Author: Andre Coleman

Now a days social workers are expected to write their reports in a coherent way, justifying it using theory and research. Sociology offers some important social theories, which provide explanations and critiques of human behavior, social actions and interactions as well as the institutions and the structures of society. The fact that social work is concerned with social change and problem solving is precisely why sociology is important to social work.

In this essay I have selected two sociological theories – to examine and understand Ms. B’s situation. I will be applying these theories to my understanding of my position as a social worker. The essay will also consider how these theories or perspectives helped my thinking about Ms. B’s situation and how these theories or perspectives were unhelpful in my understanding of Ms. B’s situation. In this essay I will also considers what other theory might have been applied, and as an integral part of the essay, considering anti-oppressive and anti-discriminatory practice.

Functionalism views society made up from numerous interconnected parts which together form a system. The basic part of this breakdown is the society, and its variety of parts can be understood in terms of their collective relationship. In the initial stages of this theory Functionalism drew comparisons between society and the human body. Mainly this comparison existed since they viewed the society operating in theory in a similar way of the human body.

Therefore, for one to understand the function of an organ in the human atonomy, for example the heart, it is essential to understand its relationship with the other organs in the human body and especially, its contribution towards the maintaining of the organism. Thus, functionalism argues that, an analysis and examination of the functioning of society is therefore important as it illustrates its relationship with the other parts of society, and most importantly, its contribution to the maintenance of society.

According to Emile Durkheim (1895), the founder of Functionalism, crime and deviance are normal and necessary. Given that they are found in all societies, functionalists argue that it is a form of social change, as through deviance the society would learn about the accepted behaviour. However, too much crime can bring on a state of ‘anomie‘, which is a state of normlessness in society. This arises when cultural goals and structural means of achieving those goals is unbalanced. The anomie state would result in conflicting the agreement of the functioning of society. Durkheim described the state of anomie as ‘a feeling of aimlessness or despair…traditional moral controls and standards are largely broken down…this leaves many individuals in society feeling lack of meaning in their daily lives’.Giddens(2006, p 14)

Durkheim (1895) suggested that the theory of Merton gives an idea of the individuals who have high expectations and are unable to fulfill them through structural means then ‘strain occurs’. Robert Merton’s (1938) ‘Strain theory’ modified the Durkheim’s ‘Anomie’ to refer to the strain put on individuals when accepted norms conflict with reality.

While the symbolic interactionalist theory are more concerned with agencies of social control; how they label certain behavior as deviant and the effects of these labels. Interactionists dispute the functionalist assumption that there is an agreement throughout society as to what behavior is criminal or deviant. They aimed to find out why certain behavior was labeled as criminal or deviant in some contexts but not in others.

Howard Becker was one of the initiators of the labelling theory, he stated that “Social groups create deviance by making the rules whose infractions constitute deviance, and by applying these rules to particular people and labelling them as outsiders”. REF

The labelling theory looks at how the social response to crime is made and how certain behaviour comes to be considered deviant or criminal. Labelling theory also suggests that the very imposition of social judgments on certain individuals, helps turn those individuals even more into paths of criminality that have been already identified. The labelling becomes a self-fulfillment prophecy as the stigma, or label, only pushes the offender further in the direction of criminality. In simple terms, give a dog a bad name he will become a bad dog, Llewellyn et al (2001, p 90).

The theoretical formulations of Colley (1992) and Mead (1934) have served as a source when trying to understand the self-fulfilling prophecy. They both argue that social interaction is the basis upon which an individual formulates his or her self-concept. Cooley and Mead models give examples of the individual’s conception which arises through interaction with other members of the society that constitute his/her significant social circle. Specifically, the social looking glass theory posits that one’s self-conception is determined by the way in which it is reflected or mirrored through the eyes of the other people involved, Allen (2001, p 58).

As a SW, I believe it is my responsibility to try to really understand the SU’s situation, from their perspective. Thinking about Ms. B’s situation, in terms of the two theories is very useful to me as a SW as sociological theories are helpful in providing insights into the perspectives of the SU. Therefore these two theories are helpful in helping to identify how Ms B’s situation may have come to being constructed and, so can be understood.

For example, functionalism could help me understand Ms. B’s situation from the perspective of Ms. B’s culture, race, gender and mental health status: Ms. B could potentially, be multiply discriminated against along any of these.

Analyzing and examining the SU’s problems in a functionalist view can, therefore, give structure to my understanding of the problem as a social worker. Especially in terms of how SU’s might be discriminated or oppressed against, Dominelli (2002).

For instance, in Ms B. case, a functionalist analysis to her situation would consider the behavior of Ms B. as deviant, because it is preventing her from participating in society. She is seen as unable to fulfill her role as a mother and her social interactions are affected. Supposing that she has permit to work, it would be not possible for her to find or maintain a job due to her deviant behavior.

Functionalists would consider this as a “faulty socialization”. Furthermore functionalism would view this situation as costing to society, as a result not contributing to the maintenance of the society functioning. This fault in socialization has to be fixed in order for Ms B. to fully participate in society and contribute in its maintenance; as a result the label put on her would be a form of social control. However as a consequence to the label, Ms B. would feel that her culture, race and gender are not taken into account and that she is being discriminated against, she may feel oppressed and at the same time socially stigmatized.

The Robert Merton’s (1938) ‘Strain theory’ would be very helpful in better understanding Ms B. behavior. Durkheim (1895) suggested that the theory of Merton gives an idea of the individuals who have high expectations and are unable to fulfill them through structural means then ‘strain occurs’. Robert Merton’s (1938) ‘Strain theory’ modified the Durkheim’s ‘Anomie’ to refer to the strain put on individuals when accepted norms conflict with reality.REF Linking this to the case of Ms B, her asspiration to enter paid employment does not coincide with her immigration status. Therefore this disparity between desires and fulfillment will be felt in deviant motivation. Evenmore this could be the point where Mrs B feels the strain and as a result deviates from the societies norms.

Due to the variety of problems that Ms B. is currently facing, Agnew (1992) in Levinson (2002) would give another functionalist view to better understand her reaction to the label. He argues how the strain theory can lead to other deviant adoptions. Agnew criticizes the earlier strain theory, he argued that strain theory should ‘generalize the concept to include all negative relations with others, rather than just the negative relations that are the result of striving from uneatable, but culturally mandated goals’. Levinson (2002, p 79).

” It is not so much the unique quality no any single event but the accumulation of several stressful events within a relatively short time span that is consequential”) Agnew (1992,) as cited in Levinson (2002, p 62-63).

Ms B. immigration status may feel very oppressing to her. By not taking the medication prescribed as well as reacting in a deviant way, is the only way in which Ms B. can show her anger, which is accumulated by many issues during a short time. Agnew placed great importance to the feeling of ‘anger’ as he argued that ‘anger is the key emotion because it increases the individual’s level of felt injury, creates a desire for retaliation/revenge, energizes the individual for action, and lowers inhibitions, in part because individuals believe that others will feel their aggression is justified’ as cited in Levinson (2002, p 60).

While functionalism helped me to reflect on the possible ways a person can be discriminated against; even more it placed a great emphasis on my understanding of the importance of being culturally competent, especially in the profession of social work. In the other hand the labelling theory not only lead me to a deeper understanding of Ms B situations but also, helped me to understand the potential start of Ms B’s deviance behavior. For instance, once the label of ‘mental ill’ was given to Ms B, she may well have chosen to simply organize her life around that label and adopt the new identity that was endorsed on her. In this way the self fulfilling prophecy comes into play. The act of labelling Ms B as someone with scrixophenia would had an adverse effect on her future behaviour.

Deviance can be defined as a failure to conform to culturally expected norms of behaviour, which reflect the dominant values and rules of groups or society in a given period, Llewellyn et al (2002, p 90).

As the labelling theory argues that the person is categorized and classified as deviant ; the stereotyped person has their identity reinforced, which in turn promotes the deviant behaviour that it is intended to prevent, Llewellyn et al (2002, p 90).

When reading and applying the functionalist theory, it is obvious that this theory assumes that the middle class values are accepted throughout society. Therefore whoever deviates from this values it is regarded as having a faulty socialization. Even more as we see on the Anomie theory and the adapted strain theory, one can understand that there is an assumption that everyone aspires the same level of success.

The labelling theory has been very helpful in developing policies, such as ‘diversion’ from the courts and the criminal justice systems. However the labelling theory has its own limitations, it can be argued that it is too deterministic as it assumes that the deviant will accept the label, some people fight against the label and prove it wrong. As well as it does not consider the process that lead to the deviant behavior.

There are other sociological theories that could also have helped to explain other aspects of Ms. B’s life, such as her living in poverty, which can lead Ms. B to be discriminated against and oppressed by mainstream society. Marxism conflict theory and anti-racist theory/black perspectives, would have been helpful in achieving a bigger picture of Ms B situation. For example Marxist would argue that Ms B is being oppressed against due to her social class, poverty and her ethnicity. There are past and current studies to show that “a high number of people from black ethnicities, are being diagnosed with schizophrenia, with some studies reporting between two to eight times higher rates of diagnosis, compared to the White population” mind.org.uk (accessed 16/12/09).

Even more the past detention of Ms B under the mental health act would coincide with the fact that “people from black ethnicities are more likely to be held under the Mental Health Act, and to receive medication rather than be offered therapies such as psychotherapy” mentalhealth.org.uk (accessed 16/12/09).

Applying the black feminist theories could have explored more about Ms B current situation, Black feminist would argue that Ms B may be facing oppression from her partner as well as they would argue about the mental label being ascribed to her as a result of her gender but most importantly her ethnicity. Also “it is important to note that only the difference between Black Caribbean women and White women can be considered as statistically significant” mind.org.uk (accessed: 28/12/09)

In summary, it is obvious that actively considering and using sociological theories can allow meaningful analyses of the SUs’ problems. As a result the SW practice becomes applied more, and of more use to the SUs’. Theories would provide informed solutions to SU’s problems in a more anti-oppressive and anti-discriminatory manner (Dominelli, 2002).

In conclusion one of the barriers to social work participation would be when service users are viewed in a stereotypical way, by the social worker. Every individual has a unique perspective of the world, and as such should be treated as an individual regardless of illness, colour or belief system. It is important that those in need of help and guidance be given access to it, and that the best possible outcome for the service user, is secured. This should be done with the help and support of all those involved, including health care professionals, social workers and the service users themselves, in order to enable individuals to become more independent and re-integrated back into society.

References

Jones, P., (2003). ‘Introducing Social Theory’. Polity, London.

Gidens, A., (2006). ‘Sociology’ , 5th Edition, Polity Levinson, D., (2002). ‘Encyclopedia of crime and punishment’, Volume 1, SAGE Cunningham, J., Cunningham, S., (2008) Sociology and Social Work. Learning Matters.

Dominelli, L. (2002). Anti-oppressive social work theory and practice. Palgrave MacMillan.

Fernando, S. (2002). Mental Health Race and Culture. Palgrave.

Rogers, A. and Pilgrim, D. (2003). Mental Health and Inequality. Palgrave.

Macionis, J. J., Plummer, K., (2008). Sociology: A Global Introduction. Pearson.

Haralambos, M., Holborn, M., (2008). Sociology: themes and perspectives. Collins.

Llewellyn, A., Agu, L., Mercer, D., (2008). Sociology for Social Workers. Polity.

Allen, L. R., (2001). The concept of self: a study of black identity and self-esteem.
Wayne State University Press,

http://www.mind.org.uk/help/people_groups_and_communities/statistics_3_race_culture_and_mental_health (Accesed:28/12/09)

http://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/information/mental-health-a-z/black-minority-ethnic-communities/#Afro_Carib (Accessed: 16/12/09)

Evaluate critically the role of child death inquiries as a vehicle for policy development, and consider the implication for social work with children and families.

The purpose of this assignment is to show a critical understanding of the role of child death inquiries as a vehicle for policy development. This assignment will explore the purpose of child death inquiries. It will show a critical understanding of the complex relationship between family and the state, the tensions between the duty to safeguard children, the parents and child’s rights and when the state should intervene. The types of child death inquiries will be investigated examining their purpose, limitations and values. The assignment will examine the impact of changing child welfare policy on organisational structures with reference to multi disciplinary teams. This assignment will show reference to critical evaluation and the bias that may precede it. Finally concluding given the weight of evidence how useful child death inquiries are as a vehicle for policy development.

Recently the benefits of child death inquiries and serious case reviews have come under particular scrutiny, this assignment will use evidenced based information and practice to find other approaches or how to improve the form of the inquiry so its benefits outweigh its limitations.

The United Nations estimate that every week two children in the United Kingdom die from abuse or neglect (UNICEF, 2003). The United Nations Convention, article 3 on the rights of the child places a duty on countries to protect children from abuse or neglect, the best interests of the child must be the primary concern when making decisions which may affect them, article 6 focuses on the importance of safeguarding their right to life (United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1992).

There are two types of child death inquiries; serious case reviews and public inquiries. A serious case review takes place when a child dies and abuse or neglect is suspected. They also take place in other circumstances where serious situations have occurred for example where a child has suffered from serious sexual abuse. The purpose of child death inquiries according to Working Together, 2010 is for agencies and individuals to learn where problems have arisen and to learn from these to improve their practice. The lessons learnt should be given to all individuals who work in this area to ensure they safeguard children in the correct way. When agencies already know where certain problems lie they should improve upon them before the serious case review is finished. A public inquiry for example The Colwell Report (1974), The Climbe inquiry (2003) is a inquiry ordered by the government to review events, in this case child deaths. To conclude where practice could be improved upon, recommendations can be given and lessons can be learnt.

Under regulation 5 of the local safeguarding children’s board requires that the local safeguarding children board undertakes reviews of serious cases. Serious case reviews must establish lessons to be learnt, identify which lessons are within agencies and which between and how long they have to act upon the changes to be undertaken. The reviews must also improve upon inter and intra agency working to promote and safeguard the wellbeing of children (chapter 8, Working Together, 2010). Laming (2009) states that serious case reviews are an important tool for learning lessons. Currently there is debate regarding the approach used in serious case reviews some believe that there are different approaches to take to learn lessons from social work practice. Effective safeguarding practice is an approach considered, to learn from what is already proven to work.

The obvious aim of child death inquiries is to try and avoid future tragedies. There is a repetitive circle within child protection. Families collide with professionals and most of the outcomes involve protection. The tensions involved between families and professionals involve competition of rights. The Human Rights Act, 1998 article 8 stipulates the family’s right to a private family life and to be able to conduct their lives according to their culture and understanding. The opposite to this argument is to ensure all children are protected. When should professionals become involved? Parton (1991) describes the dilemma of how can the state establish the rights of the child and still promote the family to be an independent body in which to raise their children how they see fit and not intervene in all families and consequently reduce its autonomy.

