Category: Free Essays

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With the emergence of digital media, the relevance of print media have been fiercely debated (Gomez, 2008; Leatherbarrow, 2012). The advocates of digital media supremacy bring to light the idea of the death of print media. In an attempt to persuade the public of the ultimate end of print newspapers, magazines, and books, the advocates present print media as fully outdated, expensive, and impractical (Anderson, 2014). What becomes evident from their pressure on the public is that they have initiated “a zero-sum game – print must die for digital to prevail” (Anderson, 2014, n.p.). This essay is aimed at discussing whether print media are really dead in the 21st century. Drawing on the recent research evidence and authoritative opinions, the essay attempts to generate an in-depth analysis of the vitally important issue.

Gomez (2008) asserts that print media (especially print books) continue to preserve popularity among the reading public because they greatly appreciate how print media look and smell. Drawing the parallels between people’s devotion to print media and patriotic feelings, Gomez (2008) poses a reasonable question: “how can books ever be replaced, let alone disappear?” (p.13). However, the author also claims that print media are significantly threatened by the wide spread of digital media and that the sales of print media are declining. Discussing the position of print media in the digital era, Hooper (2012) expresses a view that “reports of the ‘death of print’ have been greatly exaggerated” (n.p.). To prove his opinion, Hooper (2012) mentions some examples of the increasing interest in print media. For instance, he claims that some sites and online services (e.g. Google, Moshi Monsters, and Net-A-Porter) have recently started to publish print magazines to attract new partners and customers and realise new strategic goals. Hooper (2012) also discusses the case of the famous Berlin magazine 032c. This magazine was created by Joerg Koch to advertise the website. However, the print magazine has acquired so much popularity among readers that the website was transformed into an archival repository. Moreover, as West (2009) specifies, many famous newspapers (e.g. The New York Times, Washington Post, Time, and The Guardian) are still published because “the quality of journalism produced by traditional print media is still well ahead of the combined might of all the bloggers that inhabit cyberspace” (n.p.). In the viewpoint of West (2009), digital media will not replace print media until the quality of digital media is increased. Likewise, Anderson (2014) mentions that even computational and scientific fields heavily rely on print media. For instance, in the medicine field, print journals are considered as crucial and reliable resources widely used by health care professionals.

Nossek, Adoni, and Nimrod (2015) have conducted an interesting research on print media reading in nine European countries. The countries chosen for the research were technologically similar, but culturally different. The acquired evidence has clearly revealed that print media preserve their popularity in the 21st century. About half of the European respondents have acknowledged that they read either print books or print newspapers. However, the findings of Zickuhr and Rainie (2014) and Desilver (2014) have shown a gradual substitution of print books for digital books. Despite these findings, Nossek, Adoni, and Nimrod (2015) claim that “this displacement, if actualized, will only be partial” (p.379). Although digital books are less expensive and are more accessible than print books, the tradition of reading print books is too powerful (Liu, 2008). Moreover, in the viewpoint of Nossek, Adoni, and Nimrod (2015), readers significantly enjoy design and artistic worth of print books. On the other hand, Nossek, Adoni, and Nimrod (2015) acknowledge that print newspapers have more chances for displacement than print books. This is explained by two major factors: 1) print newspapers are less popular among readers than print books and 2) digital media provide readers with a range of new opportunities (e.g. socialisation, an immediate access to national and international news, and co-creation of news) (Nossek, Adoni, and Nimrod, 2015). West (2009) acknowledges that some large newspapers will certainly fail to survive in the highly digital world because of the loss of monopoly.

While the mentioned reasons for displacement can hardly be considered disputable, print media outperform digital media in the depth of media coverage, accuracy of information, and the diversity and quality of the content (West, 2009; Nossek, Adoni, and Nimrod, 2015). With regard to the latter aspect, the articles published in print newspapers and magazines are written by professional journalists who do not only produce grammatically correct writing, but also tend to discuss an issue or event from different perspectives, positions, and angles (West, 2009). In addition, Kitch (2009) specifies that people continue to view print media as crucial material objects which help them preserve memories of some events. Adoni and Nossek (2001) also point out that those readers who are unable to develop digital skills certainly prefer print books to digital books. What the research of Nossek, Adoni, and Nimrod (2015) has brought into light is that “the majority of Internet users balance their time spent reading different media” (p.381). Actually, the choice of digital or print media depends on readers’ needs and purposes of reading (Liu, 2008). For instance, those people who attempt to receive authoritative and detailed information on certain events choose print newspapers or print books, while those people who want to satisfy their psychosocial needs or want to be entertained choose digital media. In view of the fact that digital media and print media endow readers with diverse kinds of experience (Liu, 2008; Hooper, 2012), it is wrong to reject either of the two. This is proved by the survey of trade magazine editors conducted by Leatherbarrow (2012). According to the survey findings, editors strongly believe that their print magazines benefit from online versions and that people of different ages, professions, experiences, and skills prefer different kinds of media. In the viewpoint of one respondent, “My sector has a traditional older, less technically-literate reader base. They spend 12 hours a day in their shops, and want to relax with a magazine they can hold, not in front of a screen” (Leatherbarrow, 2012, n.p.). What is evident from this particular testimony is that print texts and digital texts cannot be differentiated on the premise of their different formats. It is the difference in experience that matters (Catone, 2013).

However, as Richtel and Bosman (2011) acknowledge in their article, reading of print media is widespread not only among the old generation, but also among the young generation. Although parents are obsessed with digital devices and digital media, they attempt to inspire their children’s interest in reading print books. According to Richtel and Bosman (2011), parents hold the view that the experience of reading print books is unique and contributes much to the overall development of their children. This unique experience is explained by the fact that children establish emotional ties with print books (something which cannot be achieved with digital books). Through these emotional ties, they evoke all five senses and acquire different skills. In addition to children and old people without appropriate digital skills, researchers and scholars also contribute much to the survival of print media. As Berger (2006) specifies, academic authors prefer print publications to digital publications. Print books can be sold, distributed among friends, relatives, colleagues, and students, and used for citations. In the process of writing an academic paper, scholars and students tend to heavily rely on print books because “online resources do not guarantee any longevity for citation as books and analog journals do” (Berger, 2006, p.152). This assertion is consistent with the findings of Ramirez (2003) who investigated the reading preferences of students from the National University of Mexico and found that 78 percent of students read and better understand print media and materials, while only 18 percent preferred reading of digital materials. Even when students read a digital text, they cannot read it for more than two hours (Ramirez, 2003). According to Liu (2008), students tend to choose print media when a text or book is rather lengthy, when they need to profoundly investigate a specific issue or area, and when they need to take notes.

What should be understood is that those who insist on the death of print media speak from the position of significant technological changes, fully disregarding social aspects of print media reading. Griswold, Lenaghan, and Naffziger (2011) express the view that digital media “are not bringing about the death of reading, or a postprint age, or the disappearance of the book in ink-on-dead-trees form, but are changing the nature and type of reading experiences available” (p.31). Following this line of argument, it becomes evident that modern readers do not have to dismiss print media for the sake of digital media. Instead, they have an opportunity to choose among different types of media. Moreover, by bringing to light the debate about the death of print media and by comparing print media to digital media, authors, researchers, and scholars unintentionally revive interest in print media (Sutherland and Deegan, 2012). The debate has a great impact on people’s minds and makes them reconsider their attitudes to the issue of print media. When in 1999 the British Library microfilmed and then eradicated American newspapers after 1850, this decision was negatively perceived by both English and international public (Chartier, 2004). As a result of this negative perception, American and English libraries were forced to stop destroying print newspapers and magazines. This particular example proves that people are not ready to easily reject print media, even though they widely read digital media. In the process of reading print and digital versions of the same text, readers use different methods and strategies of reading. Catone (2013) compares reading of digital media to watching a film version of a live performance. Those who understand the beauty and value of a print book certainly continue to invest in books to enrich their collection (Agresta, 2012).

The recent survey of English and American readers conducted by Publishing Technology (2015) has demonstrated that readers between 18 and 34 years understand and highly appreciate the value of print books. According to the acquired evidence, 79 percent of American respondents and 64 percent of English respondents read print books last year. The research has also found that the majority of English and American readers tended to buy their print books in bookstores instead of using Internet stores (e.g. Amazon). The findings of this survey and the above mentioned studies provide conclusive evidence that print media are still alive. Moreover, in the viewpoint of Josefowicz (2009), the myth about the death of print media is created by information junkies who use digital media and reject print media because they want to receive news in a fast way. However, Josefowicz (2009) claims that information junkies constitute a minor group of people. On the other hand, their voices are so loud that it may seem that the view of the death of print media is shared by the majority. In contrast to the research findings discussed in this essay, the opinions expressed by information junkies and digital media lovers are based on anecdotal evidence. Unquestionably, such evidence can hardly be considered trustworthy and reliable. As Josefowicz (2009) rightfully asserts, “the ‘end of print’ is a meme that has gained ascendancy in an environment of disruptive change in the communication ecology” (n.p.).

As the essay has clearly shown, print media are not dead in the 21st century. Despite the increase in reading digital media, the findings of the recent studies prove that people continue to read print newspapers, magazines, and books. In view of these findings, it is more appropriate to speak not about the death of print media, but about “the evolution of a new functional division of labour among print media and their digital equivalents” (Nossek, Adoni, and Nimrod, 2015, p.381). To satisfy their diverse needs, readers may successfully combine reading of print media and reading of digital media. The views of authors and critics mentioned in this essay reveal “the main reasons why printed publications are destined to survive” (West, 2009, n.p.).

Bibliography

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This work was produced by one of our professional writers as a learning aid to help you with your studies

Traditional media regulation is becoming significantly challenged by the user-centricity that is a feature of the contemporary media environment (Van Dijck, 2013). Social media means that users are able to exercise far greater control over the types of media that they wish to consume, and can also actively produce content (Vardeman-Winter & Place, 2015). The traditional approach to media regulation is that there are a relatively small number of users who produce the media, coupled with a large number of those who consume it, who are powerless to directly influence the content (Van Dijck, 2013). This means that the regulatory framework that was previously used which was founded on a command and control framework is inappropriate for a situation where there are substantial producers of content (Lievens & Valcke, 2013). Regulatory action in social media is typically focused upon disclosure of interest, protection of children, codes of practice and the prohibition of offensive material (Van Dijck, 2013). This will be investigated as follows. First, the impact of social media upon media regulation will be discussed. Secondly, the approaches to self-regulation will be considered. Thirdly, the challenge of educating users that is necessary to achieve self-regulation will be discussed. Finally, the challenges posed to greater regulation of the media will be considered.

The current model of media regulation has focused more upon the use of alternative regulatory instruments (ARIs). These are considered to be more effective in a fast-changing media environment. ARIs are defined as a collection of instruments, such as self and co-regulation, and have increased in its impact when referred by different media policy documents from the 1990s onwards (Lievens & Valcke, 2013). However, in practical terms there is less clarity on what is meant by these types of regulatory instruments (Van Dijck, 2013). There seems to be a sense in which they involve the use of non-governmental players, and stand as an alternative to the governmental approach (Lievens & Valcke, 2013). ARIs tend to refer to a regulatory framework that is distinct from the traditional form, and this tends to point towards self-regulation.

Self-regulation is often seen as a solution in which the freedom of the internet can be maintained alongside a desire to reduce the impact of legislative regulation (Van Dijck, 2013). This means that regulation is effectively enforced by a group of actors within the social media, without any influence emanating from outside the group Lievens & Valcke, 2013). Given that social media comprises the users as also those who produce media products, there is an intuitive attraction to their being involved in the regulatory procedure (Fuchs et al., 2013). Furthermore, the users of media are traditionally involved in the regulatory mechanism, such as through their representation in the bodies of public service broadcasters, or through audience research (Croteau & Hoynes, 2013). Self-regulation also provides an empowerment to the users of social media, which is consonant with their position in the social media universe (Lievens & Valcke, 2013). This allows the regulation of social media to be fitted to the features of its use.

Education is, however, a requirement for effective social media regulation in order to ensure that the rights and responsibilities of using social media are understood (O’Keeffe & Clarke-Pearson, 2011). Providing content that is against the users’ terms and conditions of the specific site is not an effective means to educate users as these are rarely read (Fuchs et al., 2013). The publicity that ensues when a social media user unwittingly commits a crime often has the impact of educating users. It has been noted, for example, that for many users of social media an understanding of the intricacies of defamation may not be as widely appreciated as is the case for the newspaper industry (O’Keeffe & Clarke-Pearson, 2011). There are thus some issues where people have been prosecuted for retweeting a defamatory statement simply because it was not widely understood that broadcasting such information could be illegal regardless of its provenance (Campbell et al., 2014). However, this publicity then at least ensures that there is a wider appreciation of what constitutes defamation in such cases and thus functions as a method of education (Fuchs et al., 2013). Furthermore, the extent to which self-regulation can apply to some of the key concerns of regulatory bodies, such as the protection of children or the removal of hate speech may be challenged (Campbell et al., 2014). There is an argument that the greater consumer choice that is exercised in the case of social media should result in a reduced level of regulation to take into account the extent to which the choice exercised by the user can play a role (Van Dijck, 2013). Consumers may thus be put in greater control of their own choices, but in order to do so, they need to be aware of the dangers that can arise through a lack of knowledge of appropriate behaviour.

Education is more commonly provided as a result of the user’s inappropriate behaviour being corrected by the social media site (Lievens & Valcke, 2013). This means that where material is posted that concerns other viewers, it may be flagged as inappropriate with the viewers being asked why they find it objectionable. The content is then reviewed by the regulatory body of the site which then can either approve or remove the content (Lievens & Valcke, 2013). This relies upon the users of the site to establish whether the material is likely to need regulating, rather than observing content individually (Van Dijck, 2013). A significant drawback of this method is that it represents an ex ante approach, allowing the material to remain online for as long as it takes to be reported (Lievens & Valcke, 2013). This means that where copyright is compromised or sensitive material is posted, the content remains public allowing for it to be copied (Buckingham & Willett, 2013). Such examples may be seen in cases where the rules are broken; where the posting is taken down on the original account, it is already too late and the information may be reposted repeatedly (Lievens & Valcke, 2013).

This characteristic of social media regulation means that the regulation of material is significantly limited, as material cannot be prevented from being broadcast by being reported as offensive (Lievens & Valcke, 2013). However, this does not extend as far as is the case for traditional media and stories that are entirely false that would not be permitted in a newspaper can be distributed freely through social media (Van Dijck, 2013). Although individuals may report them, they are often not removed unless they illustrate features that are against the terms of the use agreement (Baron, 2015). The process of reporting such content after it is published is therefore not a fully effective way to regulate content, and, moreover, involves looser regulation than is generally accepted for journalistic standards (Lievens & Valcke, 2013). At the same time, censorship is not applied on the basis that the information presented may be false and misleading (Van Dijck, 2013). Although this model does tend to empower users, the extent to which it provides an effective model of regulation can be questioned, as it cannot prevent false material from being published, as is the case for the traditional media.

