Andre Coleman – Page 441 – toptermpaper.com

October 14, 2018October 4, 2018

Reviewing The Identity Of Looked After Children Social Work Essay

This essay explores how the identity Looked after child contribute to oppression and discrimination in two specific areas of Education and Health. The essay will analyse the role of legislation and policy in combating or promoting discrimination and oppression. The history, societal attitudes, views of the children and theories underpinning looked after children will also be discussed within the essay. Finally I will focus on the implications and relevance to Social Work practice.

For the purposes of clarity I will start by defining ‘oppression’, ‘discrimination’ and ‘stigma’. Thompson (1997) identifies oppression as the disregarding of individuals or group of people’s rights resulting in inhuman or abusive treatment with dominance and power by one group over another. For Thompson (2006), discrimination refers to a process of unfair or unequal treatment of individuals or groups resulting in undermining the interests of people from a less powerful category within society. From the two definitions of Oppression and Discrimination it can be deduced that the common elements are abuse of power and privilege associated with degrading treatment of the less fortunate individuals or groups of people in society. Apart. from discrimination and Oppression it is important to mention Stigma as another attribute that is prevalent and used as a tool for social exclusion.

Diversity in Society Assignment 1016433

Goffman, (1963), and Parker and Aggleton, (2003),’s theories of stigma help us to understand how stigma is constructed and its influence in people’s lives. Goffman (1963), describes stigma as “an attribute that is deeply descending within a particular social interaction, where the person possessing the attribute falls short of societal expectations”. Parker and Aggleton (2003) interpret stigma as a tool of preserving or undermining social structures. They view stigma and discrimination as functional systems which maintain boundaries between those in power and those without. Through such power, social inequalities are developed leading to creation of social norms. Social norms formulate stigma as they govern interactions between people and reinforce power structures that serve to isolate those that are regarded as outsiders. Both theories help us to understand the roots of stigma, prejudice, negative attitudes and its impact to Looked After children after Children.

The last three decades have experienced a huge overhaul and introduction of legislation and policies seeking to address the needs of children. The Children’s Act 1989 (CA 1989) reformed Law relating to children and in particular set out the framework for the provision of support for children and families and for the protection of children in England and Wales. This was in line with the the United Nations on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC 1989) which was the first legally binding International instrument to promote the rights of children throughout the world. Burke and Parker (2007).

Diversity in Society Assignment 1016433

It is important to mention them following initiatives when discussing issues relating to the welfare of children: The Quality Protects 1998, Chidren Leaving Care Act 2000, Adoption and Children Act 2002, the Choice Protects policy, the Children’s Act 2004, Every Child Matters 2004, Care Matters (Green and White Papers) and The Children and Young Persons Act 2008. Some of these initiatives and legislation were introduced to reinforce Safeguarding children and also in response to reports of abuse, neglect and harm to children in different institutions of residential care in the UK with the most publicised individual cases such as the deaths of Victoria Climbe ( 2000). It was revealed that Staff working with vulnerable children were not adequately trained, rigorously checked on recruitment, no support and vigilance towards diversity and openness. A number of inquiries like Laming Report (2003) recommendations are also worth mentioning which revealed significant failings within the individuals and organisations which are meant to be looking after children. As a result there was a lot of media coverage and society as a whole questioned the role of government, laws and all individuals working with children and vulnerable people. The Children’s Act ( 2004) emerged in response to addressing these shortcomings and to improve services. In 2009 Lord Laming was also asked by the government to provide an emergency progress report on issues surrounding safeguarding children following yet another death of a child Baby P in 2007. He identified and reinforced that systematic and individual failures as the cause of death to a child whom they were supposed to look and care for. Laming report (2009)

.. Research has questioned how effective and how far the above initiatives reduced the discrimination of Looked after children. Examples of such research just to name a few: Children experience of the Children Act (1989), Discrimination Against Young People in Care: Remember my message (1993), The Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care in England Project (2006), Barriers to change in the Social Care (2000),Busting at the seams (2010) and the recent Panorama BBC programme on experiences of children leaving Care. The UK is a multicultural society and Diversity should be understood and be a tool for most of the policy makers and legislators to make laws which promote equality. Diversity according to Blaine (2007) is associated with the presence of differences in society in relation to gender, race, ethnicity, religion, social class and sexual orientation. These differences are neither good nor bad but some of the differences are associated with inequality and disadvantage. Social work practice is concerned with empowerment, anti discriminatory practice, social justice and redressing inequality in line with human rights. Burke and Parker (2007)

Cocker and Allain (2008) identify Looked After Children and Young People as children in the care of the local authority, through a Care Order made by a court or voluntary agreement with their parent(s) to accommodate them. They may be looked after in a children’s home ,by foster carers, or other family members. All unaccompanied asylum seeking children are also Looked After Children.

Diversity in Society Assignment 1016433

According to (Dfes Statistics 2010) reveal that there were about 64,400 looked after children as at 31 March 2010, an increase of 6 per cent from 2009 and an increase of 7 per cent since 2006.. Mostly the main reason of being in care, was because of abuse or neglect (52 per cent.There were 3,400 Unaccompanied Asylum Seeking Children (UASC) who were looked after at 31 March 2010. This is a decrease of 12 per cent from 2009. As these statistics reveal there is an increase in the number of Looked after children to date although there is a decrease in the Unaccompanied Asylum Seeker Children (DfES 2010)

Hogg and Vaughan (2002) views identity as associated with the process an individual becomes who they are in the sense of personhood and other’s view of who they are. Furthermore a person has multiple identities and these needs to be seen as part of the whole individual as disregarding some aspects would be misleading and reductive of the individual’s identity. Graham (2000) further highlight that identities have different meanings and are not fixed but change over time as a result of environment, personal circumstances and outside influences. These influences will significantly affect the social experience and the self image of those defined, through, for example the experience of negative discrimination.

Diversity in Society Assignment 1016433

All aspects of a child’s identity needs to be recognised and acknowledged regardless of gender, race, ethnicity or religion. By developing a positive identity children are motivated and their self esteem is enhanced for them to feel a sense of value, belonging and worth Blaine (2007). However Cocker and Allain (2008) argue that not all environments are positive in fostering this idea. When this occurs the child becomes withdrawn and shy to open up and engage. Having a looked after child identity endangers a child to be different, socially excluded, marginalised and denied equal opportunities in accessing services. Assessing Children in Need and their Families: Practice Guidance (2000) As such Social workers need to adopt and work with a culturally sensitive approach and apply the balancing act to enhance the resilience concept. Masten (1994) cited in Daniel et al (2002)

Burke and Parker (2010) further argue that the Social Work context and the involvement of a Social worker in a child’s life applies and identify the child as different. This is revealed by the bureaucratic and comprehensive paperwork, regular review and educational meetings, visits, contact arrangements and procedures and guidelines are associated with the looked after child but are not experienced by most children in normal life settings. However this arguement is dismissed by Garret (2003) cited in Burke and Parker (2010) when he affirms that paperwork and bereacratic procedures are essential tools for a social worker to use in helping them identify and address important developmental needs of the child but should however encourage more one to one contact with the child rather than spending time on paperwork.

In Education Research has revealed that Looked after children do not perform well and are likely not to have (GCSE) and most likely risk being expelled from School due to behaviour. Statistics show that a third of the 60 0000 looked after children obtain a GCSE and a further fifth obtain fewer than five GCSEs. Although these figures are lower than a few years ago, they are still much higher than for children as a whole: more than half not obtaining five or more GCSEs compared to less than one in ten children as a whole. this includes Black minority and white as well DfES (2010). Because of their identity as Looked after children they are disadvantaged and discriminated against at School and in matters related to education. The Social Exclusion Unit (2003) published a document ( A Better Education for Children in Care which highlighted 5 reasons for the low attainment levels ranging from Instability caused by insecure placements, bullying, lack of support and encouragement at home , time out of school due to expulsion, support and encouragement and emotional, mental or physical health. From the above five highlighted issues it can be summarised that the home environment plays a crucial role in enhancing education. Schofield and Beek (2009) suggest parents and people at home where the child lives need to be supportive and encouraging to the child learning success. School environment should promote learning that develops a child holistically to facilitate the self discovery method and accepting themselves as they interact with other children.

This is not always the case as children are disrupted of continuity in settling and making friends if placement breaks down. Sometimes bullying at school results in low self esteem Although most local authorities have put in place a number of inter disciplinary services looking at the physical, mental well being of children. However in Jackson and McParlin (2006) in their article (the education of children in care professionals are seen to be making assumptions and jumping into conclusions ending up giving labels and long prescribed long term solutions to short term problems unnecessarily. This is associated with neglect and discrimination. More training and awareness of diversity, anti discriminatory practices and individualised person centred approach should be reinforced.(Every Child Matters 2004)

Roger Morgan (2010) argue that the problem of poor school performance in looked after children lies in the care and education system not in the children. They argue that the care and education systems do not address pre care experiences of the child low attainment and also failure to address the aftermath or the impact of separation when children are removed from their families. The child may be suffering from undiagnosed post traumatic stress which can erupt in any confined environment such as school classrooms. They also argue that teachers have no knowledge of the child’s history. Teacher training does not equip teachers with knowledge of the care system and on addressing behaviour from Looked after children. There is also the emphasis on exaggeration of difficulties and the overuse of the term ( Challenging behaviour focuses to address the present problems arising from the child’s pre-care experiences and disappointments of being in care. The Authorities should rather focus on explaining and addressing the underperformance. They further highlight the study by (Jackson et al.’2005) where a research with students in Higher education who had a care background was carried out over a 5 year period. The respondents experienced a high level of trauma, abuse and neglect but were placed in foster homes that were supportive and valued education. The findings revealed that foster families who support education and celebrate the child’s achievements are more likely to compensate to some level the pre care experiences and promote higher attainment in education. It is important to place children in placements which are supportive to the child’s success in education, foster resilience and offer a safe place to grow and achieve. To support children’s wellbeing the government has put in place the Children and Young Persons Act 2008 with a commitment to promote the wellbeing of children and those who are involved in their care. Children Act (2008)

In accessing Health facilities Looked after children face difficulties with mental health issues. Mostly their Health needs are overlooked and not met as they are labelled. Axford (2008) in her article exploring social exclusion noted this difficulty as more prevalent among children from Black Ethnic Minority background who face a cultural, language and racism within organisations that are meant to support and look after them especially asylum seekers. There is lack of relevant and appropriate delivery of service in assessing the physical and mental wellbeing of children before placement and continuous monitoring of wellbeing through individual health plan. This can be attributed to lack of awareness and knowledge on the part of and role of carers and foster parents. This leaves the responsibility to the child who will most of the time ignore health issues and abscond appointments. (Young Minds )Training of carers and foster parents need to be promoted to improve delivery of service… In working with looked experiences of the Children Act (1989) highlighted that there are continuing myths about the Act which are still disadvantaging Looked After children. Also children still feel they are not fully aware of their rights under the Act as they face day to day regulations and successive barriers. Children still feel they do not receive what the law says they should. A typical example was in socialising with restrictions on risk assessments for overnight stays by teenagers in care. This has brought a sense of discrimination and marginalisation as it is for normal teenagers to do overnight stays. Prout (2000) cited in Glenny and Roaf (2008)further picked up another conflict and tension among within government departments and targets when he mentions that control and self realisation are both present in legislation and policy but in tension. On one camp there is the idea of viewing children as individuals with a capacity for self realisation within a safe societal environment while in the other camp there is the idea of viewing children as vulnerable and requiring control, regulation and surveillance. One example Youth Matters four challenges to help teenagers achieve the ECM outcomes.( DfES 2005, 2:12)

Social workers need to listen, engage and work in partnership with looked after children. In a research by Sally Holland (2010) Journal of Social Work to explore the Ethics of Care as being marginalised and not being implemented and recognised it was evidenced that lasting relationships are disrupted by placements and children often acknowledged their links to their past and significant people in their lives. This highlights the importance of their individual pathway in promoting their wellbeing and interpersonal relationships and future achievements. Clarke (2010) emphasises the need to sustain and promote lasting care relationships with formal carers and social workers to avoid the consequences of loss ,neglect and worthlessness by listening to their story, exploring and putting their needs and choices first. Oliver et al (2010) Briefing Paper Advocacy for Looked After Children when they unveiled that Reseach has also highlighted that there were some ambivalence within professionals as to what extent children must be involved in decision making to matters concerning their care as well as resource barriers. To overcome these constraints Winter (2009) suggested regular contact, feedback, advocacy and putting the needs of the child first need to be priority as children value being listened to and having their wishes fulfilled by active participation in matters concerning their wellbeing.

I also have personal experience when I was involved in a consultation exercise with Young Persons leaving care as part of my coursework.. The Young Persons highlighted that sometimes they did not receive any feedback from social workers when they contact them. Also they mentioned that there was a lot of bureaucracy which they felt treated them as different and treated them discriminatory for example social work visits at school and regular reviews or educational meetings. They felt they wanted to be treated as normal children not Service users. Barriers to Change in the Social Care (2000) suggest and support that there should be a Human rights approach in working with looked after children.

Glenny and Roaf (2008) suggested Early intervention is essential to support children and families before problems either from within the family or as a result of external factors, which have an impact on both the child and family. Government departments, statutory and voluntary organisations have an obligation to work in partnership for the success of early intervention agenda. These teams should work together establish protocols which will help to ensure early indications of being at risk of social exclusion are addressed and receive proper attention.

McLeod (1998) highlighted the need to acknowledge Child development stages. He mentions that children accept and discover themselves through stages and exposure to promote self awareness, confidence, self esteem and positive attitudes. McLeod highlighted Freud’s psycho-analysis theory (1859-1939), Erickson’s psycho-social development theory (1950) and Bowlby’s attachment theory(1969,1973,1880,1988). This view is shared in the literature review by Hunt (2003) cited in ( Charlotte Ritchie 2005 Critical Review) which highlights that although there is no concrete evidence of kinship care over non kin foster care there are indications that chances are the former promotes the child’s wellbeing and welfare than the latter. This shows how important it is for Social Workers to be aware of child developmental needs and how valuable family ties are. Schofield and Beek , (2005) cited in Shaw (2010) shares the same views that past relationships with family and professionals has an impact on the child’s wellbeing and ability to cope with life on their own. Active parenting focusing on the child’s needs and positive engagement with the child will help and promote skills to deal with difficult situations in life. It is also good to for social workers to promote resilience as a tool of empowering children so that they are equipped to face challenges and deal with their past and future. Daniel and Wassell (2002)

The importance of identity is further echoed by (Goerge, 1990;Testa et al., 1996; Testa, 1997; Wulczyn and Goerge, 1992) cited in (Charlotte Ritchie 2005) in her critical Paper of exploring the significance of Kinship care when she states that Identity, attachment, cultural heritage and self esteem are further maintained and consolidated when a child remains with their family and relatives than non relative placements. This will also go a long way in alleviating the Placement shortages currently experienced by ethnic minority foster placements and also reinforce the value of cultural sensitivity in Social Work. Bates et al (1997) suggests that assessment framework should foster identity and acknowledge diversity in order to promote a child’s perception of themselves and their environment. Social workers need to employ anti-discriminatory practice with a lot of opportunities and resources for self discovery. They need to support the child to discover and accept themselves. It is important to offer options to situations that promote identity in order to understand themselves and others as children need to have their own identity to mirror on.(:Assessment for Children in need Practice 2000) The Children and Young Persons Act (2008) also emphasise that its commitment to promote a child’s well being and the people involved in the care of the child.