Depending on the theoretical viewpoint the professionals and current Government takes would impose when the state should intervene. A laissez-faires government would have little intervention, the professionals would only intervene when abuse or neglect had taken place. However State paternalism is a perspective which favours more involvement of state intervention to protect children from abuse. This theory regards the child’s welfare as more important than family autonomy. This perspective was reflected in the Children Act, 1989 as it introduced the expression likely for the child to be in significant harm. If there is a likelihood of significant harm there are possibilities of child protection orders being produced, and in other extensions of state power.

Tensions between the duties that social workers have to safeguard children, the family’s right to a private family life, the rights of the child, working in partnership with the parents and understanding when the state should intervene cause problems within social work practice. Knowing when to intervene has always been a problem for social workers within this area. Malcolm Hill (1990) found that published child abuse inquiry reports identified working with parents as a common problem. He found that papers noted access difficulties, in a number of cases parents didn’t cooperate when the social worker needed to see the child at risk. Hill (1990) concluded that papers found social workers were too ready to believe parents. Hill (1990) concluded that the Colwell report (1974) found that social workers should focus on parents demonstrating their parenting skills and not to assume all was well because the parents said so.

Social workers also need to look at the care the child is receiving holistically not focus on single areas of the family where they are showing positive steps, for example social workers may be satisfied as the family are participating in counselling but they need to still look at their parenting at home whilst this continues. Thus depending on the theoretical viewpoint the social worker takes decides when they should intervene. This assignment will adopt a state paternalism perspective, this perspective although draws conclusions that the child is likely to suffer significant harm which may affect the family relationships and autonomy it’s better to intervene now then wait until abuse or neglect has taken place and then safeguarding the child. This perspective takes a view that children have a high priority in society, they have rights to high standards of care and using this approach ensure that they are protected at all costs by the force of the law (Fox Harding, 1997).

Child death inquiries are seen as an important tool used to improve local practice, also implementing wider community health approaches to improve upon infant mortality rates. Bunting and Reid (2005) found that there numerous benefits to serious case reviews taking place these included more effective multi agency working, improved communication between agencies, they found that death certificates had become more informative they also found that from participating in serious case reviews practitioners had more knowledge surrounding child death and the causes of them ensuring a further focus on preventative measures of child death rather than focusing on child abuse.

Corby, Doig and Roberts (1998) have found that there is a great concern on the impact of child inquiries on professionals especially social workers, they found that over the inquiries taking place there has been a continual criticism of social workers. The Maria Colwell case made social work practice public and put it under great scrutiny. Professionals within this case became points of focus of criticism, their work was scrutinised in incorrect contexts focusing on training of social workers affecting their morale significantly (Corby et al, 1998).

The impact of child death inquiries on social workers and other professionals in this area can be psychological and emotional. Corby et al (1998) argues both sides of the case although child death inquiries highlights poor practice and the need for the public to know why children already known to social services and other departments can still go on to be abused and killed. However the emotional and psychological effects on social workers can be so detrimental because of the scrutiny they are under, their work will be affected, and affecting further work they do.

Corby et al (1998) investigated child abuse cases and inquiries and how useful they are and what changes have been made by using child death and abuse inquiries as an approach. Of the seventy inquiries they used between 1945 and 1997 they all produced main recommendations in areas of improving inter agency co-ordination, training of professionals, improving child protection systems and using more experienced staff. Using this information to highlight that changes made between 1945 and 1997 because of the recommendations given haven’t been obvious because they are still proposing the same issues.

Child death inquires do have their place in the public eye specifically when practice goes wrong, nevertheless they have a number of limitations. Child death inquiries affect personal confidence of the social workers and other professionals when they become embroiled within the investigation. Due to the nature of the child death inquiries the public only see the negatives of social workers, social workers fear the association of such inquiries. Practice will not change when inquiries focus solely on the structure of children and families department. If social workers feel like the target when involved in inquiries their work will be affected therefore affecting the work they do further on for example other children may be more at risk because social workers have no confidence in the work they are practicing.

To use child death inquiries as a vehicle for policy development may not be the most effective approach to take. Child death inquiries are very expensive. If a more effective approach was to be taken and social workers and other professionals were able to learn more from this different process it would be more beneficial to take this approach than to carry on wasting money and concluding the same issues from all inquiries. Parton (2004) has found that the same issues have been identified on numerous times without any obvious changes in social work practice (Devaney, Lazenbatt and Bunting, 2010). Devaney et al (2010) found that child death inquiries can still be effective but more emphasis needs to be more on recommendations and implementing the recommendations and acting upon them. Devaney et al (2010) also argue that policy makers need more understanding of the difficult situations in which children are at more risk from abuse or neglect. Devaney et al (2010) argue that this can help the policy makers express what social workers can do and make a distinction between that and what should be done.

Child death inquiries make assumptions that something has gone wrong and that the inquiry can find out what and give recommendations to learn from the mistakes. It assumes that practice will change because of the recommendations given and many inquiries don’t focus on acting upon the recommendations, if they did then future inquiries wouldn’t produce the same recommendations. Inquiries assume that the method they use is sophisticated. However, research into inquiries and literature has shown that other approaches could be more effective and less intrusive in practice and less strain can be put on professionals. Inquiries assume that multi agency working will be more effective, though if tensions between professionals are tense already these will be difficult to resolve. Inquiries cannot assume that these tensions can be worked at by the professionals they need a superior management style to overlook the different professionals to be able to work effectively together.

As well as the implications for social workers individually and for policy makers regarding the process of child death inquiries, organisational structures will be also be impacted upon when changing child welfare policy. Due to changes within organisations, for example changes in roles of professionals involved in child death inquiries the foundations of interprofessional multi agency work are not secure, concluded because inquiries focus excessively on the role of social workers rather than the antecedents of child death or abuse. With regards to the case of Maria Colwell (1974) the Secretary of State Barbara Castle concluded that social workers alone cannot solve the underlying problems. All professionals in this field of child welfare need to understand their role but if child welfare policy continues to change constantly the role cannot be undertaken as professionals have poor ideas of what their role is and how they should practice. All professionals need to work effectively together and have an understanding of delivering comprehensive services to diverse communities so no children are lost in the system or ignored. The importance of effective interprofessional multi agency work is such that until there is a balance of role and practice then the safeguarding of future children may be affected.

Contemporary social work values may be affected, social workers have their own values personally and from learning from experience. Social workers must focus on human rights and social justice as their motivation for social work. Some critiques may argue that depending on the theoretical framework for example state paternalism some social workers may not be able to justify their motivation to impose this framework in their practice by not letting the family have a right to private family life (Human Rights, article 8) and be too quick to intervene. To ensure anti discriminatory practice social workers must understand different cultures have different behaviours when it comes to parenting. The social worker may thing its not appropriate, the family however believes differently. This can lead to the social worker not act at all. The social worker must ensure anti discriminatory practice, they need to see things from the perspective of the culture the family employs. Though still maintaining the values and knowledge they have regarding child abuse and when they should intervene. They must keep each case individual and make judgements based on evidence, not on their assumptions.

To evaluate how useful child death inquiries are as a vehicle for policy development evidence needs to be considered whilst investigating journal papers to gain an understanding of where bias may occur. Using a wide range of sources gives a broader idea of what has been proven to work in social work practice (Roberts and Yeager, 2006). Research evidence is more valued than other sources, those papers that are repeatable use a large amount of participants are more likely to have less prejudice in concluding how useful child death inquiries are as a vehicle for policy development. Higgs and Jones (2000) propose that evidence is knowledge derived from various sources, which has been tested and found credible.

Having read all the information the weight of evidence suggests that changes need to be made to the approach of child death inquiries. The limitations and implications to practice are too substantial to ignore. Professionals and public haven’t seen any major changes because of the recommendations give by the inquiries. Corby et al (1998) found that of seventy public inquiries between 1945 and 1997 the main focus of recommendations was on improvements on inter agency co-ordination and improving the training of staff. The gap between the time of the death of the child and receiving the results of the inquiry is detrimental to social workers. Corby et al (1998) also argue that the cost inquiries have and the negative impact on social workers affects their future practice and may create more risk to other children they are safeguarding because they don’t have the confidence to practice anymore. The most effective approach to take would be one that focuses with less scrutiny on the social workers so their confidence is not affected and acts upon the recommendations it has made. Policy can develop by using a different vehicle instead of child death inquiries. At the minute the impact of changing child welfare policy on social workers and organisational structure is considerable. An improved approach to child death inquiries can be more effective in changing policy than the constant changes that are currently happening because of the results from child death inquiries.

1. Introduction

This essay concerns the application of social work theory and practice with adults within the context of a specific legislative framework. The assignment specifically takes up different aspects of social work theory and practice that concern the carers of old and disabled individuals. It makes specific use of the case study on Betty, her daughter Elizabeth, and other members of Elizabeth’s family. The case study is provided in the appendix to this essay. It is considered as read and is thus not described in the body of this essay.

The assignment deals with the role of carers in the UK social work infrastructure and their needs and rights. It also takes up the importance of interprofessional participation and partnership between social and health care professionals and carers in delivery of social and health care, including the management of risk.

2. Identification of Issue

This assignment focuses on the responsibilities, difficulties, and needs of Elizabeth, the 49 year old daughter of Betty, who is 74 and has been living with Elizabeth and her family for the last 2 years. Elizabeth, who is white, is married to Charles (48), who is black and of African-Caribbean origin. They have two children, Mathew (22) and Elisa (19), who live with them.

Betty suffered from a stroke two months ago and is recovering in hospital. She has developed poor left side mobility on account of the episode and will require a wheel chair to move about. She has been medically assessed as ready to return home, where Elizabeth is expected to care for her. The situation and the caring relationship, whilst transparent and logical, has become complicated because of Charles’s redundancy from employment and his strained relationship with Mathew, who is yet to start earning. The domestic environment could become disturbed because of the possibility of Charles resuming his old drinking habits, the tendency of Mathew to engage in substance abuse and his stealing from his grandmother to fund his drug purchases and the possibility of Elisa’s moving out to live with her boyfriend. An application of Erikson’s theory of human development reveals that Betty is now firmly entrenched in her late adulthood, whereas Elizabeth is in her middle adulthood. Betty, if she is properly cared for, will find it easy to accept her life stage and prepare for her final years with complacency. For Elizabeth, these are years of activity and being in charge. Taking care of Betty will add meaning to her life, reduce stagnation, and establish a caring and stable home environment.

Elizabeth is obviously in a complex and difficult situation and whilst she must care for her ailing mother, she also has responsibilities towards her husband and children. Social work policies in the UK detail the ways through which social and medical care should be provided to adults in need (Oliver & Decoster, 2006, p 243). Specific policies exist for providing medical and social support to elderly people with mental and physical disabilities. Such services are provided through the aegis of social work practitioners, mental health professionals, medical professionals and medical workers. These diverse professionals are expected to work in partnership for the delivery of comprehensive social and medical care to the old and disabled (Oliver & Decoster, 2006, p 243). With the majority of such service users being expected to be cared for in the community, in their homes and in the midst of their near relatives, carers form an extremely important component of the social work delivery process (Stalker, 2003, p 67). Elizabeth, in her role as the primary care for Betty forms the pivot for delivery of social and health care services.

This assignment delves into the social work infrastructure and policies in the UK that are available for carers and makes particular use of relevant frameworks including the Single Assessment Process and National Service Framework for Older People. The essay also discusses relevant sociological and psychological theories for human development and behaviour and examines the ways in which inter-professional practice and partnership of professionals with carers can help in improvement of social work delivery.

3. Social and Medical Care for Adults and Old People

The official approach for providing social and medical care for older people was revamped and improved significantly after the publication of the White Paper on Modernising Social Services in 1998 and the adoption of a national agenda for improvement of care and services (Baker, 2004, p 12). The National Service for Older People (NSF-OP), which was adopted in 2001set standards for the promotion of better services and greater integration of health and social care services for people (Baker, 2004, p 12).

The NSF-OP is developed around 8 standards, namely (a) age discrimination, (b) person centred care, (c) intermediate care, (d) general hospital care, (e) stroke, (f) falls, (g) mental health and (h) health promotion. The NSF for older people very importantly introduced the concept of person centred care, which aimed to ensure that older people were treated as individuals in their own right and received care packages that satisfied their individual needs, irrespective of boundaries between health and social services (Baker, 2004, p 12). These standards aimed to ensure the integration of health care and social work services for older people and ca;;ed upon health and social care workers to participate and collaborate with each other to provide holistic and rounded services to people in need (Baker, 2004, p 12).

The person centred approach for provisioning of social and health care is an important outcome of the gradual development and acceptance of the social model of disability (Moulin, 2002, p 43). The still dominant medical model of disability assumes that disabilities result from the physical or mental limitations of individual persons and are largely unrelated to their social or geographical surroundings. It places the origin of a problem with a person and states that solutions can be found by focusing on the individual, rather than on his or her surroundings (Moulin, 2002, p 43).

Whilst the medical model has for centuries dominated human approaches towards disabled people, recent decades have seen the emergence and the progressive acceptance of the social model, which views disability to be the consequence of social and environmental barriers that restrict people with disabilities from participating in society (Moulin, 2002, p 47). The person centred approach is routed in the social model and aims to empower people with disabilities by allowing them to participate and agree to the medical and social care plans that are made for them (Moulin, 2002, p 47). Such empowerment provides service users with significant independence to participate in their rehabilitation and treatment process and allows care plans to focus on rehabilitation and prevention, rather than on symptomatic treatment (Moulin, 2002, p 47).

The single assessment procedure was introduced in the SAF- OP, specifically to further the standard concerning person centred care (Baker, 2004, p 14). The SAP facilitates a single assessment for the medical and social needs of individuals and calls upon respective agencies to work together for provisioning of appropriate and holistic care to individuals in need (Baker, 2004, p 14).

The SAF-OP is particularly relevant for Betty, because it provides a framework for providing of holistic social and medical services to individuals who have experienced strokes.

4. The Role of Carers

Whilst Betty’s medical condition and social needs are certainly addressed through policies like the SAP, the SAF-OP, the progressively greater use of the social model, the person centred approach, the existing social health care infrastructure, the efforts of the individual carer, in this case her daughter Elizabeth, will play a critical role in the delivery of such care. The progressive elimination of hospitalisation and institutionalisation for people with physical and mental ailments and the replacement of such approaches and methods with community centred care commenced in the 1960s and progressively increased over the years through appropriate policy modifications.