The AVMS Directive was published by the European Commission in 2007, complemented by a Communication on media literacy (Lievens & Valcke, 2013). It was suggested that the promotion of media literacy was a more appropriate approach that the provision of advertising bans (Bertot et al., 2012). This has been explored particularly in cases where social media is used to develop the employees approach to social media in governmental or corporate context (Lievens & Valcke, 2013). Internal social media policies are usually created, and advice given on how best they may be used to elicit consumer or citizen engagement. However, there are divisions between how social media is used in an official capacity and the differences between how employees use social media as an individual can undermine the effectiveness of such regulation (Bertot et al., 2012). This illustrates that the trend towards self-regulation is only largely effective in the context where social media should be better understood by the user. For the majority of users, regulation is perhaps undermined by a lack of the education that has been argued as essential for its effective use.

Despite the calls for greater regulation, resistance has come from the belief that it presents significant economic opportunities. The barriers to regulation against audiovisual content on sites such as Youtube has been seen as tantamount to reducing choice for viewers (Lievens & Valcke, 2013). Parallels are drawn between how the highly regulated broadcasting environment in television in the 1980s reduced the level of choice for viewers. Furthermore, the use of social media to promote products and services provides a number of challenges to the regulatory environment in that it is not always easy to establish whether commercial activity is being undertaken by an individual for personal (Van Dijck, 2013). If an individual promotes a brand and does not conform to regulation that affects advertising, the extent to which they may be liable for omission or exaggeration poses a regulatory challenge (Evans, 2012). For example, situations where an employee represents themselves as a consumer can undermine the validity of the media regulation (Evans, 2012).

This lack of regulation can thus have significant effects on the veracity of other media. In April 2013, a bomb was detonated near the finishing line of the Boston Marathon (Lievens & Valcke, 2013). Social media played a significant role in disseminating information about the bombing, much of which was accurate. However, there was a range of misleading information that included significant factual errors. A tweet suggesting that an arrest had been made was retweeted 13,930 times and reported as fact by major news corporations (Lievens & Valcke, 2013). This is an example where the lack of regulation allowed assertions to be made, which could then circulate as fact without verification. Social media can thus perpetuate the misinformation available, and the fact that there is no regulation requiring users to only provide true material when broadcasting undermines this (Dabbagh & Kitsantas, 2012).

A similar issue surrounding social media use is the potential for it to be used for bullying (Creech, 2013). For example, for some individuals who have been insensitive may find themselves receiving death threats, and in other contexts their home locations may be shared (Croteau & Hoynes, 2013). This means there is an apparent propensity of social media to provide a kind of mob rule. Unfortunately, because these situations escalate relatively quickly, the type of ex ante regulation that is usually applied is ineffective as it is impossible to challenge a fast moving story that is repeated thousands of times (Jewell, 2013). This means that social media challenges the traditional gatekeeping process of journalism, but is less regulated, undermining the extent to which information can be disseminated (Vardeman-Winter, & Place, 2015).

A final key area in which social media regulation is likely to pose significant challenges to the existing model of media regulation is due to its international nature (Van Dijck, 2015). Media regulation has previously allowed regulation to take place on a national basis, so material deemed unsuitable for broadcast were easily prevented. For example, allegations surrounding the royal family have often been regulated against dissemination in the UK, but are freely disseminated abroad. Social media allows such allegations to be freely disseminated (Lievens & Valcke, 2013). In many cases, traditional broadcasters can be restricted, even where they are situated abroad and are cable operators (Lievens & Valcke, 2013). Social media effectively undermines the potential for such broadcasting to take place, meaning that its effect on the regulatory environment extends to undermining existing regulation that is organised on a national basis (Van Dijck, 2013). Social media thus not only challenges the reach of media regulation in terms of its nature, it also acts to undermine the effect of existing legislation.

In conclusion, social media has had a significant impact upon on media regulation. It does not fit clearly into traditional models of regulation and this undermines how such media may be regulated. Because it can blur the edges of different media types, in that it can provide news or advertising at the same time, it can also challenge regulatory frameworks based upon such media remaining discrete. Self-regulation is suited to the nature of the media, but poses significant challenges to existing regulatory frameworks, as it does not prevent the dissemination of sensitive or false material; it simply allows it to be removed ex ante. Social media also undermines the extent to which existing regulatory frameworks may be conducted on a national basis as any information that is disseminated is thus available globally. These features have effectively reduced the impact of regulation and thus far the focus on self-regulation has done little to prevent the whole-scale diminution of media regulation.

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Greenpeace Save the Arctic campaign – LEGO and Shell

Greenpeace has had environmental issues at the core of its mission since it was founded in 1971, when a small group set sail from Vancouver, Canada to witness nuclear testing (Greenpeace, 2014a). Now a large international organisation, Greenpeace has several main branches of environmental activism and campaigning. One of its major campaigns is ‘Save the Arctic’, which has been running for 15 years. The campaign is concerned with climate change in general and the shrinking Arctic, but also more specifically with the plans of oil companies to drill in the Arctic. According to Greenpeace, the harsh conditions and remoteness would mean “an oil spill would be almost impossible to deal with. It’s a catastrophe waiting to happen”( Greenpeace, 2014b). Climate change can be a nebulous and esoteric problem that the public feel increasingly helpless to do anything about (Nordhaus and Shellenberger, 2009), but by focussing on a specific aspect, with a specific enemy, Greenpeace are providing people with an avenue for tangible action and results.

Currently, the campaign targets the oil company Shell, but throughout its history it has run targeted campaigns against a number of oil companies. Increasingly, companies are coming under scrutiny for their environmental credibility as consumers become more aware of damaging practices and become more discerning with their purchasing power (Miles and Covin, 2000). Greenpeace previously used this knowledge in a successful campaign called ‘StopEsso’ that impacted the social credibility of ExxonMobil (Esso) and caused negative consumer perceptions about the company in regard to the issue of climate change (Gueterbock, 2004).

However, in its most recent ‘Save the Arctic’ campaign, Greenpeace tried another new tactic by targeting the toy company LEGO. LEGO has had a partnership with Shell since the 1960s that saw LEGO toy sets branded with the Shell logo distributed from Shell petrol stations in several countries. Instead of targeting Shell for its plans to drill in the Arctic, Greenpeace targeted LEGO for its partnership with Shell.

Oil companies are now well known for their poor environmental credibility, so environmental campaigns need new ways to bring attention to specific issues. LEGO is a much-beloved toy company, and Greenpeace hoped that by linking LEGO directly to Shell’s Arctic drilling plans they could damage LEGO’s environmental credibility. For a company that had not faced this kind of criticism before, the attention could potentially be very damaging (Cho et al., 2012), so Greenpeace hoped this would force them to end their partnership with Shell. This would further damage Shell by ending a lucrative partnership and denying them the credibility by association with a popular toy company.

Through its partnership with LEGO, Shell had reached a new audience by putting its logo in the hands of children and making it seem more family-friendly and caring (Greenpeace, 2014c). Greenpeace’s targeted campaign also helped them reach the new audience of children by making them an integral part of the campaign mission. Throughout the campaign, Greenpeace pointed to LEGO’s mission to “leave a better world for children”: a promise it is not fulfilling by supporting Shell.

Greenpeace’s campaign went beyond the rhetoric of securing the environment for our children’s future however; it actively used children in several of its marketing stunts. In one event, children built giant LEGO-block Arctic animals outside LEGO’s London headquarters. When justifying the use of children in their campaign, Greenpeace stated: “Children love the Arctic, and its unique wildlife like polar bears, narwhals, walrus and many other species that are completely dependent on the Arctic sea ice. They wouldn’t want to see them threatened.” (Greenpeace 2014c). When assessing the use of emotion in social campaigns aimed at engaging youth, Hirzalla and Van Zoonen (2010) identified the appeal to empathy with animals and identification of animals’ ‘coolness and cuddliness’ as key constructs. While appealing to children through the use of animals, Greenpeace also strengthened its message of saving the planet for future generations by using seemingly self-motivated children in its campaign.

Many of the tactics used in Greenpeace’s campaign against LEGO followed guerilla marketing principles. While traditional guerilla marketing campaigns aimed at selling products focus on the element of surprise and unconventional techniques, Greenpeace’s campaign style could be more closely compared to guerilla warfare, composed of a series of ambushes and sabotages (Creative Guerrilla Marketing, 2015). For example, a band of Greenpeace activists descended on a LEGO factory in the Czech Republic and decorated it with a Shell logo and an oil spill with giant unhappy minifigures (LEGO characters) cleaning it up. Later, activists appeared outside LEGO’s headquarters in Denmark with a series of giant bricks representing the signatures of petitioners to stop the partnership between LEGO and Shell. Greenpeace’s global reach and local bands of enthusiastic demonstrators allow it to run campaigns multinational companies can only dream of; they can produce targeted marketing stunts quickly and a little cost.

A related tactic used in the campaign is viral marketing. Again, aimed at creating buzz with lower cost, viral marketing is “an Internet-based ‘word-of-mouth’ marketing technique” (Woerndl et al., 2008). Greenpeace had an online petition to LEGO to sever its connection with Shell that was easy to sign and share, providing a low barrier to participation for people who might want to join the campaign but not to go out and engage in guerilla activities. It was also easy to share and the progress was easily measured. Often, visible metrics of success can further increase the likelihood of a viral campaign being shared wider as its credibility is established (Woerndl et al., 2008). For example, the number of hits on a YouTube video can influence the likelihood of someone watching and sharing the video.

In fact, the centrepiece of Greenpeace’s viral marketing campaign was a video. Ryan and Jones (2011) said: “Online video is so powerful because well-executed video can be incredibly engaging and entertaining, demands little effort to consume and packs a lot of information into a relatively short space of time in comparison to other media. It’s also incredibly easy to share.” Greepeace’s video, launched at the start of the campaign, now has nearly seven million views on YouTube (Greenpeace, 2014d). It centres around a direct parody of LEGO’s recent smash-hit movie and its iconic song ‘Everything is Awesome’. The song is sung not in its original high-energy upbeat style, but as a slow lament, as images of an Arctic created out of LEGO slowly drowns under a tirade of leaked oil from Shell’s oil drilling platforms.

The video is extremely evocative, showing Arctic animals and ways of life drowning, as well as eventually our way of life too. By constructing the set out of LEGO bricks and using the popular song from the movie, the focus is very much on LEGO, while also capitalising on its recent surge in popularity thanks to the movie. Emotional appeals in marketing are shown to be more effective in eliciting a response from viewers (Franzen, 1994). It can be a risky strategy to appeal to negative feelings, however, unless the ‘product’ being marketed offers a solution. Greenpeace’s encouragement to people to sign the petition and make LEGO end their partnership with Shell prevents the campaign from creating purely negative feelings that could work against viral potential by providing a concrete, actionable solution.

The campaign was launched at the end of June 2014. After two weeks of guerilla tactics and the launch of the video, LEGO at first seemed unwilling to change its position, stating that: “We expect that Shell lives up to their responsibilities wherever they operate and take appropriate action to any potential claims should this not be the case.” LEGO maintained that Greenpeace’s dispute was with Shell and not them. However, for Greenpeace, LEGO’s trust in the oil company’s responsibility was not enough, and the campaign intensified. Finally, in October 2014, LEGO announced that it would not renew its partnership with Shell (Vaughan, 2014a).

However, in LEGO’s statement on the termination of the partnership, it was still reserved in its messaging and maintained that it did not agree with Greenpeace’s tactics against them: “We do not want to be part of Greenpeace’s campaign and we will not comment any further on the campaign. We will continue to deliver creative and inspiring LEGO play experiences to children all over the world.” (LEGO, 2014).

The Greenpeace campaign attracted criticism for targeting LEGO specifically. Some individuals pointed to the hypocrisy of the focus on the dissolution of the partnership as a partway solution to Arctic drilling, considering that LEGO bricks are made of plastic, a by-product of oil (Skapinker, 2014). However, LEGO is currently searching for a sustainable alternative material for its bricks, and hopes to replace oil entirely by 2030 (Miel, 2014).

The narrow focus on targeting LEGO also drew criticism for its simplicity in not dealing with the larger issue of energy generation. Chris Rapley, former director of the Science Museum (who opened a gallery in partnership with Shell), said the campaign “might attract headlines and make them feel good, but does not address the real issues and will not deliver the changes we all need.” (Vaughan, 2014b) Additionally, it has been argued that we all use energy and products of oil in our everyday lives, so we are all ‘implicated’, and any action against individual companies is hypocritical (Skapinker, 2014). Both argue that oil companies are also those most heavily involved in renewable energy development, being more truly ‘energy’ companies than purely ‘oil’ companies.

However, a blogger for The Economist (identified just as M.S.) praised Greenpeace’s campaign, saying that just because we are all sinners does not mean we cannot pressure others to behave better, and it is just these sorts of campaigns that encouraged energy companies to invest in renewable energy research in the first place (S., 2014). M.S. also praised the tactics of Greenpeace’s campaign, saying it leveraged the weight of environmental credibility to produce a concrete result: “If Shell comes to fear that drilling in arctic waters will damage its brand and encourage other well-regarded companies to distance themselves from it, that may help dissuade it from further drilling.” The viral tactics of the campaign were lauded by M.S., who identified it as a breakthrough campaign for Greenpeace as they left their roots of unfurling banners from buildings behind and produced a “wickedly clever campaign that feels entirely of this moment”.

In conclusion, the Greenpeace campaign was a success because it combined virality with up-to-date guerilla tactics in order to challenge the environmental credibility and social licence of a globally-recognised and popular toy company. Future Greenpeace campaigns look set to repeat the strategy, and time will tell if they remain successful. Following the announcement that LEGO terminated their partnership with Shell, executive director of Greenpeace UK John Sauven said: “Clearly Shell is trying to piggy back on the credibility of other brands. It’s a good PR strategy if you can get away with it. But as we’ve shown, if you can’t get away with it, that social licence is taken away. It does damage them a lot.” (Vaughan, 2014a).

References

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Franzen, G. (1994). Advertising effectiveness. Henley-on-Thames, Oxfordshire: NTC Publications.

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Greenpeace, (2014b). Save the Arctic. [online] Available at: http://greenpeace.org.uk/climate/arctic [Accessed 24 Jan. 2015].

Greenpeace, (2014c). Lego and Shell – FAQs. [online] Available at: http://greenpeace.org.uk/blog/climate/lego-and-shell-faqs-20140630 [Accessed 24 Jan. 2015].

Greenpeace, (2014d). LEGO: Everything is NOT awesome. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qhbliUq0_r4 [Accessed 24 Jan. 2015].

Gueterbock, R. (2004). Greenpeace campaign case study — StopEsso. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 3(3), pp.265-271.

Hirzalla, F. and Van Zoonen, L. (2010). Affective Political Marketing Online: Emotionality in the Youth Sites of Greenpeace and WWF. International Journal of Learning and Media, 2(1), pp.39-54.

LEGO, (2014). Comment on Greenpeace campaign and the LEGO® brand. [online] Available at: http://www.lego.com/en-GB/aboutus/news-room/2014/october/comment-on-the-greenpeace-campaign-and-the-lego-brand [Accessed 24 Jan. 2015].

Miel, R. (2014). Lego looking for a sustainable replacement for ABS. Plastics News. [online] Available at: http://www.plasticsnews.com/article/20140218/NEWS/140219915/lego-looking-for-a-sustainable-replacement-for-abs [Accessed 24 Jan. 2015].