Although there has been notable initiatives in addressing the needs of Looked after children for the past ten years a lot still has to be done in terms of societal attitudes, resources and safeguarding. To achieve the every child matters outcomes all the stakeholders need to work together by putting the needs and act in the best interest of the child. By listening and engaging with Looked after children practitioners, politicians and policy makers will be able to improve Children’s quality of life. Anti discriminatory practice, empowerment and equal opportunities practices are part of the answer. . 3624words

October 14, 2018October 4, 2018

Reviewing Personal Development Through Reflective Practice Social Work Essay

The road up ahead unnoticed was damp in strong rain let loose against a grey sky that hung in desperation. Then shouts shook up the vicinity as a short craggy boy came in view, just enough to be seen chasing after a grown man. Dark skinned he perspired of fear while he threw large stones in the direction of his pursuit. His father straddled along howling while doing the same. The chase moved on almost reaching the street corner when the grown man abruptly turned about, drew out a long knife and unsurprisingly took in the direction of the boy.

Five weeks before today, I had at my desk a 13 year old girl admitted for sexual abuse which occurred in an out of campus activity over the weekend, and involved two boys ages 14 and 15. I took up the intake interview for document support for criminal charges.

The girl was an obvious difficult untrue to her shattered self, torn between betrayal and the worth of protecting friendship.

I was in some sort of conflict myself, appalled with the clinical findings, and given the ages of these children involved. Both accused and the victim belong to families of lower income brackets with parents working in the informal sector.

Later at night what first came to mind was a concept put forward by Reginald Revans in the 1940s that “People had to be aware of their lack of relevant knowledge and be prepared to explore the area of their ignorance with suitable questions and help from other people in similar positions”. Revans developed on the idea individuals successful with self development are those in adversity who struggle to understand themselves. The formula prescribes L = P + Q where L is learning; P is programmed thought or what is taught or read knowledge and Q is questioning to create insight. Apparently what I hoped to attempt, if any, was to learn in the execution of my task.

In my circumstance as a social worker in child protection for disadvantaged communities; many deep, painful thoughts had me that I questioned if I could make sense of it at all. But work itself, frequent with disordered and dysfunctional children and families, brought me to understand the importance of perfecting the tool of reflective practice. Reflection nourishes the soul as it is a tough discomfort to take issues of the self to the fore. Whatever else is said of it, the tool can elicit insight and appreciation, and develop certain faculties of the mind. It is through reflective practice that I am competent and confident to work positively toward the best outcome in the interest of child with whom we work. This I began to write a few lines every night about my tasks, thoughts, fears, and achievements which helped me to focus and determine the real issue.

Reflective practice is an element of learning through the involvement of self in exploring ones responses in an experience (Boud, Keogh and Walker, 1985). One must begin by understanding the purpose and definitions of reflective practice well explained in the writings of Johns and Freshwater (1998). The process requires methodical recording events and experiences in diaries and journals (Zubbrizarreta 1999 and Tryssenaar 1995), or professional development diaries to return and improve interpretations (Clouder 2000). The method is taken further by Gillings (2000) in placing emphasis on a sincere commitment to self enquiry and a readiness to change through honesty and openness. This argument is supported by Atkins (2000) by determining self-awareness of temperament and conviction as essential to the reflective process.

Ann is a transferee to the university where she easily became friends with gang groups. One weekend she was invited to come join a swimming event on June 28, 2008. After swimming these teenagers decided to drink and others took a dose of marijuana. Ann managed to get too drunk that was left behind with two boys who promised to take her home. Ann was raped that night. The activity held outside campus was not led by the academe that jurisdiction and responsibility is argued.

L O G

I thought it would be a sweeping case for it concerned eleven minors of the same campus, having managed to access liquor and drugs. I believed there was neglect and unkindness on the part on all participants of the activity for leaving a vulnerable girl to the care of bullish boys, and passed judgment that this was some fraternity issue. Because I knew of the forensic evidence and laboratory results, it was difficult to let go.

As I struggled with myself, I discovered the later developments in reflective practice threshed that individuals reach a limit reflecting alone, unaided (Boud, Keogh and Walker, 1985) and that there is more benefit to adopt reflective practice in a group setting or one-to-one forum through supervision (Fisher 1996). Other articles refer this as a guided reflection or learning sequence by studying ones feelings that an evolving of ideas and appreciation spills out. Mann (2008) presents shared reflection to reap benefits of continuity, trust, peer support and an opportunity to reframe. Possible harmful outcomes in spite the aim to provide self direction are also expressed in other works 1-busy work, 2-lack of impact, 3-rejection by clients, 4-misplaced confidence, 5-reflection without learning, 6-intellectualizing reflection, 7-inappropriate disclosure. The article points out that shared reflection is enabled by free expression of opinion when there is a common perceived usefulness of the activity and prior reflective practice experience. However the actual implements of shared reflection could differ as to organizational climate and allocation of time for reflection. But with the many work constraints, shared reflective activities was not possible at the moment.

I adamantly guided Ann to pursue a criminal case. A complaint against the boys was filed in the court under IS No 08-1777. However, with the law protecting minors below 16 in place, the prosecutor dismissed all criminal charges with reason that these boys are below age of maturity.

It was not long that these kids are back in campus. Inquiries on the incident were in sequels which the small institution claiming lack of jurisdiction had nothing to do and nothing more could be done. Cruelly enough, the boys taunt Ann in campus that she reports to her father who in return assaults one offender. Ann’s father is charged for frustrated murder and child abuse on the boy still not proven guilty.

L O G

I was totally devastated with the fact offensive sexual conduct shall pass without incarceration or remorse, seeing that the laws that protect children in conflict a twist. In as much as the boys are exempt from criminal liability, differentiation between wrong and right and the admittance of fault is not examined. While the state protects these boys from punishment, the state did not protect Ann.

Gillian Ruch (2008) points out that there is more literature on definitions of reflective practice, when less thought is given to the conditions to facilitate its development. Insofar as this tool recognizes complexity and uncertainty inherent in social work practice, there should be more emphasis on the need for practitioners to work within safe, clear, collaborative and communicative working practices that are interdependent -in respect reflective practice.

Ann fell into depression; thinks it was her fault (she was too drunk) because she allowed the boys to abuse her. She caused all the troubles (her father beat up one of the boys who files a child abuse case against him and the fraternity wanted to avenge) She inflicts pains on herself (wrist slashing), ran away from home and seeks refuge from gangsters. Smokes, drinks, had some theft issues and turned promiscuous.

L O G

I felt responsible in some way for this behaviour and inadequate for not being able to do more. I though hard of ways to develop a positive self and positive self image for Ann. I involved too deeply with the family, encouraging parents to seek out opportunities to praise, reinforce, and recognize accomplishments. It consumed me, trying to get Ann to an improved ability to trust others in a developed sense.

Models of reflective practice originate in different fields of study, typically depict an iterative process but are not explicit of the role of emotions. A simple model of reflection is to return to the experience and take feelings into account by recognition of emotion, attending to the feelings and developing a new perspective (Boud, Keogh and Walker 1985).

Behaviour

Ideas

Feelings

Returning to experience

aˆ?

Utilizing positive

feelings

aˆ?

Removing obstructing

feelings

–

evaluating experience

New

perspectives on

experience

Change in

behaviour

Readiness for

application

Commitment to

action

Experience(s)

Reflective processes

Outcomes

Looking at my case from a critical perspective, I have prepared a simple log.

L O G

What was I trying to achieve?

I wanted badly to help Ann who was a naughty smart, completely lost in the age of adolescence.

Why did I respond as I did?

My frustration is coupled with the knowledge of several studies that have shown that as age increases in disadvantaged communities, boys have more liberty than girls to explore outside the home (e.g. Jones et al., 2000). And because these disadvantaged communities are less safe, the decline in a girl’s independent activities has crippled the overall growth of society.

What were the consequences of that for the patient, others, myself?

I have given my all to this case, but have time and fund constraints with the volume and limited manpower of our organization. Ann was sent to the Center for the Prevention of Child Sexual Abuse, another NGO with structured methods on handling child sexual abuse cases.

How were others feeling?

I came to meet the members of the child’s family, who struggled through the issues and difficulty at hand. On the other part, the families of these boys manifested a displaced confidence.

How did I know this?

I kept in constant communication with the mother until a year after that I left work.

Why did I feel the way I did within this situation?

I knew that I could have done more. And I believe there is a need to evaluate the legislation.

Did I act for the best?

The constant weight of workload pressure and prioritization is often of concern to us as child protection workers.

What knowledge did or could have informed me?

Policy developments like these are important to be placed in the fore to promote better understanding of the real levels of risk to children in the various forms of social interaction.

Does this situation connect with previous experiences?

Not particularly, although admittedly I was drawn into this case.

How could I handle this situation better?

I should have been upfront with the family of the legislations in place such that the matter would be dealt with outside legal perspective.

What would be the consequences of alternative actions for the patient/others/myself?

There should have been a coordinated approach, assigning each child to a social worker effectually collaborating findings and cure for child disorientation.

How do I now feel about this experience?

Anger. I felt consumed by this experience and sore.

Can I support myself and others better as a consequence?

Yes. I have learned to distinguish the limits of my work and the level of attachment I can allow myself.

How available am I to work with patients/families and staff to help them meet their needs?

I extend myself in certain situations that compel or affected me more than the work should.

Social work in disadvantaged communities is hefted with several constraints, if not stressful to a practitioner. A serious dilemma is that child protection and community is particularly influenced by poverty and other forms of inequality. It can be said that a harsher impact of transnational integration would be an increased number of anxious people, so much more in poorer communities, where support systems are unsurprisingly ineffectual with a shorthanded social workers group.

In these depressed areas, where the core family unit is continually stressed, abuse easily coughs up. Adolescent sexual abuse is an experience relating to a broad spectrum of challenges across social work development, with suicide as the most severe outcome where much is lost. Other post trauma behaviours common are sexual risk-taking and substance misuse, depression, anxiety, and panic aggression and delinquency.

With the escalating figures on abuse, my department puts up response to the WID (Women in Development), WAD (Women and Development) and GAD (Gender and Development) programs of the Government.

It is among five pilot projects focused on women, children and family, catering a broad geographical coverage with mandate as Training Center. We use a total management approach particularly in severe cases of violence. We work closely with networks such as the Anti Child Abuse Network (ACAN, a national network), Gender Equality and Development (GEAD network in the city of Baguio) and the Regional Organization of Gender Focal Point (ROGFP).

The department six years in existence is established through British funds. This concluded in 2006 leaving behind a vacuum in the handle of Family Needs-and-Risk-Assessment of victim survivors, including other forms of help (coordinating temporary shelter and home visits).

My work as a social worker involves entering the lives of children and families in distress, conflict or trouble. To do so requires theoretical competence and self awareness. Reflective practice ensures that my motivations and past experiences are used to enhance our practice and to help me recognise our impact on others. With it I am also able to establish boundaries when working with children that I have become less assuming, although it does take experience, time, and skill. Noticeably, it has reduced my negative experiences as a service provider. I have the ability to step back and look at the bigger picture we are able to work more effectively with a service user.

Reflection ensures confidence that our responses arise from the client’s situation rather than our past or needs (Lishman, 2002). It prompts the evaluation of practice and gives way to opportunities to learn from experience by identifying what worked well and what may need to change. Reflective practice helps us to keep our commitment of continuous professional development and reinforces the importance of the attitude and keeps accountability at the forefront of our practice (Thompson, 2002).

A crucial aspect of reflection is being able to use the criticism faced and utilize it-that is, turn the situation on its head, and learn something positive from it. Schon (1983) has explained, professional knowledge is grounded in professional experience.

L O G

In one time I consoled the mother of this young girl by telling her not to worry because this circumstance will make her stronger and wiser. And she snapped at me in disappointment that it was the least of her interest to gain strength and wisdom at the expense of her child.

For long I was in moral conflict over the case. More so because it was a strong issue in the area of my work and to circles I involved in. Contradictions from interest groups mounted, many simply for the benefit of group funding among others. It was very sad because those hurt from the occurrence could not be helped. Deep inside me I questioned if we did protect the child and should be protect a child who abuses another child. The reflection of my inner conflict is drawn in the tree below.

Child Protection

RA 7610 Anti Child Abuse

It was devastating and I was

frustrated.

Do the most significant and

influential ethical theories

deny the existence

natural

rights?

I should have been

upfront with the family of

the legislations in place

such that the matter

would be dealt with

outside legal perspective.

Action is wrong because it

ignores Ann’s rights.

In as much as the boys are

exempt from criminal

liability, differentiation

between wrong and right

and the admittance of

fault is not examined.

While the state protects

these boys from

punishment, the state did

not protect Ann.

Ann fell into

depression;

inflicts pain

on herself

(wrist slashing), ran away

from home and seeks

refuge from gangsters.

Smokes, drinks, had some

theft issues and turned

promiscuous.

Have I failed to protect

and preserve public

interest because of a

selective indifference to

information,

understanding, and

knowledge that bear on

the preservation of

human values and the

solution of problems ?

Should policy

developments

as this

important be examined to

promote

better

understanding of the real

levels of risk to children in

the various forms of social

interaction?

It consumed me, trying to

get Ann to an improved

ability to trust others in a

developed sense.

On the other part, the

families of these boys

manifested a displaced

confidence.

Is policy effective with

the

harsher impact of

transnational

integration

and

increased number of

anxious people, so much

Reshaping Care For Older People In Scotland Social Work Essay

This project centres on the response from a group of service users who have been diagnosed with dementia and attend a day care service in the Perth and Kinross area to a consultation regarding the future delivery of care for older people in Scotland. Clearly, the Scottish government has stated that with the population of people aged 65 and over in Scotland expected to increase by up to 21 per cent by 2016 and 62 per cent bigger by 2031, as well as the increasing cost of funding health and social care – hospital and care homes particularly, there is an urgent need to do things differently in order to be able to continue to provide sustainable and affordable and high quality care for older people in Scotland (Scottish Executive 2010). With the projected growth in the number of older people expected to create additional significant demand on care and support services; the question thus arise; what is to be done to reshape the delivery of care services in the future given these projections? The consultation exercise focused on two main areas; responsibility for paying for the personal care of older people and the type of care that service users prefer.

Free personal care for older people (aged 65 and above) was introduced in Scotland in 2002 after the Community Care and Health (Scotland) Act 2002 (hereafter referred to as CCHSA 2002) received royal assent. The background for the introduction of the policy is in the recommendation of the Royal Commission on Long Term Care (1999) which states that personal care should be available after assessment, according to need and paid for from general taxation. Scotland alone as Bowes and Bell (2007) noted, of the jurisdictions of the United Kingdom implemented the recommendation of the Royal Commission on Long Term Care (as above). In respect of the CCHSA 2002 which is the legislation that implements the policy of free personal care, personal care is defined under the Regulation of Care (Scotland) Act 2001 as including help with continence management, personal hygiene, mobility, assistance with eating, support and counselling services, personal assistance such as help getting up and out of bed, as well as help with medication.

Many social policy commentators and researchers as well as various stakeholders have described Scotland’s free personal care policy in various ways. Blair (2002) for instance views the free personal care policy as representing the very least that could be offered to older people with enduring ill-health, while Age Concern Scotland (2009) described the policy as successful in helping older people remain living independently in their own home instead of moving into residential care. While Dickenson et al. (2007) viewed the advent of the policy as a ‘defining moment’ in the development of political devolution in the United Kingdom, Bowes and Bell (2007) described it as a ‘flagship policy’ of the Scottish Parliament and representing a ‘considerable investment’ by the administration. In a much less enthusiastic tone however, Ferguson (2005) noted that the recommendation made by the Royal Commission on Long Term Care (stated earlier) was initially rejected by the Scottish Executive as being too costly and that it was later accepted by the Scottish Executive in order to avoid parliamentary defeat.

However, despite the success of the policy thus far and its political impact as briefly highlighted above, there is a growing concern in relation to its long term sustainability especially with the projected growth in the population of older people in Scotland (mentioned earlier) and the concomitant pressure on the public purse. For example Sutherland (2008) and Bowes and Bell (2007) both highlight the inadequate consideration of the cost of the policy, as well as the report of the Scottish Parliament Audit Committee (2005) which was very critical of the Scottish Executive’s failure to fully understand the cost of the policy.