It is now widely accepted that people with disabilities live far more enriched, satisfied and productive lives amongst their families, friends and communities than in specialised institutions. Betty, after her recuperation from her stroke, is expected to come back into the community, live with her close relatives and family members, and be cared for by people who care for her. Such community care, whilst extremely desirable as an alternative to institutionalisation, however calls for the services of specific carers for individuals, who cannot manage their own activities, and thus need to be looked after by other people (Office for National Statics, 2006, p 1-2). Such carers, in the overwhelming majority of cases, constitute of family members, spouses, siblings, parents or even children (Office for National Statics, 2006, p 1-2) Betty, after her stroke, has reduced left side mobility and will need a wheel chair for her personal movement. Whilst she may, in all probability, be able to look after her own needs to some extent, it is probable that she will certainly need the care of another person. Elizabeth, her daughter and the person with whom she is living at present, is expected to fulfil the role of her carer.

Carers occupy a unique role in the British social care infrastructure. Practically 11% of the population, i.e. approximately 6 million people, provide unpaid care in the UK to individuals in need. Whilst practically half of these carers fall in the age group between 45 and 64, many of them are very young as well as quite old. The majority of people who receive care live either in residential premises (Office for National Statics, 2006, p 1-2). Caring for an elderly person, as Elizabeth will be required to do, calls for significant amounts of sensitivity and commitment. Most people involved in care for older people look after parents or relatives who were previously used to looking after them (Weinstein, et al, 2003, p 114). Elderly people often wish to remain self reliant and make their own decisions as long as possible.

Such changes in family relationships can often be complex and lead to situations of conflict if they are not handled with adequate care and thought (Weinstein, et al, 2003, p 115).

Whilst caring for older people has to be handled with great sensitivity to avoid upsetting the people who are being cared for, it also calls for a great deal of hard work, effort, and self sacrifice on the part of carers (Williams & Robinson, 2000, p 18). Carers often have to adjust their responsibilities towards their employers, if they are employed, and to their other family members who may need their emotional and physical support, in order to look after the individuals whose care has been entrusted to them (Williams & Robinson, 2000, p 18). With carers playing critical roles in supporting and providing essential services to disabled and ailing elderly people, it is essential for them to work in close coordination and participation with responsible medical, health and social care professionals in order to facilitate the provisioning of holistic medical, social, physical and emotional support to their elderly wards (Stalker, 2003, p 81). Such partnership helps in better assessment of risks that are faced by persons in care and formulation of appropriate care and intervention plans. Social and medical care plans thus need to be carefully formulated by the concerned social workers after appropriate assessment with the use of person centred approaches and the involvement and agreement of the service user and the carer (Stalker, 2003, p 81).

Elizabeth, as has been stated before is experiencing difficult domestic conditions at home because of the unemployment of her husband. Whilst her husband Charles did not previously have any objection to Betty’s staying with them, his attitude might now change because of her illness as well as straitened domestic circumstances. He has a history of alcohol misuse and domestic abuse and his employment redundancy, as well as annoyance with Matthew’s unemployment, drug abuse and household thievery may upset him enough to relapse into his old ways. Elizabeth could in the normal course of events expect assistance from her two children in discharging her caring and household duties. This however looks improbable because of Elisa’s plans to shift in with her boyfriend and Matthew’s disturbed emotional state and surreptitious misuse of drugs.

5. Assessment of Needs of Carers

Carers, like Elizabeth, perform vital and pivotal roles in the delivery of social care to individuals under their care, who are otherwise unable to manage, at home, without some form of support because of issues like disability, mental health needs, and illness or learning difficulties. Such carers have their own problems and needs that can easily be overlooked by the people around them. Elizabeth’s problems, as explained in the previous section, whilst not apparent are complex and real.

The previous New Labour government recognised these needs, and introduced significant legislation for the protection of the rights of carers, through the enactment of the Carers and Disabled Children Act, 2000, and the Carers (Equal Opportunities) Act, 2004. The Carers and Disabled Children Act provides carers with the rights for separate assessments of their needs, if they provide or intend to provide regular and substantial care to others (Department of Human Services, 2003, p 18).

The person under care is usually assessed for his or her needs under the provisions of the 1990 NHS and Community Care Act (Department of Human Services, 2003, p 18). This is the best way of helping, both the carer and the person in care. The services provided to people who are in care often helps to support carers through the provisioning of some of the care that is being given by carers. The Carers (Equal Opportunities) Act aims to assure that carers can avail of opportunities that others often take for granted (Department of Human Services, 2003, p 18).

Assessments of needs of carers take into account the need of carers to continue with their work, return to work and excess education as well as training or leisure activities (Department of Human Services, 2003, p 19). The provisions of UK law state that carers are entitled to assessment, when they provide, or intend to provide, regular and substantial care to individuals in need, and the person being cared for, can access services from the Community Mental Health Team or the Department of Community Services (Department of Human Services, 2003, p 19).

Such rights for assessment provide carers with (a) opportunities to reflect and discuss their own needs as carers, (b) share their caring experiences, (c) obtain recognition for their roles as carers, (d) obtain information and advice, (e) identify and discuss existing and potential difficulties, and (f) create contingency plans for circumstances that may not make it possible for them to continue in their caring roles (Stalker, 2003, p 83). Assessments are made to investigate the ways in which social and health care professionals and the existing infrastructure can help people in their caring roles by maintaining their health and wellbeing (Stalker, 2003, p 85).

Such assessments concern issues like different aspects of individual caring roles, availability of breaks from caring, health issues of carers, maintenance of relationships with the person being cared for and others in the family, caring for home, accommodation, finances, work, education and training, support, emergencies, alternative arrangements and the future. As is evident, existing policies aim to make the assessment of carers as holistic as possible (Stalker, 2003, p 87). Such assessments take up a whole range of issues like the time being taken for caring, understanding the condition of the person being cared for, and difficulties in providing suitable care (Stalker, 2003, p 88). Health, relationships, finances, and work, are very important components of the assessment process, and social and health care professionals aim to assess whether carers can be helped in their relationships with people important to them and in their health, their finances and their leisure activity (Department of Human Services, 2003, p 19).

Assessments for carers lead to personal discussions with them on the help required by them and the preparation of care plans that try to accommodate the wishes and constraints of carers to the maximum extent (Department of Human Services, 2003, p 21). The Department of Community Services can, after such assessment, provide help to both the carers and to the people who are being cared for. The persons who are being cared for can be helped with direct payments in order to allow them to purchase their own care, practical or personal care at home, respite care, adaptations and home equipment, and day care services (Department of Human Services, 2003, p 21). Carers can be helped with support in the form of (a) direct payments to help them to buy the support they need, (b) substitute care in order to enable them to take breaks from caring, (c) assistance with specific tasks and equipment to help them in their caring efforts, (d) advice and support in their role as carers and (e) short breaks (Department of Human Services, 2003, p 21). Elizabeth can ask for an assessment, discuss her various problems with the social worker and try to work out, not only the best available care plan for Betty, but the ways in which she can obtain help to perform her caring functions effectively, maintain her home, help her children, and continue a good relationship with her husband.

Conclusions

This essay takes up the analysis of the case study of Elizabeth, her mother Betty, and her immediate family, and uses Elizabeth’s particular circumstances, as a would be carer for her mother, for an examination of existing legislation, theory and practice in areas of social and health care for adults with disabilities and their carers.

Social work policies, practice, and theory for carers, as well as the persons they care for have evolved significantly over the last decade. Whilst assessment policies and intervention tools for adults with ailments or disabilities have been streamlined significantly in order to account for their individual needs and to empower them with independence in choosing their care and treatment plans, the importance of carers in the delivery of social work in a community care environment has come to the forefront.

Carers are acknowledged to be critically important in the delivery of care. Social and health workers are expected to work collaboratively and in partnership, with each other and with carers, for the planning and delivery of holistic care and health services that take care of the individual needs of service users. Carers are also entitled to assessment of their needs and various forms of assistance to make their caring duties more effective and less onerous.

Whilst Elizabeth’s responsibilities towards her mother and her family members are undoubtedly onerous, the social and health care policies of the country provide significant facilities that can help in making her responsibilities easier and her life more enriching and fulfilling.

Title: ‘Framework for practice, exploring social work theory.’

The case throws up several interconnected issues. The essay will examine these through the lens of two different theories, on one hand the ecological theory of human development by Bronfenbrenner (1979), and on the other hand, the social model of disability as it has been proposed by social work theorists over the last three decades (Oliver 1996). The case demands a decision to be made and theories at best have a contributory role to play in the decision making process (Banks 2006: 27).

A brief list of the issues involved in the case should heighten the awareness for the complexity of the case. First, there is the question about the levels of parental competence and capacity for effective parenting given that both parents suffer from learning disabilities. Second, social workers need to evaluate the chances that Stan and Cassie will be able to provide a stable parental environment that has significant advantages over that provided by Cassie’s parents Marian and Bill. There are further issues surrounding the rights of parents and the rights of the child which may be perceived as mutually exclusive. Additionally, social workers will have to assess the impact of changes in location and in providing a generally supportive and protective environment which a relocation of the child to her natural parents may precipitate.

Bronfenbrenner was concerned to construct a theory of human development that recognised the dynamic interconnectedness of environmental and biological factors. He envisaged this theory to ‘lie at the point of convergence among the disciplines of the biological, psychological. and social sciences’ (Bronfenbrenner 1979:13). In a later article he elaborated his notion of the role of external environments and called for a new focus of psychological research in human development. His theory, so he argued, was uniquely suited to map out the various factors that influence child development as they were encapsulated in the institution of the family (Bronfenbrenner 1986).

Bronfenbrenner suggests that there are three dimensions which represent the units of psychological inquiry. There is, firstly, what he calls the immediate environment of human engagements (mesosystems) in which the child as well as the parents ‘actively participate’ (Bronfenbrenner 1979: 25). It comprises the entire range of activities, roles and interpersonal relations that are ‘experienced by the developing person’ (Bronfenbrenner 1979: 22) and the interconnections amongst several of these patterned behavioural structures. Bronfenbrenner proposed that mesosystems are only the intermediate structures that connect the individual to the next highest level of environmental contexts. He calls this the exosystem which characteristically does ‘not involve the developing person as an active participant, but in which events occur that affect… what happens’( Bronfenbrenner 1979: 25) in the mesosystem.

Yet, how does this contribute to a more grounded and fairer decision in the given case? Bronfenbrenner’s main thesis, implicit in the model of ecological development, is that external events do have a direct impact on child development even if they seem to be initially non-quantifiable to an outside observer and within static models. Meso- exo- and chrono-systems influence the family context, of which the chronological and exogenous dimensions are most relevant in the given context of this case. In a detailed article in which he defends his ecological model of human development and supports it with research evidence, he singles out several aspects of family existence which determine directly and noticeably child development (Bronfenbrenner 1986). Amongst others he dwells on employment (maternal and paternal), schooling, community involvement and parental networks of assistance as well as peer group involvement and pressure for the child. We may usefully add case worker-parent relationships as well as the wider policy context in which social workers operate in assessing child care cases (Calder 2003).

Bronfenbrenner analyses research evidence within his theoretical framework and against the background of social work objectives such as educational and occupational achievement of children (in later life) as well as stability of living environments (Bronfenbrenner 1986: 726). Within the UK context that is framed by the DDA and the Code of Practice one would have to add the respect for individual human beings, justice and individual rights to lead a fulfilled life, self-determination, as well as the eradication of discrimination on grounds of ethnic differences or disability which has been part of the policy agenda of New Labour (Garrett 2003; Banks 2006).

Bronfenbrenner’s model now allows a social worker to theorise the following aspects in the adjudication of opposing claims to raise Rebecca. First, they may assess the chances that Cassie or Stan find/remain in employment which evidently has a positive impact on child development (Parsons 1982). Second they may take into account the resources of support that are available to Stan and Cassie within their own family as well as the wider community (Hall 1997, Bronfenbrenner 1986). Thirdly, they would like to assess the relevance of being raised by their biological parents or by the grandparents. And social workers may look at the wider family context in which crucial activities such as schooling and after school care provision may be provided when Rebecca lives either with Stan and Cassie or her grandparents. Additionally, they may consider that parents often provide role models for children and that this may positively influence the child’s self-esteem and confidence in social settings (Parsons 1982).

Furthermore, Bronfenbrenner’s theory allows social workers to conceptualise singular events as having a long term impact on child development. The ecological theory of human development urges assessors to consider the influence that disruptions to the normal life of a child, such as the relocation to Rebecca’s natural parents may have on her chances to future educational achievement (cf. also Olsen 2003). Bronfenbrenner subsumes these factors under the chrono-system which conceptualises sudden alterations in the child’s environment in its long term effects (Bronfenbrenner 1986). Bronfenbrenner argues that child development needs to be understood in a ‘life course perspective’ in which sequences of developmental transitions can have cumulative effects (Bronfenbrenner 1979).

Like all guiding theories of psychological development that are supposed to assist in decision making, however, Bronfenbrenner’s model fails to provide a ranking of values which could help determine the eventual outcome of decisions in the long run. He points in his work to convincing evidence that parental employment is a significant factor in normal child development, as well as the importance of social networks on which parents can rely for support in raising the child (Bronfenbrenner 1986). What his model cannot do is to contrast meaningfully these indisputably desirable factors of child development with the equally valuable wider goals of public policy such as reinstating parental rights to people with disabilities.

The social model of disability represented a major landmark in changing the theoretical assumptions that informed public attitudes to disabilities (Oliver 1992; Hedlund 2000). Articulated by social scientists such as Finckelstein in the 1970s, the social model was proposed in contradistinction to the medical model of disability which located the origin of disability in a lack of conformity to normal functioning (Oliver 1992). Theorists who challenged this model prevalent in disability theory and practice argued that there are two dimensions to disability. On one side there is a physical impairment, while on the other hand society is structured and organised in such a way as to disallow disabled people to carry out certain functions which they are certainly capable of (Oliver 1992; Olsen 2003; Morris 1993).

The social model thus places the onus of change on society which hitherto has prevented people from functioning to their full abilities. The critical edge of the social model is apparent (Hughes 1997). Disabled people certainly have the capacity to being a parent if society removes the obstacles to effective parenting that is has erected over centuries and provides the support to disabled parents that they are entitled to. Parental competence is something that should be assumed on the side of disabled parents rather than working on the presumption that a physical impairment renders disabled people incapable to exercising certain functions in society.

