Category: Free Essays

Public transport faces severe problems in almost all countries although the situation varies from one country to another and even from one city to another. The referred study pertains to Sydney in Australia. Sydney is Australia’s only truly global city, the world’s most culturally diverse cities and one of the world’s great metropolises. Public Transport is an integral part of the fabric of society and is a right, not a privilege. Transportation along with Health and Education are basic building block of any community. The public sees public transport as a core state responsibility. Sydney has the highest level of public transport accessibility to any city in Australia. The different type of facilities available is Airport Link, Buses, Trains, Ferries, Light Rail, Monorail, Taxis, Sydney & Bondi Explorer and City Hopper.

Based on the report Sydney by 2036, State Plan and the 2005 Metropolitan Strategy (City of Cities: A Plan for Sydney’s Future) set out the long-term growth management plan for Sydney. According to this by 2036 Sydney will need to accommodate 6 million people. Nearly 70% of Sydney’s population growth will be driven by natural increase. Migration will account for just over 30% of the population increase. Sydney’s population is expected to reach 6 million by 2036 – an increase of 1.7 million since the last Census in 2006. That means 760,000 more jobs and 770,000 more homes than in 2006. This growth brings with it significant implications for transport and infrastructure, so it’s vital we get the planning right to ensure we build on our advantages.

Executive Summary

Sydney is Australia’s largest city with an approximate population of 4.4 million. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) forecasts that by 2036, the City is expected to have population of approximately. One of the critical issues facing the City is the continuing failure to invest in public transport infrastructure to meet the needs of its growing population. Public Transport System in Sydney has not improved due to various reasons. There has been so many different plans made by different political parties but majority of these plans remain as paper document and were not implemented. The history of failure to implement public transport plans and infrastructure promises is matter of concern with different authorities and public at large.

One of the major reasons of failure of implementation is the lack of long term funding arrangements. Though privatisation has been allowed in Ferry and bus business but the improvement in overall transportation system is not as per standards the other major Cities of Australia have achieved. This has caused Sydney falling behind other Australian and world cities in its public transport performance.

Current Situation

The public at large who uses public transport in Sydney face the problems. Public using the public transport in Sydney whether buses, ferries or trains know that the system is groaning under the pressure of the regular infusion of funds. Not because Sydney is growing rapidly (although it is) but because the state government has refused to invest in bringing an ageing system up to scratch. It is felt by the public that Public transport networks, designed in the 1940s, are straining to service growing cities. In Sydney alone, patronage of the City Rail network increased by more than 8 million journeys in 2008/09. As demand for public transport has risen, modest rises in services have not kept pace. The pressure of overcrowding has led transport authorities to design more “realistic” timetables: bus and train trips now take longer than in past years. In the outer suburbs of Australian cities, public transport is simply non-existent or woefully inadequate. Since last two decades, NSW governments declares number of plans and documents about improvement in public transport system, however, non implementation of the declared plans is indication of deferment denial of the need for the government to lead the development of public transport services and infrastructure in Sydney. The past slow developments indicate that since the opening of the Eastern Suburbs Railway in 1979 only three segments have been added to the suburban rail network, and one of these, the Airport line, relied on private sector construction and operation of its stations, leading to excessive fares and thus preventing the city from making the best use of this important infrastructure.

All these factors conclude the public transport infrastructure deficit which has placed Sydney well behind comparable cities in Europe, Asia and in some cases even North America. The situation in Brisbane where the bus way network and Perth’s new Mandurah rail line in Australia proves that Sydney is comparatively behind these metro areas. The solution to this problem is not easy and can be resolved immediately with Government support especially in implementation of planning of building public transport infrastructure.

NSW Transport and Infrastructure has been established as the lead public transport agency of the NSW Government. NSW Transport and Infrastructure is responsible for transport coordination, policy and planning, transport service and infrastructure. It will also manage budget allocation for rail, bus, ferry and taxi services and related infrastructure in NSW. (Ref: Transport & Infrastructure, http://www.transport.nsw.gov.au/aboutus).