Bell et al. (2006) noted that there had been an apparent shift in the balance of care towards increased provision of care at home in Scotland before the introduction of the policy of free personal care and has remained the case since the policy was introduced, and remains one of the strongest points in relation to the aims of the policy. Bell et al (2006) further posit that the free personal care policy may have served as a logical solution to what the Royal Commission on Long Term Care (1999) termed the ‘particularly problematic boundaries between health and social care’ in relation to people with chronic conditions such as dementia whose social and personal care needs result from a medical condition. If we agree with Bell et al here, we can see implications of the policy of free personal care within the integrated services and processes such as single shared assessments – designed to encourage and support flexibility in services thus providing better choice for service users, while also promoting equity through standardisation (Alaszewski et al 2004).

The main aims of the policy of free personal care according to Scottish Executive (2005) include; encourage and help older people to remain and stay in their own homes for as long as is practicably possible and reasonable to do so, as well as provide personal care services on an equitable basis based on an assessment of people’s needs. Only one of the service users (out of a group of twelve) who participated in the focus group consultation for this project said she would prefer to go into residential care rather than to receive care at home. This further highlights the already well documented preference of older service users for care in their own home rather than move into residential care – a major aim of the policy.

Why the Policy is important: The policy of free personal care has been shaped by, and since its inception has shaped other policies in a number of ways – both expected and un-anticipated. This interaction with other policies has been mainly in community care and spans social care and health, pensions and benefits, housing, rights and citizenship settings. One of the policy aims pursued by government in the United Kingdom has been the de-institutionalisation of social care; whereby social care is moved away from institutional settings to the community which according to Godfrey et al. (2004) reflects the general preference of older people to receive care at home and within their own communities (also expressed by the focus group participants for this project). The free personal care policy can be seen as a very important policy therefore as it supports care at home (a view shared by the focus group participants for this project) by providing older people with a lot more choice; for example, they can choose when and if they will move from home care into residential care.

According to the John Rowntree foundation (2006) the policy of free personal care for older people in Scotland has created a fairer system of care as well as well as reduced means-testing and money worries for those families with modest or limited means. This is also one of the important issues raised by some of the service users who participated in the focus group I facilitated for this project. Some of the participants revealed that things would definitely have been very difficult for them if they did not get assistance with personal care. To further buttress the above point, some of the service users who participated in the focus group were not in support of the government being responsible for the provision of personal care but did however support the provision of free personal care for those with limited means or who do not have a family to support them. One of the points also highlighted by service users during consultation was that the free personal care policy has helped their carers (informal carers) as well because it allowed them more time to carry out other less hands-on support and tasks such as social outings.

Some of the issues the policy aims to address include; a greater understanding of the role of the family, the provision of informal care and the mechanisms which can be further developed to provide support for the provision and recognition of the important contribution s of informal care. The overall design of the future social care makes looking at the policy of free personal care very important because of its direct and indirect interaction with other policies and areas of social care mad health, as well as housing, benefits and pensions, citizenship and rights. Some of the interactions of the policy with the wider objective of shifting the balance of care away from institutional settings towards care at home have already been mentioned. The policy of free personal care has implications for housing, for instance if more and more people are going to be receiving care at home, to be able to live independently with support therefore, perhaps a good number of houses would require adaptations especially for those service users with mobility problems whose own houses may not have been built to barrier free standards. If also look at pension credits, for example, according to the Help the Aged (2005) one implication of the introduction of the policy of free personal care is that local authorities have directed increased efforts towards service user’s income maximisation – meaning local authorities will want to make sure service users claim pension credit if they are eligible for it because it will local authorities will be paying less in fees and thus saving money.

Erskine (1998) argues that the point of departure for thinking about social policy includes the consideration of social issues (for example, the changing demographic structure of society) and the experience of social groups (for example older people) and thus leads to ‘social action’ (Alcock 2008) aimed at addressing the issues identified.

One of the reasons I selected the free personal care policy for my project – apart from the fact that it directly affects the service user group with whom I worked during my practice learning period, there is a wealth of evidence from research which suggests that the current system of adult social care is not sustainable in the longer term especially with the projected growth in the number of older people who will be needing care as well as the severe squeeze on public spending. Clearly, an increase in longevity would be regarded as a sign of success in the improvement of healthcare it also presents a huge challenge. Consequently, the provision of high quality care services and support for older people, given the demographic changes and reduced public finances is regarded as one of the three biggest challenges facing Scotland – alongside economic recovery and climate change (Scottish Executive 2010).

The policy of free personal care is part of the overall vision of the Scottish government to modernise adult care services, make it fit for purpose, a systems that gives choice and control to service users, is responsive to the needs of a 21st century Scotland and shifts the focus away from ‘crisis response’ towards a more preventative approach (Scottish Executive (2010). The provision of high quality care and support for older people is a fundamental principle of social justice and is an important hallmark of a society that is both compassionate and caring, Scottish Executive (2010). This is one of the very reasons why the policy was selected for this project; to gather evidence from service users in relation to their views and opinions on the future of care services and support for older people in Scotland. The value of user involvement and participation in the planning and development of the services they receive cannot be over-emphasised as will be discussed in the next section of this paper.

This project focuses on service users who have been diagnosed with dementia or a cognitive impairment and attend a day centre service in Perth.

Part Two: Reflective Account

Service users’ selection and involvement: One of the reasons I facilitated a response from the service users in my placement agency for the consultation and policy used in this project was because the service users themselves are important stakeholders and are at the receiving end of implementation – they experience it on a daily basis. Service users can be viewed as experts by experience and as such their views and opinions are invaluable assets in the planning and delivery of adult social care services.

All the service users who participated in the consultation live in their own homes and are in receipt of free personal care and thus have firsthand experience of the impact of the policy and are also in a good position as (service users) to share their perspectives on how adult care and support services can be further developed to meet future needs. After initial meetings with my Link Worker and the other members of staff during which the purpose of the consultation was discussed and ethical issues looked at, I spoke with service users individually (with the assistance of three members of staff) in the day centre. I discussed the purpose of the consultation, took the names of those who indicated their willingness to participate, and informed them about the consent form to be made available before the focus group, as well as negotiated a suitable time and date. My placement agency being a day care centre which the service users attend on a daily basis, what I did was to put up information about the time, aims and date of the consultation on the notice board in the dining room as well as the one in the activity room from about two weeks before the date of the focus group. One of the reasons I did this was so that service users are constantly reminded of the date and details of the consultation.

In relation to user involvement, as Ross et al. (2005) points out, there is no single blue print for user involvement as it calls for working with a diversity of perspectives. Importantly, as an emerging social worker who firmly believes in the principles of anti-oppressive practice or what Thompson and Thompson (2001) termed ’empowering practice’ I wanted an approach that would foster service user participation, and support their engagement as much as possible in the consultation. I decided to use Beresford’s (2002) democratic model of user involvement as against the consumerist model because it is much more in line with the purpose of the consultation itself – bringing about change through collective action as well as to give service users more say and control in decisions that affect their lives. In applying the democratic model of user involvement for instance, I encouraged open participation in the focus group. I did not select a particular service user to participate in the focus group discussion, rather what I did was to encourage everyone to participate and the response was very positive as twelve out of thirteen service users participated in the focus group discussion. Two of the participants in the focus group had special needs – visual and hearing impairment respectively. I arranged with one of the three members of staff who co-facilitated the focus group to work the two service users using individual work sheets to record their views and opinions. I provided each participant with a copy of the aims of the consultation, as well as a copy of the agenda for the focus group discussion. I also used one of the pre-focus group meetings that I had with the service users to encourage their involvement; for instance one of the service users asked me if I would like them to tell me only what I wanted to hear during the focus group discussion and I told the service user that I was not looking for them to tell me only what I would like to hear, rather they should express their opinions and perspectives on the issues we were going to discuss. I believe such an approach to user involvement is important for increasing the confidence of participants in the focus group.

Data collection: I used a qualitative rather than a quantitative method of data collection for the project and this was mainly informed by a consideration of what Becker and Bryman (2004) termed the main concerns and preoccupations of the qualitative method – actors (for example service users), meanings and descriptions, as well as an emphasis on flexibility, process and context. The main qualitative method I used was the facilitation of a focus group with the service users in my placement agency as participants. I used a focus group approach to gather data from the service users because it generates data in a narrative rather numerical form. It was also very important for the data collection method to be flexible and take account of the circumstances of the data subjects – in this case the service users are elderly people with dementia or a cognitive impairment and it was very important to put this into consideration. The focus group approach was the most suitable method because it provided a forum within which the service users could discuss important aspects of a policy which directly affects them, and their views on the future of adult social care services is very useful because they are important stakeholders. If we also look at it from the point of view of service user empowerment and anti-oppressive practice, the focus group approach also gives the service users control as they are able to share and discuss their experiences and the interaction amongst the different participants would generate a lot of data as well as being useful and enjoyable. Other sources of data used in the project include; government policy and legislative documents, literature review, as well as publications/evidence reviews from voluntary groups/organisations such as Age Concern Scotland and the John Rowntree Foundation.

Ethical and effective practice: As part of the consideration of the ethical aspects of my work with the service users who participated in the focus group which I facilitated in the course of carrying out this project, some of the things I did include; encouraging participation was voluntary and that consent was obtained from all the service users who agreed to participate in the focus group. I provided each service user with a consent form which they signed as evidence that they consented voluntarily and that they had the right to withdraw their participation at anytime. I also made sure none of the service users was intentionally or indirectly excluded from participating in the focus group (as mentioned earlier), or disadvantaged.

As mentioned earlier, I two of the participants in the focus group had special needs – one was visually impaired but not blind while the other was hearing impaired and used hearing aids. Some of the things I did to enable their participation in the focus group for instance includes; providing written information in large print format as well as making arrangements for one of the co-facilitators to work with them. I also ensured that they were able to take part in the discussion; for example, asking them politely for their opinions while also making sure (given group dynamics) that the discussion was not being dominated by only those who could actively discuss.

Part Three: Assessing the Impact on Users and other Key Stakeholders

Several participants in the focus group revealed that the free personal care policy has been of help to them and has enabled them to remain at home rather than moving into residential care. Nearly all the participants agreed that personal care should remain free. However, there were strong responses from some of the participants in relation to responsibility for paying for personal care; one participant was very strong on his position that the family should be responsible for paying for personal care, another argued that while he was not against the idea of the family taking responsibility for paying for personal care, he was being considerate of those who did not have a family or who simply could not afford it because they had very limited or no means at all. The participant with the latter argument suggested that older people should be means tested for the receipt of free personal care. Another participant also argued that older people should continue to receive free personal care because they had spent their working years paying taxes and national insurance and should therefore be taken care of by the state. All participants in the focus group emphasized the important role of informal care and the support they receive from their family members, only one of the participants revealed that she would prefer to go into residential care – her reason being that she lives alone in her home and would feel safer in residential care. Several participants said they would prefer to remain in their own homes for as long as possible and free personal care has been contributory to making this possible.

There is a strong suggestion from the government documents consulted for this project and publications from key organisations such as the John Rowntree Foundation, that the free personal care policy has been very successful as confirmed also by the participants in the focus group for this project. However, there is also a strong tone of concern (in most of the government publications and evidence reviews) vis-a-vis the financial implications of the policy given the projected growth in the number of older people by the year 2032. For example, if we look at housing, a greater proportion of older people receiving care at home would perhaps increase the demand for housing and housing related services (Scottish Executive 2010). Age Concern Scotland (2009) noted with concern that much of Scotland’s housing stock is not easily adapted for someone with mobility problems, and with the balance of care increasingly shifting towards care at home (with free personal care and personalisation as potent drivers) there are implications for local services and the design of communities in the future.

Most of the participants in the focus group were diagnosed with an early onset of dementia – meaning their dementia has not reached an advanced stage and so do not lack capacity. One impact of free personal care for this group of service users is that it has given them choice; they can choose to receive care at home or take up residential care. Nearly all the participants expressed preference for care at home, increased support, choice and flexibility for their family and informal carers, as well as support to keep them (person with dementia) in their own home for as long as possible – even during advanced stages of dementia. Participants also said they would like to see more choice and control; some of the participants expressed disappointment in the fact that while they are often consulted with about their opinions, some of the important things they need are not provided. The service users would like to be more involved in decision making as one of the participants in the focus group said; ‘I can tell you a problem that is niggling me and close to my heart and you can go away and promise to do something about it without doing it.’ Generally, the participants in the focus group appeared to be more concerned about the quality of the services they receive than the cost or who pays for it. The participants all said they wanted services that are reliable as well as responsive to their individual and changing needs.

Two of the participants with other disabilities – visual and hearing impairment respectively, also agreed that while the free personal care policy has added to the financial resources at their disposal, they still feel they have a number of unmet needs. For example, they mentioned transportation and being able to go on social outings, cleaning their homes as well as taking care of their garden as some of their needs which remain unmet. They also appear to have a holistic view of what free personal care entails; they believe it covers all aspects of care for older people. These two participants also noted that while the free personal care policy has enabled them to receive care at home, it is likely that as their conditions deteriorate they may still have to go into residential care and this may perhaps be the case for the larger proportion of older people with disabilities.

In terms of the wider implications of the free personal care policy, one of main objectives of the reshaping care programme (Scottish Executive 2010) for which this project is based overall, as I mentioned earlier is a shift in focus from crisis response to preventative approaches, Scottish Executive (2010). This renewed emphasis on preventative and early intervention approaches by the Scottish government Dickinson et al. (2007) believe would be helped as free personal care may make older people more willing to contact their respective local authorities and thus provide some scope for early intervention and preventative work.

As we can infer from the findings and evidence from research presented in this report thus far, the provision of free personal care is just one aspect of the overall picture of services and support for older people in Scotland. There are (as discussed earlier) significant implications for other key areas of public policy including housing, transport, pensions as well as employment.

Part Four: Critical Analysis

The introduction of the policy of free personal care in Scotland as Ferguson (2005) puts it, marks the beginning of policy divergence between Scotland and the rest of the United Kingdom. Ferguson’s assertion also echoes Mooney and Wright’s (2009) account of the difference in the way the four nations which constitute the United Kingdom view, experience and organise policy responses to their social problems. The policy has been largely welcomed and viewed by various stakeholders as part of a Scottish solution to Scottish problems. Drake’s (2001) assertion that social policies are not created in a vacuum but are guided by values, principles and objectives is perhaps useful here when we look at the overarching principles and values which underlie the policy of free personal care. For example, Scoot and Mooney (2009) posit that the promotion of shared citizenship and social justice, as well as the alleviation of the effects of economic inequality are some of the essential principles of the policy. While these principles and values were never quite in doubt in relation to what the policy stands for, one of the points raised during consultation (in the focus group with participants from my placement agency) and as stated by the Care Development Group (2001) is the issue of equity of access for different user groups – in this case for example, service users with dementia. According to the Care Development Group, free personal care is right in principle because it removes the discrimination previously encountered by older people with chronic or degenerative conditions such as dementia who require personal care.

The findings in this project are critically analysed (in this section of the paper) in relation to the specific topics covered in the focus group. The three topics are; responsibility for paying for care, the preferred type of care, and planning for the future.

Responsibility for paying for care: As I mentioned in previous sections of this paper, participants in the focus group expressed mixed views concerning responsibility for paying for personal care. Although most participants agreed that personal care should be provided for older people and paid for by the government, there were some participants who held very strong opposing views and argued that the family should either pay for personal care or at least make some financial contribution (co-payment) towards it. Another participant also suggested the introduction of means-testing to the policy so that only older people with limited means receive free personal care. Overall, participants in the focus group discussion did not appear to be too concerned about the cost or who pays for personal care. The participants revealed that they were more concerned about the quality of the services they receive, ensuring that such services meet their individual needs and are able to remain in their own homes for as long as possible and spend time with their families. Sutherland (2008) reminds us that while free personal care is currently available to older people at the point of delivery, someone still had to pay for it – presently the taxpayer.