This model thus shifts the burden of proof to society and therefore stipulates that fundamental rights of individuals, such as having the chance of being a parent, can only be infringed if it can be shown that significant harm comes to the child through neglect, injury or considerably diminishing of the opportunities for the child. Once again, this must be judged not against the capacities of disabled parents to raise a child under circumstances of prevalent discrimination against them by society but under conditions of equality with able bodied persons (Morris 1993).

In this framework the tables are turned. Arguments in favour of Rebecca being raised by her grandparents must show a significant violation of her rights to have a fulfilled life when living with her biological parents or the chance that effective parenting is not possible in a household that comprises a father and mother both suffering from learning disabilities. Although the child’s welfare is paramount this principle cannot be assumed to contradict and ultimately to override the right to raise your own children simply because society may not provide an environment free from discrimination against disabled people which may impinge on the abilities of the Stan and Cassie to provide a stable and caring family setting.

There exists a comprehensive assessment framework for child welfare cases like this and one of the first principles is that the natural family is the best place in which children develop and grow up (Calder 2003). Doubts about the parenting competence and capacity of Stan and Cassie thus heavily draw on the medical model of disability which, within the policy context of the UK, has been rejected as a valid framework for assessments of disability care.

Both theories have advantages and disadvantages for the assessment process in the given case. Bronfenbrenner’s model allows case managers to take into account events that may considerably disrupt Rebecca’s life and, in the long run, impinge on her abilities to perform well in educational and vocational settings. In contrast, the social model of disability raises awareness for the basic principles of equity and fairness in making decisions in a social care context. It urges social workers to understand the particular situation of Stan and Cassie as determined to a large extent by society. Lack of resources and support in raising Rebecca would therefore have to be tackled by the social welfare system in contribution to placing both parents in a profoundly unjust situation in the first place.

While Bronfenbrenner’s theory may incline social workers more towards deciding in favour of Rebecca’s grandparents, the social model of disability reiterates strongly the need of the social welfare system to remove all obstacles to disabled parenting so that Stan and Cassie can raise their own child.

References

Banks, S. (2006). Ethics and Values in Social Work. Third Edition. Basingstoke: Palgrave

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the Family as a Context for Human Development: Research Perspectives. Developmental Psychology, 22, 6, 723-742

_______________ (1979). The Ecology of Human Development. Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press

Garrett, P. M. (2003). Swimming with Dolphins: The Assessment Framework, New Labour and New Tools for Social Work with Children and Families. British Journal of Social Work, 33, 441-463

Hall, S. K. e.a. (1997). Caseworkers’ Perceptions of Protective Services Clients’ Parental Functioning: Toward an Ecological Integration. Children and Youth Services Review, 19, 3, 179-194

Hedlund, M. (2000). Disability as a Phenomenon: a discourse of social and biological understanding. Disability and Society, 15, 5, 765-780

Hughes, B. and Paterson, K. (1997). The Social Model of Disability and the Disappearing Body: towards a sociology of impairment. Disability and Society, 12, 3, 325-340

Morris, J. (1993). Independent Lives? Community Care and Disabled People. Basingstoke: McMillan

Oliver, M. (1996). Understanding Disability. From Theory to Practice. Basingstoke: MacMillan

Olsen, R. and Harriet Clarke (2003). Parenting and Disability. Disabled parents’ experiences of raising children. Bristol: The Policy Press

Parsons, J. E., Terry F. Adler and Caroline M. Kczala (1982). Socialisation of Achievement Attitudes and Beliefs: Parental Influences. Child Development, 53, 310-321

This essay will consist of four main parts. In part one; the essay will give a brief introduction and history to social work theories and methods. Moving forward the essay will look at the importance and value of theories and methods in relation to social work and how it informs practice. Throughout, reference will be made to the most popular theorist. Part two will consider how social work theories and methods can be successfully applied in the drug and alcohol field. Given an overview of this, it will be necessary to demonstrate how two social work methods are chosen, and applied, in the intervention of an example case study. Where applicable, contributions from service users will be used to bring more insight and balance to the essay. Part three will be an analysis of a social work method used in the example case study. From the method, the essay will explore and evaluate, in depth, the way it underpins anti-discriminatory practice.

Part four of this essay will conclude with a reflection on how the student has gained a valuable knowledge base throughout the module and assignment. This reflection will also show how the student will use this knowledge base in practice. No reflection would be complete without a concise look at how reflective practice can play a vital part of future social work practice.

An initial risk assessment was carried out by the referral worker, in the vein of a questioning model to identify possible risks and dangers to staff and other service users, however as discussed by Smale, Tuson and Statham (2000) taking a strengths based approach would allow referral workers and key workers to work as collaborators, facilitating service users to identify needs and outcomes. During intervention with Mr AB sessions, in the form of an exchange model, were carried out endeavoring that further assessment became a process of dialogue rather than just a fact finding mission with the exchanging of ideas and information. This approach is compatible with the framework of task centered practice, appropriate with this intervention (Ford & Postle, 2000)

Key work sessions started with Mr AB and from the outset the process was explained and the objectives made clear, it was also explained to Mr AB that due to company policies, and his terms and conditions of stay in the night shelter, these sessions were time limited so a positive ending to the professional relationship was hoped for. It was also considered that this approach would reduce the power imbalance in the relationship; however the power will never be fully balanced when working within legislative and multi agency procedures (Parker & Bradley, 2008) However as stated by Dalymple & Burke (2000) it is necessary to endeavour to empower rather then disempowere with the need to balance power relationships. In this instance this can be evidenced by the written agreements in the form of the assessment and support plan

. Weekly key worker sessions agreed to by Mr AB provided further support as required and opportunity to review whether desired outcomes were being achieved, as in the National Occupational Standards Key Role and outlined by Supporting People and the agency policy and procedures (ODPM, 2004). (Walker & Beckett, 2007). It is also necessary to not only collect information as part of the key worker sessions but to balance findings in order to produce an overall analysis of risks and need (Walker & Beckett, 2007).

Throughout the assessment procedure it is necessary to be aware of the influences of ethics, power, and professionalism along with anti- oppressive practice. Middleton (1997) states that in order to empower, it is

necessary to respect the individual, enhance their strengths and coping abilities. It is therefore vital that key worker sessions be conducted with a non judgmental attitude. While acknowledging the key worker has different values and status to Mr AB showing acceptance to people in all situations can be difficult however as stated in by Carl Rogers (1951, 1961) the human psychologist the person should show they are genuine, and portray empathy and warmth.

It become apparent as key worker sessions continued that Mr AB was reluctant to engage with this service as he was in pre contemplation (Denial) (Prowchaska & Di Clamentis 1996). However, the threat of eviction if he did not adhere to his conditions of stay was a considerable worry to Mr AB as was the thought of becoming homeless and having to sleep rough. It is very important to remember that as key working intervenes in the lives of vulnerable people these people have the right not to be victims of untested and possible harmful interventions. This confirms the need of understanding how theory relates to practice and learning from research and evidence based practice (Rutter, 2006)

This confirms Maslow (1970) who shows in his hierarchy of need, that before higher needs can be met basic needs are required to be in place.

Therefore to allow Mr AB to move forward in his life he requires support to start a procces to put these needs in place (Giddens, 2006).

Mr AB during his key work sessions discussed his feelings and it was felt by him that no opportunities were open to him and that he was struggling against a society that was oppressive and keeping him down. It was pointed out to Mr AB that his position in society was that of a lifestyle choice, that society is changing to support people to progress and that choices were open to him (Giddens, 2006)

). It is however necessary to acknowledge as stated by Bronfenbrenner (1979) that different levels of society will influence the individuals life course. Also stated by Jack and Jack (2000) individuals are products of their environment and can never be fully understood separately from one another.

As stated by Crawford & Walker (2005) transitions have the potential to be stressful even those that are planned and welcomed. As the intervention process progressed and the support plan auctioned positive outcomes including building on self confidence which led to Mr AB seeking and securing part time employment

Doel (1994) states that service user motivation may weaken and it was therefore important to continue supporting and encouraging Mr AB’S interest and commitment to work. By adopting a model that worked with service users strengths helped to ensure that an anti oppressive focus was maintained.

. Using task centered practice as discussed by Ford & Postle (2009) goals were set which would support the researching and attending of courses which provide basic computer skills, with the attainment of each goal aimed to promote self-confidence and further motivation (Rooney & Larsen, 1997).

Subsequently in this instance the planned ending and outcomes have not been realized, with events determining an alternate course of action (Walker & Beckett, 2007).

The first part of this essay will lookA at the relationship between social work methods and substance abuse

Denial can also be explained as a defence mechanism whichA is establishedA by aA person when there is aA dangerA that heA or she will become aware of or actA onA unconsciousA primitive impulses that areA unacceptableA (Freud, 1967).

). Knatz (1999) states that denial is a defense mechanism by which individuals are able to cope with unpleasant realities.

Be aware that the term ‘alcoholism’ implies disease/condition.A IfA youA use the term alcoholism in assignments, be sure toA establishA that youA meanA to say ‘alcoholism’ and not ‘alcohol dependency’

). IfA youA useA generalA references around statistics on alcohol, try to refer to British statistics, you could use National Treatment Agency website reports, Office of National Statistics (ONS), NICE guidelines on treatment of alcoholA dependencyA for British/UK data, all available on line

Let’sA giveA theA wordA relationshipA a different definition from the dictionaries, forA unlocking theA meaningA of theA wordA often leadsA to greater understanding.A -A tooA colloquial, would be better to state, “The word ‘relationship’ has varied definitions from different sources of literature.”

Conflict is aA partA of most every interpersonal relationship.A ThereforeA it could be stated that managing conflict,A is importantA if the relationship is to beA long-lastingA and rewarding.A Jason and Beth have numerous conflicts and barriers which prevent them from having a more effective relationship.A Interpersonal relationships and communication (is a two-way street), too colloquial, say ‘have mutuality’

Beth and Jason seemA to rarely communicateA between each other, aA furtherA factor which appears to contribute to the disintegration of their relationship.

It can give rise to greater anxiety, depression,A insomnia, and general distress, reducedA self-esteemA andA confidence, and sometimes disrupted family relationsA ((Fryer,1992;Jahoda,1982).

Bibliography

Barber, G (2002) Social work with addiction.A Palgrave Macmillan, Hampshire

Berger, G. (1993), Alcoholism and theA family.A New York: Franklin Watts

Conville, Richard (1998) The meaning of “relationship” in interpersonal communication.A Praeger Publications.A Califonia.

Heider, Fritz (1958) The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations.A LawrenceA ErlbaumA associates

Jahoda, M (1982) Employment and Unemployment (The Psychology of Social Issues).A Cambridge University Press

Knatz, H (1999) Getting on Oxford Books.Oxford

Levinger, G. (1983).A Development and change.A Freeman and Company.San Francisco.

Manstead, Antony S. R. and Miles Hewstone (1996).A The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social Psychology.A Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.

Maslow, Abraham.(1954) Motivation and personality.A Harper and Row, New York.

Steele, CM (1985) TheA psychologyA of drunken excess.A London Press, London.

West, Robert (2001) TheA theoryA of addiction.A Blackwell publishing, Oxford.

The principle areas of social , administration and social workstudies include health issues and administration, employment services,community care, housing needs, crime prevention, disability checks,unemployment concerns, mental health, old age as well as social issues of raceor gender and poverty (Drake, 2001).

Social work practice focuses on dealing with the problems of service users. The maintenance and improvement of their social, physical, and mental states is often dependent upon the effectiveness of social work intervention. (Miller, 2005)

A Providing appropriatesocial services is an important target of social care policy and social policyin general (Adams, 2003).

Welfare is general well being of individualsand when provided by the State, refers to a form of social security or social protectionthat aims to protect people from conditions such as sickness, ill health,diseases and poverty (Malin et al 2002)

Social work practice has, over the years, become integral to Britain’s working life and current estimates put the number of active social workers in the country at significantly more than one million. (Parrott, 2002)

Social work practice focuses on dealing with the problems of service users. The maintenance and improvement of their social, physical, and mental states is often dependent upon the effectiveness of social work intervention. (Miller, 2005) Users of social work services are largely economically and/or socially disadvantaged, and the vulnerabilities, which arise from these circumstances, frequently contribute to the nature of their relationships with service providers. (Miller, 2005) Social work makes use of a broad range of knowledge and incorporates information obtained from several disciplines; it empowers social workers in practice to use their acquired knowledge and skills first to engage service users and then to bring about positive changes in undesirable emotional states and behavioural attitudes, or in positions of social disempowerment. (Miller, 2005)

A Social work makes use of a range of skills, methods, and actions that are aligned to its holistic concentration on individuals and their environments. (Harris, 2002)

Counselling, whilst being a catch-all term, used for describing of various professions, is, an important component of social work practice. (Rowland, 1993)

Specific counselling approaches have been developed to assist people with problems related to substance abuse, gluttony and for giving up smoking. (Pease & Fook, 1999) In some areas of counselling, which deal with addiction, for example, with users of hard drugs, counsellors engaged in social work practice, function side by side, with sets of legal restrictions and moral issues. (Pease & Fook, 1999)A

With reference to changes in Government policy and ideologies of welfare, debate the significance of the shift from Victorian Pauper to 21st century service user and its impact on social work practice and values.

This assignment has used a historical timeline of Governmental changes to policies and laws as a background to debate the shift from Victorian Pauper to 21st century service user. The divide between the rich and poor has always been an issue that different governments have faced, dealing with it differently, for example Clement Attlee’s labour Government in 1945 introduced the welfare state to give every British citizen cover, regardless of income or lack of it. Those who lacked jobs and homes would be helped.

The definition of a Pauper according to the Collins dictionary is someone who is relatively poor, in comparison to the general population or historically eligible for public charity.

The definition of a service user is someone who at some point uses or receives health or social care services. (General Social Care Council)

The term service user is criticised, as critics Adams et al (2009) believe it focuses on one element of the individual, implying dependency, without taking into account other aspects and argue that the term places the service user in a disempowered position in their relationship with a professional, with power residing with this professional. The National Network of Service Users: Shaping our lives however sees the term service user as positive, it’s an individual who uses the services, they confer power creating a stronger voice and having a greater ability to shape services. (Levin 2004)

Modern British social policy has its foundation in the Poor Laws, dating from 1598 to 1948.