One of the debateable issues is the privatisation of the transport system. For example the Walker Report inquiring into Sydney Ferries mentions that there is a real threat regarding Sydney Ferries could be sold off by the NSW State Government. This means higher prices and reduction in services for a profit driven private owner as opposed to a government service offered to the people. Sydney Ferries give people modal choice and are considered to be a cheaper way for the government to move people then cars on roads so it just doesn’t make sense. Mr Walker recommended the government to form a public-private partnership to operate and manage the service while also is calling for the entire current ferry fleet to be replaced. The report is critical of the current performance of Sydney Ferries, saying it is less than satisfactory and beset by cultural problems. Premier Morris Iemma said the Walker report would be the “road map for change” within Sydney Ferries and supported the call for a new fleet of ferries.

An independent Public enquiry was conducted to look into Long Term Public Transport Plan for Sydney which published the Preliminary Report dated February 05, 2010. The Sydney Morning Herald is right to say that Sydney needs a long term plan that guides the way in which services and infrastructure are planned and delivered. That work is well underway, and builds on the infrastructure, and planning that this Government has already delivered.

Historical facts, figures and scenario

Public transport operators in NSW carry over 2 million passengers each weekday on rail, bus, ferry and taxi services. Around 72% of trips to the Sydney CBD each weekday are made using public transport. The transport sector employs about 20,000 people across. NSW Government has looked into major areas of the transport sector, implementation of the projects for improvement in customer service.

Manly has had both a conventional and a high speed ferry service to the city since January 1965. The Hydrofoil service became more regular with the entry to service of the second larger 140 seat Fairlight. The Manly Hydrofoil service became difficult and costly to run following the introduction of two larger and slightly faster Hydrofoils in September 1984 and July 1985. It finds that there have been a number of considerations and attempts to withdraw the Jetcat service from Manly since 1996 and the recent withdrawal was simply the final and successful attempt. Manly Jetcats have been poorly managed by Sydney Ferries due to progressive Jetcat service degradation and associated failure to properly manage maintenance of the vessels. There were incidents of failure to organise sufficient crew to run both the Manly Ferry and Jetcat services.

The incidents of transport plans are announced and then re-announced. New rail lines are proposed but then abandoned and governments claim increasing costs and global financial problems.

Abandoning the proposed light rail service to the North-West & postponing indefinitely the proposed heavy rail service to the South-West are examples of wrong priorities, inadequacy of funds and inefficiency of the existing transport system which could have added more profits. South West Rail Link has recently been re-announced by the State Government, the future of the North West link is yet to be confirmed. What is implicit in the interim report is the real danger that if the government does proceed with prioritising the construction of an expensive metro network, no further infrastructure is likely to be provided in Western Sydney beyond the South West Rail Link and the Western Metro for many decades to come – if ever.

News regarding introducing an (unsuccessful) ‘congestion tax’ tolling system on the Harbour Bridge and Harbour Tunnel appeared in media. The Government view was that it is introduced to prompt some people to change their travel times or take public transport for trips during peak hours. It was to encourage commuters who can take their journey outside of the peak period. The Government wanted to reduce congestion on Australia’s busiest road corridor. Some were of the view that it is unsuccessful as congestion could not be reduced.

In the Ministerial enquiry into sustainable transport in New South Wales during December 2003, it emerged that Govt. cannot continue with the current arrangements for providing and funding transport services as they are not delivering the satisfactory services to meet the needs of the community. It was suggested that public transport operators (especially CityRail) must overhaul their management and workplace practices to deliver better, safer services, and reduce their operating costs. For passengers the report has suggested that must pay a fairer share of the costs of the system, particularly to help fund improvements. The report recommended that the Government must make amendments to provide concessions for senior citizens, school students and other groups and examine how specific road use pricing could be used to encourage more people to use public transport instead of private cars.

Ref: Ministerial inquiry into sustainable transport in New South Wales dated December 2003.

Based on this report the expenses needed to operate public transport services in NSW are expected to increase substantially over the next seven years. Based on estimates provided by SRA and STA the total costs to maintain existing CityRail, Sydney Buses, Newcastle Buses and Ferries, and Sydney Ferries services (and to allow for some growth in patronage due to population growth) will be nearly $2.7 billion per year over the period 2003-04 to 2010-11. Assuming that passenger fares and government contributions do not increase in real terms, the total revenue for these public transport operators is expected to be nearly $2.3 billion per year. This means there will be a gap of some $400 million per year between the money that they spend and the money they receive. If CityRail and STA were to expand or improve their services significantly, the gap would be even greater.

Total average annual expenditure needs of NSW government public transport operators, 2003-04 to 2010-11

Costs

$m

Operating

2 043

Capital

620

Total
2 663
Revenue

Farebox and other revenue

884

Government contributions

1 377

Total
2 261
Funding gap
402

All financials expressed in cash flows and in 2003 dollars.