On the question of who should be responsible for paying for personal care, findings from the focus group fall under two broad categories; selective access and universal provision. Both categories perhaps raise a number of interrelated issues including; rights, citizenship, choice, empowerment, as well as the redistribution of welfare resources which according to Hills (2008) is central to the appraisal of social policy. If we apply Drake’s (2001) conception of the function of rights to the above findings from the focus group, most participants view free personal care as something they have a right to (as older Scots who had spent their working lives serving the country in different ways) receive and it confers certain benefits on them; choice and empowerment particularly as they can now choose whether to receive care at home or move into residential care as one participant even revealed ‘at least I will not have to sell my house to pay for my personal care.’ While it was evident from the focus group as I mentioned earlier, that service users had a holistic view of what free personal care entails, some of them were also not aware of or perhaps considered the wider implications of the cost of the policy – for example the implications for housing as I also discussed earlier. The cost of the policy in the longer term has been highlighted in worrying terms by many writers and commentators on social policy, as well as the by Scottish government. Considered against the backdrop of Scotland’s changing demographics, evidence from the literature consulted for this project suggests that the policy may not be sustainable in the long term. For example, in an independent report on the free personal care policy by Lord Sutherland (2008) it was argues that a more holistic view of public funding arrangement would be required because the policy is only sustainable (under the current arrangement) over the next five years after which the impact of a rapid increase in the number of older people and demographic change will begin to set in. The question then arises; why was the financial implication of the policy not strongly considered before the machinery of implementation was set in motion? There are a number of arguments emanating from several of the literature consulted for this project in relation to the financial cost of the policy and there are suggestions as I highlighted earlier, that costing the policy has been inadequate and that the policy had more of a political aim (Sutherland 2001; Eccles 2001).

Blair (2002) posits that social policy plays a pivotal role in the construction of later life itself. Blair’s argument that older people are often discussed and defined in reports through the psychological distance of demography, deficit and economics (Blair 2002) is evident in most of the reports and evidence reviews consulted for this project thus beclouding the reality that many older people are already doing well for themselves without or with very little state support as one of the participants in the focus group discussion said ‘we are already doing enough to take care of ourselves but what is wrong with receiving free personal care, have we not worked for it’?

The preferred type of care: As I reported in previous sections of this paper, only one of the participants in the focus group said she would prefer to move into a residential home. She cited fear and insecurity when her health deteriorates as the main reason for her choice of residential care. As is already well documented in research (Dickinson et al. 2007) older service users would prefer to stay out of the formal system of care for as long as possible given the choice. Although participants in t

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The extent to which research influences policy

Discuss the extent to which effective development policy depends on good research

Introduction

In development, for one to know what aids development, why a particular system works and how effective an approach taken towards improving development is, a proper research has to have been done. Development policy is a decision made or designed to improve a condition from a problematic state to a better or an improved form. Research is said to be ‘a careful study that is done to find and report new knowledge about something’ (Merriam-Webster). Some types of research done are reviewing existing research, field experiments, secondary analysis (reviewing information from existing archives), qualitative methods, survey, case studies, and cost-benefit analysis (research done to determine the cost and benefit from an action), amongst others (Dukeshire and Thurlow 2002). Research is an important part of policy making because without research, pressing policy questions will not be answered as it’s hard to make a policy without identifying a problem, the context in which the problem is based and possible solutions that a policy could enforce.

In a research at the IMF in 2011, Moises Schwartz, the director of IEO states that “Research is at the heart of innovation and improving policymaking”. He goes on to say that research, at the IMF, helps develop and improve conceptual models that serve as the foundation for policy recommendations. In this paper research will be used in relation to evidence-based

This paper discusses how research influences policy, the gap between researchers and policy makers and how good research is needed for effective development policy making.

Research and Development policy

One cannot make a policy if one doesn’t know what that policy is to address. Without research, policy makers will not be informed about the problem that requires a solution through careful planning and decision making. The way research is done and presented could influence deeply the policy making process (Dukeshire and Thurlow 2002).

For the creation of effective development policy, not just a policy under huge probability that it might work, proper research has to be done. Furthermore, for the improvement of quality of life and reduction in poverty, a proper use of research and evidence in the making and practice of development policy, is required (Court et al 2004). Research promotes credibility and also plays an important role on how policymaking is thought of by country authorities and also, research improves the gathering and spread of global knowledge (IMF 2011).

Effective development policy requires researches that are relevant to the particular policy question. Researches done for a specific development policy question will look at the problem from all spheres, gather knowledge about the problem from the place the problem is situated and the people it affects, carry out a thorough case study and could also ask indigenous people to suggest solutions as they know better what will work for them and then make recommendations which will influence the development policy making. This entire process will ensure that the policy is effective as the decision will be based on research that addressed the problem directly and evidence produced. People in a community, through participatory approach, a research technique, could identify problems in their society and proffer solutions to these problems (green et al 1995; Frankish et al 1997).

The 1999 white paper on modernizing government adopted evidence based policy as part of its philosophy as it expressed its expectations of policy makers to bring up new ideas, take a different approach to the way things have been done in the past he use of research in the policy making process and also to create policies that will proffer effective long term solutions. Research helps policy makers be well informed about a situation a policy is to address however “…there is nothing a government hates more than to be well-informed for it makes the process of arriving at decisions much more complicated and difficult” ( Skidelsky 1992). In my own opinion, research restrains the government from making a “one fit all” policy. It is easier for a government or donor institutions to make a ‘one fit all’ policy than going through the process of research, gaining adequate knowledge about a particular problem and having to make policies that fit specific contexts or societies and not been able to make a general policy that is not based on specific contexts or a countries specificity.

In basil jones paper on linking research to policy, he says to achieve effectiveness and efficiency better sector work has to be done alongside research and analysis in development process which will in turn influence policy making. Without research or proper knowledge of a development problem, it is hard to make right decisions that will enable effective solutions.

There is a great link between research and policy making although, it has been said that there is a gap between policy makers and researchers. It said that researchers make their findings inaccessible, sometimes lengthy, in a different language and uneasy to decipher just in time for policy decisions (Jones, 2011). Also, researchers do not research on problems facing policy makers but answer questions based on the tools and resources they have (World Bank 2010).

Development policies are made based on finding solutions to development problems and research seeks to study and find possible and optimum solutions to those problems. Thus, without proper communication between the researchers and policy makers, it will be impossible to make an effective development policy as it is impossible to make a developmental progress if these two actors are working individually or separately.

Conclusion

it has been noted that governments and donor institutions tend to make ‘one fit all’ policies that will cut across different countries without taking into consideration the different countries peculiarity or its institutional context and sometimes are accused of making policies based on existing data from doctored research plans and conclusions that fit an existing policy or research done before without making room for new researches (Brettenwoods project, 2011). For example, the prevalent view amongst staffs of the IMF is that research findings need to be in relation with current IMF policies and evaluations done at the IMF showed that some researches were done with the conclusion and an already present policy in mind and some researches had different conclusions and recommendations separate from the analysis done in the research (IMF 2011). Furthermore, some NGOs have distorted the policy making process which renders the policy incapable and in turn creating negative effect on the poor by not engaging in research based evidence (Harper 2001). Above, it was noted that there was a significant gap between policy makers and researchers which needed to be bridged. Bridging the gap between these two actors In the development process could be done by making good use of researches that have been done and researchers communicating their findings to policy makers(court and young 2006).

Also these donors should not make it all about the funding but also gaining or gathering and sharing new knowledge which can only be gotten from good research (Jones 2011). Policy questions should be the basis for a research and not just research based on the resources available to the researcher or what attracts the interest of the researcher at that time. Furthermore, in considering the future of development, results that influence policy and practice and relevant to poor people’s needs could be gotten by the improving the researchers effectiveness to produce such results. This was stated in a 2008 research strategy of DFID.

Finally in answering the question to which extent effective development policy depends on good research, before a policy is made, there has to be an evidence of a problem and the evidence of the problem and knowledge gathered about the problem is held in mind before a decision is made to improve the condition of a problem, so basically there cannot be a policy without a research of some kind. Therefore, a development policy depends on research but an effective development policy that will properly address a problem that is being faced will depend on a good and thorough research. This paper has discussed the link and gap between research and policy, the dependency of policy on research and also the benefits of an evidence based policy.

References

“Research” Merriam-webster.com. Merriam-Webster, n.d. web 26 February 2014

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Theories of Social Work in Practice

Social work as a practice was not defined as a profession until the early 20th century even in other countries there are different ideas as to what a social worker is; for example in some developing countries what in the United Kingdom as a youth worker is seen as a social worker. In England a probation officer does not need to be a qualified social worker whereas in Scotland it is necessary for the individual to be qualified. In Scotland social workers are registered with the Scottish Social Services Council (SSSC) and have to abide by their professional code of conduct, which is important as a national guideline due to social work being such a diverse area. It is important for social work to abide by these guidelines but also to use theories that are of relevance to inform their practice.

Social work theory throughout the years has continued to be an important part of social work practice. The purpose of this assignment is to critically discuss and analyse the relevance to two of these theories into practice using the O’Donnell family. The two theories this assignment will look at is the attachment theory, Erikson’s eight stages of man and also to look at anti oppressive practice. It is important to look at these different types of theories as they are all important dynamics that are necessary for social workers to understand the society, individuals and politically and socially influenced world in which they have to work in.

An example of a mid range theory is the theory of attachment, the first theory of attachment was written by John Bowlby; Bowlby believed that the attachment between mother and infant was important to the child’s future development. Bowlby also believed in four characteristics of attachment: proximity management, safe haven, secure base and separation distress. If a child suffers separation from their primary carer (their mother) then this may manifest into social problems later in life however if the child has unpredictable contact with their mother then it will have insecure attachment. Bowlby later looked at attachment throughout different ages and stages of development, to understand how a person that losses or is separated from an individual they had developed an attachment with would be affected. It has been identified that attachment behaviour is inbuilt as it can be triggered if a child is scared or frightened. If a child feels loved and valued by their primary caregiver it is highly likely that the child will develop a good level of self-esteem and perhaps may be more confident and independent in later life due to a feeling of belonging and acceptance. However should a child feel they are rejected or neglected by their primary caregiver it is like they may feel unwanted and unlovable. The positive example of attachment would allow the child to develop a trusting bond which would not be the case with the negative attachment example. This relates to Erikson’s eight stages of man; this is an infant’s stage of psychosocial development which has two paths a child can take depending on the care they receive trust versus mistrust is established.

This theory of attachment was developed further by Mary Ainsworth in the 1970’s in her study “Strange Situations” based on observing children aged twelve to eighteen months, she described three types of attachment that she discovered during her studies these were; secure, ambivalent and avoidant attachment. Secure attachment is seen as the most preferred and beneficial to a child’s positive development; the care given by the primary caregiver would be attentive and provide a solid base for the child to progress emotionally, socially and intellectually. Ambivalent attachment tends to occur when the primary carer is unreliable and unstable this would be classed as emotional neglect which may leave the child unsure of their place within the family which may result in the child displaying distressing or anxious behaviour. Children who are victims of this type of behaviour may be very attention seeking in order to gain the focus of those around them that they do not get at home. A child however that is a victim of avoidant attachment would perhaps be less likely to show their true feelings or talk about them as they are afraid of those they are close to leaving them. The child’s lack of emotional response would possibly be because the primary caregiver in these cases will perhaps show more care and attention when the child is content however if the child shows visible signs of distress or need they will pull away from them. In some cases children exposed to avoidant care givers may take drugs or alcohol to cope with their fear of rejection from others.

This attachment theory was even further developed by Main and Solomon in the 1980s they outlined a further type of attachment called disorganised attachment or insecure attachment, a child’s primary caregiver in this stage is confusing to the child. Children who are subject to these varying behaviours tend to fear the loss of that attention even though they are given the attention they require.

A child who has been unable to have a secure attachment, for example through abuse, fostering or adoption, is more likely to have problems in future with their relationships with others or suffer emotionally.

Attachment theory has been used in social work to work with children and families and has more recently become part of mental health practice. It is important to acknowledge in social work how a person’s past in terms of the family unit they were brought up in and the level of care they received can affect them in the present; also how the individuals past experiences can affect their own children. However it is also important for social workers to look other theories as well to help inform their practice and not focus on a singular theory. This theory is also a past orientated theory as it looks at how the past effects the present.

In relation to the O’Donnell family Kate would appear to have been a victim of avoidant attachment due to being left by her mother and taken into care at an early age. Because of her past she may be fearful of her children rejecting her as her self esteem would have been affected due to being in and out of care homes. This difficulty in attaining meaningful attachments may also have contributed to her being a lone parent and Kate is repeating history with her own children as they are developing a meaningful attachment with her friend Frances. It is also significantly appropriate to examine how this is affecting Kate’s children and how this may manifest later if intervention is not made by social workers to bring a closer bond to the primary carer.

A further mid range theory that was touched upon in a previous passage was established by a psychosocial psychologist by the name of Erik Erikson. Erikson’s theory was loosely based around Freud’s past works however it was developed into what is called Erikson’s Eight Stages of Man. According to Erikson at certain ages throughout a person’s life they will go down one of two developmental paths, however it is necessary for those using this theory that it is not simply one path or the other. Erikson acknowledged the fact that although a person should go down the The eight stages are Trust versus Mistrust, Autonomy versus Shame, Doubt, Initiative versus Guilt, Industry versus Inferiority, Identity versus Identity Confusion, Intimacy versus Isolation, Generativity versus Self-Absorption, and finally the last stage Integrity versus Despair. The first stage takes place in infancy this is when a child is most vulnerable as they rely entirely on their care givers; if the child comes to know that they can rely on their primary caregiver as the care giver is continuously there for them then they will develop to trust more than a child whom is ignored or has unreliable caregivers and develops mistrust. Each oof these stages has an impact on the next stage of development and therefore it is detrimental to producing a balanced human being that the child passes through with more positive experiences of emotional development than negative. In the second stage autonomy versus shame this takes place when a child is around the ages of one to four the third stage initiative versus guilt takes place between the ages of four and six, if a child has in stage four the child between the ages of six to twelve industry versus inferiority

In stage five identity versus role confusion this takes place in adolescence generally between the ages of twelve and twenty; at this age an up and coming adult is most likely to be at the peak of peer pressure and will be discovering who they are both as a person and sexually. This can be a very hard time for individuals but with a good base they will be likely to find who they are with easae however it is possible that they will become confused for example the loss of a father figure for a boy may result in that person being unable to undersand why the Erikson’s eight stages of man have been criticized due to the fact that it was based ona study of men, it can be seen as a rigid document and does not take into account individual factors. For example an individual whom has a severe learning disability and perhaps has been psychologically examined to be at a mental age of five will not suffer from the complexities of stage five although that may be their corresponding age with Erikson’s chart. Although this criticism should be kept in mind, Erikson’s stages of man can be a useful tool as a guideline for use in social work.