The Poor Law (1601) provided a compulsory poor rate and helped set the poor to work. However as the Parish was the basic area of administration, and laws were enforced differently from parish to parish with no set standards of care causing inconsistencies between areas. The Poor Law amendment act (1834) modified the existing system. Poor Law Unions were introduced, parishes were grouped together, and those Unions would be the responsibility of a Board of Guardians. The Guardians were responsible for the administration of poor relief for their locality, rather than leaving the responsibility of administration in the hands of individual parishes and townships. Workhouses were introduced and encouraged, one workhouse in each union to give poor relief. This Act stated that no able bodied person was to receive any other help other than in the workhouse. The purpose of the workhouse was to let individuals enter and leave as they liked and they would receive free food and accommodation, however as time passed concern grew with regard to the seeming ‘overuse’ of the workhouse. As a result the eligibility criteria for entry to the workhouse was then altered. Life in the workhouse was to be made as cruel as it was outside. The wretched existence offered, and the stigma attached to being an ‘inmate’, ensured that only the truly deprived used them. A ‘jail style’ system of segregation for men and women meant that even families had to be separated, altogether different from 21st Century social work values which espouse a stronger commitment to keeping families together, with child protection services and child welfare agencies providing support to ensure family preservation. (Payne, 2005)

It was in 1869 that The Charity Organisation Society (COS) was formed to unify the many smaller sources of relief and make provision more efficient and effective. The COS perceived that charitable assistance was needed and believed that their aim was to reach all families, but were unsure how the money had previously been spent. COS set out a scheme of financial help, introducing local committees, who then raised funds and distributed these to families in need. Similar to many charities today, there are still many families who don’t ask for help because of religion, language, pride or because they are not aware that help may be available. (Family Action) The aim of COS was to persuade charities to converge their resources, which might then be distributed more systematically. However the individuals helped had to be deemed capable of becoming self supporting. Worthiness was considered before any charitable help was given. Those who weren’t considered worthy were left to destitution, the Society effectively deciding that as they deemed there to be no hope for their redemption, that to help them would be a waste of limited resources which would be better spent elsewhere with individuals or families who could subsequently lift themselves out of poverty and dependence. (Campling, 1996) The COS model was pioneering in taking into account the consequences if they helped every individual, as they thought this would lead to dependency and exaggeration in order to receive money.

COS was also formed with the objective of achieving a decrease in the charitable expenditure as a result of greater efficiency and the economy of scale, and in this sense the COS reflected the wider ideology of the industrial revolution. Current Social Work objectives similarly seek to achieve ‘value for money’, with the Audit commission defining value for money as the best possible balance of economy, efficiency and effectiveness. Whilst the 21st century social worker endeavours to deal fairly with the needs of everyone, nevertheless, the distribution of needs is uneven and changes constantly. To ensure quality is consistent care plan reviews are monitored and service users may be involved in quality circles, engaging them in deciding what’s best. Direct payment schemes are also offered to a minority group of service users to let them decide on and customise their own social care. The main problem Social Services face is the potential impact of the dynamic and variable economic and political environment in which they must function. Whilst trying to provide individualised care packages they have to ensure that it’s effective in respect to cost. Also there is growing recognition that a number of minority groups may be excluded from accessing services such as Social Work services and, also those services which have previously not been provided in culturally appropriate ways. (Making ends meet, 2010) Appropriate steps will therefore need to be taken to enforce anti discriminatory practice and anti oppressive practice, when considering how to provide help in accessing services for minority groups.

The COS quickly found that more than financial aid was needed to help paupers. Emotional and other practical help was also required, for example help with finding employment. COS volunteers were trained to offer such additional help and, therefore, the formal training offered by COS can be seen as the forerunner of modern social work training and qualifications. They adopted an approach which attempted to analyse the problem. Working with the individual and family to help them achieve a lasting solution so all could be kept in their familiar environments. This approach was very time consuming, and the approach the worker took to investigate the individual was very objectionable.

This approach is the basis of the current Social Work casework approach which is now highly criticised. Holman (1993) suggests that the casework approach only masks social and political obligations in individual’s lives, therefore helping to maintain their situation. There are now other approaches that focus on reducing inequality. Which investigate the social and political reasons as well as the individual’s as to why they are in poverty. A new manifesto for Social Work now highlights the need to use a collection of approaches as the need to combat poverty and discrimination is greater than ever.

Many who tried to use the COS principles found it difficult to disregard individuals who needed help. Other approaches were latterly introduced to help more individuals. The Settlement House Movement (1884) was one of these. Its principles focused on university volunteers working with the poor in their spare time, offering education. Its aim was to achieve mutual respect between the classes. This approach focused on empowering the poor, helping them to help themselves. Society also benefitted from this model. It focused on a more structured analysis of poverty and its impact on human behaviour by practising interventions at a community level. This is needed now to help small communities and the individuals within it. The nature of social work practice then changed and focused on individuals. A significant element was hearing client’s voices and the incomparable knowledge of the professionals working with them to help whichever way they could. (Adams et al, 2009)

Using these models the Government laid the basis of the future social services. The major concern being that all areas should be given the same services. These new services were provided away from The Poor Law to evade the association. Current Social Work still has its inconsistencies, however the White Paper Tackling Health Inequalities Programme of Action (Department of Health, 2003), focuses on a number of ways to equalise access to healthcare, for example working with people who face overlapping health problems for instance older people who have ill health and are in poverty. Social Workers are focussing on secondary prevention, as this type of prevention can impact more individuals.

A major report produced regarding the welfare of individuals was the Beveridge Report (Department of Health, 1942). This report focused on how Britain could be rebuilt after the war. In 1945 labour was elected and promised to introduce a welfare state. The welfare state involved introducing new services. These included the National Health Services and Housing Acts. The welfare state was produced to encourage the provision of services for the public. (Laybourn, 1995)

Glasby (2005) looked at previous reforms and how the future would be in adult social care. It evaluated all important reports to see how social work could be improved. One report that impacted policy and practice during the 1960’s was the Seebohm report (1968). This report highlighted the problems of poverty and was tasked to review the organisation and responsibilities of the Local Authority Social Services in England as well as to consider what changes were desirable to secure an effective family service. (Seebohm, 1968, pg11.) Prior to this report Social Work was spread across various Local Authorities and different Government sections. This caused inadequacies in the quality of provision. Access was very difficult. For example, range and quality of provision of services were inconsistent also the Seebohm Report highlighted a poor coordination of information between these services. The report recommended “a new Local Authority department providing a community based and family orientated service, which would be available for all”. When this recommendation was brought into action new Social Services Departments were formed. The Seebohm Report did highlight potential problems. It stated that having separate departments for children and adults might subsequently make it difficult to treat the family’s needs as a whole.

The Barclay Report (1982) looked into the role of a social worker. In its opening line it stated that too much was expected of social workers. It found that it was a profession that was confused about its role and because of intense media scrutiny was struggling with work load. It found that there was an ongoing need for social workers to fulfil many functions including promoting community networks, working with other services and acting as an advocate for clients. The report did criticise social work departments for “taking a reactive stance towards social problems, dealing with those needs which are forced upon their attention but failing to develop overall plans which link the voluntary, statutory and private services in an area into a coherent plan” which is still a problem today. (Department of Health, 1982, pg.38) Social Services Departments find it difficult to help every need as they don’t have limitless resources. They need to use other services and work with them closely, the help of Interprofessional education will ensure that other professionals have an understanding of social workers’ roles. The Barclay Report produced very similar recommendations to that of the Seebohm Report (1968). Although it highlighted that the community approach may have more success now, as there is a greater capacity for individuals to be more autonomous and make their own decisions. The community approach focuses on the local community and social workers would observe individuals in the context of their community. This approach uses local centres and pools resources, creating less impact on the Social Work services so their resources can be spread further.

Reports such as these have highlighted how important good social work is, and how much it is needed. There are many problems involved in the profession. There is still stigma attached to the term service user just as there was to the term pauper. Whilst researching the different acts and welfare ideologies that have been introduced throughout the timeline I have used (see paragraph one, page one) I have found that individuals still have problems accessing help. There are families who still may be disinclined to ask for help because of the stigma of doing so. New approaches have introduced service user involvement by asking them what help they want and defining the quality of help they receive. A recent report by Beresford, Shamash, Forrest and Turner (2007) researched service users’ future vision for adult services. They found that the process of accessing social care was frequently negative for service users furthermore the assessments were very dependent on the quality of the staff carrying it out. All social workers should work to one high standard. It shouldn’t be a lottery of if you get a good one or not. A universal tool could be implemented so that all service users were asked the same questions and could highlight their specific problems and needs whilst using the tool. Service users also highlighted the fact that access to their social worker was low and many of the service users questioned had gaps in their services making them feel insecure.

Reports researched for this assignment have all found that service users know what they want and can easily highlight the problems they face or have had previously. One report found that while welfare bureaucracy has been condemned by governments for a long while, service users still identify problems (Shaping Our Lives, 2007). There is still social exclusion. Social Services Departments may contribute to it as they help individuals just enough, finding the quickest way to help them not necessarily the best way in the long run because of finite resources. Using different approaches, for example the community approach would help at different levels so less emphasis is on Social Services Departments resources. Vast improvements are still needed. For example child poverty is getting worst. The Report Monitoring poverty and social exclusion (2009) found that children who live in low-income households, where at least one adult works, is at the highest it has ever been. This increase has affected the Governments child poverty targets. The recession affected reaching the targets greatly. It is vital now to recover from the recession but also to recover from underlying problems that were there previously before the economic downturn began.

Reports like Shaping Our Lives (2007) found that service users feel more responsible and confident about the help they are receiving when they have been more involved in the decision processes. A report by Beresford et al, (2007) found that service users would like a watchdog with a board of service users and professionals so they could be involved in judging the quality of care they receive.

The Race Equality Act (2006) sets the context for anti- discriminatory practice within which social workers operate. However, whilst it could be critiqued that some progress has been made as a result with respect to those of different culture and religion, continuing inequalities would suggest much more progress remains to be made.

To conclude social work has changed significantly and progress to help all individuals needs to continue. However as a profession it needs a larger voice to talk about the problems they face therefore getting extra help to ensure that service users and paupers have even fewer similarities. There has been a great shift from pauper to service user. Service users have much more freedom and rights now. Albeit there are still similarities which need to be focused on to improve the services available. Social Service Departments also need to refuse to let policies be imposed when they don’t improve on what is already implemented. Rights are now benefitting service users but we need to ensure this continues.

There are many competing pressures to direct the service in ways that may not be consistent with Social Work principles towards greater penal and correctional models. It is therefore essential to have a clear understanding of the policy and legal framework that creates the remit and legitimacy for the operation of Social Work in the Criminal Justice process (Whyte, 2001, p.7).

Statute law is created by Acts of the UK and Scottish Parliaments and relies upon rulings made in Court Hearings to set precedents that define and interpret key terms i.e. Case Law. Understanding the law is fundamental to practice in Criminal Justice settings. Criminal Law is a powerful instrument of social control and sanctions and the Criminal Courts have the potential to impose restrictions of liberty of individuals. Social Workers have a responsibility towards the general public and the courts to protect the public and ensure their wellbeing however, there is also obligation towards those who are in the Criminal Justice process who may be vulnerable and in need of services provided by Social Work. It is therefore essential that all workers have an understanding of the legal frameworks that govern Criminal Justice Social Work and are aware of the scope and limitations of their mandate (Whyte, 2001). However, law is subject to change and ‘criminal justice policy is more liable to sudden, politically motivated changes of direction than is social policy in other fields’ (Smith, 2002, p.309)

The law defines what a crime is, rules of evidence and criminal procedure. However, discretion is given to those involved and therefore, the criminal justice process is not systematic. The judiciary, police and social work have differing roles, agendas, values and beliefs which are shaped by training and cultures which can make working within the system difficult due to lack of shared understanding of common aims and individual roles.

Social Work involves working with the marginalised and disadvantaged and can be both vulnerable to crime and susceptible to criminalisation and practice involves work with victims or offenders. Local Authorities have statutory responsibility to provide Criminal Justice Social Work Services to support the Criminal Justice Process through assessment of individuals, information to the Courts and supervision of offenders.

Scotland differs from the rest of the UK in that there is a unique cultural and political heritage and a separate legal system. Social Work therefore, has a central role within the Criminal Justice process in Scotland which is in contrast to England and Wales where probation work is commissioned by the National Offender Management Service (NOMS) which is separate from Local Authority control and Social Work functions and shows a difference in their approaches in responding to crime. As McAra (2005) suggests a more welfare orientated approach has been adopted due to its legal culture and political history.

The legal framework outlining powers and duties of Criminal Justice Social Work is the Social Work Scotland Act 1968 (as amended). Section 27 of this Act outlines the duty by Local Authorities to provide specific Criminal Justice services (e.g. social background reports, supervision of offenders on an Order or Licence) in respect of central government funding however, it does not explain the objectives of these services or provide guidance on their exercise. Section 12 gives Local Authorities (LA’s) discretion to provide additional services (e.g. victims) as part of the general responsibility to ‘promote social welfare.’

Probation or offender services became the responsibility of the Local Authority Social Work Departments in 1968 and had a general duty to ‘promote social welfare’ in their locality (S12, Social Work (Scotland) Act 1968). This was due to the Kilbrandon Committee (Kilbrandon, 1964) being appointed to investigate increasing juvenile crime. The Kilbrandon Report recommended a new approach to children’s services based on the needs of children and families and those who offend should be treated the same as those children requiring care and protection. Kilbrandon also suggested diversion and early voluntary intervention as crime prevention and one department for children and adults. This merge of work with adult offenders was pivotal in recognising work with offenders as having a welfare component admittedly with a level of control. Although the Kilbrandon philosophy followed trends of the time which advocated rehabilitation and treatment of offenders and an awareness of the social causes of crime, this is still highly relevant to today’s practice.

From the 1980’s onwards Criminal Justice in Scotland has undergone major legislative and

policy change due to successive governments. As there was concern for public protection

and community disposal effectiveness in 1991, 100 per cent central government funding was

introduced and the National Objectives and Standards were published which set out

core objectives, service provision and guidance on their delivery (Social Work Group, 1991).

This resulted in the government committing to Social Work delivering this role. This policy

arrangement outlined by Rifkind in 1989 has survived changes in political administration

although, it has been suggested that devolution has caused a ‘sudden and dramatic

politicisation’ of Criminal Justice issues and could undermine the welfare tradition (McNeill

and Batchelor, 2004: Croal, 2005).