Source: Data provided by SRA and STA, 2003.

It was estimated that CityRail will need to spend nearly $2.1 billion per annum from 2003-04 to 2010-11 to maintain existing services, and make some service improvements. This estimate includes the additional invest­ment needed to implement the rail clearways plan, which should result in improved service levels across the network. It represents an increase of 17 per cent over CityRail’s 2001-02 expenditure. CityRail’s total revenues per annum are expected to be more than $1.7 billion, including more than $600 million from fares and other revenue, and $1.1 billion from government contributions. This means there will be a funding gap of $332 million per annum if there are no real fare increases or increases in government funding.

Forecast average annual expenditure for CityRail, 2003-04 to 2010-11

Costs

$m

Operating

1 527

Capital

553

Total
2 080
Revenue

Farebox and other revenue

614

Government contributions

1 134

Total
1 748
Funding gap
332

All financials expressed in cash flows and in 2003 dollars.

Source: Data provided by SRA, 2003.

Sydney’s Buses forecast needs:

The report estimates that Sydney Buses requires about $437 million per annum to maintain its network of services over the period 2003-04 to 2010-11. The forecast includes the cost of replacement of old buses with new air-conditioned, low floor buses. The forecast expenditure represents an increase of 18 per cent (or $66 million per annum in real terms) over Sydney Buses’ 2001-02 expenditure. The report estimates that Sydney Buses total revenues over the period will be $410 million per annum. This means there will be a funding gap of $27 million per annum.

Forecast average annual expenditure for Sydney Buses, 2003-04 to 2010-11
Costs
$m

Operating

378

Capital

59

Total
437
Revenue

Farebox and other revenue

221

Government contributions

189

Total
410
Funding gap
27

All financials expressed in cash flows and in 2003 dollars.

Source: Data provided by STA, 2003.

The report also indicate the estimates that Newcastle Buses and Ferries requires approximately $50 million per annum to maintain existing services for the period 2003-04 to 2010-11. This represents an increase of 38 per cent (or $14 million per annum in real terms) compared with 2001-02 expenditures. Total revenues are estimated to be $30 million per annum over this period, resulting in a funding gap of $19 million per annum. Forecast average annual expenditure for Newcastle Buses and Ferries, 2003-04 to 2010-11

Costs
$m

Operating

46

Capital

3

Total
49
Revenue

Farebox and other revenue

8

Government contributions

22

Total
30
Funding gap
19

All financials expressed in cash flows and in 2003 dollars.

Source: Data provided by STA, 2003.

The report has forecasted that Sydney Ferries requires $97 million per annum from 2003-04 to 2010-11 to maintain its existing services. This is a decrease of four per cent, or $4 million per annum in real terms, compared with 2001aˆ‘02.

Forecast average annual expenditure for Sydney Ferries, 2003-04 to 2010-11
Costs
$m

Operating

92

Capital

5

Total
97
Revenue

Farebox and other revenue

41

Government contributions

32

Total
73
Funding gap
24

All financials expressed in cash flows and in 2003 dollars.

Source: Data provided by STA, 2003.

The total costs include $5 million per annum for capital expenditure. This relatively low level of capital expenditure follows a large capital program totalling $65 million over the previous three years. Expected increases in operating costs of 23 per cent on 2001-02 levels will be offset by this lower level of capital expenditure resulting in an overall decrease in costs.

The report pointed out that there is considerable scope for operators to reduce the funding gap by improving efficiency. The operational efficiency will deliver more value from the public funds they receive. The efficiency will lead to higher profitability and low funding requirements in future.

Future scenario, Aims, Objectives and Strategy

The past history reveal that planning for improvement of the Public Transport System was made by the ruling Government on periodical basis but the proper implementation was not done in most of the plans. There was an independent Public inquiry in the Lon term Public Transport Plan for Sydney which has been published in February 2010 which includes two of these future plans as supporting documents. It is also reported from the survey that there have been number of plans both before the inquiry was initiated. The fact that plans were made but not executed indicate that the crisis in transport in Sydney needs to be addressed by much more than just a plan if the Government really wish to achieve an efficient transport system. The emphasis should be more as Sydney is a worthy of a world-class city and capable of meeting the massive population and employment growth, social, environmental, energy and global warming challenges of the future. If the improvement does not commensurate with the time there will be slow growth in revenue as compared to other metros like Melbourne where the systems have been improved in short span of time.