Although Erikson’s model may seem very black and white it is important to remember that during each stage of development in order to have a healthy perspective in life, it is important in each stage that the strongest is the positive from the scale, there must be some level of negative development; for example a little bit of mistrust is healthy as to trust naively would eventually result in a individual putting themselves in danger. Trust versus Mistrust takes place during infancy; the route in which the infant’s personality takes depends on the parent to provide those needs that the infant cannot satisfy itself. If the mother does not take care of her child through neglect the infant will not develop basic trust and will take a negative step on the psychosocial scale. Autonomy versus Shame, Doubt takes place during early childhood, starting in a child’s second year of life, once again children are reliant on their parents to support them during this stage. This is when a toddler tries to become an individual. If the child’s vulnerability does not get the necessary support from the care givers then they will develop a sense of shame and doubt. Initiative versus Guilt takes place also during childhood normally developing during the ages of four and five; this is where a child tries to establish their own boundaries as they try to establish their identity

In stage four, Industry versus Inferiority, taking place up until puberty, this is when a child tries to be recognized for their achievements, for example at school for doing a project, however if they do not get this desired recognition and feeling of achievement then it can result on them developing a feeling of inferiority, inadequacy. Parents still play an important role in this stage however as it takes place primarily at school, teachers are important. Stage five, identity versus identity confusion takes place during adolescence this is when the individual try to find a sense of themselves, this Stage six, intimacy versus isolation is the first stage to take place during adulthood, intimacy with other human beings can only happen when identity is established. The intimacy can be with a friend or a lover it involves merging personalities with others. It is important for an individual to have this intimacy otherwise it can result in them being alone and withdrawn. Stage seven, Generativity versus stagnation, this is the second stage an individual goes through in adulthood, people who are generative are productive, tolerant and able to care for others and themselves equally. It is not always expressed through parenthood sometimes it can be through being a teacher. Those who are unable to develop in this stage result in a feeling of being stuck as they are unable to care for other people properly. The eighth stage is integrity versus despair, this takes place during old age, an individual in this stage establishes integrity being satisfied with their life and believing it was important and had a purpose. The person who reflects on life positively, according to Erikson, have an acceptance of death. However, a person who reflects on their life, feeling full of regret of their past it is also shown through a report to researchers that those who were more feeble through their body’s degeneration felt as though they had little control (Geppert & Halisch, 2001) and therefore despair would occur as they were not as willing to accept death. (Cloninger, 2008).

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development was based on clinical evidence there has been further research into this work specifically in the adolescent stage of identity versus identity confusion. This research was accomplished by James Marcia whom

October 14, 2018October 4, 2018

Relevance of attachment theory

As there have been many studies carried out in child development this essay will breakdown its content into the history of attachment theory and the basics of how it works. Mary Ainsworth was well known for her ‘Strange Situations’ study and this essay will give a brief description of the experiment and its outcome and will be critically explored. As social deprivation is still a common factor in today’s society this essay will define what is meant by social deprivation and then will investigate the consequences this has on children that have been reared in that environment. It will then show a study of children raised in orphanages and institutions and demonstrate how the effects of having no attachment to caregivers can have a negative result on their development. Many studies relating to attachment throughout the lifespan and attachment in adulthood have been carried out and this essay will break down these studies and determine whether the outcomes are conclusive or not. Finally a conclusion will be given on the relevance of attachment theory and how individuals have formed and developed throughout the life course.

Attachment theory is the work of John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. Bowlby devised the basic system of the theory which was to reform our understanding about a child’s connection to the mother, and the disturbance caused through separation, deprivation and bereavement. Ainsworth’s technique’s made it possible to expand the theory and has contributed towards some of the new direction that it has taken up to date. Ainsworth gave the idea of the attachment figure as a secure base from which an infant can investigate the world; she developed the concept of maternal sensitivity to the infant signals and its role in the development of infant – mother attachment patterns. Bowlby summarised that for a child to grow up mentally healthy, it needs to experience a warm, intimate and stable relationship with its mother. He accentuates on the primary carer as being female, claiming that he did not agree that dependency is established with a secondary supporter. (Bretherton, 1992). The three characteristics of attachment theory are secure attachment, ambivalent attachment and avoidant attachment. Securely attached children show the slightest distress when parted from their caregiver; this is because they feel secure and are able to depend on their caregivers, the children feel at ease in seeking out their caregiver when frightened. When a parent or caregiver leaves an ambivalently attached child, they will become very distressed. This is the outcome of poor maternal connection as the child can not depend on the caregiver when in need. Children with avoidant attachment are likely to avoid caregivers. They show no difference of emotion between a caregiver and a complete stranger. Research shows that this is the result of abusive or neglectful acts by the caregivers. (Wagner, 2009). Mary Ainsworth constructed an assessment technique called the Strange Situation Classification. (SSC). She investigated the security of attachment in one-to-two-year-olds in the ‘strange situation’ study to figure out the nature and types of attachment. Ainsworth created an experimental procedure observing the various attachment forms demonstrated between caregivers and infants. The infants were between 12 and 18 months old and were placed in a small room with a one way glass window so that they could be observed. Over the space of 21 minutes, managed in 3 minute sessions the following episodes were conducted; mother and infant were left alone, a stranger joins the mother and infant, mother leaves infant and stranger alone, mother returns and stranger leaves, mother leaves so infant is totally alone, stranger returns and then lastly the mother returns and the stranger leaves. Ainsworth’s findings during this study were that the child suffered separation anxiety-the child was distressed when the mother left, stranger anxiety- avoided the stranger but was friendly when the mother was present and finally the child displayed a reaction when reunited with their mother. (McLeod, 2007). The strengths of SSC are that it is a reliable study. It delivers dependable results and has become accepted worldwide as a method for measuring levels of attachment. Although the study has positive outcomes it can be criticised that the attachment is only focused on that between the mother and child. There is no mention of the other parent or grandparents to whom children can have an attachment bond with. (Lamb, 1978) Other research has found that the same child may display different attachment behaviour on different occasions. When a child’s circumstances change their attachment may also alter, if family circumstances were to become different. (McLeod, 2007)

Social deprivation can be defined as being denied suitable and responsive interaction with others, whether the denial occurred from limitations positioned on a physical ability to be in the company of others or by limitations on an emotional access to others. There are two related elements to this type of deprivation which are social and emotional neglect. Social neglect includes situations where a child is left without a caregiver or when the caregiver can not attend to the child but is present. Emotional neglect is where the caregiver denies affectionate physical and emotional contact. They ignore all signals of distress from the child and do not give any reassurance, encouragement, comfort and stimulation. (Provence and Lipton, 1962)

Researchers have attempted to establish the effects of childrearing in socially deprived environments on child development. Studies have been carried out on the development of children from institutions and orphanages who appeared to have few social and emotional interactions compared to home-reared, securely attached children. During these studies it was found that children reared in socially deprived institutions developed differently to the home- reared children. Barbara Tizard and Anne Joseph conducted a study on orphans that lived in a clean three-storey building which looked like an institution as opposed to a house. The orphans complied with the caregivers’ demands and rules resulting in the orphanage being quiet and orderly. Beds were separated from each other by glass cubicles. There was shared eating; toileting and play facilities were within a large group of children. The infants and younger children spent up to 20 hours per day in their cubicle-like cribs, which restricted their movement and resulted in solitary confinement. Even during duties such as nappy changing and bathing, social interactions were kept to a minimum. (Tizard and Joseph, 1970). As the orphans were socially deprived they had less opportunity to witness models of appropriate behaviour. They were not engaged in the usual maternal process that secure home-reared children are given. Provence and Lipton (1962) observed the poor quality of peer interaction between institutionally reared children. Their report indicated that the infants showed little interest in one another even though they had been placed closed to one another in their cribs. This therefore prevented them from developing friendships. When compared to home-reared children, the children from the orphanages and institutions appeared to show different behaviours varying from aggression to irregular friendly behaviours. As a result of being reared in a socially deprived environment the children develop feelings of low self-esteem and a degenerated feeling of self worth, where as home-reared children, who are securely attached respond to feelings of self worth as they learn that their needs are important. Children aged 9-11 years old who had suffered severe and emotional neglect had displayed health problems. They became aggressive and developed anti-social behaviours. They were found to have poor quality peer relationships and show characteristics such as worry, fear, depression and hyperactivity. Attachment theory would conclude that lower cognitive ability and motor function would be the result for children reared in social deprivation. (Provence and Lipton, 1962)

A study carried out by Stevens concluded that children reared in an orphanage that had many caregivers over time yet had high levels of attention and interactions from the caregivers, developed normal attachment relationships. (Stevens, 1971) During the 1970s English childcare authorities reconstructed their residential institutions so that they resembled more of a homely environment. The number of staff was increased to care for smaller mixed-age groups in an attempt to encourage the attachment of staff members to the groups of children. (Tizard and Joseph, 1970)

Bowlby believed that the attachment characteristics were carried throughout the life span right through to death. (Fraley, 2004). According to researchers Hazan and Shaver, the emotional connection that develops between adult romantic partners is similar to that of the attachment traits. They noted that the bonds between infants and caregivers and romantic adult partners share the same features such as both feeling safe when they other is nearby, they both share explorations together and they both feel insecure when the other is unattainable. Some adults could be anxious-resistant and worry that they would not be loved leading them to be easily disheartened and angered when their attachment needs are not met. Other adults could be avoidant, seeming not to care much about other people and not having to depend on others and allowing others to depend on them. Whether an adult is secure or insecure in their adult relationships this could be an impression made from their own attachment experiences as a child. (Fraley, 2004). As infants learn social behaviours through secure attachment bonds, the trust and praise endorsed through these bonds are believed to be the basis for the relationships that individuals build as they move from childhood to adulthood. (Bowlby, 1969). Researchers have argued that the connection between infant attachment and adult romantic attachments are only slightly related yet Fraley and Shaver (2000) state that the theory continues to influence behaviour, thoughts and feelings in adulthood and this hypothesis has remained firm for more than over a decade regardless of the different types of intimate relationships.

Attachment theory from the 70’s, compared to present day has been criticized for neglecting the internal world. It has been stated that attachment theory should pay more attention to regular distortions of the child’s outlook of the external world and that the internal working models can conflict with each other. It seems that attachment theory and psychoanalysis overlap the limits of human knowledge. Both theories assume that the first years of life are the most important for the personality to develop: that the maternal feelings are a common factor in establishing the attributes of object relationships and therefore physic development. Furthermore in both theories, early relationships implement the conditions within which certain critical psychological functions are obtained and developed. Both focus on mental and personality development and emotional disorder. (Zepf, 2006)

Attachment theory is now recognized and accepted as a lifespan developmental theory which is important in clinical practice for understanding how early bonding experiences influence psychical and emotional well-being. There is still quite a constricted understanding of what it means to be attached during adulthood. There has been no general agreement on what kind of relationships are acknowledged as adult attachments. As Bowlby (1969) based his child attachment behaviour targets on older figures that are stronger and wiser, this can appear to be deceiving when applied to the changeable attachment behaviour and the sexual nature of some adult attachments. Neither Bowlby nor Ainsworth wrote much about adults and attachment and focused most of their studies on the mother-child relationship, as they believed it had a greater influence on their development. As a result, the information foundation of adult attachment is still developing and not yet final. Early attachment experiences are carried forward and contribute towards the adult personality. Although the bond may not be as extensive, research has proven that family members, friends and even pets provide elements of attachment. (Sable, 2008). Hazen and Shaver (1987) conducted a study of adult attachment to explore the influence of attachment quality on romantic love. In their report they found that secure attachment was related to happy, loving relationships of adults who received a caring and attentive childhood. Another study carried out by Main and colleagues (George et al, 1996) based on Ainsworth’s attachment patterns is the Adult Attachment interview. This study was aimed to explore the reasons why adults behave with regards to their childhood experiences. The individuals were asked to relay their relationships with their childhood attachment figures and to bring to mind occurrences which had remained in their memories, for example, separation, loss or rejection. A description was then asked for how their parents’ behaviour may have influenced their adult personality. Their security was determined by the individuals’ capability to reflect on their happenings and to be able to describe them in an open and rational manner. The study resulted in finding that there is an attachment behavioural system that stays active throughout life. Although adults do not require the regular physical company of an attachment figure, as they do when an infant, they do need to know that they have trustworthy and reliable sources around when they are feeling scared, ill or just need reassurance. (Sable, 2008)

Finally, to conclude this essay, it is clear that attachment is a positive theory and the main negatives are from the studies created relating to adult attachment as they appear to be inconclusive. As attachment focuses on the importance of the amount of affection given in relationships, it seems to be the basis of all underlying problems that are surrounded in mental and emotional reactions emitted by both adults and infants. Social deprivation does appear to create an adverse reaction to children being reared in that environment and thus emphasises and confirms why attachment bonds play an important role in children developing mentally healthily and secure and able to lead a strong and grounded life as an adult.

Bowlby, J. (1969) Attachment and Loss, Volume 1: Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
Bretherton, I. (1992) The Origins of Attachment Theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. Developmental Psychology. 28.759-775.
Fraley, C. (2004) A Brief Overview of Adult Attachment Theory and Research. [Online] Available From: http://www.psych.uiuc.edu/~rcfraley/attachment.htm [Accessed 05/01/10]
George, C.Kaplan, N. and Main, M. (1996) Adult Attachment Interview Protocol. (3rd Edition) Unpublished Manuscript. Berkley: University of California
Hazan, C. and Shaver, P. (1987) Romantic Love Conceptualized as an Attachment Process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 52. 511-524
Lamb, M.E. (1978) Qualitative Aspects of Mother-Infant and Father-Infant Attachments in the Second Year of Life. Infant Behaviour and Development. 1. 265-275
McLeod, S.A. (2007) Simply Psychology: Individual Differences In Attachment. [Online] Available from: http://www.simplypsychology.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/mary-ainsworth.html [Accessed 06/01/10]
Provence, S. and Lipton, R. (1962) Infants In Institutions. New York: International Universities Press
Reder, P. Duncan, S and Gray, M. (1993) Beyond Blame. Child Abuse Tragedies Revisited. Routledge: East Sussex
Sable, P. (2008) What is Adult Attachment? Clinical Social Work Journal.36. 21-30
Stevens, A.G. (1971) Attachment Behaviour, Separation Anxiety and Stranger Anxiety in Polymatrically Reared Infants. In Schaffer, H(Ed) The Origins of Human Social Relations. New York: Academic Press
Tizard, B. and Joseph, A. (1970) The Cognitive Development of Young Children in Residential Care: A Study of Children Aged 24 months. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 11. 177-186
Wagner, K, (2009) Background and Key Concepts of Piaget’s Theory. [Online] Available From: http://psychology.about.com/od/piagetstheory/a/keyconcepts.htm [Accessed 30/12/09]
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Zepf, S. (2006) Attachment Theory and Psychoanalysis. International Journal of psychoanalysis. 87. 1529

October 14, 2018October 4, 2018

Relationship Between Social Policy And Welfare

Social policy may be described in two ways. Primarily, social policy is seen to have a direct impact on individuals and groups of people. Secondly, Social policy is an academic subject to be researched. Social Policy may be defined as the “developing and implementing measures to combat social problems in society, and to the academic study of these measures and their broader social context” (Alcock, Erskine, and May, 2002:240). Baldock, Manning, and Bickerstaff (2007: xxi.) describe a ‘social policy’ as the states deliberate involvement to “redistribute resources amongst its citizens so as to achieve a welfare objective”. Social policies affect a wide range of people, whether it is at an individual level or regards to communities. According to Spicker (2008:1) social policies have to concentrate on several issues including housing, health, education, social security and employment.

The development of Social policies and their implementation have a direct impact on the social welfare of everyone in the society. Social welfare refers to the various social arrangements that are in place to meet the needs of individuals and groups in society, with the hope to tackle social problems. According to Fitzpatrick (2001:5) social policy aims to maximize welfare and minimize diswelfare and he states that there are six main perspectives on welfare: “happiness, security, preferences, needs, desert, and relative comparisons”.

There are numerous texts that exist around the issue of policy formation and its contested relationship with the effects of the policies implementation on the welfare of those it aims to target. This essay aims to provide an overview of the evolution of social policy, legislation and practice in relation to child welfare in Irleand.

Relation to an Aspect of Irish Policy

Hill and Hupe stated that “Implemenation inevitably takes different shapes and forms in different cultures and institutional settings”(2006:2). This section of the essay will examine some of the relationship between social policy and child welfare in Ireland from the 1940’s up to the present day.