Miles, M. and Covin, J. (2000). Environmental Marketing: A Source of Reputational, Competitive, and Financial Advantage. Journal of Business Ethics, 23(3), pp.299-311.

Nordhaus, T. and Shellenberger, M. (2009). Apocalypse Fatigue: Losing the Public on Climate Change. Yale environment 360. [online] Available at: http://e360.yale.edu/feature/apocalypse_fatigue_losing_the_public_on_climate_change/2210/ [Accessed 24 Jan. 2015].

Ryan, D. and Jones, C. (2011). The best digital marketing campaigns in the world. London: Kogan Page.

S., M. (2014). Childish arguments. The Economist. [online] Available at: http://www.economist.com/blogs/democracyinamerica/2014/10/greenpeace-lego-and-shell [Accessed 24 Jan. 2015].

Skapinker, M. (2014). Everything is not awesome about Greenpeace’s assault on Lego. Financial Times. [online] Available at: http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/7a8885fc-538c-11e4-8285-00144feab7de.html?siteedition=uk#axzz3PlQsJ8QR [Accessed 24 Jan. 2015].

Vaughan, A. (2014a). Lego ends Shell partnership following Greenpeace campaign. The Guardian. [online] Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/oct/09/lego-ends-shell-partnership-following-greenpeace-campaign [Accessed 24 Jan. 2015].

Vaughan, A. (2014b). Science Museum former head gives Greenpeace Lego campaign ‘0 out of 10’. The Guardian. [online] Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/oct/09/science-museum-former-head-gives-greenpeaces-lego-campaign-0-out-of-10 [Accessed 24 Jan. 2015].

Woerndl, M., Papagiannidis, S., Bourlakis, M. and Li, F. (2008). Internet-induced marketing techniques: Critical factors in viral marketing campaigns. International Journal of Business Science and Applied Management, 3(1), pp.33-45.

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Discuss with reference to 2/3 films.

The representation of stereotypical gender identities in filmmaking has evolved throughout cinema history, primarily in accordance with changes in political and social values. The traditional gender stereotyping of the dominant male- the all-powerful, masculine hero – and the spectacle of an emotional, submissive but desirable female counterpart, continues to dominate the filmmaker’s approach to image and narrative in mainstream commercial cinema. However there are examples of films which break with this stereotype as the boundaries which define this traditional role of the male and female are blurred.

Many film critics have considered the essential appeal of cinema in relation to audience participation and the viewer’s willingness to temporarily suspend their views and judgments; to draw parallels, make assumptions and interpretation with the film’s fictionalised ‘reality’. The importance of the relationship between the spectacle and the spectator, the viewed and the viewer, continues to be integral to film theory and criticism. The viewer watches a film with pre-determined thoughts, values, expectations and prejudices. It is the purpose of the filmmaker to draw upon, guide and manipulate the audience’s emotions and sense of ‘realism’. As David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson consider, “Film form can make us perceive things anew, shaking us out of our accustomed habits and suggesting fresh ways of hearing, seeing, feeling, and thinking.”

The audience’s interpretation of a film, the way in which we identify with the characters, is, as is often in life, judged upon initial appearance. The mise-en-scene of a film; namely the use of setting, lighting, costume, with the movement of the actors, visually dictates the story and the viewer’s sense of ‘realism’. These elements are of equal importance and as influential as the filmmaker’s use of camera shot, movement, technique and frame composition. Costume, props and make-up function as a guide in a film, contributing to a narrative with the creation of a specific mood. Assumptions can be made about a character before they have even spoken, based entirely upon their physical appearance. Film genres play with costume props and make-up extensively, typically for the purpose of creating realism, or to give impact to an image.

The representation of cross-dressing in commercial mainstream cinema has conventionally been avoided or included for comic purpose. The disguise by the divorced husband played by Robin Williams as a female housekeeper in ‘Mrs Doubtfire’ (1993) typifies the humorous and inoffensive approach to the taboo subject which had been previously explored in films such as ‘Some Like It Hot'(1959) and ‘Tootsie’ (1982). These were roles in which the male protagonist finds it necessary to disguise themselves as women so as to ensure their success and happiness in life, and is not meant as a representation of gender confusion or sexual ambivalence. Each dresses in drag for comic effect, it is visual clown comedy. Mrs. Euphegenia Doubtfire is a divorced man determined to remain with his children in any way possible, so becomes their female nanny. In ‘Tootsie’ an unemployed actor disguises himself as a woman to get a role in a soap opera and becomes a star. In ‘Some Like It Hot’ two musicians witness a mob hit and escape in an all-female band disguised as women. The audience are in on the joke alongside the men (played by Jack Lemmon and Tony Curtis) while the fellow characters remain humorously oblivious. The light hearted, harmless, and unquestionably unrealistic, approach to gender identity in such films reflects cinema’s historical aesthetic tradition of telling a story which is the ‘norm’, familiar to its audiences, and marketed as entertainment for mass appeal

The portrayal of cross-dressing in relation to gender and sexual confusion in cinema is stereotypically of a character tormented by pain and uncertainty. The film is subjective, following their personal journey as they seek personal happiness and fulfilment, and a release of their fears. Such gender identity is typically explored by filmmaker’s through psychoanalytical representation. A film which exemplifies such depiction is Alfred Hitchcock’s film ‘Psycho’ (1960). The film tells the story of Norman Bates, a crazed individual whose obsessive need of his mother (he literally preserves her body in his basement), leads him to become her. The silhouette of Norman wearing a dress and wig as he raises his arm and slashes the defenceless heroine of the film as she has a shower is perhaps the most well-known images of cross-dressing in cinema history. A psychiatrist explains to the viewer as the film ends, “He was simply doing everything possible to keep alive the illusion of his mother being alive. And when reality came too close, when danger or desire threatened that illusion, he dressed up, even in a cheap wig he’d bought. He’d walk about the house, sit in her chair, and speak in her voice. He tried to be his mother.” Hitchcock is able to successfully manipulate his audience into identifying with each of the film’s victims in turn; firstly, with his female protagonist Marion Crane and then the male/female antagonist Norman Bates. The viewer’s emotions are shifted as Hitchcock forces us into exploring and comprehending the complex world of his mind and reconsider his identity and our interpretation of him.

The gender coding of masculine restraint, with the emphasis upon physique and not emotional charge, is evocatively explored in ‘Boy’s Don’t Cry’ (1999), a film which powerfully addresses the issue of sexual identity and gender roles. The film tells the story of Brandon Tenna (played by Oscar winning Hilary Swank), a young girl who successfully integrates herself into a small town Nebraskan community as a man, has a loving relationship with a woman, and who is later raped and murdered when it is discovered that he is in fact biologically female, given the birth name of Teena Brandon. Based upon a true story, filmmaker Kimberley Pierce explores not what it means being a lesbian but what it is to be a woman who feels that she is a man. Teena cuts her hair, tapes her breasts, and puts a sock down her trousers, hiding her female identity, and making not a sexual but a social transformation. The film is a graphic portrayal of the manifestation of hate, ignorance and ultimately the use of violence as a display of “manhood”. Significantly, it is not Teena who is represented as being crazed, but her attackers as they brutally rape her and shoot into her defenceless body. The viewer is forced to confront their own biases and prejudice as Pierce positions us without remission or apology throughout the shockingly explicit ordeals that Teena Brandon suffers. Pierce said of her film, “I think it’s a universal story that affects people regardless of their sexual orientation … the point is to engage the audience as deeply as possible with all the characters and allow the audience to see itself reflected in all of them, in the tragedy as a whole.” What makes the film so hauntingly frightening is its believability; that the rape and murder were so predetermined and could so likely happen again if a similar situation were to arise. Pierce asks the viewer to consider this.
Cinema has the capacity to shift and change an audiences understanding and evaluation of a subject matter. The individual expression of an artistic vision by the filmmaker is open to a flexibility which invites interpretation and rethinking. The varied representations of cross-dressing in films throughout cinema history, to the present day direct addressing of the taboo in films such as ‘The Crying Game'(Neil Jordan, 1992) and ‘Boy’s Don’t Cry’ exemplifies how complex subject matters might don’t necessarily alienate film audiences.

Bibliography:

Bordwell, David & Thompson, Kristin. Film Art, New York: McGraw Hill. 1990.

Francesca Miller. Putting Teena Brandon’s Story on Film. Gay & Lesbian Review Worldwide. Volume: 7. Issue: 4. 2000.

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The quest for higher efficiency of the internal combustion engine will always be pursued. Increasingly stringent emission regulations are forcing the manufacturers to downsize on engine displacement and increase the specific power. By adding the turbocharger, the air flows through the engine and hence specific power can be increased.

The advantage of a small turbocharged engine over a naturally aspirated (NA) engine of a similar power is that it is lighter, having better part load efficiency when operating at the same load, while producing less emission.

The objective in this study is to investigate a turbocharger in a naturally aspirated engine and testing the engine before the installation of the turbocharger.

Boost refers to the increase in the manifold pressure that is generated by the turbocharger in the intake path or specifically that exceeds the normal atmospheric pressure. This study also aims to develop a strategy for the control of boost for the engine.

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background

Turbocharged spark ignition engines have been around since the 1970s, but their popularity outside the motorsport sector has been small until the recent advances in engine control. The lack of popularity could partly be due to the drivability issues associated with early turbocharged engines. The engine’s response to a sudden increase in driver’s demand was delayed due to a turbocharger lag.

The lag was then usually followed by a rapid increase of power which resulted in loss of traction and possible loss of control over the car. The developments made in the electronic control and management of internal combustion engine made it possible to overcome most of these drivability limitations. Passenger vehicles with turbocharged SI engines are now becoming more common. A number of companies such as Audi and Volvo now offer different passenger vehicle models with turbocharged SI engine whereas Mercedes offers supercharged and turbocharged engines.

The operating principle of the turbocharger is to use the energy recovered from the exhaust gases to force more air into the combustion chamber. This increases the amount of oxygen in the combustion chamber and hence more fuel can be burned and more power can be produced. Therefore a turbocharged engine can produce more power than a similar sized naturally aspirated engine. It is claimed that the displacement of the turbocharged engine can be reduced by up to 40% relative to NA engine, without compromising power output. Thus the turbocharged engine could be smaller, lighter and more fuel efficient as well as produce less emissions.

1.2 Aim

To design and specify turbocharger in a Vauxhall 2.2 litre engine

1.3 Objectives:

Critical literature review of the project.

To investigate turbo system, develop a system for the Vauxhall 2.2, produce drawings and design.

Testing the engine before installation of turbocharger

To investigate and develop strategy for control of boost for the engine over a wide range of condition.

2.0 Initial Critical Review of Literature

This project is related to the turbocharging of a four stroke petrol engine. In this discussion a turbocharged four stroke diesel engine will also be discussed briefly and the differences will be highlighted. However, it omits to discuss two stroke engines due to their different gas exchange processes.

Supercharging

The term supercharging refers to increasing the air density by increasing its pressure prior to entering the cylinder. This allows a proportional increase in the fuel that can be burned and hence raises the potential power output. Three basics categories are used to accomplish this.

The first is mechanical supercharging where a separate pump or compressor, usually driven by power taken from the engine, provides the compressed air. The second method is turbocharging, where a turbocharger, a compressor and turbine on a single shaft is used to boost the inlet air density. The third method is pressure wave supercharging which uses wave action in the intake and exhaust systems to compress the intake mixture.

The main advantage of turbocharging as opposed to supercharging is that turbocharging uses the energy in the exhaust gas that would have been lost. Supercharging uses power from the engine’s crank shaft and thus less power is available for propulsion

Turbocharging

The author acknowledges that the theory represented in this section is extracted from Watson and Janota (1982).

The exhaust driven turbocharger was invented by a Swiss engineer named Alfred Buchi, his patent applied to a diesel engine in 1905. It took a very long time to establishe a turbocharger, but it is now proved that their characteristics are suited to the diesel engine, the reason being that only air is compressed, and no throttling is used.

A turbocharger consists basically of a compressor and turbine coupled on a common shaft. The exhaust gases from the engine are directed by the turbine inlet casing on the blades of the turbine and subsequently discharged to atmosphere through a turbine outlet casing. The exhaust gases are utilized in the turbine to drive the compressor, which compresses the air and directs it to the engine induction manifold, to supply the engine cylinder with air of higher density than is available to a naturally aspirated engine.

Figure1: Automotive Turbocharger

Since diesel engines having no knock limitations, the maximum allowable boost on CI engines depends only on the mechanical strength of the engine. On an SI engine, the boost pressure is limited by knock. Thus if boost pressure is high on SI engines, the compression pressure must be low, high octane number fuel must be used or ignition timing must be retarded.

Turbocharger Theory

The operating characteristics of turbo machines such as turbines and compressors are totally different from the reciprocating internal combustion engine. The most common turbocharging assembly used in the automotive industry is made up of radial compressor coupled to radial turbine. Between the two is a wide supporting plain journal bearing, because an ordinary roller bearing would not survive the high rotational speed of up to 25000 rev/min of which a small turbine is capable. For racing application, ceramic ball bearings are being used more frequently.

Axial turbine coupled with a radial compressor is a common configuration. Axial turbines are preferred for their superior efficiency to those of a radial turbine, but according to manufacturer’s radial flow turbines are simpler and cheaper to manufacture and also the operating range of radial flow compressors are limited to certain pressure ratios, because a high pressure ratio will cause the supersonic flow and cause shockwaves at the inlet, this will impair the efficiency of compressor.

Turbocharging Diesel (CI) or Petrol (SI) engines

Today turbocharged diesel engines are common but turbocharged petrol engines are rare. There are sound reasons, both technical and economic for this situation. The principal reasons stem from the difference between the combustion systems of petrol and diesel engines. The petrol engine uses a carburettor or fuel injection system to mix air and fuel in the inlet manifold so that a homogeneous mixture is compressed in the cylinder.

A spark is used to control the initiation of combustion which then spreads throughout the mixture. This is because the mixture temperature during the compression must be kept below the self-ignition temperature of the fuel. Once the combustion has started it takes time for the flame front to move across the combustion chamber burning the fuel. During this time unburnt ‘end gas’ is heated by further compression and the radiation from the flame front.

If it reaches the self-ignition temperature before the flame front arrives, a large quantity of mixture may burn extremely rapidly producing severe pressure waves in the combustion chamber. This situation is commonly referred to as ‘knock’ and may result in severe cylinder head and piston damage. This is due to the fact that the compression ratio of the engine must be low enough to prevent knock occurring.

In the CI engine cylinder, air alone is compressed. Fuel is sprayed directly into the combustion chamber from an injector only when combustion is required. This fuel self-ignites as in a diesel engine the compression ratio must be high enough for the air temperature on compression to exceed the self-ignition temperature of the fuel. As injection takes time, only some of the fuel is in the combustion chamber when ignition starts, and since much of this fuel is not as damaging as the knocking situation in a petrol engine.

The maximum CR of the petrol engine, but not the diesel engine, is therefore limited by the ignition properties of the fuel. The minimum CR is limited by resulting low efficiency. Turbocharging results not only give a higher boost pressure, but a higher temperature. Unless the compression ratio of a petrol engine is reduced the temperature at the end of compression stroke will be too high and the engine will knock.