The immediate steps required are to introduce a system of underground electric railways for city and suburban passenger traffic, serving the North Shore, the Eastern Suburbs, and Balmain and adjoining suburbs. In the past there has been a heavy investment in radial freeways and toll roads as governments sought to meet the increasing demand. The tram network was closed down and dismantled. Majority of the public is of the view that there is need for the long term commitment rather than the short term political gains. The general public view is to have efficient and competitive public transport system in spite of the fact that public will be required to pay extra for the improvements.

Recently, there has been improvement in the efficiency of bus based systems for Sydney, including two bus ways in western Sydney; provision of bus lanes and bus priority measures; use of articulated buses; and introduction of pre-paid only buses and Metro buses. These initiatives need to continue. Sydney’s ferry system could be enhanced by provision of bike parking facilities at ferry terminals, while taxi services could be improved by the use of multi-hiring at peak times, which will increase productivity and reduce costs.

Ref: Thirty Years Public Transport Plan for Sydney

Aim: The aim is to streamline transport structure. The improvement is Public Transport System will deliver integrated transport planning and service delivery, and consolidation of like-functions to reduce costs and provide additional funds for front-line staff and services. This aim is defined by NSW Transport and Infrastructure which is the lead public transport agency of the NSW Government, with primary responsibility for transport policy, planning and coordination functions as well as oversight of infrastructure delivery and asset management. NSW will encourage the collaboration with other transport agencies as key service initiatives to deliver a more capable, safe and reliable transport network across metropolitan, regional and rural NSW.

Ref. Transport & Infrastructure: http://www.transport.nsw.gov.au

Impact from Population and Environment

Sydney’s population would grow by 1.1 million to 5.3 million by 2031, necessitating 640,000 new dwellings and 500,000 new jobs. The population is expected to grow by up to 35% over the next thirty years, while energy use; oil use and greenhouse gas emissions would all rise with adverse impacts on health. There is another contributor to growth in population is increase in life expectancies. Australians live longer as such Sydney will need to adapt to meet the needs of older residents, especially those in heavily car-dependent areas with limited public transport. Public transport infrastructure should take into consideration the aged and people with mobility impairments or disabilities.

The transport systems in Sydney is heavily oil dependent, and latest data suggests that global oil production flattened out from 2005 and is now likely to go into decline. This could lead to further serious economic consequences (Hamilton, 2009), particularly for those cities which are most reliant on automobiles. Key thirty years objectives and strategies for Sydney were established for passenger transport in Sydney:

Reduce Overall Greenhouse Gas emissions by at least 50%

Reduce Overall Oil use by at least 50%

Improve Health by increasing active transport (walking and cycling), reducing air pollution and traffic accidents

The strategies to be followed are:

Limit population growth

Reduce per capita travel through travel demand measures

Increase energy and greenhouse efficiency

As no single specific strategy will enable to meet the aim & objectives combination of the strategies are required to meet the key objective.

Forecasting and Trends

Forecasting furnished below has been taken from the published report: Independent Public Inquiry Long Term Public Transport Plan for Sydney. The figures have been accepted based on the assumptions and the assumptions of three scenarios:

The first is European Scenario which assumes significant and employment growth so as to accommodate six million people by 2040. It also assumes continuation of 2005 Metropolitan strategies which see Sydney to develop as City of Cities.

The second is East Asian scenario assumes the same overall additional population and employment growth but focuses more heavily on the traditional city centre and inner areas of Sydney, with very strong employment growth (higher than under the “European” scenario) in the City of Sydney and high levels of residential development along major new metro lines.

A third scenario, a “US” scenario, which would involve much lower density residential development with more urban sprawl, more dispersed employment locations and a heavy focus on road development, with only half of its funding being directed to public transport.

Ref. Independent Public Inquiry Long-Term Public Transport Plan for Sydney-Preliminary Report dated February 2010

Recommendations

From the past records it is felt that the problem in Public Transport System in Sydney continues in spite of change in ruling political party. One of the major issues is the funding arrangement by the Government. It is recommended that the Government should allow privatisation to some extent and the rates should be semi controlled by the ruling Government. Like in Melbourne privatization can be allowed in Sydney as a form of

Public-Private Partnership.