Social Work with offenders should aim to address and reduce offending behaviour. Whilst the law provides a framework for practice, effective work with offenders requires Social Work skills such as communication, therapeutic relationships in supervision, assessment and risk management. The task is therefore, varied and complex as Social Workers have the power to control the individuals who are referred via the Courts and enforce any Court Orders but must also work with an offender in a holistic, inclusive way to have a positive impact on their offending behaviour and this can be through support and assistance in relation to personal and social problems but also the individual taking responsibility for their actions. Effective and ethical practice is therefore, about considering and managing the needs and rights of the Courts, the general public, victims and offenders. Although Social Workers have statutory duties and powers to interfere in people’s lives this is not always welcome but is necessary in promoting public safety. Under the Scottish Social Work Services Council (SSSC) Code of Practice Social Workers have an obligation ‘to uphold public trust and confidence’ and the Criminal Justice Authorities (CJA’s) are required by Scottish Executive guidance to develop a strategy to address this (Scottish Executive, 2006b). This strategy includes both offenders and their families and Social Workers should engage these individuals and recognise their views in the development of services.

Both Criminal Law and Social Work recognise the autonomy of individual’s choices on how they lead their lives and with this capacity is criminal responsibility. Those of which who lack capacity (e.g. children and the mentally disordered) are not culpable in the eyes of the law and may be treated differently. It is therefore recognised that criminal behaviour is not just a choice but may be about social circumstances to which they have minimal control. Social Workers should assist in allowing individuals to improve their capacity for making choices together with consequences to their actions (ADSW, 1996a).

Although Social Workers are obliged to protect the rights and interests of service users’ there is a belief amongst the general public that they have forfeited these rights when they have offended. All Criminal Justice agencies must comply with the Human Rights Act 1988 which incorporates into domestic law the fundamental rights set out in the European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR). Public Authorities are required to respect all of the provisions however, the two articles with particular relevance to Criminal Law and Social Work are ‘the right to liberty and security’ (Article 5. ECHR) and ‘the right to a fair trial’ (Article 6, ECHR). However, the state can impose restrictions on those who breach criminal law or are a threat to public safety as long as the detention is authorised by law and there is a balance between the individual, their victims and the general public. The Social Worker must assess this balance through rigorous assessment and analysis of risk. The Social Work role requires respect to offenders as individuals and ‘ensure that the offender’s ability and right to function as a member of society is not impaired to a greater extent than is necessary in the interests of justice’ (ADSW, 1996a).

Criminal Justice Social Work services are delivered in partnership with various statutory and non-statutory agencies and this can present challenges due to conflicting professional values and aims. The Management of Offenders etc. (Scotland) Act 2005 was introduced to improve joint working and co-ordinate the management of offenders especially in the transition from custody to community supervision and places a duty on Criminal Justice Authorities (CJAs) to have an information sharing process in order that relevant information is shared between agencies (s.3 (5)(g)) for improving offender and risk management. However, sensitive personal information must be handled carefully and be under the principles of the Data Protection Act 1988 and local agency protocols. Practitioners within Social Work must ensure that any information sharing decisions are fully explained and understood by the offender even when their consent to disclosure is not required.

Organisations who deliver public services have general duties to eliminate unlawful discrimination and promote equality of opportunity on the grounds of race (Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2000), sex (Equality Act 2006), and disability (Disability Discrimination Act 2005). Individuals who are involved with Criminal Justice organisations are entitled to the protection of discrimination laws which relate to sex, race, disability, religious beliefs and sexual orientation, with exception to exercising judicial functions or carrying out Court orders. In these circumstances it may be within Article 14 of the ECHR which prevents to the right to liberty and security of the individual or the right to a fair trial being interfered with on a wide range of discriminatory grounds. Criminal Justice is still influenced by prejudicial and discriminatory views.

Research has been carried out by both the Social Work and Prisons Inspectorate for Scotland (1998) which highlighted concerns about the treatment of female offenders in the Criminal Justice process. In addition to this, several inquiries in England and Wales in relation to racial discrimination by the police and prison services has subsequently raised public awareness (Macpherson, 1999; Keith, 2006). The Scottish Government has a duty to publish information of discrimination of any unlawful grounds (s.306 (1)(b) Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1995) and therefore, all workers need to practice in an anti-discriminatory way.

The law outlines the limits of Social Work intervention and knowledge of the law is essential to anti-oppressive practice. ‘The only legitimacy for intervening in the life of the individual within the criminal justice process is the individual’s offending behaviour…if individuals have social needs which require to be met but are not crime related or crime producing, or if the offence is not sufficiently serious to fall within the criteria of the ‘twin-track’ approach, services should be offered, as far as possible, through voluntary provision…No-one should be drawn into the criminal justice processes in order to receive social work help’ (Moore and Whyte, 1998, p.24).

Rehabilitative intervention is not just about helping; it imposes limitations on the rights of the individual who is subject to the intervention. Risk assessment and offence based practice is an ethical approach. It aims to ensure that ‘the most intensive and potentially most intrusive services are focused on those service users who pose the greatest risk of causing harm to others (ADSW, 2003) and to prevent socially disadvantaged individuals being taken further into criminal justice control which can result in further social exclusion.

Criminal Justice Social Workers must take note that the role involves work with disadvantaged social groups. Certain types of crimes and offenders often criminalise the young, deprived, unemployed and undereducated male with an experience of the care system and this is clear from Social Work and prison statistics (Croall, 2005; McAra and McVie, 2005). There is often a complex relationship between social exclusion and offending behaviour and often the Criminal Justice process displays existing injustices within society. It is important that issues in relation to class, age and social context should be recognised together with vulnerability to discrimination.

The Social Worker’s role should be to address issues of social exclusion and empower individuals to lead law abiding lives by addressing their offending behaviour. Social Work can help offenders develop capacity to make informed choices by actively encouraging their participation in the supervision/change process and their engagement with improving their current social situation (McCulloch, 2005; McNeill, 2004). Assisting offenders to focus on their strengths as opposed to their risk and needs can have a positive impact as they learn to recognise the value in their own lives and respecting the value of others.

The sentencing stage in the criminal justice process generates the majority of Criminal Justice Social Work through provision of information to the Court in the form of Social Enquiry Reports (SERs) and the administration of community disposals, with the exception of liberty orders (tagging). SERs have no legal basis but there is a statutory duty on criminal justice social work to provide reports to the Court for disposal of a case (s.27(1)(a) SWSA 1968. ‘Reports provide the court with the information and advice they need in deciding on the most appropriate way to deal with offenders. They include information and advice about the feasibility of community based disposals, particularly those involving local authority supervision. In the case of every offender under 21 and any offender facing custody for the first time, the court must obtain information and advice about whether a community based disposal is available and appropriate. In the event of custody, the court requires advice about the possible need for a Supervised Release order or Extended Sentence Supervision on release’. (Scottish Executive, 2004d, para. 1.5)

The Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1995 sets out when the court can or must obtain an SER. Failure to request a report, where required by law, can result in a sentence being quashed on appeal. The Court is not obliged to follow recommendations or opinions in the SER however, Social workers can have a direct influence on the sentence passed.

‘Preparing SERs demands a high standard of professional practice. It requires skilled interviewing, the ability to collect and assess information from different sources, and the art of writing a report which is dependable, constructive, impartial and brief’ (Social Work Services Inspectorate (SWSI), 1996, Foreword).

The law imposes time limits in compiling reports. The Courts require a report within three weeks (s.201(3) (a) if an offender is remanded in custody and within four weeks if the offender is on bail (s.21(3)(b) of the 1995 Act). This means in practice that there are increased demands on a worker’s time that places increased pressure in the preparation of SERs especially if there are high numbers of worker absence due to leave or whether the worker knows the offender and their individual circumstances. Whilst conducting interviews the worker must ensure that the offender understands the purpose of the report, the relevance of questions (health, addiction issues, and personal relationships) and the limits to confidentiality of this information. Social workers must balance between an informed recommendation and an awareness of the severity of the offence. The report author should be impartial and not minimise the seriousness of the offence and its impact (NOS, Scottish Executive, 2004d, para 5.5) and phrases that imply moral judgements, label or stereotype offenders should not be used (para. 5.1).

When compiling an SER workers are required to consider the suitability of disposals in relation to the risk posed by an offender and to target appropriate resources which are most appropriate and successful in addressing offending behaviour. Guidelines for the assessment and management of risk are outlined in the Management and Assessment of Risk in Social Work Services (SWSI, 2000) and there are also additional risk assessment frameworks which specifically relate to serious violent and sex offenders. In Criminal Justice the focus has moved from risk of custody to risk of reoffending and risk of harm. Risk assessment is complex and there has been a shift from concern for the offender and their needs to concern about public safety and the offender being a potential source of risk to others. Although the legislation is not explicit about offending behaviour, National Standards state that SERs should provide ‘information and advice which will help the Court decide the available sentencing options…by assessing the risk of reoffending, and…the possible harm to others. This requires an investigation of offending behaviour and of the offenders’ circumstances, attitudes and motivation to change’ (Scottish Executive, 2004d, 1.6).

Risk is defined by Kemshall (1996) as ‘the probability of a future negative or harmful event’ and assessment of risk includes: the likliehood of an event occurring, who is likely to be at risk, the nature of the harm which they might be exposed and the impact and consequences of the harmful event.

Risk assessment has changed over the years and prior to the introduction of risk assessment tools workers relied on clinical methods or professional judgement which was based on an offender’s history. These methods were criticised for being too subjective, inaccurate, open to worker bias and dependent on information given by the offender. In the 1990’s workers moved towards objective and empirically based risk assessment tools (actuarial) to support their assessment. Actuarial risk assessment tools rely on static (historical) risk factors together with dynamic (criminogenic) risk factors and to assess the risk of reoffending.

The static factors (which cannot change) take into account gender, age at first conviction, number of previous offences and custodial experiences, school progress, previous employment and personal history. The criminogenic factors (focus on current areas) include current employment, personal relationships, peer associates, use of time, substance use, mental health and attitudes and behaviour. All of these factors impact on the risk of reoffending (Bonta, 1996). The most widely used assessment tool, The Level of Service Inventory – Revised (LSI-R) devised by Andrews and Bonta (1995) incorporates both static and dynamic factors. However, it does not assess risk of harm and this shows that both actuarial and clinical risk assessments are crucial for an effective and comprehensive risk assessment. Clinical methods combine knowledge of the offender’s personality, habits’ lifestyle and an analysis of the circumstances of the offending behaviour and are therefore, the most appropriate assessment tool at identifying those who are likely to cause serious harm. Although more time consuming and require more in-depth analysis of both the offender and the offence risk is assessed on predispositions, motivation towards certain behaviours and triggers that may contribute to harmful behaviour.

Actuarial tools are not totally accurate (Kemshall, 1996) and although this is improved upon through use of clinical methods in decision making, professional judgement is also crucial. Social workers must be aware that social disadvantage plays a part and this can contribute to a higher assessment of risk and need and to be cautious about the total reliability of these factors when making recommendations that may affect an offender’s liberty.

Risk assessment and intervention or supervision should be informed by valid, reliable and ongoing assessment and Social Workers should familiarise themselves with research emerging in this area and the many assessment tools and change programmes available (Levy et.al., 2002).

To support change Social Workers have to not just think about what work is done with the offender but how that work is done. ‘Offenders under supervision have very high levels of need. Moreover, although most offenders have many needs in common, there are also significant variations that necessitate the thoughtful tailoring of individual interventions if the effectiveness of practice is to be maximised. In delivering effective practice, the accumulated weight of evidence…drives us towards recognition that practice skills in general and relationship skills in particular are at least as critical in reducing re-offending as programme content’ (McNeill et al., 2005, p.5). This recent review of core skills required for effective Criminal Justice Social Work practice raises challenges in practising ethically and effectively but when applied critically and reflectively this could achieve positive outcomes that are in the interest of the public, victims and offenders.

Although the law is crucial in framing Social Work practice in the Criminal Justice process it is equally important that Social Work skills and values are central to effective interventions as the role is both demanding and rewarding. Crime has become increasingly prominent both in the public and political agenda and therefore, Social Work has become more prominent and complex. Social Workers have a professional responsibility towards victims, the Court, community and offenders. To fulfil this role effectively, Social Workers must have a clear, confident understanding of their role, the legislative and policy context and a commitment to increasing and developing knowledge, skills and values required for effective and ethical practice.

With reference to changes in government policy and ideologies of welfare, debate the significance of the shift from Victorian ‘Pauper’ to 21st century ‘service user’ and its impact on social work practice and values.

This assignment has used a timeline of government changes and policies as a background to debate the shift from Victorian pauper to the 21st century service user. The divide between poor and rich has always been an issue that all governments have tried to diminish using different policies and laws. However there is still that divide that seems to be increasing. Has much changed since the Poor Law was implemented? Are individuals given more choice and rights now? Will there always be stigma attached and social exclusion that comes from using these words, do they still have the same meaning? This assignment will attempt to answer these questions using references to policy and ideologies of welfare.

The definition of a Pauper according to the Collins dictionary is someone who is extremely poor or historically eligible for public charity.

The definition of a service user is someone who uses or receives health or social care services. (General social care council)

According to Sen, 1999 the term service user was introduced because of gained strength of powerless people during the 1980’s. This term indicates an acknowledgement of the government and public, understanding that service users have a positive role. They still have capabilities and can realise their potential, they are not just individuals who are entitled to help via the services we offer. Although this term was produced by the individuals who use the services it still highlights that they work with professionals and that the power still resides with them. (Adams, Dominelli and Payne, 2009) The National network of service users: Shaping our lives believe that the term service user is positive, it’s an individual who uses the services, they confer power creating a stronger voice and having a greater ability to shape services. (Levin 2004)

The changes in policy from Pauper to service user have been vast. British social policy’s foundation is from the Poor Laws, the first one passed in 1598 the last 1948.

The Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601 provided a compulsory poor rate and helped set the poor onto work. However as the Parish was the basic area of administration laws were enforced differently in that area, meaning the operation of the Poor Law was inconsistent between areas, the beginning of the postcode lottery. The Poor Law amendment act of 1834 modified the existing system that was in place, it was implemented at a higher stage not just at Parish level ,Poor Law unions were introduced the development of the workhouses was encouraged, one workhouse in each union to give poor relief. This act stated that no able bodied person was to receive any other help other than in the workhouse. This law’s primary problem was to make life inside as bad as outside of the workhouse, this was difficult as some would have had to be starved to meet what they met outside. There was a stigma attached though and it was that reputation that stopped everyone from using a workhouse, they produced jail style segregation men and women and even families had to be separated.

As the government thought this was the best way to help the neediest families they saw no problems with this Act. In fact the neediest families still weren’t using the help and going into a workhouse because they didn’t want to be separated. Not unlike families today that still don’t ask for help because of the stigma or because they don’t know or understand the system implemented to help them as much as possible.