The engine may remain knock free under mild boost – but only because there should be a sufficient safe knock free margin, or a fuel of higher self-ignition temperature/octane number has been used. Thus the potential power output of a turbocharged petrol engine is limited. The diesel engine has no such a limitation and can therefore use a much higher boost pressure.

Petrol engines cost substantially less to produce than diesel engines of equivalent power output. The cost of the turbocharger on a diesel engine is more than offset by reduced engine size required for a specified power output (with the exception of very small engines). This situation will rarely occur in the case of petrol engine.

Energy Available In the Exhaust Gas:

Figure 2 shows the ideal limited pressure engine cycle in terms of pressure/volume diagram for the naturally aspirated engine. Superimposed is a line representing isentropic expansion from point 5, at which the exhaust valve opens, down to the ambient pressure (Pa) which could be obtained by further expansion if the piston were allowed to move to point 6. The maximum theoretical energy that could be extracted from the exhaust system is represented by the shaded area 1-5-6. This energy is called as ‘blow-down’ energy.

Figure2: Naturally Aspirated Ideal Pressure Limited Cycle (Watson and Janota,1982)

Considering the supercharged engine, the ideal four stroke pressure/volume diagram would appear as shown in figure, where P1 is the supercharging pressure and P7 is the engine back pressure in the exhaust manifold. Process 12-1 is the induction stroke, during which fresh charge at the compressor delivery pressure enters the cylinder. Process 5-1-13-11 represents the exhaust process.

When the exhaust valve first opens (point 5) some of the gas in the cylinder escapes to the exhaust manifold expanding along line 5-7 if the expansion is isentropic. Thus the remaining gas in the cylinder is at P7, when the piston moves towards the TDC, displacing the cylinder contents through the exhaust valve into the exhaust pipe against the back pressure.

At the end of the exhaust stroke the cylinder retains a volume (Vcl) of residual combustion products, which for simplicity can be assumed to remain there. The maximum possible energy that could be extracted during the expulsion stroke will be represented by area 7-8-10-11, where 7-8 represents isentropic expansion down to the ambient pressure.

Figure3: Turbocharged Ideal Pressure Limited cycle (Watson and Janota, 1982)

There are two distinct areas in figure 3 representing energy available from the exhaust gas, the blow down energy (area 5-8-9) and the work done by the piston (area 13-9-10-11). The maximum possible energy available to drive a turbocharger turbine will clearly be the sum of these two areas. Although the energy associated with one area is easier to harness than the other, it is difficult to devise a system that will harness all of the energy.

To achieve that, the turbine inlet pressure must rise instantaneously to P5 when the exhaust valve opens, followed by isentropic expansion of the exhaust gas through P7 to the ambient pressure (P8=Pa). During the displacement part of the exhaust process, the turbine inlet pressure must be held at P7. Such a series of process is impracticable.

Considering the simpler process in which a large chamber is fitted between the engine and the turbine inlet in order to damp down the pulsating exhaust gas flow. By forming a restriction to the flow, the turbine may maintain its inlet pressure at P7 for the whole cycle. The available work at the turbine will then be given by area 7-8-10-11. This is the ideal constant pressure system. Next consider an alternative system, in which a turbine wheel is placed directly downstream of the engine close to the exhaust valve.

If there were no losses in the port, the gas would expand directly out through the turbine along line 5-6-7-8, assuming isentropic expansion. If the turbine area were sufficiently large, both cylinders and the turbine inlet pressure would drop to P9 before the piston had moved significantly up the bore.

Hence the available energy at the turbine would be given by area 5-8-9. This can be considered the ideal pulse system. The system commonly used and referred to as ‘constant pressure’ and ‘pulse’ are based on the above principles but in practice they differ from these ideals.

Constant Pressure Turbocharging

In constant pressure turbocharging exhaust ports from all the cylinders are connected to a single exhaust manifold, whose volume is sufficiently large to dampen down the unsteady flow entering from each cylinder. When the exhaust valve of a cylinder opens, the gas expands down to the (constant) pressure in the exhaust manifold without doing useful work.

However, not all of the pulse energy is lost. From the law of conservation of energy, the only energy actually lost between the cylinder and turbine will be due to heat transfer. With a well-insulated manifold, this loss will be very small and can be neglected.

Consider what happens to the gas leaving the cylinder, expanding down into the exhaust manifold, and then flowing through the turbine. At the moment of the exhaust valve opening, the cylinder pressure will be much higher than the exhaust manifold pressure. During the early stages of valve opening (when the effective throat area of the valve is very small) the pressure ratio across the valve will be above the choked value.

Hence gas flow will accelerate to sonic velocity in the throat followed by the shock wave at the valve throat and sudden expansion to the exhaust manifold pressure. Due to the turbulent mixing and throttling, no pressure recovery occurs. The stagnation enthalpy remains unchanged and hence flow from the valve to turbine is accompanied by an increase in entropy.

As the valve continues to open the cylinder pressure will fall and flow through the valve which becomes subsonic. The flow will continue to accelerate to the valve throat and then expand to a pressure in the exhaust manifold. The energy available to useful work in the turbine is given by isentropic enthalpy change across the turbine, whereas the actual energy recovered is given by the enthalpy change across the turbine.

Clearly it is a lack of recovery of the kinetic energy leaving the valve throat and throttling gases that lead to poor exhaust gas energy utilization with the constant pressure system.

If the exhaust manifold is not sufficiently large, the blow down or the first part of the exhaust pulse from the cylinder will raise the general pressure in the manifold. If the engine has more than three cylinders, it is inevitable that at the moment when the blow down pulse from the cylinder arrives in the manifold, another cylinder is nearing the end of its exhaust process.

The pressure in the latter cylinder will be low; hence any increase in exhaust manifold pressure will impede or even reverse its exhaust processes. This will be particularly important where the cylinder has both intake and exhaust valves partially open and is relying on a through-flow of air for scavenging of the burnt combustion products.

There are some advantages and disadvantages of using a constant pressure system:

Conditions at the turbine entry are steady with time. Therefore losses in the turbine that result from unsteady flow are absent.

A single entry turbine may be used, eliminating ‘end of sector losses’.

Single turbocharger can be used on all multi-cylinder engines, it will be a large turbocharger unit and since it is a large unit it will have low leakage losses and hence have higher efficiency. Turbines designed for constant pressure turbocharging have a high degree of reaction (50%) which, coupled with exhaust diffuser, brings additional gains in efficiency.

From a practical point of view, exhaust manifold is simple to construct although it may be rather bulky, particularly relative to small engines with few cylinders.

Transient response of the system is poor. Due to the large volume of gas in the exhaust manifold, the pressure is slow to rise, resulting in poor engine response and making it unsuitable for applications with frequent load or speed changes.

Pulse turbocharging

Although the constant pressure system is commonly used on certain types of engines, the vast majority of turbocharged engines in Europe use a pulse turbocharging system. In the practical pulse system an attempt is made to utilize the energy represented by both pulse and constant pressure areas of figure 2.

The objective is to make the maximum use of high pressure and temperature exist in the cylinder at the moment of exhaust valve opening, even at the expense of the creating highly unsteady flow through the turbine. In most cases the benefit from increasing the available energy will more than offset the loss in the turbine efficiency due to the unsteady flow.

Now consider small exhaust manifold as shown in figure. Due to the small volume of exhaust manifold, a pressure build up will occur during the exhaust blow-down period. This results from a flow rate of gases entering the manifold through the valve exceeding that of gas through the turbine.

At the moment the exhaust valve starts to open, the pressure in the cylinder will be 6 to 10 times more than the atmospheric pressure, whereas the pressure in the exhaust manifold will be close to atmospheric. Therefore the initial pressure drop across the valve is above the critical value at which choking occurs and the flow will be sonic.

Further expansion of the gas to the exhaust manifold pressure occurs by sudden expansion at the exhaust manifold recovery occurs due to turbulent mixing. The stagnation enthalpy remains constant hence the flow from the valve throat is accompanied by an increase in entropy.

Finally the gas expands through the turbine to atmospheric pressure, doing useful work. The out-flowing gas from the cylinder loses a very large part of its available energy in throttling and turbulence after passing the minimum section of the exhaust valve. If the ratio of valve throat area to manifold cross section area is very small then throttling losses are very large and pressure drop across the valve is very large, during the initial stages of valve opening.

Following further opening of the exhaust valve the cylinder pressure increases, reducing the throttling losses across the valve. The pressure drop across the turbine is now much larger, transferring the available energy to the turbine, which represents a much larger proportion of the available energy in the cylinder.

At the end position of the valve opening the flow is sub-sonic and the throttling loss is reduced and is equivalent to the kinetic energy at the entry to the exhaust manifold. During the exhaust stroke, the flow process follows approximately the constant pressure pattern as described in the previous section. At the exhaust valve, the pressure in the exhaust manifold approaches atmospheric value.

With pulse operation, a much larger portion of the exhaust energy can be made available to the turbine by considerably reducing throttling losses across the exhaust valve. The speed at which the exhaust valve opens to its full area and the size of the exhaust manifold become important factors as far as energy concerned. If the exhaust valve can be made to open faster, the throttling losses become smaller during the initial exhaust period.

Furthermore, if the area of exhaust manifold is smaller than the rise in pressure of exhaust manifold will be faster, contributing to a further reduction in throttling losses in the early stages of the blow-down period. A small exhaust manifold also causes a much more rapid fall in pressure towards the end of the exhaust process improving scavenging and reducing pumping work. This discussion has therefore focused on the single cylinder engine connected to the exhaust manifold.

However, in the case of a multi-cylinder engine this problem becomes more complicated. Because the turbocharger may be located at the one end of the engine, narrow pipes are used to connect the cylinders to the turbine to keep the exhaust manifold size as small as possible. By using the narrow pipes the area increase following the valve throat is greatly reduced, keeping throttling losses to a minimum.

Scan dig7.2

Consider again a single cylinder engine, connected to a turbine by a long narrow pipe as shown in figure. Since the large quantity of exhaust energy becomes available in the form of a pressure wave, which travels along the pipe to the turbine at sonic velocity, the conditions at the exhaust valve and the turbine are not the same at a given time.

Therefore the flow process at the exhaust pipe and at the turbine end, have to be presented separately as shown in figure. For simplicity, pressure wave reflections in the pipe are ignored. During the first part of the exhaust process, in the choked region of flow through the valve, the gas is accelerated to sonic velocity at the throat. Since the contents of the pipe are initially at rest at atmospheric pressure, sudden expansion takes place across the valve throat. However some of the kinetic energy is retained as dependent on the valve throat area to pipe cross-section area.

As the valve opens further the pressure at the exhaust pipe entry rises rapidly. This is firstly because a certain amount of time is required for the acceleration of the outgoing gases, and secondly because the gases enter the exhaust pipe from the cylinder at a higher rate than they are leaving the exhaust pipe at the turbine end.

The sudden pressure rise at the pipe entry is transmitted along the pipe in the form of a pressure wave and will arrive at the turbine displaced in time. This displacement is a function of length of pipe and properties of gas. The pressure drop across the valve is noticeably reduced due to the rapid drop in cylinder pressure and the rise in the pipe pressure and also because the valve throat area to pipe area ratio has increased. Both effects considerably reduce throttling losses. The velocity at the turbine end of the pipe is greater than velocity after the valve, due to the arrival of high pressure wave at the turbine end.

In the subcritical flow region of blow down period, the pressure in the exhaust falls at the same time as that in the cylinder. The velocity at the valve throat is equal to the velocity in the pipe, since the valve is fully open. At the turbine exhaust gas expands to atmospheric pressure, doing useful work in the turbine.

It has been established that the pulse turbocharging system results in greater energy availability at the turbine. As the pressure wave travels through the pipe, it carries a large portion of pressure energy and small portion of kinetic energy, which is affected by friction. The gain obtained through the use of a narrow exhaust pipe is achieved partly by reducing throttling losses at the early stages of the blow down period and partly by preserving kinetic energy.

Thus the small diameter exhaust pipe is essential because this will preserve high gas velocity from the valve to the turbine. However if pipes are made too narrow, viscous friction at the pipe wall will become excessive. The optimum exhaust manifold pipe diameter will be a compromise, but the cross sectional area should not be significantly greater than the geometric valve area at full lift.

The actual flow through a pulse exhaust system is highly unsteady and is affected by pulse reflections from the turbine and closed exhaust valves. It will be evident that effective time of arrival of a reflected pulse changes as per the engine speed. Hence the exhaust pipe length is critical and must be optimized to suit the speed range of the engine.

The interference of reflected pressure waves with the scavenging process is the most critical aspect of a pulse turbocharging system, particularly on the engine with a very long valve overlap. Because of this phenomenon it is impossible to connect an engine with more than three cylinders to the same turbine without using a twin-entry turbine or introducing losses on the intake or exhaust processes.

The advantage of pulse over the constant pressure turbocharging is that the energy available for conversion to useful work in the turbine is greater. The ideal pulse turbocharging must have following characteristics:

The peak of blow-down pulse must occur just before the bottom dead centre of the cylinder, followed by a rapid pressure drop to below boost pressure.

The boost pressure must be above the exhaust manifold pressure to aid the scavenging process during the valve overlap.

The effectiveness of pulse system is governed by the gas exchange process and overall efficiency of the turbocharger under unsteady flow conditions.

Pulse converters in turbocharging

The pulse turbocharging system has been found to be superior as compared to the constant pressure system on the majority of today’s diesel engines. In the previous section it is made clear that the pulse turbocharging is most effective when groups of three cylinders are connected to the turbine entry.

When one or two cylinders are connected to a turbine the average turbine efficiency and expansion ratio tend to fall due to the wide spacing of exhaust gases pulses. To overcome some of these advantages ‘pulse converter’ has been developed.

Birmann was the first to use the term ‘pulse converter’. His main objective was to design a device that preserved the unsteady flow of gases from the cylinder during the exhaust and valve overlap periods, yet to maintain a steady flow at the turbine, so that it might be possible to achieve good scavenging and high turbine efficiency. For good scavenging he proposed a ‘jet pump system’, by using high velocity of gas issuing from a central nozzle to decrease the pressure in short pipes at the exhaust valves.

The system shown in figure 8.1 has some disadvantages as following:

Each nozzle must be larger than last which results in high manufacturing cost.

The whole installation is bulky and complex.

Because much of exhaust gases will pass through several ejectors and diffusers, the frictional and diffusion losses will be high.

There is insufficient length between exhaust ports to permits efficient pressure recovery in the diffusers.

The majority of pulse converters in use today are based on the concept of minimum energy loss, even if this means not only a loss of all suction effect, but also some pressure wave difference during scavenging. To avoid high mixing losses at the junction, the area reduction in the inlet nozzles is usually small (junction area >50% of pipe area), while the mixing length and plenum and often even the diffuser are omitted completely, as suggested by Petak (as cited in Watson and Janota, 1982).

These simple pulse converters have the added advantage of adding little over-all length to the exhaust system. A typical example from a four stroke engine is shown in figure 8.4. The pulse converter is specified by the nozzle and throat area ratios. Clearly such a pulse converter will generate no suction, but the flow losses through it will be very much less than in more complex designs.

