on the evidence. Understanding the causes and the results means that a practitioner can work out “what would happen if…” By doing this the practitioner can see how outcomes change if interventions are different. This is where theory and practice communicate with each other.

Theories have a great impact on a practitioner’s way of work and in order to give advice, information and counseling he should be able to apply these theories based on the situation. Being capable to do that gives him the confidence to make the best of his skills to help the client. By doing that he increases his range of skills, self awareness and the opportunity to give and get support. Meeting the desirable outcome means that the practitioner has been tested and proved his effectiveness and knowledge on the subject. It’s a way to evaluate his skills, challenge his self and reflect on his action. Having the knowledge to adapt theories to the client’s needs improves his performance, gives him guidelines and provides him with a target for practice. The practitioner is developing his skills by interacting with people and learning from them. He’s being changed by the individuals and his ability to approach and understand the needs of the client.

Counseling is a way of helping people overcome problems and achieving their goals. The clients should have the resources needed to deal with any difficulty they have and this is what they should try to gain from a meeting with a career practitioner. After the meeting they should be able to make well informed realistic decisions, resolve their problems and reflect on their selves. In order to achieve what they desire, they should explore their choices, increase their understanding of the situation and make effective plans. These can be achieved if the client trusts the practitioner and understands that he has the best interest at heart and his role is to make him more responsible on his decision making and his future planning.

Using the case study provided offer justification as to how the theories studied can contribute to our understanding of the client and the issues that the case study presents. Evaluate the implications these insights have for the practice of career guidance.

As we can see from the case study Dee is a person easily influenced by everyone around her. She didn’t go to college or sixth form after she finished school because of her parents, who seem to have the final word on her life’s path. She found a job to contribute to the family income and she got married very young because her parents believed that is important to settle down with a husband and children. She left others guide her life decisions but now she seems ready to take her life on her hands. Dee has been through every major transition in her life and I can see that she managed to overcome many obstacles to finally decide she wants more of her life. Her new-found confidence and ambitions brought the end of her marriage but she seems to be able to make her decisions without the influence of her family.

As her practitioner I would use the occupational choice theories and the transition theories to understand Dee and the issues she presents at the meeting. Transition theory provides a description of ways in which people may cope with change and draw insights on hoe people make decisions. If the client understands the process of transition it would be easier for her to engage and participate in the process.

Most of the transitions in Dee’s life were involuntary and a number of conditions appear to disable her from taking the next step, finding a new job or going to the university. She has no economic security, high commitments as a woman divorced with two children and no one to support her. She is a person who experienced multiple transitions in her life, marriage, parenthood, divorce and from school to work. All these events in her life are possible vehicles for maturity and personal development.

As practitioner we should have in mind that each of us cope differently with transitions and the more aware a person becomes of these aspects of himself, the better equipped he will be to control the change effectively and to be benefited from the transition. Adams, Hayes and Hopson signify that a cycle of feelings and reactions are expected in every type of transition. The cycle has seven stages and a person must go through them in order to move on. The first phase of the transition is immobilization. The person feels overwhelmed, frozen and unable to do anything about the situation. Then comes the phase of minimization. At this point the person is in denial or feels euphoric. Denial is sometimes a positive reaction and a necessary way to adjust. The third phase of the cycle is depression. People are fully aware of the situation and feel powerless. Not being able to get control of their life they often get depressed, angry and have an intense feeling of hopelessness. As people start to face the reality they manage to move to the fourth phase. They begin the process of unhooking from the situation and letting go. At the fifth phase people turn out to be more active, adopt new behaviours and life styles to deal with this big change in their lives. At the next phase people try to find a reason for the things that are different now and what this means for their lives. Finally, at the seventh phase of transition people acknowledge the reality, have a better understanding of their selves and test their behaviour based on their experiences through the transition.

A person who is already experiencing a divorce and a career change is possible to be more upset and have a more powerful transition. To be able to give advice and guide a person like Dee means exploring all of the aspects of her life, how she arrived at this point and how she made all these decisions that brought her today to this office to get career guidance. Being familiar with the occupational choice theory gives as a better understanding on how Dee decided to change her career and what obstacles she may face during this process.