Children Allowance and Health Care:

Perphaps one of the most signisifcant social policy developments regarding child welfare was in introduction of Children’s Allowance in 1944. However, the initial implemention of the Act included serveral discrepancies, thus it did not benefit the welfare of all the communitiy. For example, initially the payment was only availabe to families with three or more children. Means testing meant that many families were elimanted from the possible social welfare they deserved. Simliarly, in 1950, Noel Browne introduced the Mother and Child Scheme. He hoped that this would overcome many of the elements that infringed the rights of people in regards to the Childrens allowance. However, both the Catholic church and the medical profession opposed he’s scheme in fear that state run and free medical care would go against their hierachy. With Browns later resignation,the hope of his scheme being fully implented collapsed. Burke (2005:29) stated that “the controversy over the mother and child scheme has profound effecs on the developement of social policy in this country”. The power struggle between the church and the state most definelty lead to diswelfare among citizens.

Mandatory Reporting of Child Abuse:

Society has a challenging task of protecting children. Societies need to employ several ways in which they can achieve this, for example, social, economic, moral, legal and environmental. In the mid 1990’s, The Law Reform Commission recommended the introduction of mandatory reporting of child abuse. The matter of mandatory reporting is one of complexity which has implications not only for children’s welfare but also families, workers and the state. One of the main advantages of the implemenation of such a system was the hope that it would empower proffesionals to report abuse. Above all else it was prodicted that this would secure consistency and would provide a basis for better statistical evidence. However, disadvantages included the danger of over reporting of cases using scarce resources.

There was great variety of options about the mandatory reporting of child abuse. Many argued for an “immediate introduction of mandatory reporting of child abuse as it was seen as a means of protecting children”( ACT Legislative Assembly: nd) and their welfare. However, others believed it would divert the already scarce resources from programs that delivered assistance to families and “at risk” children. For example, Lipsky (1980) beleived that scarcity of resources leads to street- level bureaucracies being consistently criticized for their inability to implement policies which are related to the areas they work in thus leading to diswelfare in many cases. After much debate, the government decided against the introduction of mandatory reporting on the basis that it was not in the children’s best interests and welfare. The scarcity of resources combined with the complex relationship between proffesionals and clients made it unrealistic.

Legislative Framework Governing the Implementation of Childcare Policy:

The Children Act of 1908 and the Health Act 1953 and 1957 were replaced by the Child Care Act 1991 and the Children Act 2001 as the primary statutory framework for the care and control of children in Ireland. Among many provisions, the main aim of the Act according to O’ Sullivan (2009:251) is “the placing of a statutory duty on health boards to promote the welfare of children who are not receiving adequate care and protection”. In the period following the passing of the childrens act in 1991, many attempts were made to standardise procedures and practises in the area of childcare services. For exmaple, the Report of the Killkenny Incest Enquiry in 1993 evidently highlighted that guidelines were not being used and many workers were not even aware of there existence. However, in 1995, new guidelines on ‘The Notification of Suspected Cases of Child Abuse Between Healthboards and Gardai’ were issued and aimed at standardising the cases between the two agencies. This was a step forward for maximising the welfare of children.

In 1999, in the Publication of Children First; National Guidelines for the Protection and Welfare of Children were introduced to improve proffesional practise and thus improving the welfare of children. It highlighted the importance of consistency between policies and procedures. Unlike guidelines before it, Children First was built upon a set of principles which included participation by parents/carers and children in conferences and the development of child protection plans. These guidelines were valuable as they provided a framework for practise, meaning that proffessionals are accountable for their actions. In 2002, Buckley made a warning of the dangers of an over regulated system, as she believed it may lead to discretion and therapeutical skills being replaced by adminstrative management and regulation. In 2003 The Social Services Inspectorate was asked to monitor the implementation of the guidelines, however, while some aspect of the report were postivie,it was concluded that the progress in realtion to “Garda/health board cooperation, the child protection committees and planning for family support services was inadequate” O’ Sullivan (2009:257) Confusion surrounding the implementation of this policy still exists.

Conculsion:

This essay has attempted to summarise and give a critical analysis of certain social policy in Ireland and their relationship with childrens Welfare. As illustrated in the above examples, the in most cases policies may be developed with the hope to benefit and increase the welfare of children but unless they are implemented correctly the policies may lead to diswelfare.

October 14, 2018October 4, 2018

Refugee And Immigrant Children In Canada Social Work Essay

Refugee and immigrant children and youth along with their families comprise the majority of Canadian society. Refugees and immigrants are the mosaic face of present day society. We as citizens have witnessed the process newcomers experience in order to receive their Canadian status. As we are aware of the possible complications that can arise both the Rossiter and Rossiter (2009) article along with Fantino and Colak (2001) article shed an interesting light on migration. These articles discuss how youth challenge these barriers to gain identity in the new society, how issues arise between their inner self and society and also how society can contribute to migration complications. The articles also review how society can be seen to have a positive impact to their experience during migration and adaptation. Both articles assume a similar theme when discussing the challenges/troubles these youth and children encounter during their acculturation period.

Summary of articles:

“Diamonds in the Rough: Bridging gaps in support for at-risk immigrant and refugee youth” summarized the troubles both within the individual and society that is creating a gap within the youth. The gap between individual and society is brought to point in this article as creating a behavior in the youth to engage in high-risk criminal behaviors. Rossiter and Rossiter (2009) focus on the risk and protective factors that are “perceived by key stakeholders to influence ‘at-risk’ immigrant youth who eventually become involved in crime, gangs and violence in Edmonton, Canada” (Pg. 2). Rossiter and Rossiter (2009) organize their article on the view of immigrant and refugee youth behavior by discussing immigrants and crime, bringing upon a theoretical background focused on Maslow’s theory and how Maslows Hierarchy of need provide insight as to how inner fulfillment discourages “negative” actions/thoughts/behaviors.

Rossiter and Rossiter (2009) review a study that was conducted in order to attain a deeper perspective of the migrating youth into Canadian society; they discuss the risk factors both in the community setting and within the individual. These studies first discussed negative factors affecting the youth and positive factors assisting the youth to not fall into criminal behavior. Lastly, both authors discuss a “solution” that I would like to classify it in order to understand these gap and “misinterpretation” between a trouble both within and outside the youth.

Rossiter and Rossiter (2009) state that youth who migrate to Canada with their family are faced with issues from back home, such as “pre-migration violence and trauma were reported to be predisposing risk factors for youth involvement in violent and criminal activity in Canada: many youth from refugee camps have witnessed or experienced violence (e.g. rape, murder, and torture) and suffer from depression, nightmares, flashbacks and or disturbed sleep patterns” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 9). A youth arriving in a country that has already developed their own culture and unique mother of tongue can further create a bigger barrier for the youth in terms of acclimating to this new society, their new home.

Social services representative discuss the complications of integration that can cause “stress or anxiety-all their symptoms basically prevent them from learning and adapting” (As cited by Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.9). These youth experience pressure to fit in when it comes to the school system. They are encountered with peer pressure or alienation (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.9) as “association with antisocial peers, however, can lead to violent altercations and crime (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.9). Education was one area where it was classified as a positive impact encouraging youth to act in a positive manner (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.4). Due to the alienation that youth experience due to the want of fitting in within their peers, criminal justice representative said education was seen as extremely important for immigrant and refugee youth: “Not having [education] is what’s creating the push in the other direction, and having it is what would save them” (As cited by Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 13). Creating these barriers furthermore sets this youth to drop out and as a school is seen as a recruitment into drug-related crimes (Pg.10). While seeing the complications that the lack of education can cause we can acknowledge the importance of school and education towards the future of the youth.

Rossiter and Rossiter (2009) discuss how youth first entering Canada with their families are seen to be lead by the government into subsidized housing (p.11) due to their lack of finances thus, these youth may not have the same economic standing as their peers. This makes the youth feel uncomfortable leading to the youth having to deal with an inner struggle between “wants and needs” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 9). The authors made it clear that contributing factors such as: “family support and stability, socio-economic status, physical and mental health, age of arrival, language proficiency, interpersonal skills social networks, personal resilience, employment opportunities and housing and neighborhood, among others” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 4) are seen as a pushing negative factor and also a helpful positive factor for the youth to get out of troubles in the criminal system. The authors prescribe mentorship and school activities to assist these youth out of the negative criminal behavior (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 13-14). They discuss how teachers are “often unaware of the challenges faced by immigrant and refugee students, and the education system itself is ill prepared to meet their complex needs. Isolation and a lack of social support at school and in the wider community mean that immigrant and refugee youth may be left with few options, and antisocial peers involved in drugs, crime and gangs may be perceived as attractive alternatives” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.16). Family and community support along with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs should be in place in order to assist these youth. Families seen to be “living in poverty are often unable to meet the physiological and safety needs of their children; at-risk youth who go to school without breakfast or lunch and live in subsidized housing may be especially vulnerable. Youth who lack close relationships to family, school and community or who suffer from feelings of inadequacy or failure are easy targets for gangs who promise to fulfill their needs for belonging and self-esteem.” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.16).

The authors review the negative and positive influences that contribute to the idea of where funding should be focused. The authors provide the reader with a qualitative research method to get a better understanding by talking to adults who experienced youth criminal activities due to the barriers put forth. It is also important to note that the authors touched upon the lack of statistical research that is brought forth to the public that shows if immigrant and refugee youth are the only ones big in numbers in the jail system.

Refugee children in Canada: searching for an identity written by Fantino and Colak (2001) provide an overview of migration issues that arise and the troubles that these children are faced with pre and post arrival into Canada. Fantino and Colak (2001) discuss how the children migrating with their families bring with them issues that they face while coming to a new country as a refugee “trauma from witnessing violent crimes, language difficulties, family disruption, and adjustment to a different culture-in addition to the challenges that accompany childhood and growing up” (p. 587). Fantino and Colak (2001) draw comparison between immigrant children versus a refugee child. They both write how both classes deal with “migration and endure the ‘push-and-pull’ forces of home and school, which often work in opposite directions” (p.589). As we are taught to believe that immigrants face less barriers due to their receipt of citizenship Fantino and Colak do not fail to portray the similarities of both groups. Both may encounter society’s discrimination and racism, and developing a sense of identity-while trying to bridge generational and cultural gaps (Fantino and Colak 2001, p.589). “Perhaps the greatest threat to these children is not the stress of belonging to two cultures but the stress of belonging to none” (p.589.) If these children receive a sense of belonging this can open up and increase their self-esteem and further avoid future barriers and inner fights within the child.

One specific concentration that Fantino and Colak (2001) bring forth is the desire for children in the school setting “to be accepted by their peer group, be seen as a dependent and a master by interpreting for their parents” (Fantino and Colak, 2001, p.589) these factors can contribute to the sense of belonging discussed earlier. These children are in essence parentified as they face the pressure of “interpreting for their parents” (p. 589). This pressure can have a dramatic effect on the child as they are given adult responsibility in settings they are not familiar with. Fantino and Colak (2001) wonder if children really do “adapt better to society” (p.591). They discuss the trouble of parents with the lack of communication they have with their children (p.590). Fantino and Colak refer to these refugee children as “children without history” (p. 594). Both authors bring forth ideas of the host country providing a positive act in order to make integration as a positive role for the child and family. One key factor in determining success is the “reception of newcomers by the host society” (p.589). Task force on mental healthi issues affecting immigrants and refugees (1998) writes that “settlement support services, schools, health and social services and the community at large play a crucial role in assisting and supporting children to adjust and integrate into Canadian society (As cited by Fantino and Colak, 2001, p. 589). Fantino and Colak (2001) believe that in order for successful integration we must not ignore the parents who might also be facing trauma prior to arrival. They state that “their challenge is to meaningfully integrate their history with the present and future realities of Canada” (Fantino and Colak, 2001, p.595) it is only until we as Canadians work as a team to provide a safe haven for newcomers where we can assist and cater to their needs to provide them with adequate housing and support systems. As Fantino and Colak discuss migration trouble pre and post migration both authors do not fail to give Canadians a role on easy adaptation and this sense of guidance makes the struggle of migration as a societal problem and not solely a problem just with the migrating child with their family

Analytic discussion:

Both readings discuss the resolutions and the causes of what a child and youth experience as they migrate to a new country. The identified theme of the harm of migration to the individual at hand arises concerns and a deep look at why changes should be in place to assist the migrating newcomers. By looking deeply at the barriers/causes placed by society we will gain insight on understanding why. Both articles gather information by using a qualitative research method that asks children and adults who were deviant youth in the past about problems faced by both immigrant and refugee children and youth; both articles looked at the trouble faced within the individual and the trouble put on by society. Both articles answer questions of why and how these issues arise, both articles discuss solutions and the lack of statistics that would help to really understand the criminal system in regards to over population of immigrant and refugees in the institution.

As both articles take on such approaches to understanding migration and the effect it has on children regarding identity and youth portraying criminal behavior I will provide an analytic discussion in regard to the theme of troubles of migration faced by the immigrant and refugee child and youth. By discussing how the comparison of both articles both discussed the lack of identity the youth and child face, both articles discussed support systems, whether it was lacking or being seen as a great contributor for successful migration, education as a primary target for success in the individual and lastly community assistance that the host community must act upon. As all articles discuss the implication pre and post the child’s and youths migration I still believe that further questions need to be asked in order to get a more holistic and complete view of migration difficulties and criminal behavior that the child and youth experience.

Who is a refugee or immigrant youth or child when they come to Canada? It is to this thought that we can look at the identity of these young adults and children being challenged when entering a new country such as Canada. We are taught through both articles that when an individual such as a youth and child enter Canada we must realize the issues they have faced at home that might of led them to migrate: “trauma from witnessing violent crimes, language difficulties, family disruption, and adjustment to a different culture-in addition to the challenges that accompany childhood and growing up” (Fantino and Colak, 2001, p. 587). When one reads such statements I can’t help but ask why aren’t these individuals dealing with the issues back home? Could it be that the government can no longer be trusted? Why migrate? Is Canada being portrayed to other countries as a loving, welcoming country? If so, we must change this. Canada being classified as a harmonious country or not has issues of its own. We are dealing with employment difficulties, high taxes, and are still involved in a war where other cultures are still being seen as a threat. Are we setting up this migrating youth with unrealistic expectations of Canada? Is this our fault as Canadians that we are simply setting up a “trap” for this migrating “victims” to have a “difficult” life in Canada?

The issues back home which may have pushed their migration to Canada is not the only issue that these age groups experience. They also witness and experience issues in their new land, and this act should simply put the blame on us, on Canadians. Support system in the school setting is seen to be lacked and to be a great contributor to be the line of helping the youth and child to avoid criminal behavior.

“The development of positive relationships with caring adults in the school setting, such as ESL or mainstream teachers, counselors and school resources officers, was also considered to be a protective factor. In some schools, member of ethno-cultural communities offer approved courses designed to help students develop identity and intercultural competence” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 14).

After school programs where the student can receive assistance in studies or being involved in recreational activities can provide an outlet for the student to develop an identity by taking interest in other activities and also assisting with developing relationship with other students or guides. This not only provides them with a family setting in the school atmosphere but also an family unit when parents struggle to understand the school setting or simply when parents do not have much involvement with their children due to work or emotional difficulties. “Dedicated workers such as these are helping youth exit gangs, offering them opportunities for success and keeping others from becoming involved with drugs and crime” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 14) As this form of assistance provides the assistance of the host community it shows how we can contribute positively to the outcome of the future of the new generation. As this is so, we must be aware of the access these children and youth have to schooling. Funding is needed for better schooling not only for these newcomers but also for youth all around. “In Canada the cost to incarcerate a youth for 1 year is approximately $100,000” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.3), and sending your child to school has no cost then leaves the question of why spend so much in incarcerating youth involved in criminal activity when such money can go into schooling where programs can arise from? As “we should be addressing the crime taken in each community” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 3) we know that education can be seen as a way out for these youth to avoid them from falling into a trap of gang involvement and provide these children with a sense of identity and skills this is an investment that will not only help the migrating newcomer individual but where society would also benefit from. Derwing et al. (1999) and Watt and Roessingh (1994,2001) state that “studies of school dropout rates of immigrant youth have indicated that 46-74% of immigrant youth whose native language is not English fail to complete high school” (As cited by Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 4) doesn’t society see the need for funding?