Tests on a model pulse converters by Watson and Janota (1971) have shown that the area reduction at nozzles has to be severe to reduce pulse propagation substantially. The penalty accompanying large area reductions in the inlet nozzles is higher internal losses and hence reduces the amount of energy available for useful expansion through the turbine. In practice this means that the minimum possible area reduction is used, consistent with reasonable scavenging.

It follows that the design of the pulse converter is a compromise between minimum losses and reduction of the pulse interaction between the inlet branches. The compromise adopted may vary from one engine design to another, depending on the amount of pulse interference, etc.

8.0 References

Watson, N and Janota, M, 1982, Turbocharging the Internal Combustion Engine, MacMilan, Great Britain.

Heywood, John, B, 1988,Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill

Stone, R, 1992, Introduction To Internal Combustion Engine, MacMilan,

Great Britain.

Azzoni, P, Moro, D, Ponti, F & Rizzoni, G, 1998, Engine and load torque estimation with application to electronic throttle control, SAE paper No. 980795, Society of Automotive Engineers.

9.0 Bibliography

Notes posted by Dr Les Mitchell on studynet

‘Report Writing guide’ posted by Dr. Rodney Day on studynet

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Introduction

This study uncovered that the field of consumer behaviour represents a broad ranging category where marketers seek to understand individual and group motivations, reactions and responses to varied product and service situations (Solomon et al, 2009). It found the processes and activities undertaken by consumers regarding the stages and steps of the decision and buying process (Gupta et al, 2004).

The cognitive approach was found to look at consumer perceptions in processing information that acknowledges social and environmental experiences (Watson and Spence, 2007). Humanistic models delve into behavioural perspectives as opposed to the perception aspects of the cognitive approach.

The above summary of the two major consumer categories represented the basis for understanding how they guide the differing models and theories under each. It was ascertained that in terms of cognitive and humanistic, the varied theories and models under them all have special attributes. These represent the basis for the selection of the theory or model suited to individual product or service categories.

Cognitive Models

Bray (2008) explained that the cognitive approach is credited to Hebb’s Stimulus Organism Response model that was introduced in the early 1950s. Hebb’s model states that there is a linear relationship concerning the impact of stimuli. This concept has been criticised by Kahle and Close (2006) along with Tyagi and Kumar (2004), who state that the Hebb’s model lacks the capacity to account for past experiences as its shortcoming.

Bray (2008) explains that people usually respond to the cognitive aspects of their environments, and that these cognitive areas are related to the parameters and processes of learning. He adds that feelings, behaviours and thoughts are connected in a casual manner. Regarding behavioural facets, it emphasises processes connected to human behaviour such as environmental stimuli and their behavioural responses (Zimmerman, 2008).

Cognitive Model – Consumer Decision

Consumer decisions under the cognitive designation consist of three models (Bauer et al, 2006). These represent the utility, satisficing, and prospect theories (Steel and Konig, 2006). The utility theory proposes that people make their decisions based upon expected outcomes (Steel and Konig, 2006). It also views consumers as actors that are rational and able to foresee or estimate the potential outcomes of decisions they make that include the potential for uncertainty. This is a flaw in the utility theory as the unknown end utility functionality of a purchase is debatable at best.

Cognitive Model – Satisficing Model

The satisficing model is a newer alternative to the utility model that was first proposed in the 1700s by Nicholas Bernoulli (Richrme, 2005). It represents larger and longer term consumer decisions. In many cases, good enough is the explanation for this type of decision process (Richrme, 2005). Elements of the utility theory are included in the satisficing model, but since the decision is made less often, consumers tend to accept a different basis for purchase or decision making then those products that are replaced more often (Richrme, 2005).

The limitations of funds to purchase exactly what one prefers is a constraint under this consumer behavioural model that in most cases causes consumers to settle as opposed to optimising their decision to meet all of their wants and desires (Bray, 2008). Bray (2008) argues that in many causes the optimal purchase cannot be determined, and that consumers tend to lack the capacity to find the best purchase option.

Cognitive Model – Prospect Theory

The prospect theory was developed in the mid 1970s by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman (Sirakaya and Woodside, 2005). It added value to replace utility. Value represents a point of reference that consumers can use to determine the gains or losses from a purchase (Camerer et al, 2011).

The prospect theory helps to explain aspects of consumer behaviour that are not completely explained under the utility theory. These represent the emotional connection and the potential that the extent of a problem is not fully understood (Sirakaya and Woodside, 2005). These are strengths of the prospect theory over the utility and satisficing theories. Camerer et al (2011) found that the prospect theory might predict outcomes that are not accurate due to the fact it does not consider the characteristics of decision makers regarding their past history, and the context of the decision areas represented by the type of purchase (large versus small ticket items in terms of price or frequency).

Cognitive Models – Theory of Buyer Behaviour

The theory of buyer behaviour represents an approach to analyse and predict the method that consumers use in making their purchase decisions (Pickton and Broderick, 2005). In many cases, a consumer will use a generic decision making model (Pickton and Broderick, 2005). The first step generally represents them conducting research on varied products and prices. In most cases the process is prompted by replacing a product the consumer already owns that has become outdated or no longer works (Calonius, 2006). In order to understand the considerations in the process, the following provides an illustration of the factors:

Figure 1 – Model of Consumer Buying Considerations Affecting the Buying Process

(Friesner, 2014, p. 1)

Friesner (2014) adds that understanding consumer buyer behaviour entails how it links to the marketing mix represented by price, place, promotion and product. He advises that marketers and consumers are intertwined as the former modify their approaches to create a climate for consumer action, and that that the reaction of consumers causes continued modifications to the 4Ps. The above explains the strength and weakness of buying behaviour as it is based on the parameters of past and current consumer motivations, and actions. This same strength also represents a weakness as new products; better information availability (such as the Internet) and shifting product reputations mean that buying behaviour patterns and rationales are consistently changing (Calonius, 2006).

Cognitive Models – Theory of Reasoned Action

The theory of reasoned action is a method to predict behaviour, attitude and intention (Cooke and French, 2006). It separates intention from behavioural aspects that provide the framework to explain the impact of attitude (Hale et al, 2002). The main tenets are based on attitude, behavioural intention and subjective norm (Cooke and French, 2006). Attitude represents the beliefs formed by a consumer concerning a behavioural approach that include the assessment of what the consequences might be. Behavioural intention looks at the strength of an individual’s intention in performing a behaviour, with the subjective norm representing perceived expectations based on other people or groups, and how a person measures up to these norms (Cooke and French, 2006). The weakness of reasoned action is that the sum of the comparison group forms the basis for measurement. If the intentions, subjective norms or attitude are improperly gathered, it negatively affects the outcome.

Cognitive Models – Theory of Planned Behaviour

The theory of planned behaviour connects behaviour and beliefs (Ajzen, 2011). It is an improvement on the theory of reasoned action as it adds perceived behavioural control to attitude, behavioural intention and subjective norm (Ajzen, 2011). The addition of perceived behavioural control looks into the perceptions individuals carry regarding their capability to perform a type of behaviour (Kraft et al, 2005). This is the strength of the theory as it delves into the potential presence of factors that may impede or aid behaviour performance. Conversely, it also represents a weakness because if the perception does not accurately reflect actual behavioural control, it can cause incorrect conclusions or assumptions (Kraft et al, 2005).

Humanistic Models

Humanistic models of consumer behaviour are close to the behavioural perspective with some key differences (Wong, 2006). It is defined by Davis and Palladino (2010) as focusing on areas that can be observed and emphasises the learned nature of such behaviours. The humanistic model places emphasis on the individual and their psychodynamic determinants that consist of behaviours that can be observed and their reaction to external stimuli (Wong, 2006).

Humanistic models also take into account the psychology represented by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs that observed people tend to be motivated by rewards or unconscious desires (Koltko-Rivera, 2006).

Figure 2 – Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

(Burton, 2012, p. 1)

Maslow refers to the four bottom tiers as representing deficiency needs (Anderson, 2014). He explains that individuals become anxious when these needs are not met or if they are under threat. The top tier represents growth as it permits individuals to employ self-actualisation that include independence, objectivity, awareness, creativity and honesty (Anderson, 2014). Bourdieu (Trigg, 2004) along with Rouse (2004) and others have criticised Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as being too schematic (meaning too planned or structured) and as lacking in scientific principles. Others such as Oleson (2004) and Dye et al (2005) state it provides a useful theory and intuitive guide to understand aspects of human motivation.

The humanistic approach and its models represent that people have the capacity to guide and shape their destiny and thinking to design courses of action they can follow or amend as circumstances or situations change (Davis and Palladino, 2010).

Humanistic Models – Theory of Trying

The theory of trying represents a consumer seeking to act on a particular thought or series of thoughts connected to a potential purchase (Ahuja and Thatcher, 2005). Carsrud et al (2009, p. 155) explain it as “an attitude toward a reasoned action is replaced by an attitude toward trying and an intention is restricted to an intention to try”. The theory integrates hierarchical goals into a behavioural context that people use to work toward a decision (Ahuja and Thatcher, 2005). It delves into the processes individuals work through in attempting to solve a selection problem that includes looking at the varied options that are available.

Figure 3 – The Theory of Trying

(Bray, 2008, p. 27)

As shown by the above, the stages contributing to the theory channel into intention to try before being considered or actualised.

The issue with the theory is that it represents a subjective process that seeks to identify a switch in consumer intention from attitude to trying (Ahuja and Thatcher, 2005). This entails opinions based on the recorded intentions or attitudes of individuals that might have been perceived incorrectly. The other aspect that represents a weakness is that it is skewed toward the evaluation of the potential consumption patterns of individuals as opposed to their buying behaviour (Ahuja and Thatcher, 2005).

Humanistic Models – Model of Goal Directed Behaviour

The model of goal-directed behaviour was build on the tenets of the theory of planned behaviour as it advances the aspect of goals as its main foundation rather than behaviours (Hagger and Chatzisarantis, 2007). Desire is a critical component as its represents a driving force:

Figure 4 – Model of Goal Directed Behaviour

(Bray, 2008, p. 28)

The model of goal-directed behaviour is complex due to attitude, positive and negative anticipated emotions and subjective norms contributing to desires. As shown in the above figure, desire is a critical component that also represents a potential source of misunderstanding as it is a subjective area that can easily be misconstrued concerning consumer behaviour.

Conclusion

This exploration of cognitive and humanistic models uncovered that the varied theories and approaches under each has their own unique attributes. It was also found that each tends to have specific attributes that fit varied situations or circumstances based on what marketers are seeking to uncover to utilise in the development of campaigns and approaches to generating sales.

The cognitive approach seeks to uncover experiences, feelings, values, expectations and thoughts consumers develop and use as a part of their decision, and reasons for action. The three approaches under consumer decision making primarily represent rational (utility), expectations (satisficing) and value (prospect) approaches. The theory of buyer behaviour is a complex process that is influenced by marketing (the 4Ps), along with purchase considerations and psychological aspects that include perception and learning. The deeper a marketer elects to explore the above leads to using the theory of reasoned action that seeks to separate intention from behavioural aspects. This can thus be used to delve into the theory of planned behaviour that adds attitude and perceived behavioural aspects.

Whilst the humanistic models concerning consumer behaviour have a close affinity to behavioural perspectives, they place more emphasis on psychodynamic aspects and individuals using phenomenon that is observable and learned from such behaviours. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs explained that the self actualisation phase as the top tier was applicable under the humanistic approach as it represents the stage where base needs no longer control decisions. The theory of trying demonstrates the above as it represents a consumer seeking to act on a particular thought as the means to decide on a selection using hierarchical goals. Goal directed behaviour is more personally motivated as it utilises desires as a core component in the process.

It was found that each of the theories and models examined under cognitive and humanistic approaches had their strengths and shortcomings. This is because each of these models are based on differing approaches such as uncovering experiences, feelings, values, expectations and thoughts under cognitive, compared to psychodynamic and individuals observable phenomenon for humanistic. This study brought out that no one model or theory adequately explores or explains consumer decision making or behaviour, but that through combinations, marketers can arrive at more comprehensive understandings.

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Camerer, C., Loewenstein, G., Rabin, M. (2011) Advances in Behavioral Economics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

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Introduction

A service is “any act or performance that one party can offer to another that is essentially intangible and does not result in the ownership of anything. Its production may or may not be tied to a physical product (Kotler, 2000, p. 200)”. Furthermore, service marketing can be defined as “the marketing of activities and processes rather than objects” (Solomon, et al., 1985, p. 106). As services are mainly intangible products, they “face a host of services marketing problems that are not always adequately solved by traditional goods-related marketing solutions” (Hoffman & Bateson, 2010, p. 5).

Service quality is “a measure of how well the service level delivered matches customer expectations. Delivering quality service means conforming to customer expectations on a consistent basis” (Parasuraman, et al., 1985, p. 42). Due to these problems, there are a variety of new conceptual frameworks to monitor service quality. Some of these methods are completely new creations, whereas other good-based frameworks were merely extended to be applicable towards service quality.

This report will explore several service marketing and quality frameworks, including; service marketing mix (7Ps), SERVQUAL the services marketing triangle and service dominant logic. These different methods of measuring service marketing and quality will be critically evaluated using a variety of academic theory.

7Ps and Service Marketing Mix

The 7Ps and service marketing mix is a great framework used to analyse the performance of service marketing and the quality that a company has to offer. The service marketing mix used to consist of the 4Ps (Gronroos, 1994). These were (Booms & Bitner, 1981):

Product: Quality, brand name, service line, warranty, capabilities, facilitating goods, tangible clues, price, personnel, physical environment and process of service delivery.
Price: Level, discounts and allowances, payment terms, customers own perceived value, quality/price interaction and differentiation.
Place: Location, accessibility, distribution channels and distribution coverage.
Promotion: Advertisements, personal selling, sales promotion, publicity, personnel, physical environment, facilitating goods, tangible clues and process of service delivery.

However, this was later expanded on to form the 7Ps. This is because there was a higher degree of interdependence between buyers and sellers, meaning the marketing mix had to take into account buyer-seller relationships (Webster, 1984). The three extra factors to conclude the service marketing mix are (Booms & Bitner, 1981):

Participants: Personnel training, discretion, commitment, incentives, appearance, interpersonal behaviour, attitudes and customer behaviour/degree of involvement.
Process: Policies, procedures, mechanisation, employee discretion, customer involvement, customer direction and flow of activities.
Physical Evidence: Environment, furnishings, colour, layout, noise level, facilitating goods and tangible clues.

The addition of these extra three factors helped make the 7Ps a much more comprehensive framework for service marketing. Furthermore, it offers a broader perspective of service marketing, with more refined results. However, all frameworks come with some weaknesses, and the service marketing mix can sometimes be too complicated to companies or marketers. Furthermore, some academics will suggest that the extra elements can already be covered by the 4Ps, thus making them redundant, and also that it is hard to control and monitor the additional elements (Rafiq & Ahmed, 1995).