NSW Transport and Infrastructure should develop its Corporate Plan which must be implemented without deviation. Short plans, if required, should be implemented but if these are linked to major plan should only be implemented along with other linked projects. Doing half way is a loss to the Government and also the tax payer’s money is not utilised properly.

Government has already got published the independent studies wherein different long term plans have been suggested and especially the long term strategy for next 30 years is published for public opinion and suggestions. It is recommended that Government should implement the strategy which provides subsidised or concession travel to a wide range of people within specified target groups. The Ministry of Transport’s role is to provide advice to Government on concession policy issues and administer the contractual arrangements for transport concessions on regulated bus, train and ferry services.

Conclusion

In collaboration with other transport agencies, NSW Transport and Infrastructure is progressively implementing key service initiatives to deliver a more capable, safe and reliable transport network across metropolitan, regional and rural NSW.

All transport infrastructure projects must be compared and evaluated using rigorous cost benefit analysis which takes full account of economic, social and environmental costs and benefits.

Chapter 1

Infrastructure is a broad concept linked to every facet of the economy and human life. Accordingly, the list of associated issues is long. For any purposeful analysis of issues in infrastructure development to lead to an action-oriented way forward, it is necessary to narrow down the definition of infrastructure and associated issues. The term infrastructure has been used since 1927 to refer collectively to the roads, bridges, rail lines and similar public works that are required for an industrial economy to function. Transportation, communication, sewage, water and electric systems are all a part of infrastructure. These systems tend to be high-cost investments. In general, infrastructure is location-specific and cannot be moved from place to place (www.unescap.org).

Transportation infrastructure cannot operate without transportation and transportation cannot run without transportation infrastructure. Different transportations have their own infrastructure to support each other. For air transportation, their infrastructure will be the airport. Port will be the infrastructure for water transportation while infrastructure for land transportation such as public bus will be the bus terminal or bus stop.

Transport infrastructure development in East and South-East Asia has played a key part in the phenomenal growth of world trade. The infrastructure backbone for international trade has been the container shipping network and increasingly the airfreight network. World container port traffic, which expanded by 9.2 per cent to 266 million TEUs in 2003, is dominated by Asian countries. They accounted for 46 per cent of container ship operations, 62 per cent of container port throughput, and 83 per cent of container ship building. Twelve major South and East Asian exporters together account for half of the world’s containerized exports (www.unescap.org).

Bus terminal or known as bus station is one of the most important transportation infrastructure where buses stop to pick up and drop off passengers. It may be intended as a terminal or station for a number of routes or as a transfer station where the routes continue. It is larger than bus stop where bus stop is usually built at the road side for the bus to stop for a while but not to wait for passengers.

Tel Aviv’s new central bus station was officially inaugurated recently, after 26 years of off-and-on construction, legal and financial disputes (Encyclopedia.com). A majority of the Dan and Egged Tel Aviv-area buses are now based at the new station; 5,000 buses pass through the station daily, carrying some 150,000 passengers. The station is the largest bus station in the world, encompassing 197,600 square meters indoors, and 34,400 square meters outdoors (Encyclopedia.com). The largest underground bus station in Europe is Kamppi Center of Helsinki, Finland completed in 2006. The terminal cost 100 million Euro to complete and took 3 years to design and build. Today, the bus terminal, which covers 25,000 square meters, is the busiest bus terminal in Finland. Every day, the terminal has around 700 bus departures, transporting some 170,000 passengers (www.webcitation.org).

Since bus station play a vital role in strengthening the volume of traffic as well as in providing better services to the passenger, the bus service undertakings, specially in the public sector, should come up and encourage the emergence of the bus station management as an independent discipline in the field of traffic management. (Kulshrestha, 1993, p.9)

Penang, as most of us may already know, is one of Malaysia’s most popular destinations for travelers coming from the local or the international communities (Talk Malaysia 2010). One of the main reasons for Penang to have so many travelers coming and going out annually is partly because there are a lot of interesting places to visit in Penang. Most of the interesting places in Penang are located at mainly around Georgetown and Seberang Perai (www.talkmalaysia.com).

Therefore, transport infrastructure especially bus terminal or station in Georgetown play an important role in order to pick up and drop off passengers from a destination to another destination. This is because Penang has traffic problem, therefore public transport are used.