Community assistance needs to be put in force in order for these youth and children to experience an easy adaptation to Canadian society. Communities provide a learning experience by comforting the individual and providing an exit from any future criminal activity that might come through the youths and child’s life. “These could be centralized in a love reception center, with ongoing follow-up and support in school and community setting” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.17.) Providing these follow-ups with children, youth and their families will give these newcomers being a immigrant or refugee a voice and provide a further perspective of changes and improvements that could be more active. “Social services assistance: including language translation services; help in location permanent housing and accessing English language classes; a community orientation; referrals to health and social services; including professional counseling services; and other services as needed” (Fantino and Colak, 2001, p. 590). Such services can also be seen to benefit the family unit as a whole as it is helping all members of the family to access and be aware of the services provided by the host community, and can also be seen as a contributor in helping family bonds strengthening when migration can be viewed as a challenging phase for the family. Permanent housing should include specifications and be geographically located where criminal behavior is not the face of that community. “Peer ambassador programmers that carefully match newcomers with more established immigrants from the same culture can also be very helpful” (Fantino and Colak, 2001, p.590) If newcomers encounter other newcomers they will feel a sense of hope as they will see that their present challenges were possible to be overcome; this will provide the recent newcomer with a sense that they can do it.

We can make a change, so why in a country where “11.2% of the total population of 31 million identify themselves as members of a visible minority” (Fantino and Colak 2001, p.588) are being faced with such troubles? In a country where employment is seen as hard to get regarding youth employment why are we not addressing this problem? We realize that the Canadian Baby Boomers are affecting work labor in the present society (Foot, 1998, 82) so how can we assist these youth to find a job when the baby boomers are occupying the majority of the labor market? Do we need more jobs specifically targeted to this population? Why are we still letting in refugee and immigrant families when we can barely assist those already in Canada? Why is Canada still setting up a trap for these newcomers? As I agree with the standings and arguments/solutions that both articles make, I do believe that more questions need to be asked, mostly questions regarding Canada and why Canada is still letting this happen. Heller (1995) along with Jiwani (2002) and Roberts (2002) state that “ethnic minorities and those with English or French language difficulties, are disproportionately represented in the Canadian criminal justice system” (as cited by Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p. 2) and Canada’s lack of providing statistics related to race and ethnicity can further show that numbers need to be put into place in order to understand migration issues and complication. Without numbers can it be fair to say that Canada is contributing to the problem? Without numbers can Canada take a position and assist solely on word of mouth? Providing this overview can be frustrating to understand how to tackle such an issue of migration, but I do believe that in order for us to understand, numbers that are lacked in the prison system if minorities really do make up the population in the jail system needs to be placed. Rossiter and Rossiter state that such a study might “increase discrimination towards these individuals” (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.3) but how can we help a group without knowing statistics? Since Rossiter and Rossiter tackles such a perspective it leaves the question if Fantino and Colak say that the host community must assist these newcomers due to the issues surrounding this population how can we assist youth as a community when we are unaware of youth involvement in criminal behavior for example? Without data, Canadians are left in the dark, and this must change. We must make a change to recognize these newcomers’ diplomas (Rossiter and Rossiter, 2009, p.4.) and degrees to set them up for the work field in order for fairness and these barriers to fall down in favor of those newcomers.

My approach to the solution of ending criminal behavior is to look at societal resolutions and also understand the change that needs to be placed. I believe that working with the individual and not for the individual will further assist these individuals on a personal identity level and guide them through the services that can help. Both articles bring upon an analytical overview of migration and the effects brought on by the host community and the services lacking these migrating youth and children. As we understand migration to have a negative effect on individuals we also must not rule out the good that migration can do, such as providing a safe haven for these newcomers from escaping from the harsh realities they faced back home. By communities gathering as a welcoming committee in order to provide the newcomers with a welcoming atmosphere the community must do more than accept the realities of just adapting to a mosaic country. We must work together to provide support for the child, youth and their families. We must acknowledge the contributions that each youth and child carries within them and be culturally accepting. It can be instilled that the children are our future, and no matter what country these children and youth come from, all should be given a fair opportunity.

October 14, 2018October 4, 2018

Reflective Social Work Practice Social Work Essay

“Social workers are knowledgeable about and apply the principles of critical thinking and reasoned discernment. They identify, distinguish, evaluate and integrate multiple sources of knowledge and evidence. These include practice evidence, their own practice experience, service user and carer experience together with research-based, organisational, policy and legal knowledge. They use critical thinking augmented by creativity and curiosity.”

I will critically examine this extract based on my own practice experience and evaluate the use of theories, tools and techniques of reflective practice to see if it supports the statement. I will begin by providing a description of a case study drawn from my previous placement to draw on the practice experience gained and how this may illustrate my learning so far.

It is based on a 14 year old young girl who has been attending a horse-riding charity to help promote her well-being, self-esteem and social skills. For the purpose of this assignment she will be referred to as A. In this particular example, it is A and myself who have met as I have been given the task by my manager to talk to her about her personal hygiene. My manager felt this would also help in meeting the criteria required to handle complex situations (National Occupational Standards, Key role 6). Other young girls in her group have been seen talking behind A’s back about her and have not wanted to participate in group work with her because of this.

I felt apprehensive about the meeting as I had not yet encountered anything like this previously. Though I was reassured by my manager that I would have the opportunity to go through the best approach with her before I met with A. Unfortunately due to time constraints and my manager having to deal with a crisis she was unable to assist me. Prior to the initial meeting with A I began to research on how best to deal with the situation and plan ahead on how best to communicate with her. I wanted to do this without hurting her feelings as she was a young and impressionable young person. This is also known as second order skills when employing planning strategies in what I as a worker am doing, being aware and observing interactions, being able to feedback what has happened (Kaprowska, 2005).

Still feeling unsure on how to lead onto this particular topic due to my lack of experience, I realised that if my nervousness is apparent to A this may only escalate her worries as well. As a result I tried to keep my anxiety at bay. I asked if she had access to shower/bath facilities as a lot of the children who attended the organisation came from areas of deprivation. At this point I realised I felt out of my depth in having this conversation, and on reflection later felt it conflicted with my own personal beliefs. I did not believe her to have any hygiene issues when I had worked with A in the past. This may have shown when I eventually got to the topic at hand and told her the truth. She may have observed that I did not feel happy explaining why I am asking these questions when I myself did not share the same view as my colleagues and others. I came away from the meeting with my confidence shaken, it was made worse when I learned from my manager that A was upset and her mother had in fact complained about me the next day.

I felt a great deal of empathy for this young girl, as a professional I had made a commitment to ensure her well-being. I was trying to achieve a fine balance between trying to support her whilst also trying to bring about social change. A reason for this I realised was that A and I had a few similarities which may have affected how I worked with her, the way I perceived her and also in the way I related to her. I recognised that we both had experienced bullying at similar ages. Upon reflection I realised I had assumed her to be more vulnerable in my eyes because of my own experiences which may have impacted on the working relationship I had built with her (Ojala and Nesdale, 2004). Both A and her mother were disappointed in me and felt strongly enough to complain. I felt terrible that I had caused A such distress.

Trust is a primary feature in conducting person-centred work. Originally developed in the field of psychology by Carl Rogers (1951) where he outlined the person centred therapy. If I was disclosing information to A about her poor hygiene which was not something I wholly agreed with, then being transparent and honest became difficult. A may have observed my unease with her in the meeting, and may have lost faith in me and my work. I realise afterwards that I wanted this to change, and so actively researched how I could engage in positive work with A.

Person centred work also involves being able to discover the client’s wishes and feelings and taking this forward in a positive manner. The theory proposes that both the worker and the client are equal, it also challenges the notion of the worker being seen as an expert of knowledge, and that the ‘expert knows best.’ In the meeting with A I had not really questioned her thoughts and feelings on the situation, and therefore had made the power dynamics between A and myself unbalanced and less in her favour. I had not taken her identity as a service user into full account and consequently may have oppressed her unknowingly by not trying to understand her views and opinions.

In the next meeting with A, I actively researched and utilised the person centred approach to help her feel valued and considered in the process. In achieving this I had learnt the gaps in my learning experience and attempted to further my knowledge to benefit my work with A. This can be seen that I am applying the key elements of critical thinking as mentioned in Domain 6 of the Professional Capabilties Framework (2012).

When talking with A about her riding ability and work with the group, I realised that her wishes, thoughts and feelings had perhaps been neglected when providing this service. Once I reached this conclusion I also began to see that the organisation that I was based in, it may have been the case that a person centred approach was taken initially to begin with. However, when trying to implement the approach fully into practice it seemed as if the people working with A may have forgotten that the planning is not fixed and irreversible. Mansell and Beadle-Brown (2004a) have stated that this is may be the reason why there is a decrease and collapse in being able to take plans forward.

Furthermore similar to Carl Rogers (1951) and his humanistic view for individualism within person centred practice, Yelloly and Henkel (1995) suggested uniqueness as central for effective social work practice. With reference to A’s identity which I had not originally considered, I had come to understand that I needed to make some self-disclosures about my understanding of how I viewed her. I achieved this by communicating honestly my thoughts on how I had assumed that she would not be resilient enough to understand the first meeting. I had labelled her as a ‘victim’ of bullying in my mind when this is not how she saw herself. Perhaps if I had realised this early on I would not have meandered through the conversation of hygiene with no direction, and stated the facts in a much direct and open manner. I made my apologies known to A and explored more about her thoughts on bullying and its impact. This allowed me to remain consciously focused on her as an individual and aware of my own values about addressing individuals.

Funding and organisational issues within the social care sector have meant that resources and number of staff available to attend to service users has meant there is an uphill struggle to meet the needs of the users (Routledge and Gitsham, 2004). These have also had a substantial effect on the voluntary sector where I was based. My interactions with A were largely unsupervised to begin with because of a shortage of qualified staff and resources. This meant the amount of time and resources I was able to spend with any of the young people attending the service has to be made the most of. This may be why having highly skilled practitioners is vital in the face of the current political context. In the face of a double dip recession means having to economise now also extends to social workers as well (Sanderson et al., 2002). Having enough staff members to begin with would be helpful in providing one to one work usually required for person-centred planning. Even when facing such hardships, it may be crucial to have a positive attitude and have a good team to work within to feel that the work you are producing is not only of a high standard but also done collaboratively. Kydd (2004) also affirms that the solution may not always lie in having enough resources but positive together to develop conducive and appropriate working environments. This may go some way to explain how my manager supported me in this particular incident and was able to provide valuable insight into how to improve our working relationship, by being present in future work with A. It is also in line with the organisation’s working policy (Appendix A).

Transparency is crucial to completing positive work with people in social work. Congruence is an imperative aspect of this where the worker and the service user have openness within themselves and with one another to foster trustworthiness (Platt, 2007). Though this can only happen if there is a genuine desire to be honest with one another. That the professional will not hold up a facade and will be able to attend to what the service user is saying by staying in the present and remaining transparent. This may have seemed like a natural concept but was quite difficult to apply when working with A. I did not want to undermine her experience of being bullied by her peers by bringing my own personal experiences into the forefront. Yet I thought if I told her she may not feel quite so isolated which is a common feeling in teenagers with complex lives (Metzing-Blau and Schnepp, 2008). Ultimately I realised my confidence had been shattered to the point where I began to question almost every piece of work I undertook with A, convinced that I would disappoint her and her mother.

This led me to consider other approaches or skills I could better use with A later in my work with her. I came across cognitive-behavioural therapy which is an amalgamation of both behavioural and cognitive disciplines which emerged as a fascinating new concept in 1970s (Rachman, 1997). It addresses the thinking and emotional aspects together, and believes that behaviours can be unlearned. In this way I hoped to be able to view how A conceptualises particular events in her life. Through this I recognised the way A may view herself as she often expressed feeling low, and lack of self-esteem and self-worth. A also had a persistent habit to turn a seemingly positive situation into something negative. This enabled me to understand her experiences from a different point of view and continuous reflection helped me see how she may have needed empowering.

A strengths-based approach was also researched and utilised in my work with A, which has become favourable in both direct and indirect work with service users (Rapp, 1997). This approach appealed to me as it is more service-user led, and helps them see how their strengths play a significant role in the face of their problems or crisis that they may be facing. It is quite different to other approaches in that it acknowledges a person’s suffering and impairment as the result of systemic rather than just psychological drawbacks. In using this approach, this helped A to understand her ability to cope well despite the harshness of her surrounding environment and daily routine of caring for her mother. She was able to see her positive attributes, how others also recognised these which provided for a more balanced view of herself. This is also in line with social work values which places emphasis on helping the user feel empowered and in control (Value B, Topps, 2002).

Since the incident I have had ample time to reflect on my work with A and how I feel about it. Different techniques and tools are used to enable reflection within the field of social work, which can help the way we relate to work, home, culture, and supported networks. Winter (1988) states that experience is not something that we ‘store’ as we would on a computer, rather we ‘story’ it.

Similarly keeping a reflective journal is a useful technique in proactively encouraging critical reflection if done correctly (Kam-shing, 2005). This was a requirement whilst on the course, which I was not keen on at the beginning. I felt it was quite a daunting experience expressing my thoughts and feelings and could not see the benefits of this. For the duration of the placement, as my ability and knowledge of reflection improved with the help of my educator, I was able to understand how this would help me in becoming an effective practitioner. It helped to formalise my ideas, trail of thoughts and bring about a heightened sense of awareness on my own practice.

This technique can be seen as embedded within a theory of reflection developed by Schon (1991). He called this reflection in action (whilst the event is occurring) and reflection on action (after the event has occurred). The journals or learning logs were primarily used after an event had occurred to understand our learning. This tool is available to evaluate the work I have undertaken and how my knowing-in-action may have had an impact on the end outcome. Thus will be able to improve on my skills and ability to reflect-in-action and recognise if there is something more to be done to help the service user. In my interactions with A and other users, I have also recognised that reflection on action is beneficial in evaluating my own practice and reflection in action to implement those lessons learnt actively.

To be able to detect my own mistakes and correct these involves uncovering deeper learning. Argryis and Schon (1974) proposed that when we as people and practitioners simply only operationalize our goals rather than question them we are only applying single-loop learning. When this incident with A occurred, I looked at the different aspects such as theories, A’s behaviour, the organisation’s policies that had influenced my thoughts and perceptions and brought me to look at myself and the situation with close scrutiny and query the governing variables to enforce social change be that within myself, the organisation or A or all of these.

Kolb (1984) and his reflective cycle helped me examine the structures to my reflection. He developed four stages to his cycle. These include concrete experiences, reflective observation, followed by abstract conceptualisation which includes drawing conclusions from incidents encountered and active experimentation. Active experimentation is the ability to learn from past situations and try a new approach. I think this is where I feel I continued my work with A from the very first incident in trying to utilise different approaches to help her. Using this approach also made me realise that perhaps even if the event itself may have hurt A’s feelings it may have raised awareness about her hygiene and brought about independence. This is also in line with Value B of the GSCC codes of practice (Topps, 2002) and with Domain 6 (Professional Capabilities Framework 2012).

Group studying has been known to develop enhanced learning and reflection. Bold (2008) suggests that having a supportive group to talk through your knowledge and experience gained can generate deeper learning and increase reflective competence. In using group reflection I found that having a group to talk through my morals, beliefs and assumptions that direct my work very useful in a public and collaborative setting. It provided the opportunity to look back at a past experience from multiples perspectives and raise questions. I had not realised the grave nature of discussing one’s hygiene would be so difficult, with the help of the group I was more aware of my hidden assumptions on this and how it could affect my practice.