The original four factors of the marketing mix are widely known and used throughout all facets of marketing, but the modern additions give a new flavour to service marketing. This pays particular attention to ‘participants’ as it includes all employees and consumers that have an effect on service quality. However, processes and physical environment still have a big influence, as they monitor the environment and the ways in which an employee or company deliver service.

Service Dominant Logic

Service dominant (S-D) logic “superordinate’s service (the process of providing benefit) to products (units of output that are sometimes used in the process)” (Lusch, et al., 2007, p. 6). Furthermore, service dominant logic is thought to be grounded by nine fundamental factors.

Figure 1 – (Vargo & Lusch, 2006)

The presiding view of S-D logic is that customers should be viewed as an “operate resource”, which is a resource that can act with other resources, thus co-creating value (Lusch, et al., 2007, p. 6). Furthermore, collaboration between the organisation and their consumers allows for a strong bond to form between S-D logic and the 7Ps.

S-D logic was formed to recognise the importance of service marketing, and lay a new foundation over the outdated goods-dominated logic. With value being created in new ways, and consumers valuing the service encounter, organisations must create value for their services. Furthermore, there is no goods vs services in S-D logic, as it recognises goods as an ‘appliance’ used in the service encounter (Lusch & Vargo, 2006).

Although S-D logic provides many benefits for an organisation, there have been a variety of academics that criticise the approach. The majority of scholars (Groonos, 2006; Achrol & Kotler, 2006) point out that interaction and networks play a more imperative role in value creation, something that S-D logic does not take into account. However, Lusch & Vargo (2006) insist that S-D logic does take into account interaction and networks, as it believe value creation is the process of integrating and transforming resources which implies interaction between networks.

SERVQUAL

SERVQUAL is a service quality framework developed to measure the scale of quality provided by a service a company has to offer. It was composed by Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry through a series of publications in the 1980s and early 1990s (Buttle, 1995). Its aim was to compare customer’s perceptions with their expectations of a service. It its original formulation, SERVQUAL was composed of ten factors for analysing service quality. These were; reliability, responsiveness, competence, access, courtesy, communication, credibility, security, understanding and tangibles (Parasuraman, et al., 1985). However, they collapsed these components into five main factors, which would constitute the modern understanding of SERVQUAL or RATER. These factors are (Iwaardan, et al., 2003):

Reliability: Doing what is promised and doing it at the right time.
Assurance: One of the most significant factors of assurance, is a company that has the required knowledge to answer questions.
Tangibles: Up to date equipment, physical facilities and materials are visually appealing.
Empathy: A company’s communication with consumers, usually in the form of human interactions. Giving care to each individually personally.
Responsiveness: Most significant part of responsiveness is giving a prompt service.

There have been many criticisms about the long-term stability of the results that SERVQUAL can provide (Lam & Woo, 1997; Crosby & LeMay, 1998). This is in special attention to the applicability of all of the five factors mentioned above. Furthermore, Cronin & Taylor (1994) argue that service quality should not be strictly categorised into five different factors, but should be measured using whatever means are applicable to the situation. On top of this, Buttle (1995, p. 10) states that “SERVQUAL has been subjected to a number of theoretical and operational criticisms”. These are;

Theoretical:

SERVQUAL is based on a disconfirmation paradigm, and not an attitudinal paradigm.
Little evidence that consumers assess service quality using the five factors.
Focus heavily on the process of service quality, and not the outcomes

Operational:

Consumers generally use standards instead of expectations to measure service quality.
The five factors cannot cover the variability of service quality.
Consumer quality perceptions are very versatile, and can change quickly.

Although SERVQUAL does have several criticisms, it also has many practical applications. Wisniewski (2001) outlines some of the applications where SERVQUAL can be used. Understanding current service quality is the predominant use of SERVQUAL. This is because it allows managers to assess the current service, and monitor any gaps that exist. SERVQUAL can also highlight how different consumers perceive quality for the different services a company has to offer. Overall, it is a comprehensive framework that helps a company analyse the gap in service quality, and can help a manager decide on appropriate strategies to increase service quality.

Furthermore, SERVQUAL supplements the 7Ps service marketing mix well. This is because it allows the company to gather data from consumers, which they can tailor specifically to one of more of the 7Ps. Measuring the 7Ps through a SERVQUAL framework will allow a company to monitor where they are offering positive service quality, and where their service quality is lacking.

Services Marketing Triangle

Similarly to the services marketing mix, the services marketing triangle was created to handle the complexity that service marketers face when dealing with intangible products. The service marketing triangle highlights three key players, these are (Groonos, 1996);

Firm: The management of a company, including full-time marketers and sales personnel. This is enabled through continuous development and internal marketing with their employees.
Employees: This includes anyone that is working within close contact of the consumer. They play an integral role within the interactive marketing of service marketing.
Customers: Anyone that purchases the service of a company. They are also heavily exposed to the external marketing of a firm.

For marketing to be successful, a marketer should ensure that there is positive interaction between these three players. Furthermore, for this success to be accomplished, three types of marketing must be conducted. These are (Strydom, 2005);

External Marketing – Making Promises: Involves communication by a company towards their consumer. This form of communication allows the company to offer their services, and set the expectation of service quality that the client can expect. In service marketing this pays particular attention to physical evidence, such as the appearance of the place of business or appearance of staff.
Interactive Marketing – Keeping Promises: Interactive marketing is revolved around the communication that occurs between the client and the service delivery personnel. This is one of the most important parts of successfully utilising the services marketing triangle, as it is the only time that the client will have face-to-face experience with the company, via the providers.
Internal Marketing – Enabling Promises: A more modern addition to the services marketing triangle, internal marketing centres on training employees to the highest standards so they can deliver exceptional service. Without internal marketing, there is a high chance that the client will receive sub-standard service.

For the service marketing triangle to be implemented successfully, all departments of a company must work together to deliver the highest quality of service that is possible. All members of an organisation must be conscious of their role in delivering service quality, and understand what their marketing function is. (Alvesson, 1995).

Furthermore, the advancements in technology are having a huge impact on service quality and marketing frameworks. This is because the changes in technology are allowing companies to communicate with customers in a non-physical environment, such as through the internet. This is transforming the services marketing triangle into a services marketing pyramid, as all three factors can be bought together through the clever use of technology (Zeithaml & Bitner, 2000).

One of the most significant downfalls to the service marketing triangle is that firms often do not implement it as a triangle. Instead they will focus on one point of the triangle, and neglect the others. This is particularly true to internal marketing, as many organisations believe that if employees are treating correctly, then it will naturally pass through into the external environment (Li, 2010). However, the fact that all three points are woven together, and influence by each other, does present opportunities’ for organisations to conduct their marketing efficiently and at a cheap cost (Eric, 2014).

Another criticism of the service marketing triangle is that it takes into account to many marketing activities. Marketing is used merely as a tool to coerce a consumer to purchase a good or service (Kotler & Armstrong, 2010), and an organisation shouldn’t have to focus on all three aspects of triangle. As service quality is impacted by each individual point of the triangle, an organisation could, theoretically, only focus on one point (Yadav & Dabhade, 2013; Lings & Greenley, 2009). However, as previously mentioned, this can have unintended impacts on other facets of the triangle, meaning that an organisation should strive to monitor and implement all three points of the triangle, instead of focusing on only one.

Conclusion

It becomes quickly apparent that service marketing is an imperative factor for a company to conduct proficiently. This is because service marketing has positive links with service quality and customer satisfaction, which in turn has strong ties to a company’s overall financial performance. Conducting negative service marketing can result in a consumer experiencing negative service quality, and thus taking their business elsewhere and potentially spreading bad press.

Furthermore, because of the significance that service marketing and service quality has on a company, there have been a variety of frameworks that have been developed. The most proficient for service marketing is the 7Ps, whereas SERVQUAL is a great framework for service quality. However, the services marketing triangle somewhat combines these two factors into a comprehensive framework that outlines both service marketing (internal, external and interactive) and mediums through which service quality can be delivered (firm, employees, customers). The services marketing triangle is become the modern approach to service quality and marketing, especially as it is not including the advancements in technology. This further highlights the importance of service marketing and quality, as a variety of academics are consistently improving upon existing frameworks, so that companies can deliver the greatest amount of service quality through success service marketing.

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INTRODUCTION

The marketing concept is all about achieving corporate goals by meeting and exceeding customer needs better than the competition. The way to do this is for companies to consider what value they are proposing to offer to their customers and once this decision is made, decide how to communicate this message to their customers/marketplace (Fahy & Jobber, 2012).

It is considered that there are 3 main elements to the marketing communication mix: tools, media and messages (Baines & Fill, 2014). This essay is concerned with the outline and critique of the first two of these, tools and media.

TOOLS

The range of techniques or tools for communication is called the promotional mix: advertising, sales promotion, public relations, personal selling, direct marketing and online promotion (Jobber & Ellis-Chadwick, 2013). Whilst marketing as a subject places a lot of emphasis on the promotional mix, research looking at the influence of promotional mix on the sales turnover of an organisation faced with strong competitors indicated that promotional mix only influenced sales by 25% of the change And other factors such as the product itself, pricing and distribution accounted for the larger 75% (Sunday & Bayode, 2011).

Advertising

‘A paid form of non-personal communication about an organisation and its products’ (Dibb, et al., 2012, p. 495). Advertising is generally a mass marketing communication technique as its non -personalised message means that it can be aimed at a wide audience.

Its key characteristics are that it can help build awareness because it can reach a wide audience. Also, depending upon the media used to advertise, it can create a strong brand position and it can support the sales effort because it raises awareness. However, by its very nature it is impersonal and as such cannot answer specific questions. Further to this, it has limited ability to close a sale as this normally requires an additional interaction over and above the ad itself.

There are strong and weak theories of advertising (Baines & Fill, 2014). The strong theory assumes that advertising can increase sales for a brand and for a product within that brand, and the weak theory assumes that consumers are driven by habit rather than exposure to advertising communications. Clearly these are two extremes and the reality is that the effectiveness or otherwise of advertising lies somewhere along the scale and is influenced by other factors apart from simply brand or habit.

In marketing, it is considered that advertising decisions are those that are most affected by cultural differences and as such it can be extremely challenging to get the right blend of advertising and sales promotion effort (Ghauri & Cateora, 2014).

Sponsorship and celebrity endorsements are also forms of advertising. Growing interest in celebrities today has led to an increasing use of celebrities in brand and product advertising. Some target markets look to identify closely with their celebrity idols and as such many companies believe that celebrities are particularly useful for targeting a specific market. Evidence suggests however, that campaigns featuring celebrities are not necessarily any more successful than those which use some other form of creativity to capture a consumer but that the use of celebrities can have an impact on brand and reputation based on their own behaviours (Pringle, 2004), so whilst some research suggests that they do not create as much value as might be thought, other research certainly points to the damage that can be caused by negative publicity surrounding celebrities (Thwaites, et al., 2012).

Sales Promotions

Sales promotions offer incentives such as competitions and special offers to consumers to try to stimulate a purchase (Fahy & Jobber, 2012). These can provide a quick boost to sales but the effects may only last for a short while during the promotional activity and overuse may damage brand image as it can create quality concerns or leave the consumer not believing in the value of the product.

Public Relations

Public relations provides the opportunity to communicate information without paying for it directly. It is considered to be highly credible because the message is coming from a third party. Depending upon where the publicity is, it can result in higher readership than advertising placements but it does mean that there is loss of control of the content (Jobber & Ellis-Chadwick, 2013).

In research looking at the use of public relations in FMCG businesses in the UK which traditionally utilise advertising and sales promotion using publicity rather than public relations, it was found that public relations appeared to be gaining in emphasis and expenditure in the firms interviewed for the research (Kitchen, 1993). The research however, was unclear as to the effectiveness of the increased use.

Personal Selling

This is oral selling directly with the purchaser (Fahy & Jobber, 2012). The key characteristics of this type of communication is that it is interactive so questions can be answered and concerns addressed immediately. Because it is a verbal communication, the approach can be adapted depending upon the customer needs. This personal aspect also means that relationships can be established and as such it can have longer lasting effects in regards to follow on sales and complimentary items. Personal selling obviously lead to sales closure but it is costly and time consuming.

Direct Marketing

Direct marketing ‘encompasses all the communications tools that enable a marketer to deal directly with targeted customers’ (Dibb, et al., 2012, p. 501). This includes direct mail, telemarketing, responsive TV, door to door and the internet. This is deemed to be the fastest growing communication tool largely as a result of the internet growth (Dibb, et al., 2012).

Direct marketing communication can be personalised and its effectiveness can be easily and quickly measured. It is possible to build a relationship through contact and therefore ensure ongoing sales and it is not visible to competitors. However, it is slow and the response rates are often low and it can create annoyance and frustration in consumers if it is incorrectly targeted.

Online Promotion/Digital Promotions

This is ‘the promotion of products to consumers and businesses through digital media channels’ (Jobber & Ellis-Chadwick, 2013, p. 514). It offers the following key characteristics: ability to reach global audiences with ease, highly measurable, interactive and although not quite as quick as personal selling as it can nonetheless be very rapid and it is easy to adapt, change and react.

It can however, be a significant cost to develop an appropriate website and there are security risks to consider. It is also transparent for competitors to see but most companies today however, do have a website that is a key element in their marketing efforts (Mohr, et al., 2010).

MEDIA

There are a number of classes of media including broadcast which encompasses television and radio, print which is the press and magazines and digital such as the internet. There are other classes such as out-of-home, in-store and other such as cinema and exhibitions but these other classes are secondary in nature as they are more limited in the audience they reach or are able to target (Baines & Fill, 2014).

Broadcast

Television and radio offer the opportunity to reach mass audiences. It is often considered to be expensive but due to the large mass that can be reached it is a relatively low cost and given that it is visual and/or sound based the communications can be effectively brought to life in order to convey the marketing message. Both television and radio can tell stories and appeal to emotions which is more difficult to do with print based media. Broadcast television can demonstrate the product in use but once advertised it cannot be referred to again by the consumer unlike print which can be kept.

There are increasing threats to the effectiveness of television advertising today as people are able to use their recording technologies to avoid watching ads. At the same time improvements in digital technologies mean that costs are falling and so even television broadcast can begin to be tailored to smaller audiences who can be targeted by geographical area or special interest groups (Jobber & Ellis-Chadwick, 2013).

There are clear signs that television networks are beginning to pay more attention to the viewer complaints about the extent of advertising with many networks such as CBS, Fox, MTV and cable TV in general now showing either lower minutes per hour in ads or the growth in minutes per hour slowing down. This will increase the cost of advertising as there will be less time and space available but it may improve the effectiveness of the ads as the reduced volume may allow consumers to consider those that they do see more thoroughly (Wall Street Journal, 2007).

Radio broadcast is clearly sound limited but as such is most effective in communicating factual information and it can be targeted by paying for advertising at specific times of the day. Furthermore, its effectiveness has increased with digital technology which can now allow listeners to view some limited information in their digital displays while the ad is running.

Print

Print consists largely of newspapers and magazines and is considered to be effective at delivering messages to target audiences (Baines & Fill, 2014). Pictures can help show off a product or demonstrate its use as well as words to describe the product and its benefits. It does give control to the consumer in that they can determine how long they want to read the information for. Again though, this is a changing medium as the increase in tablet use means that press is now also delivered digitally allowing for some of the printed information to then be developed into full digital marketing using click through technologies (Jobber & Ellis-Chadwick, 2013).