It was in 1869 that The Charitable Organisation Society was formed to make charities more effective, they understood that charitable assistance was needed but believed that their aim was to reach all families, they were also unsure of how the money from charities had previously been spent. They set out financial help introducing local committees, these then raised funds and distributed to families in need. Also very similar to many charities today, there are still many families who don’t ask for help because of religion, language, pride or just weren’t told. (Family action)

COS found that it wasn’t just financial help that people needed, so they started to offer emotional and practical help too. When they had many families needing help they knew there volunteers would need training, this became the pioneer in the profession of social work, something that our foundations are based on today. The main foundation of COS was to change policy to help the people suffering the effects of poverty, something that social workers do now, the general council of social workers are still working to help those suffering the most and work towards giving help to those who have unable to find help elsewhere and give social work support as well as signpost to other services that may help them further.

From this time more acts were introduced including the Public health act of 1872. During this time poverty was never really defined they understood what brought it about like unemployment or illness, if they had defined poverty it may have helped introduced different acts to prevent it.

In the 1900’s poverty was ever increasing, the settlement movement started its idea was to establish settlement houses in poor areas with the idea that the middle class would volunteer to live with them, sharing their knowledge and help alleviate the poverty of their poor neighbours. From this movement many initiatives emerged and helped to improve conditions of all poor areas of society and help all individuals. This movement focused on the causes of poverty providing a number of services including education and health services. This settlement movement is another foundation of social work practice today, no we don’t live with the individuals in need, but the whole reason of social work is to use our education and knowledge to alleviate the problems they have and help them emotionally, practically and financially, which is just what these volunteers did. Although some argued that this was normative because some wanted the divide between the poor and higher classes. (Laybourn, 1995) Although this movement was important the more powerful COS submerged as the controversial nature of social work, there was individuals that were not eligible for help these were still at the workhouse, and most of these individuals were women who bore children out of wedlock. Although the settlement movement was also necessary in society in focusing on poverty, it focused on a more structured analyses of poverty and its impact on human behaviour by practising interventions at a community level, which is needed now to help small communities help each other as well as individually. The nature of social work practice then focused on individuals and a significant element of this time is the elimination of hearing client’s voices and the incomparable knowledge of the professionals working with them. Only now is the service user’s voice being recognised again. (Adams et al, 2009)

The Poor Law was the basis of the development of services for the 20th century, including the national insurance act, these new services were introduced to avoid having to rely on the Poor Laws. (Alcock, 2003) The government laid the basis of the future social services, the major concern was that all areas should be given the same services, these new services were provided away from The Poor Law to evade the association. Even though these new ideologies were introduced to provide services to all individuals there was still a stigma attached, even now there is still a stigma attached to the term service user, although governments have changed their policies to use different terms some still have the same meaning.

A major report produced regarding the welfare of individuals was the Beveridge report. This report focused on how Britain could be rebuilt after the war. In 1945 labour was elected and promised to introduce a welfare state. The welfare state involved introducing new services these included family allowances, the national health services and housing acts to name a few. The welfare state was produced to encourage the provision of services for the public not as a response to poverty. (Laybourn, 1995) this is where a major criticism lies within debates regarding the welfare state within current governments. In the 1950’s the provision of welfare state services became problematic, government interventions at the time didn’t help and caused further problems so the Conservative government took over and cut the help given to the poor and sick. This then made the distribution of income more imbalanced and although attempted to make the poor more hardworking and self sufficient it didn’t work.

One report that impacted policy and practice during the 1960’s was the Seabohm report 1968, this report re-introduced poverty. This paper was tasked to review the organisation and responsibilities of the local authority personal social services in England and to consider what changes are desirable to secure an effective family service. (Seebohm, 1968, pg11.) Prior to this report social work was spread across various local authorities and different government sections, because of this the report found that there was inadequacies in the quality of provision and access was very difficult. The report recommended “a new local authority department providing a community based and family orientated service, which will be available for all” When this recommendation was brought into action new social services department were formed. Seebohm did foresee problems which were highlighted in the report, it stated that having separate departments for children and adults would make it difficult to treat the family’s needs as a whole.

Another important Report was the Barclay Report, 1982 that looked into the role of a social worker, in its opening line it states that too much is expected of social workers. It found that it was a profession that was confused about its role and because of intense media scrutiny was struggling with its work load. It found that there was an ongoing need for social workers to fulfil many functions including promoting community networks, working with other services and acting on client’s behalf and to act as resources for all individual who need help. The report did criticise social work departments for “taking a reactive stance towards social problems, dealing with those needs which are forced upon their attention but failing to develop overall plans which link the voluntary, volunteer, statutory and private services in an area into a coherent plan” (p.38) which is still a problem today.

Although these reports have all highlighted how good social work is and how much it’s needed there are so many problems involved in the profession. Firstly because every government have changed the way the work as soon as they get used to it, it changes again, yes the changes could be for the better but are these just changes for changes sake? The labour government have imposed new policies and directives for social work but after 8 years there are still problems within social work some which could be easily acted upon. We will only know if these new policies and new social work task force works over time.

As its been highlighted earlier in this assignment there is still an implication involved in being a service user just as there was being a pauper. Whilst researching the different acts and welfare ideologies that have been introduced throughout the timeline I’ve used I’ve realised that there are more similarities than comparisons between a services user and pauper. They still have problems accessing help and there are many families who still don’t ask for help because of the stigma. However new approaches have introduced service user involvement by defining what help they want and defining the quality of help they receive. A recent report by Beresford, Shamash, Forrest and Turner, 2007 research service users vision for adult service they found that the process of accessing social care was frequently negative for service users, the assessments were very dependent on the quality of the staff carrying it out, which shouldn’t be happening all social workers should work to one high standard it shouldn’t be a lottery of if you get a good one or not. Access to communicating with the social worker was low and that many of the service users questioned had gaps in their services making them feel insecure.

A major problem through history has been a struggle to get good support for these individuals. Whilst researching this topic I realised that service users know what they want and can easily highlight the problems at the minute one report found while welfare bureaucracy has been condemned by governments for a long while service users still identify problems. One individual said that we shouldn’t have to fill out forms to be made to feel like beggars, not unlike The Poor Law and paupers opinions. There is still social exclusion, the poor will stay poor because they have just enough to get by so they won’t stop, think and revolt. But do social workers maintain this, because they help them just enough, finding the quickest thing they can do to help them not necessarily the best way in the long run. New Labour has had so much time to make improvements and rectify social exclusion but child poverty is getting worst.

How much have rights helped service users, many reports have found that they feel more responsible and confident about the help they are receiving when they have been more involved in the decision processes. Although some still feel like they are hidden away from society and when they have more experience of their disability they need to be acknowledged. The report by Beresford et al, 2007 also found that service users would like a watchdog with service users and professionals and they should be the judges of quality.

One dilemma that social workers face is working towards anti discriminatory practice, equality should be the core of provisions of service, and it needs to take into account religion and backgrounds. Yes some progress has been made involving diversity for example the race equality act, still lots of progress needs to be made.

There are many barriers when considering the major historical events that brought about social work and the values it has now. We see that welfare state is a necessary condition of social work flourishing and to defend it or is it temporary in which internationally social work will then erupt from something else. One barrier when understanding which major events affected what social work is today is our understanding of the history of social work, the history isn’t concrete it changes daily. Most of the history of social work comes from COS as its origin and its methods are still used today. However Laybourn, 1997 has found other methods that were used that have yet to be examined this may have been because COS was used in London and this would have an effect on the history, power will always influence history.

To conclude social work has changed significantly and is still very important and we will progress to help all individuals, we need a larger voice though to talk about the problems we face as a profession to ensure that service users and pauper have fewer similarities. I believe that service users have shifted from paupers as they have much more freedom and rights now, yes there are still similarities which need to be focused on to improve our system and we could probably be a better service if problems hadn’t occurred along the way to affect how we work, we also need to refuse to let policies be imposed on us when they don’t improve on what were already doing. Rights are now benefiting service users but we need to ensure it stays like this. Whilst working towards anti discriminatory practice and equality for all we need to ensure our values are the same that we contribute to a fairer society by reducing disadvantage and exclusion and promoting fair access to resources. Many policies and acts have been the bedrock of what social work is today and without them social work would be very different.

Methodology

This chapter will outline the manner in which the research was planned and completed, with reference to literature when necessary. Furthermore, it includes an important discussion of some of the ethical dilemmas that had to be considered during the sampling and subsequent interview processes.

Approach

This piece of research aimed to explore the experiences of managers in social work, and set out to cast light in surprisingly under researched areas. One of the central aims of this piece of research was to obtain data that was readily analysable (Arksey and Knight 1999) and valid (Whittaker 2012).

The nature of the research meant a qualitative approach was used to explore the various themes that emerged from the review of the literature. This was preferred over a quantitative method, particularly as the latter usually requires larger samples for generating statistics and quantifiable data. Qualitative methods focus on seeking out and interpreting the meanings that people ascribe to their own actions (McLaughlin 2007), and allows for exploration of opinion and experience (Shaw 2003). Interpretative topics were at the core of this research; core values, which despite being substantially constant across societies and throughout history, is inherently subjective. A qualitative approach enabled the collation of data that is rich in description, detail and character (Neuman 1997).

Social work research is required to enhance and develop knowledge (McLaughlin 2007), and can help explore people and communities, paying particular focus to the wider social and structural issues that affect them (Cheetham 2000). The profession is embedded in practice; therefore research that informs behaviour and questions the known and unknown elements of practice is vital to encourage lateral thinking and dynamism amongst frontline workers, as well as going someway towards boosting the professional status of social work (Bledsoe et al. 2005). With this in mind, it was interesting to note some of the barriers to accessing informants, not from social workers themselves, but from organisations. Dealing with rejection from one local council was personally frustrating, but has wider consequences for the profession.

“To understand social work… we must understand how knowledge is validated within the profession” (Askeland and Payne 2001:14)

Furthermore,

“Social work research is about social workers, what they think, what they believe, what knowledge they claim and what they do with it.” (Butler 2002:241).

With this in mind, the implications of a blase attitude to research, albeit a small project such as this one, are significant. One of the themes that arose from the interviews, as will be discussed in more detail later, was the increasingly diverse and heavy workload of managers. Lack of time is a commonly quoted barrier to research participation amongst practitioners (Sheldon and Chivers 2000), and this is one of the reasons research remains a low priority for workers in the field (McLaughlin 2007). Furthermore, as is commented on further at the end of this chapter, having to go through organisational protocol first has implications for anonymity, and arguably has consequences on worker willingness to take part (Lewis 2003).

Literature review

Research into the topic of core values started with certain core textbook readings, which expanded into their recommended reading lists and cited articles. A range of literature databases including Ingenta, Social Sciences Citation Index, Social Services Abstracts were searched using keywords such as “core values”, “social work manager”, “social work management”, “managerialism and social work”, and “performance indicators” in various different orders. The search extended to databases such as Oxford University Press Journals, SocINDEX, SwetsWise and Academic Search Elite. Furthermore, using university’s Searcher Electronic Database it was possible to search a plethora of databases at one time. This was further augmented with internet searches and the use of Google Scholar. Initially, there was not a lot of research regarding retention of core values among managers, indeed this was indicative of social work as an under researched area in general. Nevertheless, broadening my search using the above keywords and Boolean operators such as OR and AND proved to be more fruitful.

Interview sampling

The dearth of research available in this area, and regarding social work managers more generally, proved an impetus to focusing on a particular sample. Interviewees were approached a couple of months before the interviews took place, and had been chosen specifically due to their current management related roles. Having a purposive sample avoided the common issue of ending up with a large amount of irrelevant or disconnected data (Thurlow – Brown 1988) as such a method usually means that the sample has a certain level of knowledge and experience in relation to the topic (Smith 2009).

A total of six interviews took place over a four week period, with all working in hospital social work at management level. This represents a small sample, but it was within the limits of this piece of work, and since qualitative methods are not reliant on large samples for credibility unlike quantitative methods (Anastas 2004), coupled with the level of research undertaken, meant a greater understanding of the issues could be uncovered (Denscombe 2007). Working with a smaller sample allows for more depth and detail of meaning, and subsequently avoids a more general and abstracted level of explanation (McLaughlin 2007). Indeed, it allowed for a more sharpened focus of this study, particularly as all the informants were in very similar roles.

During the interview process, informants offered recommendations of others to interview, otherwise known as snowball sampling (Knight 2002). Whilst this was appreciated, the recommendations involved other areas of social work. Although this would have generated further data, it was felt that having a random sample would obfuscate more pertinent findings from the core interviewees and affect the generalisability of the findings. The criticisms of using a convenience sample are well noted, particularly the impact this has on generalisability to the wider population (Bryman 2012). Using informants who are already known to the researcher may have its drawbacks, but it is argued that these are outweighed by merits of such projects being used to further larger studies (Herr and Anderson 2005).

Interviews

Interviews were arranged through email, at which point the respondents were told of the nature and purpose of the study and what was going to be covered in the interview. This involved a general overview of the main themes that were to be explored. It was not felt necessary to give the informants a copy of the interview schedule for fear that this would impact on the conversational flow that was being aimed for.

Interviews followed a semi-structured model and enabled the investigative process to remain mostly conversational and informal; the inherent flexibility of this approach allowing for detailed probing when necessary (Becker and Bryman 2004). It is a simple method of data collection but allows for detailed excavation of people’s experiences. Open ended questions were consciously used to avoid bias and encourage a free flowing narrative that was in line with the interviewees’ views and opinions whilst also following the overarching themes that were being explored (Rubin and Babbie 2007). Whilst the interview schedule did not have to be strictly adhered to, it was designed in a way that started with descriptive, open questions such as “Can you give me a description of your current role?” and slowly moved to more direct questions that aimed to elicit thoughts and opinion, “How do you feel about the statement ‘If you can manage a factory, you can manage a team of social workers?’” Having the interview designed in this meant that the range of questions were general enough to stimulate free flowing dialogue, but also specific enough to gather relevant data.

All of the interviews were recorded, and subsequently transcribed as soon as possible for reasons of confidentiality; informants could be indirectly attributed through a collection of characteristics (McLaughlin 2007). This was particularly important as the sample represents the majority of two local authority management teams, in secondary settings, and therefore could be easily identified. For this reason, transcripts of interviews were not provided in an appendix and no contextual detail has been provided about any of the interviewees. Despite the onerous process of transcribing data (O’Leary 2004: 169), it was important because it meant that more attention could be spent actively listening and tuning in, as opposed to writing notes. The interview itself, as a communication interchange establishing a framework for future evaluation and enquiry, lies at the heart of social work practice (McLaughlin 2007), and drew on some of the skills that had been developed on placement, particularly active listening, signposting and probing. Qualitative methodologies mirror the focus placed upon person-centredness in social work practice (Connelly and Harms 2012). This highlights the transferability of skills from practice into research and vice versa. With this in mind, it was important to use these skills to ensure interviews was being guided and not led. This meant avoiding leading questions and generally putting words in the mouth of the informant. For example, asking “What do you feel the main reasons for this are?”, as opposed to “Is this a direct consequence of the increased use of key performance indicators?”