Research by Dahlgren et al. (2006) highlights the importance of group reflection and the role of a critical friend to promote empowerment to both students and teachers. This may be because it allows for the students work in an informal setting and therefore have more of a balanced working dynamics. This kind of democratic environment aids reflective learning by advancing self-knowledge. In my group learning set I came away learning more about my own assumptions about A being a carer to her mother with mental health issues meant that she may not have had facilities to aid good hygiene. The group also helped me look at other explanations for what had happened. I came to understand that whilst the issues of A ‘smelling’ might have been genuine, it could have also been exacerbated by other staff and children through their own assumptions about her learning disability, and status as a young carer to a parent with mental health problems. Their behaviour and assumptions daily may have impacted the way I saw A even though I did not agree with their views. I failed to raise this further with my manager when handed the task of telling A, as I may have also assumed here that she would ‘know best’.

Much later I was introduced to the critical incident technique developed by Tripp (1993). To analyse incidents that have had a strong emotional impact on ourselves as practitioners. It entails learning to look beyond just describing to gain deeper reflection. I began to understand that my underestimation in what I had to tell A, was my own failure. This underlying assumption I later realised arose from my supervision with my manager who had assured me that disclosing this information to A would benefit her. The feedback given from my group has helped me identify areas of my reflection where there may perhaps be gaps and how I could improve on these. I felt the feedback was accurate and enriching, it helped for me to understand how they saw my situation with A and were able to offer alternative explanations for the outcomes that I had not yet explored further.

Overall this assignment has aimed to demonstrate that there are a number of factors involved in practicing good social work. This is highlighted by being able to demonstrate an awareness of my own values and philosophies, how my knowledge in terms of theories can be applied to inform my own practice. I have learnt that utilising and evaluating theories have furthered my practice by eliciting my understanding and learning over time. I have gained additional skills together with multiple sources of knowledge and techniques to better help the people I have worked with. This kind of creativity is what can bring about social change and empowerment. Reflection is an integral part of social work practice and different tools like journals can augment deep learning and improve future practice. What I may have learnt from a situation initially does not mean that these are the only recommendations to take forward. Through continual reflection and critical thinking, it can help to question our judgements and that of others and see if more can be done to change the face of social work practice.

October 14, 2018October 4, 2018

Social Work Reflective Essay

Introduction

Reflection forms a central part of social work practice and education, and it is particularly important for social workers in placement settings or newly

qualified social workers (D’cruz et al, 2007; Parker, 2010). In its simplest terms, reflection “provides us with an opportunity to review our

decisions and decision-making processes” however, in practice, reflection is a far more complex concept (Trevethick, 2005: 251). It is essential

that social workers have the confidence to question their own practice, the organisation that they work in, and dominant power structures in society at

large (Fook, 1999). Reflection, and in particular critical reflective practice, forms a key part of this, as social workers are called on to reconsider and

reconstruct the dominant social discourse. In this essay I will explore my experience of reflection during my practice placement, and in particular in

relation to a specific case study. I will start by outlining my practice setting, and the details of the particular case study. I will then explore my

experience of reflection, and how reflective practice supported me to apply theory to practice. Finally take a critical look at my practice, and suggest

things that I could have done differently.

Although I engage with and explored multiple models of reflection during my placement, the model of reflection that I found most useful was Schon’s

theory of reflection (Schon, 1983; 2002). Schon advocated 2 types of reflective practice. Firstly, reflection-on-action, which involves reflecting

on an experience that you have already had, or an action that you have already taken, and considering what could have been done differently, as well as

looking at the positives from that interaction. The other type of reflection Schon notes is reflection-in-action, or reflecting on your actions as

you are doing them, and considering issues like best practice throughout the process. Due to the limits of the current medium, I will be focusing mostly on

reflection-on-action. However, appropriate use of this type of reflection should inform future practice, and encourage appropriate reflection-in-action

when presented with a similar situation again.

Practice Setting

My placement was based at a not for profit mental health agency, where we provided psycho-social support for people who have experienced mental health

difficulties. Many of the people that we worked with had been subject to section 2 or 3 orders under the Mental Health Act 1983/2007, and were now

experiencing aftercare under section 117. Referrals to the agency could come from social services, GP surgeries, and other not-for-profit organisations.

The people with whom we worked usually had a multitude of presenting issues and concerns, and I was aware from the onset that complex settings like this

require social workers to be reflective in their practice in order to be able to deal with a variety of situations (Fook and Gardner, 2007). However, it

soon became clear to me that the fast-paced working environment, where at times paperwork was promoted over practice, meant that reflection could

potentially be ignored in favour of bureaucracy and targets (D’Cruz et al, 2007). This type of difficulty and uncertainty around reflection is common

in placement settings and when starting a new role (Knott and Spafford, 2010).

Reflection was particularly important when making the transition from university learning to the learning experienced in a placement setting. Social

workers are provided with some guidance in practice to support this process. The Practice Competency Framework (PCF) domains provide some direction about

what areas social workers are expected to emphasise in practice, and what needs to be evidenced in order to successfully complete a placement. Values and

ethics are central to this framework, and comprise domain 2. Critical reflection is also part of this framework, making up the entirety of domain 6.

However, it is essential that social workers do not become complacent in their personal reflection, and they cannot fall back on these types of guidance

and procedures as a shield against engaging in reflection on complex ethical subjects (Banks, 2006).

Case Study

Many of the service users that we worked with had a dual diagnosis (problems with mental health and addiction). These service users particularly challenged

me, as I found their intersecting issues usually stretch well beyond their dual diagnosis, to other areas like housing or physical health. I have,

therefore, chosen to discuss one such case, where I engaged in substantial reflection. The background to this case study, and my involvement with him, will

now be discussed.

JK is a man in his 50s who was born in Nigeria but moved to the UK at a young age. When I worked with him, he lived in a housing project that was

specifically meant to house ex-offenders. Although JK had a lead key-worker at my agency who was a permanent member of staff, I was responsible for the

majority of the key working sessions with JK during my time on this placement. JK had a long history of substance misuse and mental health problems. He was

diagnosed with bi-polar disorder, and dealt with significant anxiety and depression. He received depot injections monthly for his mental health

difficulties, and he found these instances particularly distressing. JK also had a substantial history of criminal activity, which he said became necessary

in order to maintain his addiction to certain illicit drugs.

I would meet JK in a location of his choosing. Although usually this would mean either in our office or in his room, sometimes we went for a walk and I

accompanied him to appointments at times also. This more informal working setting was where he felt he could speak most openly to me. Although I will

discuss my involvement with JK more broadly,I will focus on one particular key working session that we had, where JK was most descriptive about all his

concerns and the issues that were effecting him (session A). This is significant because reflection is particularly important when a critical incident like

this has been experienced, and a less reflective approach could lead to a less holistic or even inadvertently oppressive account of what had transpired

(Ruch, 2002).

Reflective Practice

Different models of reflection supported me throughout the reflective process. Gibb’s Model of Reflection (1988) and Atkin and Murphy’s Model

of Reflection (1994) both promote a cyclical approach to reflection, whereby reflection is ongoing and not a linear process. I found this to be the case,

as I did not move through stages of refection one after the other, but moved between them, often returning to my conceptual starting point multiple times

before settling on a holistic understanding of an event or situation that incorporates all systems influencing that scenario. Keeping a reflective diary of

critical issues and my own thought process encouraged me to construct my understanding of the work I was doing, and justify what actions I had taken

(White, 2001). Support from colleagues and supervisors was also invaluable in this process (Ruch, 2002). Yip (2006) aptly notes that models like those

described above are most useful when starting out the reflective process, and I quickly adapted and developed a model of reflection that was most

appropriate for me.

Social work has traditionally been constructed as the professional knowing best, and continues to be practised in a way where the practitioner holds most

of the power (Holmes and Saleeby, 1993). The power dynamics are slightly different in a non-statutory setting like I was working in. However, these power

dynamics cannot be ignored, and underline all social work practice.I acknowledged the inherent power dynamics from the inception of my interactions with

JK. I recognised that where unequal power dynamics exist in a relationship, it is usually the partner with the most power that benefits most from the

interaction (Milner and O’Byrne, 2002). This is why it is important for social workers to listen to the perspectives of the people with whom they

work, and be willing to accept different paradigms than their own or the dominant paradigm (Milner and O’Byrne, 2002).

When working with JK, I was made aware of his engagement with mental health services, usually provided through the medical professions. He had an allocated

community psychiatric nurse (CPN) who would visit occasionally, and at times he also met with a psychiatrist. Throughout my social work education, the

difference between the medical model and the social model of experiencing mental illness has been stressed to me, and I clearly saw this when working with

JK. The historically oppressive nature of mental health services is widely recognised in literature (Szasz, 1961; Foucault, 1967), and JK expressed to me

at times that he felt that he was not listened to by medical professionals, and just moved from service to service having things done to him,

rather than with him.

Tew (2005) noted that the in the social model of mental distress, core values required include looking at the person and their situation holistically,

removing the “us” and “them” thinking that tends to dominate mental health services, listening to what people really have to say,

and being committed to anti-oppressive practice. I found these to be very helpful in working with JK. During Session A, the fact that I chose to explore

JK’s mental distress alongside the other issues that were going on in his life allowed me to identify that his physical health, including intense

back pain that he has been experiencing, was having a substantial effect on his mental health, and I encouraged him to seek help and support with this. JK

clearly appreciated my anti-oppressive approach, where I tried to work with him in partnership, and he was always keen to know when we would meet next.

There is a stigma attached to having a mental illness, and even when contact with services has ceased, that stigma usually persists (Miles, 2005). JK had

clearly been the subject of this stigma throughout his life. Tew (2005) believes if mental health services were more receptive to the social model of

looking at mental distress, then significant amounts of this stigma and the resultant oppression would be removed.

Applying Theory to Practice

An important part of reflection in social work is the application and consideration of theories in practice (Trevethick, 2012). The theory base of social

work is essential to all the work that we do in practice (Teater, 2010). Social workers need to be prepared to critically reflect on the theory that they

are bringing to practice. It has been noted that the theory base of social work is dominated by euro-centric discourse, meaning that certain paradigms or

perspectives may be excluded unintentionally (Trevethick, 2012). Being from Nigeria originally, and coming from a different cultural background than

myself, meant that I had to be particularly careful in applying theory to the work that I did with JK.However, it is also clear that practice cannot just

be based on routine or habit, with no basis in evidence (Thompson, 2009).

The increasing influence of post-modern theory, which does not promote one paradigm over another, but focuses on the subjective nature of truth, has helped

to alleviate these issues in social work to some extent (Fook, 2012). Our agency worked with some of the most marginalised and vulnerable members of

society, and engaging in uninformed work with these types of service users is a dangerous undertaking (Collingwood et al, 2008). Through active engagement

with reflection, I was able to work with JK using an eclectic theory and knowledge base, but was also careful to note if JK was not comfortable with some

aspects of my approach, and adjusted the approach accordingly. Working closely with JK over a period of several months supported me to be able to identify

any issues quickly, and by the time I we were engaged in Session A, we had a good working relationship.

Of particular importance when working with service users who have a dual diagnosis was systems theory, and I found this theory to be particularly important

when reflecting on Session A. Healy (2005) has recognised that systems theory have been highly influential on the knowledge base of social work. As noted

above, people experiencing problems with addiction tend to have other issues in other areas of their lives (Tober and Raistrick, 2004).I was able

incorporate specific applications of systems theory for the service user group I was working throughout my placement, and in particular with JK. The Six

Cornered Addictions Rescue System (SCARS) was useful in that it took into account a person who was dealing with an addictions situation holistically,

rather than just focusing on the addiction in isolation (McCarthy and Galvani, 2004). In Session A this allowed me to see how JK’s addiction and

mental health problems were also linked to issues with accommodation, physical health, relationships and employment.

What could have been done differently?

I have discussed my work with JK, and reflected on specific incidents and issues with him. However, returning to Schon (1983), he notes that reflection

takes place within our own understanding and the meaning that we attribute to an event, rather than within the event itself. Therefore, social workers need

to look at their own underlying assumptions, as well as dominant social narratives, in order to shape their holistic understanding and experience of a

given incident. Dewey (1993) recognised the importance of discovering new information in reflection. This can come from both internal sources (personal

reconsideration) and external sources (professional support or research), and this new information can completely re-construct the way that an incident or

event is considered, and change the narrative that we are engaged in. This is helpful in reconsidering an event, and determining whether something could

have been done differently or better.

In relation to Session A, one area that I reflected on was that I may have focused too much on theory when working with JK. It has been recognised in

literature around theory in practice that overly focusing on theory when working with service users can actually hinder the work being done, as the service

user can feel depersonalised (Parker, 2010). As noted above, this was particularly important in the case of JK, who was from a different culture than me.

More time could have been spent on listening to JK and his perspective, rather than trying to fit him into a theory or model for the sake of evidencing my

own case notes or reflective journals.

I worked with JK very much in isolation. Although I met his CPN and his drug worker, at no stage was a multi-agency meeting held that I was invited to. To

some extent, this was the fault of the other professionals, who did not consult me on the work they were doing with JK, and literature has noted that

collaboration is particularly difficult when working with dual diagnosis service users, as mental health and addiction services can disagree over the

correct course, or who should take the lead (Clement et al, 1993; Champney-Smith, 2004). However, I could have made more of an effort to engage with them,

or at least discuss with JK how much consultation he would like me to have with those other workers. Suter et al (2009) have found that a willingness to

communicate is a key characteristic needed for effective collaboration, and after the other professionals were not active in engaging with me, I lost this

willingness, potentially to the detriment of my work with JK.

It has to be noted that reflection is not always recognised as a self-evidently positive mechanism. There are critics of the way reflection is promoted in

current practice environments, with some bemoaning the “cult following” that has developed around reflection in the social work sphere (Ixer,

1999: 513). Boud and Knight (1996) equally describe how reflection has come to be seen as “self-evidently worthwhile” without significant

critique (p.32). Ixer (1999) recognises that focusing too much on assessing reflection can lead to a prescriptive approach to reflection that is

uncompromising. I found this to be the case at times, when I was expected to write my reflections at a certain time, and have reflective supervision in a

certain way. As well as this, having someone essentially assessing my reflection made this even more difficult, as I was not able to reflect in a way that

was personal for me. Parker (2010) has noted that reflection is not something that can be assessed based on traditional reductionist techniques. Therefore,

I found it important to not just reflect on my work and the working environment, but also the process of reflection itself.

Conclusion

The issues that social workers are engaged with, and that I have discussed here, do not only reflect the concerns of the service user, but are a reflection

of the issues that are inherent in wider society (Davis, 2007). Unequal power dynamics, concerns around oppression and issues with stigma are all societal

problems that social workers need to engage with not just on a micro-level, but also a macro-level. To some extent this is an area that I found reflection

lacking in. I was able to look at my own practice, and my own assumptions and narratives; however, I was unable to determine how best to address wider

inequality and societal oppression of people like JK.

In this reflective essay, I have explored my practice setting in relation to a particular case study. I introduced the placement setting and the case

study, and then looked at my experience of reflection within this setting. I discussed how I engaged with different models of reflection, experienced power

dynamics, and explored different interpretations of mental distress. I then moved on to look at how reflection promoted me to engage with theory in

practice, in particular in relation to systems theory. Finally, I used this reflection to look at things that I could have done differently, including a

decreased focus on theory and engaging more with other services. This type of critical reflection should be ongoing for social workers in practice, and to

some extent it would be difficult to work in a complex setting like I was without being reflective. Although I noted some areas I could have improved on in

my interactions with JK, what was most apparent in my work with him was that my willingness to explore his paradigm and perspectives opened him up to

engaging with me on a range of issues, that otherwise may have remained hidden.

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