Digital

Digital media includes the internet, online marketing, wireless, mobile and interactive television. Digital media allows the opportunity for a two way communication. It allows a business to gain feedback and interact with the customer. Digital interactions are high speed, low cost and usually have great clarity. Because space and time in other media channels such as television or print are limited, cost can increase as demand for the space and time increases but space is unlimited on the internet and as such costs per contact with customers actually falls as more and more customers are reached.

Within each type of media, the decision on which tool to utilise still needs to be determined. Advertising can clearly use all 3 but they each offer different advantages and disadvantages from a marketing perspective. Digital is relatively cheap compared to broadcast and print as well as being more flexible in that it is easier to update quickly to respond to changes. Internet adverts can also incorporate games and entertainment which is more difficult with regular broadcast and not possible with print. Because internet adverts can be interactive they can also be more personalised and they can be location based. They can advertise something by accessing the location of consumers and targeting them very specifically. Many companies already do this by ‘pinging’ to mobile phones in the area that the customer is in.

The biggest setback to internet advertising is that consumers can view them as intrusive. Pop-ups suffer more consumer complaints than other types of advertising, internet or other (Baines & Fill, 2014). Furthermore, research comparing old and new media channels in respect of their attributes and to determine effectiveness found that the traditional broadcast and print channels were still perceived by consumers, including younger consumers, as more reliable and trustworthy in their messaging (Danaher & Rossiter, 2011).

Further research supports that by Danaher & Rossiter referred to above, in concluding that the most effective advertising channels are the traditional media of television and direct mail and that although these are still the most expensive, the expense appeared to be worthwhile. Radio was found to be consistently effective whereas online display ads were consistently ineffective (Danaher & Dagger, 2013).

CONCLUSION

This is a rapidly changing environment for businesses and their consumers. Some believe that ‘successful companies will engage customers through “omnichannel” retailing: a mashup of digital and physical experiences’ (Rigby, 2011). The world today is an offers a wide range of easily accessible information for consumers and businesses and it is easy to imagine how ideas and interactions can lead to greater success for businesses if they can find the right balance to address the consumers and deliver to their expectations.

Each marketing tool and media channel has advantages and disadvantages and the reality is that effective marketing should look to an appropriate combination of the promotional mix delivered via a range of media to ensure that it makes the right offer to consumers using the most effective method to deliver its message.

References

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Kitchen, P. J., 1993. Public Relations: A Rationale for Its Development and Usage within UK Fast-moving Consumer Goods Firms. European Journal of Marketing, 27(7), pp. 53-75.

Mohr, J., Sengupta, S. & Slater, S., 2010. Marketing of High-Technology Products and Innovations. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Pringle, H., 2004. Celebrity Sells. 1st ed. Chichester: Wiley.

Rigby, D., 2011. The Future of Shopping. Harvard Business Review, 89(12), pp. 64-75.

Sunday, A. & Bayode, B., 2011. Strategic Influence of Promotional Mix on Organisation Sale Turnover in the Face of Strong Competitors. Management & Marketing – Craiova, Issue 1, pp. 67-76.

Thwaites, D., Lowe, B., Monkhouse, L. L. & Barnes, B. R., 2012. The Impact of Negative Publicity on Celebrity Ad Endorsements. Psychology & Marketing, 29(9), pp. 663-673.

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Introduction

The spectacular development of the internet has triggered much interest in different areas such as marketing. Businesses are experimenting with this new type of technology to support their commercial activities. There are various e-marketing tools available to e-marketers. The purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast various e-marketing tools currently being used by e-marketers. In order to achieve this objective, this paper will discuss the following four e-marketing tools that are being used widely: search engine optimisation, pay per-click, Web 2.0, and online social networks. Finally this paper will draw conclusions from the discussions.

Search Engine Optimisation (SEO)

SEO is a way of building traffic via organic search results. The content will rank higher in the search engines if it is better and more popular (Suarez, 2005). Hard work and dedication are required for this type of online marketing, because it’s a long and arduous process to position the website and its content at the top of the search engine page (Palmer and Koenig-Lewis, 2009). No website really ventures past the first page of any search engine, but if the website is optimised for SEO, then it will begin to appear more obviously on the first page of search engines like Google (Whitla, 2009).

Consumers respect and trust organic results more as sources of information than paid search results; consequently they are more likely to click on an organic result compared to a paid search result (Trusov et al., 2009). A study showed that 95% of search engine users chose to click on organic results, while only 6% clicked on paid results (Wang and Zhang, 2012). This divergence can be explained by the fact that many search engine users have selective blindness towards paid search results (Jobber, 2010). The mind of a search engine user considers organic results that appear at the top of the search engine results page as credible. This depicted credibility gives the user faith in the content, products and services (Pang and Lee, 2008).

If the content is relevant even after a long period of time and a search engine still ranks it high because of optimisation, then the content will stay at the top of the search engine results page for a very long time (Armbrust et al., 2010). Therefore, SEO is a means to keep the content pertinent and at the forefront of the company’s target audience long after they were created. This is why, SEO is better than Pay-Per Click (PPC), because PPC will fall off the radar engines once the payment of fees is stopped (Armbrust et al., 2010). Armbrust et al. (2010) argue that the return on investment of the website will continue to rise with SEO, whereas with PPC it will reach a certain point and then become stagnant. This is because SEO pages’ click through-rates continue for an extended period of time, whereas PPC only has the ability to funnel clicks and convert them to sales for a short period of time. Once the payment of fees for PPC is stopped, the click through-rates will fall and the return on investment will drop proportionately. Boa-Ventura and Zagalo (2010) suggest that start-up businesses with shoestring budgets should go for SEO to promote their contents, because SEO is free of charge.

Pay-Per Click

PPC is a way of presenting the content to the target audience by paying for advertising space in the sponsored results section of search engine results page (Bruns, 2008). The company pays a fee for the click, once a viewer clicks on the advert and arrives on the web page. PPC can be done through various advertising networks like Google AdWords, Yahoo Advertising Marketing, Google AdSense and infolinks.

PPC produces instant results, whereas SEO takes time and commitment before results begin to appear (Bampo et al., 2008). This is because, once the fees for PPC is paid, the link to the website will appear on the first page of the search engine. If a company wants to promote time sensitive contents such as product and service offers, the PPC is the most effective way of diverting consumers to the company’s website (Clarke, 2008). Moreover, PPC enables a company to get its content out when the market is full of authority websites that even the most effective SEO cannot displace (Bampo et al., 2008).

The conversion rates of PPC are higher than SEO, because search engine users who click on paid advertisement have the intention to make a purchase (Cook, 2008). This means visitors who arrive at the website through a paid advertisement are more likely to buy the company’s products than those arriving through organic results. Also, calculation of the return on investment of the website is easier with PPC than with SEO (Armbrust et al., 2010). PPC allows the website to be promoted only to target segments. With PPC, it is possible for a company to market its products or services to people based on their gender, age, education level, income bracket and marital status (Easley and Kleinberg, 2010). Therefore, the company’s financial resources are not wasted advertising on the website to visitors who are uninterested in the products and have no intention to make a purchase. With SEO, a website can lose its ranking if the SEO algorithms used by search engines are updated (Cook, 2008). Cook (2008) claims that PPC is not in any way affected by SEO algorithm updates. He goes on to argue that companies using PPC do not need to worry about losing traffic and the revenue that is generated by that traffic.

Web 2.0

Blogs, wikis, RSS and social references are examples of internet technology and applications that are referred to as Web 2.0 (Turban et al., 2008). Web 2.0 expands social users’ and business participants’ experience, knowledge and market intelligence (Mata and Quesada, 2014). It does so through online applications that are open-source, interactive and user controlled. Web 2.0 supports informal user networks’ creation through the facilitation of ideas and knowledge flows, thus allowing generation and dissemination of market intelligence (Constantinides and Fountain, 2008).

Various Web 2.0 applications are used to allow the exchange of information between users (Constantinides and Fountain, 2008). For example, websites allow the presentation of information, blogs allow various authors to post items or texts in chronological order on the same website, wikis allow collaborative creation and editing of web pages, chats allow synchronous conversation over the internet, RSS or atom syndication mechanisms allow retransmission of web information sources, podcasts allow distribution multimedia files, and mashups allow amalgamation of content from various websites (Mata and Quesada, 2014). Examples of websites using Web 2.0 applications include: Blogger, Facebook, Flickr, Google Docs, LinkedIn, Picasa, Skype, Twitter, Wikipedia, WordPress, and YouTube. These sites allow users to directly create and share information in various forms such as text, photos, and videos, hence facilitating communication and interaction between users (Mata and Quesada, 2014).

Surowiecki (2004) describes collective intelligence as people’s knowledge and experience that those people gain and share within social contexts. The exploitation of collective intelligence is the most important aspects of Web 2.0 applications. Companies which exploited collective intelligence survived the dot-com bubble and now lead the Web 2.0 era (O’Reilly, 2007). However, Turban et al. (2008) question the collective intelligence in Web 2.0 applications due to lack of ability to verify the quality of the content and integrity of the users. Turban et al. (2008) argue that there is a risk that Web 2.0 applications may harness some poor quality information created and shared by its users. The above argument derives from the reality that maintaining editorial control over information created and shared on the internet is extremely difficult. Mata and Quesada (2014) argue that despite the lack of editorial control, the risk of poor quality information is manageable, especially in Web 2.0 sites that have high volume of users and specialise in providing information services. A study carried out by Giles (2005) established that the quality of information posted on Wikipedia is as good as those of the Encyclopaedia Britannica’s. Moore (2009) echoes with this conclusion and reports that the Encyclopaedia Britannica has decided to let the public write articles in its online edition because of the success and popularity of Wikipedia.

Online Social Networks

An online social network is a web-based service that allows users to: 1) create a personal profile, 2) connect their profiles with other individuals’ profiles with whom they have formed social relationships both online and offline, and 3) view profiles linked to their connections, recursively (Boyd and Ellison, 2007). Boyd and Ellison (2007) state that an online social network’s aim is to enable its users to articulate and make clear their existing offline social networks online, not the possibility to meet new people. Therefore, online social networks’ main purpose is to facilitate communication and relation among their users who are part of those social contexts (Mata and Quesada, 2014). Online social networks have received much attention because they have made the real social networks more visible and quantifiable, and also they have been accepted as important tools of mass communication, especially to influence others, create and disseminate news (Constantinides and Fountain, 2008; Boyd and Ellison, 2007).

Web 2.0 has already demonstrated that its consequences are beyond technology and it has an effect on consumers, which affects strategy and marketing (Constantinides and Fountain, 2008). Therefore, from a marketing point of view, it is important to analyse online social networks’ effect on businesses. McAfee (2009) states that groupware or CSCW (computer-supported collaborative work) is a common perspective that relates to the use of online social networks in business. Ellis et al. (1991) claim that groupware enables communication, collaboration, and co-ordination, which is called the 3C model. To explain the use of online social networks for marketing, the following two perspectives are useful: market perspective and community perspective. This paper will only discuss market perspective because community perspective is not as evident in e-marketing as market perspective these days.

The market perspective considers the number of users on high traffic online social networks as a potential market. Several such networks have tremendous amount of users, which presents valuable opportunities for businesses to promote their brands and products (Mata and Quesada, 2014). An analysis of 47 Web 2.0 case studies carried out by Dooley et al. (2012) concluded that market perspective related principles, such as behaviour change, segmentation and targeting, are evident in those cases. Therefore, the market perspective seems to be in widespread use when considering Web 2.0 applications for marketing.

However, it is very important to recognise that not all consumers have accepted online social networks. Young consumers are the main users of online social networks, followed by mainstream online consumers and professionals who have realised that Web 2.0 applications empower them (Constantinides and Fountain, 2008). Furthermore, most existing online social networks have target segments and they still attend to those segments despite all the changes that they have gone through in recent times (Rysdam, 2010). Target segments of Facebook and LinkedIn are university students and professionals, whereas target segment of MySpace is young people which are music fans (Boyd and Ellison, 2007). Therefore, it is very important to understand the target demographics of online social networks in order to properly use them according to the market perspective (Mata and Quesada, 2014).

Conclusion

This paper suggests that start-up businesses with shoestring budgets should choose SEO to promote their products and services. However, companies which have financial resources and want to carry out highly targeted campaigns should go for PPC. SEO offers long term search marketing on a budget, while PPC generates quick traffic streams that are required for high converting products. This paper finds that Web 2.0 is only useful if it exploits collective intelligence that is of good quality. This paper warns that marketing through an online social network can only be successful if the company’s target segment matches with that of the online social network. Therefore, this paper recommends that a company should combine these marketing tools and use each tool according to the current needs of the company.

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1.0 Introduction

Porter (2004) established the concept of the value chain, the model broadly addresses the question as to where value is added to a product or service through both primary activities which physically add value to a product or service and secondary activities which support the primary activities as shown in the popular visualisation below:

The objective of this portfolio is to identify were value from both the product and customer perspective and then consider how these identified values have an impact on the value chain activities for the company and product in question. Conducting the research the portfolio will use a mixture of both primary and secondary research to establish the relevant information. Whilst the results of the research may be found in the relevant areas of the Pro-forma’s the detailed research methods may be found in the appendix at the end of the portfolio.

2.0 Product value – Pro-forma A

2.1 Name of company:

Apple is the manufacturer of the product in question, distribution ranges through a variety of third party retailers from high street electrical stores such as Curry’s through to online sales channels such as Amazon.

2.2 Name and description of product/service:

The product being considered for the purpose of this research is the Apple I-Pod. The I-Pod is a portable music playing devise and replaces older models of similar devise such as the Walkman and portable CD players. The fundamental difference between the I-Pod and pervious models of portable music player is that the I-Pod is digitally based relying on Apple’s I-Tunes system of music downloads rather than conventional formats such as a CD or Cassette (Lynch 2008 p 795-798).

2.3 Value of the product/service to the customer:

Value for the customer may be seen as falling into two key areas namely that of the physical features and benefits of the product and the intangible benefits associated with such marketing considerations as image. Both of these areas would appear to be supported both in the literature (Brassington and Pettitt 2007, Kottler et al 2009) as well as the results of the primary research.

Specifically research revealed that the key value of the I-Pod as a physical product was generated from firstly the user friendly nature of the product in comparison to other electronic “gadgets” this would be a pattern which is highlighted in the literature as one of Apple’s key success factors in the industry as a whole (Visionary Marketing 2008). Respondents also highlighted that the quality of the musical experience was also a key value especially when compared with previous non-digital versions. Durability was a repeated factor in interviewing with respondents raising the issue of poor experience with portable CD players due to scratches which the I-Pod has managed to eliminate. Finally from a physical perspective the small size and light weight nature of the product was seen as a key value for many especially for those who stated that they used there I-Pod or were intending to use such a devise in conjunction with another activity such as none team based sports.