Key findings and discussion

Thematic analysis is a commonly used method for analysing such data (Bryman 2008, Davies 2007), and was used to explore the transcripts and highlight recurrent themes as it has been defined as a method for identifying, analysing and recording themes within data (Braun and Clarke 2006). Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six stage thematic analysis model was used as a guide, and involved getting immersed in the data in the first instance followed by creating, searching, reviewing and defining/naming themes.

Initial coding was done by highlighting particular extracts that were interesting (Boyatzis 1998), separated by different colours to represent the various different topics that emerged. This was a useful way of organising what was initially a large amount of data by marking recurrent topics and words (Ryan and Bernard 2003). This stage represented an organisation of data into individual building blocks of particular topics; the next stage aimed to bring together blocks into groups of similar colours. At this stage, it was possible to identify themes.

Limitations of study

It would be nave to think that such a study could be generalised to a wider population (Gomm 2008, Smith 2009). However, it has been argued that although such studies are not generalisable in the traditional sense, they have redeeming qualities which set them above that requirement (Myers 2000). Small scale research highlights the importance of viewing such studies as focusing on discovery, and not proof (Denscombe 1998). The development of managerialism is not unique to the UK (Politt and Bouckaert 1997, Hood et al. 1999, Brunsson and Sahlin- Andersson 2000), and highlights the relevance and necessity of shedding light on management experiences within a paradigm that triumphs managerial prerogative (Thomas and Davies 2005).

The sample represent one of convenience, as all but one of the informants were known to the researcher in a professional capacity. Whilst this has been deemed the least credible of sampling techniques (Bryman 2008), it must also be stressed that it was also purposive as highlighted previously. With this in mind it is important to recognise how the researcher’s own views and values can create a bias, particularly as the constructivist framework of qualitative research states that individuals construct their own understanding through experience (Denscombe 2003, Kuper 2008). Rigorous testing of the interview schedule was done to avoid any bias by recognising and removing leading questions.

Ethics

It was necessary to follow well established protocol within the university school, as well as the local council to ensure that the study was carried out in a way that was ethically sound. This firstly involved completing an ethical level one self audit, as well as qualitative appraisal tool identified in literature (McLaughlin 2007). It was important to gain informed consent from the interviewees, and discuss the extent and manner in which absolute confidentiality was to be achieved. Contingent confidentiality (Dominelli 2005) is more commonly discussed in social work, as it is necessary to spell out the precise conditions this would need to be broken, such as a criminal offense being disclosed, however this was not the case in this study.

The local council’s policy on research meant that the research design was scrutinised to glean what use this had. Indeed the request form specifically states answer “What benefit will the dissertation offer to the council, if any?”. The question better asked would be “What benefit will the dissertation offer social work?”, as the organisation would arguably benefit if their goals were parallel with social work. Social work as a profession risks having its own priorities sidelined for those of employing organisations, and although workers are accountable to their organisation, social work’s struggle with developing an evidence base (Marsh and Fisher 2005) highlights the need to build a solid research infrastructure that informs best practice (Davies et al. 2000, Trinder 2000).

The council procedure involved providing information on was to be interviewed and the interview schedule itself. As was briefly discussed earlier, having to tell the council who was being interviewed and the impact this has on anonymity is questionable; indeed the impact of tighter ethical and regulatory frameworks for social work students and having a research capable workforce are well noted (Dominelli and Holloway 2008). Arguably, social work research should place ethics at the centre of what it aims to achieve, and this is well noted (Hugman and Smith 1995). This is particularly important as ethics are or at least should be at the centre of practice. What this raises are issues of accountability for the researcher that mirror those of workers and managers as is discussed in the following chapters. As a social work researcher, to whom am I accountable? The current research governance framework (Department of Health 2005) has been seen to focus more towards accountability to funders and regulators as opposed to anybody else (Dominelli and Holloway 2008). How this affects larger research projects is unclear, but as an ethical researcher, since I was unable to guarantee the anonymity of further informants it was decided that a sample of six was enough. How this subsequently affects participation is interesting but unfortunately not within the scope of this particular piece of research.

References

Anastas 2004

Arksey, H., & Knight, P. T. (1999) Interviewing for social scientists: An introductory resource with examples. Sage.

Askeland, G. A. and Payne, M. (2001) “What is Valid Knowledge for Social

Workers?” Social Work in Europe, 8 (3): pp. 13-23

Becker, S. & Bryman, A. (2004) Understanding Research for Social Policy and Practice: Themes, Methods and Approaches Bristol, The Policy Press

Bledsoe, S., Bellamy, J., Mullen, E. & Shlonsky, A. (2005) “From concept to implementation: Challenges facing evidence based social work” Evidence and Policy 1, pp. 143-151

Boyatsiz, RE. (1998) Transforming qualitative information: Thematic analysis and code development Thousand Oaks, Sage

Butler, I. (2002) “A code of ethics for social work and social care research” British Journal of Social Work 32 (2): pp. 239 -248

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Bryman, A. (2008) Social research methods 3^rd edition Oxford, Oxford University Press

Bryman, A. (2012) Social Work Methods (4^th Ed.) Oxford University Press

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Connelly, M. and Harms, L. (2012) Social Work: From theory to practice Melbourne, Cambridge University Press

Davies, MB. (2007) Doing a successful research project: Using qualitative or quantitative methods Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan

Davies, H.T.O., Nutley, S.M. and Smith, P.C. (eds) (2000) What works? Evidencebased policy and practice in public services Bristol, The Policy Press

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Social Care London, Department of Health

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Palgrave/Macmillan

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Oxford: Blackwell Science, pp 138-162.

Simulated interviews reflection and approach work

Part 1

The purpose of the interview was to explore the service user’s situation and investigate his needs and problems.

When reflecting on the interview techniques I asked both open and closed questions, for example “Do you want to tell me what’s happened recently?” I probed into his responses several times for example “would you like to talk in more depth about that?” These questions can promote client involvement, inviting the service user to talk in more depth. Using this technique shows that I listened by asking questions about points he had discussed. The service user mentioned that he felt I listened well to what he was saying because I asked him to talk about what he’d discussed in more detail.

I tried to use the non verbal attending SOLER techniques (Egan, 2007) these included facing the client squarely, having an open posture, leaning towards the service user and keeping good eye contact during the interview which when looking back at the interview I believe I did constantly.

I did try one technique called scaling, upon reflection I concluded that it was not the correct time to use it. I think I was too eager to try too many techniques at once. Understanding this will help establish the correct skills to use in different situations.

During the interview the service user was fidgeting, this may be a response to how he dealt with their anxieties and depression. However upon reflection I understand that anyone having an interview with a social worker could be nervous and fidget. It’s unfair to conclude that it was his anxieties that caused him to fidget. Upon reflection I found that his answers were closed at first until I tried to make him comfortable, probing his responses until he felt more relaxed and happy that I was listening. He then became more confident at answering the questions and gave more in depth responses. However this may not have been because of the techniques I used. The service user has had dealing with mental health teams in the past. Having had experience of interviews he would find it easier to talk to a social worker and give answers out of habit. Mental health services have a habit to affect service users. Helping them in certain situations in the past, the service user will be used to working with them in this setting and want them to help again so willingly involve themselves interviews.

I tried to empathise with the service user when it was possible for example “I can see things have been really difficult for you”. I showed support when it was needed for example he knew what he did not want but not what he wanted in regards to having help. I explained that it was a good situation to be in and we can move on further from this. I believe I showed understanding and empathy towards his situation by using non verbal skills like smiling and nodding when he explained something

Within the interview I was nervous and did not appreciate that this service user had previous experience of mental health services and already had strategies that enabled him to live with his mental distress. I focused solely on his mental health and this impeded my techniques and how I acted as the interviewer. I should have focused on the situation and asked him what his current situation was and why he was currently using mental health services. I did find out the main part of his situation, that he is about to be made homeless but I didn’t explore it in depth after he’d mentioned it. I just carried on with using techniques I had learnt and ignored the severity of his situation. I think my understanding of the purpose of the interview and the actual purpose had affected the way I acted and asked questions. Ignoring the whole reason why the service user was in crisis may have been due to my own personal experience of mental health. Understanding that my previous experience may impede my practice is something that reflection has uncovered.

My age and gender may have affected the interview process. Being a young woman who’s a social worker when my client is an older male with mental health problems understandably there are boundaries these may have affected how I asked questions and what I wanted to cover and how he answered questions. This man was not much younger than my father I may have ignored his most pressing problem because I associated him to a close figure that never has problems and always deals with things independently. Unconsciously I may have associated this and that may be why I ignored the severity of his imminent homelessness.

I used a notebook throughout the interview. Upon reflection I believe I unconsciously used this as a barrier because of my own nerves and understanding of individuals using mental health services. I am rather disappointed in myself even if it was an unconscious action an individual using the mental health team needs a social worker who will not put up barriers that may suggest they want to distance themselves from the service user. Being aware of this will help me in the future when working within the mental health services.

Biestek (1961) produced a set of values that social work is based on including individualisation and acceptance (Adams, Dominelli and Payne, 2009). I showed anti discriminatory practice by understanding that individuals should be treated as unique. You may already have previous experience of similar cases and already know what might work. However it’s important not to direct the service user but let them make their own decisions. Within the interview I believe I used this approach asking the service user “What would you like us to do to help you?” ensuring the service user makes the decisions. The social worker can safeguard the service user against making decisions for him by using reflection as a technique. Reflecting individually and being able to use your team to reflect upon what you as the social workers have done and why you have done. Colleagues may identify an important aspect which the social worker had not previously considered.

During the interview I tried to keep my emotions controlled to make sure the service user was not affected. However whilst reflecting I feel emotional about the situation. I think it’s important to be able to feel emotions regarding the situation otherwise I may be more affected by the situation later on.

Part 2

The service user’s situation is such that he will be imminently evicted and become homeless. As such the approach to take requires an intervention that will help and be effective in the short term. A crisis intervention and task centred approach helps people faced with sudden problems (Adams et al, 2009). When in crisis individuals find that they have no solutions, because of this may be more susceptive to outside help, in this case from mental health social workers (Roberts, 2000). These approaches would be the most effective in this situation as the service user is facing sudden problems.

Crisis intervention uses elements of the psychodynamic approach and cognitive approach focusing on emotional responses to events and how to control them realistically. The task centred approach focuses on major continuing problems in life. Both improve the individual’s ability to deal with their problems (Payne, 2005).

There are different phases of crisis intervention, the beginning phase focuses on the situation but should look into his emotional state and well being. Using Roberts, 2000 seven stage crisis intervention model helps understand what this approach involves. The first stage is conducting the assessment. This leads to establishing rapport with the service user. Major problems are then identified and the causes of crisis are investigated to ensure these do not continue to affect the service user. The social worker helps the service user deal with emotions regarding the situation. The next stage involves the social worker and service user identifying different routes to take to ensure the service user is involved with decision making with regard to his plan (Roberts, 2000). I believe that this model is the most useful when understanding crisis intervention as during the fifth stage when they are looking at different routes to take they can look at the service users previous responses at coping with difficult situations and how they had dealt with them then therefore focusing on strengths. During this stage the social worker could help the service user reduce the crisis into smaller manageable amounts this may decrease the service user’s level of anxiety. Helping involve him in coping mechanisms and decision making to develop and implement a plan.

Firstly the social worker and service user must identify the crisis, assess the situation, explore strengths and the resources the service user may have and then implement a plan (Payne, 2005). Crisis intervention identifies practical tasks that the individual’s need to readjust when crisis has occurred (Payne, 2005). This service user’s crisis has already been identified as his imminent homelessness. During the interview the situation was explored to find out other problems he is facing, he currently has depression and levels of anxiety and has had previous gambling problems. The strengths that the service user has are his commitment to want to work in the future and knowing he needs help but does not know what kind of help he needs. A major strength the service user has is his ability to form strategies to cope with his mental illness to enable him to live within society without difficulty until crisis had happened.

From this initial interview further work would need to be done with the service user this would involve looking holistically, investigating his environment, familial relationships and other situations and find out any other needs which the service user may wish us to meet.

Task centred intervention would be incorporated within this time whilst crisis intervention was ongoing. This is a practical approach and would be effective as it looks at his problems and why he might be facing crisis to try and prevent him facing crisis again. This is a short term problem solving approach using partnership and empowerment, building on people’s strengths. This approach focuses on the service user’s problems. Payne, 2005 explains that task centred looks at problems that the service user acknowledges and what they want to change. Task centred is effective when solving problems involving social relationships and decision making problems, both of which the service user has. The client identifies problems the tasks are then planned, these may involve small actions or involve different actions, for example in this case help with familial relationships and take part in gambling help. The tasks can be physical actions for example the service user is this case could call a gambling anonymous helpline and ask for further help. These tasks are then evaluated to see if they have been achieved (Doel and Marsh, 2005). The purpose of task centred is to help resolve problems and give them capacity to deal with them in the future.

Criticisms of both crisis intervention and task centred are that neither is effective when the service user is constantly facing crisis and some individuals may find it difficult to face their problems head on like in task centred.

If timing was not a problem another approach which may have been useful would be Cognitive Behavioural Approach. This approach involves the application of the social learning theory and would help me as a social worker and the service user to understand how emotional and behavioural problems can arise and how they can then be maintained or changed. This theory was chosen as its one of the most effective treatments for conditions where depression is the main problem. It looks at triggers which might affect how the service user functions within society for example his gambling problems may have caused a difficult financial situation leading to his imminent homelessness (Westbrook, Kennerley and Kirk, 2007).

Cognitive behavioural therapy focuses on client self determination, empowering the service user to make their own decisions and also boosts the service users confidence when making these decisions and avoids having a dependent service user. It encourages service users to reinforce desirable behaviours rather than punish those that are undesirable (Adams et al, 2009) (Westbrook, Kennerley and Kirk, 2007).

Cognitive behavioural therapy is not a short process which is why it wouldn’t be useful in this case. If further on when the crisis has resolved and the service user and social worker have built rapport it may be a useful approach to use when dealing with his other problems. The service user already had an idea of what cognitive behavioural therapy was as his psychiatrist has already referred him for short term cognitive behavioural work. Working with the therapist allocated to this service user may enhance his progress, if all professionals are working towards the same goal using the same approach it may be beneficial to the service user in the long run.