From the perspective of intangible elements of value there were several considerations highlighted. In the first instance respondents stated that the I-Pod was seen as almost a fashion accessory as much as it was a music devise, owning an I-Pod is seen as a “cool” piece of technology to own rather than a more obscure and specialist product (Weisbein 2008). Secondly there was a high level of importance attached to the I-Tunes service which may be seen as an integral part of the product, here respondents stated that value was added from the wide range of music available and the instant availability. It was stated that in many cases searching for a track in a traditional format without the I-Pod may have taken a considerable amount of time, in addition there was also the consideration that value was added for the consumer due to the ability to buy single tracks rather than having to pay for a whole album as is often the case in traditional formats.

2.4 What are the key product and service attributes:

Light weight and small physical construction

Durability of both the product and the consumers music collection

High end digital music technology

Fully integrated download service in the form of I-Tunes

Instant availability of a wide range of music

Fashion value of product ownership

Ability to use the product in conjunction with other activities such as sports

2.5 Type of research undertake:

This project has undertaken both primary and secondary research in reaching the results as highlighted in the relevant pro-forma’s. Primary research has included a set of 50 questionnaires in order to gain largely quantitative data whilst the project has also benefited from a number of interviews which were conducted with actual or potential consumers of the product in order to gain in depth qualitative data. The specific methods and techniques used may be found in the appendix of research.

2.6 Purpose of research:

The purpose of the research undertaken is to establish firstly what adds value for the consumer in relation to Apple’s I-Pod offering. Secondly to consider how well Apple has managed to address the perceived values of the consumer in practise. The research should finally address the level of interaction between perceived values of both the product and the consumer and Apple’s internal value chain.

2.7 Post research review:

On the whole the research carried out has provided a valuable insight into the values of both the I-Pod as a product and the perceived values of the consumer in relation to the product thus making a valuable contribution in the field. If the researcher were to carry out the project again it is felt that it would be beneficial to spend a greater level of time researching Apple’s value chain in greater detail given the high level of research which has been spend on the consumer side of the project in this portfolio.

2.8 Conclusions:

There are many conclusions that may be drawn from the research conducted however the points may be surmised in the consideration that whilst the I-Pod as a physical product offers a portable music player this is not the sole value of the product. The value of the I-Pod may be seen as largely linked to the intangible benefits associated with the product which include a general consideration that the product doubles up as a fashion accessory as well as the way in which the product is integrated into Apple’s wider value chain including the I-Tunes concept which is key to the success of the product. As such one may consider that whilst the I-Pod in its self is a physical product much of the value added comes from the service and supporting activities of the value chain and that without these elements the product would not be a success.

3.0 Customer value – Pro-forma B

3.1 How customer value is understood and met by product/service provider

In many ways the success of Apple in general may be seen as owing to the company’s understanding and interpretation of consumer values in a way which is different to that of its competitors. In the first instance previous to the launch of the Apple I-Pod and I-Tunes service Apple had little experience in the music sector. At the same time incumbent players in the market may be seen as focusing on the wrong consumer values. For instance Lynch (2008) indicates those in the traditional recorded sector had focused on the protection of intellectual property and distribution through traditional outlets and distribution channels such as high street music stores. On the other hand those offering what may be seen as competitor products to the I-Pod in the form of the MP3 player also adopted a different interpretation of value to that of Apple. In this instance other producers of MP3 players interpreted consumer value as being associated with a reduction in price and improvements in quality (Weisbein 2008).

Apple on the other hand has taken a different approach to the interpretation of customer values, in the first instance apple has recognised that the consumer values the MP3 product only partially as a music offering and that a large proportion of the value derived for the consumer is due to the consideration of the product as a fashion accessory. In delivering on this core value Apple has constantly updated the product with frequent innovations from basic cosmetic alternations through to the ability to update software and applications (Frith 2007).

Another consideration in the way in which Apple has interpreted consumer value is to consider that of how the I-Pod fits into the wider value chain. Despite the fact that Apple was not the first company to offer an MP3 product there is the consideration that previous to the I-Pod and I-Tunes offering consumers had very few choices in obtaining digitally based music in a legal context (Lynch 2009). As such one of the key ways in which Apple has managed to interpret consumer values is to integrate the physical product the I-Pod with into the wider value chain which consists of the I-Tunes offering allowing the consumer to legally download a wide verity of music for instant consumption, elements which were considered as key value adding considerations for the consumer.

3.2 Is consumer value considered in product material/service elements?

This may be seen as the defining feature of the I-Pod over rival MP3 systems, whilst other companies such as Sony have introduced similar physical products in the from of the NWHD1 (BBC News 2004) which encompass may of the same consumer values in the physical product such as small size and durable shock resistant technology they have failed to consider the wider value chain which has a strong emphasis on the distribution channel which directly adds value to the physical product.

It is notable that were competitors have began to make progress the companies involved have tended to see the service and supporting elements associated with the distribution channel as the key success rather than the physical product such as in the case of the potential My Space offering and Microsoft’s rival “Zune” (Marketing Week 2008, Wray 2006).

3.3 Presentation

The presentation of the I-Pod may be seen as largely representative of the consumer values of the product. The I-Pod comes in a contemporary style white minimalistic style of box packaging which may be seen as communicating to the consumer both the contemporary nature of the product but also the simple user friendly nature. The box contains a limited amount of information on the technical specifications of the product however the consumer is not bombarded by a plethora or irrelevant technical jargon. See appendix for graphical representation fig 1.

3.4 Customer satisfaction measures and support

In gauging the overall level of customer satisfaction Apple has a number of mechanisms. According to those interviewed the I-Pod comes with a standardised customer satisfaction card with the option to register one view online. In addition users are able to register for a number of services on Apple’s main web site (Apple 2010) which offers an array of options aimed at enhancing customer satisfaction from the provision of advice and technical support through to repairs and bolt on sales designed to enhance the experience.

3.5 Considerations not met by the product/service

On of the key success factors of the I-Pod as has been highlighted is the distribution channel which the I-Pod is automatically linked into in the form of I-Tunes. Despite the success of the product in relation to this model the I-pod not only allows the consumer to use the I-Tunes offering but effectively locks the consumer into Apple’s distribution network. Whilst one can see the benefits of such a strategy there is also the consideration that such a lack of flexibility detracts from the value of the product as consumers value the flexibility of being able to purchase their music from multiple sources (Smith 2006).

Further more as with many successful products the company and its product often come under a higher level of scrutiny than less successful alternatives. Apple’s I-Pod despite its success may be seen as facing a wave of criticisms which detract from consumer value as highlighted by Prigg (2006) who points out that many consumers have criticised the product for poor physical quality in areas such as battery life and manufacturing conditions which use unethical practises in the Far-East. Finally there is the consideration that since the launch of the I-Pod Apple has since developed the I-Phone which combines the technology of both the mobile phone and the portable music player into a single devise. This development may suggest that the original I-Pod as discussed in this report did not address all of the elements of value considered by the consumer in the first instance. This view may be supported by the reported wide uptake of the I-Phone from telecoms companies (Frommer 2007, Lomas 2008).

4.0 Impact upon value chain activities – Pro-forma C

4.1 Sales

As a mass market consumer product sales of the I-Pod are driven through two main channels the traditional retail channel in high street chains such as Curry’s, PC World and HMV. Secondly Apple also markets through what may be seen as an alternative distribution channel in the form of the web (Jobber 2007), in such instances Apple uses established web marketers such as Amazon as well as offering its own direct sales via the companies online store apple.com. As such the company’s sales activities may be seen as largely those processes which are aimed at persuading retailers to give the product shelf space in greater proportion than is given to rival products (Sullivan and Adcock 2002).

4.2 Billing and accounts

In most instances the impact of the customer values on Apple in relation to billing and accounts are minimal given that a large volume of sales will go through retail chancels for which Apple will have standardised trade terms and conditions with the relevant retailer which may be a high street or online distributor. The exception to this comes firstly in the direct sales for which Apple engages from its online store for which the company must adapt to be able to make sales in single unit format thus having a fragmented cash collection system in relation to larger block retail sales. There is the consideration that such single unit sales add significant costs in banking and transactional costs (Business Link 2010) for Apple were such sales take place however this may be offset by the ability to charge at the full retail rather than a trade price.

In addition whilst this portfolio is specially concerned with the I-Pod as a product there has to be the recognition that the I-Tunes offering is an integral part of the product for which the impact of billing and accounts has a stronger direct link between Apple and the consumer. In relation to I-Tunes Apple has adapted its value chain to function on a pre-paid account basis. The consumer is able to set up an account directly with Apple online for which there are then a number of pre-paid options including uploading credit directly via a card or buy purchasing a pre-paid credit from a store which is then activated similarly to those used in the pre-paid phone market. Such a system may be seen as beneficial to both Apple and the consumer, in using such a pre-paid option Apple ensures a higher level of cash flow than the company might have otherwise experienced under another model. From a customer value perspective Apple’s deployment of a system similar to pre-paid mobile phone top ups gives the consumer a payment method for which they already have a great level of familiarity with this adding value in the form of reducing transactional complexity.

4.3 Customer information

Apple may be seen as facing a dilemma on the level of consumer information which the company needs to provide in relation to its product. As a technical product the I-Pod needs to give consumers a minimum level of information so as to ensure that the sale of a product meets their needs. Despite this need there is also the consideration that providing too much technical information could lead to an information overload for the consumer thus detracting value and ultimately losing Apple sales in the long run. As such Apple may be seen as managing the distribution of such information in a relatively effective way by issuing what may be seen as the minimum requirements on marketing materials such as the web store and packaging and then entering greater detailed information in the relevant product documents which accompany the product for those who need it.

4.4 Procurement and production

Procurement and production may be seen as one of the significant failings of the I-Pod in relation to the relationship between consumer values and Apple’s value chain. Whilst on the one hand consumers have demonstrated a desire for attributes in the product which are not related to price Apple has non the less used production and procurement techniques which are largely aimed at lowering the companies costs as far as possible. As such the company has been criticised for the use of overseas labour in unacceptable conditions (Business Week 2009) and the use of poor quality materials (MACNN 2006). As a product which is marketed as a premium product with high prices passed on to the consumer for contemporary theology this would appear to be a poor strategic decision on the behalf of Apple for which the only motive may be seen as the consideration of short term profits.

4.5 Customer support

As a high value purchase customer support may be seen as an integral part of any such offering so as to reduce the prospect of post purchase dissonance (Brassington and Pettitt 2007, Jobber 2007). Apple may be seen as offering support for the I-Pod product in a number of ways. In the first instance there company offers the traditional considerations associated with customer support, the Apple main web page offers access to a number of levels of support. At the first stage Apple offers what may be seen as “self service” support in which the consumer is able to access frequently asked questions, tutorials and download replacement manuals. At the next level of valued added support the company offers a telephone service which is charged at a standard call rate. Finally there are the full value adds support services and include extended warranties as well as exchange and repair possibilities.

Whilst customer support is often considered as having an association with problems be they related to problems with the actual product or the consumers technical inability to work the product there should also be a consideration of how a company supports a consumer in getting the most out of their product. A key value adding area when such levels of support are considered are the bolt on extras which come in the form of the I-Tunes system and downloadable upgrades thus adding significant value for the consumer from a support perspective.

Appendix of research

Research methods:

This section will now outline the research methods which were used in the project before going on to give the relevant samples.

Interviews:

A series of five interviews were used to gather highly qualitative data to be used in the project. The researcher is presented with a number of methods of interviewing ranging from the fully structured interview with a set series of questions to the informal interview with little structure. The advantages of the first method are that the researcher is assured of having answers to a predetermined set of questions at the end of the interview. Despite this is there is the consideration that such an approach is inflexible and does not allow the interviewer to explore areas of interest which may arise during the process. On the other hand the completely informal interview may be seen as having the opposite qualities, the advantage of such a method is the broad flexibility of approach which allows the interviewer and interviewee to explore any number of possibilities. Despite such flexibility there is the consideration that such a method may lead to the gathering of a large amount of irrelevant data thus creating a wasted opportunity for the researcher. As such the researcher in this case has opted for a hybrid method using the semi-structured interview, as such the interviewees were given a series of themes rather than questions to discuses thus allowing both flexibility but giving an overall structure to the interview.

The themes for the interviews were largely based upon the Pro-forma’s and consisted of the following discussions:

What is the nature of value for any product?

What are the physical attributes of value for a portable music player/I-pod?

What are the non-physical attributes of value for a portable music player/I-Pod? (Prompt brand, lifestyle etc if unsure)

The value of service/support

The value of business ethics on a product

General discussion about rival and substitute products and there values

Interviews were conducted in a public place and lasted around 15 minutes in duration each.

Questionnaires:

Questionnaires were used in this research project so as to ascertain information in a quantitative format, whilst qualitative data allows the researcher to explore a given area of interest at an in depth level quantitative data is much more useful in identifying statistical trends over a wider sample of people than could be achieved from the use of interviewing in the time scales involved. In constructing the questionnaires the relevant pro-former’s were used again as the basis for the division of the questions as this was the same method used in the analysis of the themes to be explored in the interview section the researcher has been able to validate the research further by comparing the results of both the questionnaires and the interviews which largely highlighted similar themes and trends in relation to consumer values. Each questioner was issued and completed on the spot by willing participants after confirming the qualification of either owning or intending to own an I-Pod or competitor product in the next 12 months.

Questionnaire example:

1. When considering “value” which of the following are important (pick up to 2):

Price Physical Attributes Reputation Brand Perception of others

2. When considering “value” in relation to a portable music devise what are the important factors (Tick all that apply):

Price Lightweight construction Durability User-friendly technology Storage capacity Street creditability Compatibility with other systems Ability to use as part of another activity eg running Customer support Other (Please state)______________

3. When considering “value” in relation specify to the I-Pod please indicate which elements you believe the product delivers value on (Tick all that apply):

Price Lightweight construction Durability User-friendly technology Storage capacity Street creditability Compatibility with other systems Ability to use as part of another activity eg running Customer support Other (Please state)______________

4. When considering “value” in relation specify to the I-Pod please indicate which elements you believe the product fails to deliver value on (Tick all that apply):

Price Lightweight construction Durability User-friendly technology Storage capacity Street creditability Compatibility with other systems Ability to use as part of another activity eg running Customer support Other (Please state)______________

5. Please give any other comments you feel relevant to the value for which you perceive in relation to either the I-Pod or a rival portable music product offering.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Sampling techniques:

Having constructed the relevant questionnaires and interviews it is necessary to consider whom to distribute the questionnaires amongst and whom would be a relevant candidate for interviewing. As such those to be included in the research may be referred to as a sample, the fairest way to gain unbiased data may be to conduct a random sample. In a random sample is one in which a selection of the population at large is used for the purpose of the research method regardless of any qualification or demographic consideration such as age, gender or ethnic background. However since this project is specifically associated with a given product the I-Pod in this case there is the consideration that the data collected from such a wide proportion of the population including many who may have no interaction with the product may produce irrelevant data thus skewing the results further down the line. As such the researcher has decided to limit the sample using a random sample but with the qualification that the participant must either own an I-Pod or similar product or be considering the purchase of an I-Pod or similar product within the next 12 months. This method of sampling will be used for both the issue of the questionnaires as well as the selection of candidates for the interview process. In addition so as to aid the process of achieving a random sample the issue of questionnaires will be carried out at three different locations at three different times of day.

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