Komtar Bus Terminal is the hub of bus services in George Town. All the bus routes of Penang radiates from this terminal. To be exact, Komtar Bus Terminal is not a “terminal” proper, but rather a bus station, because buses do not actually start from here, but rather, from the Weld Quay Bus Terminal. Nevertheless, most people will know it by that name. At the Komtar Bus Terminal, you can catch buses going to the north, central, south and west parts of Penang Island, as well as some buses that go to the mainland. Among the bus companies that use the terminal includes Rapid Penang, Milan, Transit Link and KGN-Hin. The terminal is located along Lebuh Tek Soon, although buses approach it via Jalan Ria and they emerge from the terminal into Jalan Ria once more (www.penang-traveltips.com).

As a bus stop user, not satisfied with bus terminal in Georgetown. Some of the same complaint had been made by locals and tourists too. This is because they have the difficulties in determine which bus to ride in order to reach their destination. Therefore, this study is to find out what are the factors which make the tourists satisfied and not satisfied with the bus terminals in Penang. This study also includes, to identify the present condition of transport infrastructure, the cleanliness in the bus terminals and the safety and security in the bus terminals. From these factors, this study is able to conclude what are their expectations towards bus stop in order to let the government make improvement.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Transport and traffic management have always been a bone of contention for Penang. Many feel that rapid economic development has not been met with an equal amount of attention given to proper traffic management and planning. There are about 1.4 million vehicles (motorcycles, cars and other vehicles) for a population of about 1.4 million people in Penang. This is about double the number of vehicles in 1999 (Sympologic, 2008).

For the above reason, public transportation had played a very important role to reduce the traffic in Penang. But without a good infrastructure, public transportation will not be able to run smoothly. There are 2 main transport infrastructures for bus in Georgetown which are Komtar Bus Terminal and Weld Quay Bus Terminal. But, locals and tourists are not satisfied with the bus terminals in Georgetown. This is because there are no proper route information and bus timetable. It is difficult especially for tourists to identify which bus to ride in order to reach their destination. Tourists always have to ask the bus driver one by one to ask for the destination. This had slow down the traffic also. Besides, from the observation, the bus terminals are not well-maintained in term of cleanliness and safety.

1.3 Goal & Objectives

The goal of this research is to study tourists’ satisfactions and expectations towards bus terminals in Penang.

In order to achieve the above goal, there are some objectives need to be done.

To examine tourists’ satisfactions towards bus terminals

To examine tourists’ expectations towards the bus terminals

To examine the present condition of bus terminals

To identify the cleanliness in the bus terminals

To identify the safety and security in the bus terminals

1.4 Hypothesis

From the objectives above, the below are the hypotheses which had concluded:

Locals and tourists are not satisfied with the bus terminals.

Locals and tourists have high expectations on the bus terminals in term of cleanliness and security.

There is no proper route information or sign board in the bus terminals.

The bus terminals are not clean.

The bus terminals are not secure.

The above hypotheses are made based on my own experiences and observation.

Significance of the Study

This research is able to let the government and private sector to make improvement on the bus terminals in order to let them become truly efficient. From the questionnaires which will be distribute and collected, they able to tell us the satisfaction level and expectation of locals and tourists towards the bus terminals. From their expectation, the improvement can be made. For example by putting up the route information and sign board, locals and tourists able to know which bus to ride to reach their destination. Besides, clean the bus terminals daily so that locals and tourists will feel comfortable and assign more security to secure the bus terminals. When the improvements have made, the locals and tourists will have the chance to use better bus terminals. All these will make the business of the bus increase too.

1.6 Scopes and Limitations of the Study

The scopes for my research are Penangites and tourists in Penang. Penangites and tourists who are the user of bus terminals are targeted. 80% Penangites and 20% tourists are chosen to carry out this research. In order to complete this research, distribution of questionnaires will be made to these 2 groups of people mentioned above. Besides, observation in the bus terminals will be done by my own selves too.

The bus terminals in Georgetown which would like to research on are Komtar Bus Terminal and Weld Quay Bus Terminal. These are the two popular bus terminals in Georgetown which crowded by people every day. This is because these are the two main stops which the bus will pick and drop passenger.

There are also limitations for this research. The first limitation is resources. There is very few information on books, journals or articles about transportation infrastructure. The next limitation will be the time. Only 5 months to complete this research. Last but not least, the limitation is the manpower. I am the only one who doing this research.

Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Transport and Tourism

Page (2005) said that transport act as one of the important that contributed to the international development of tourism.

According to Page (2007), the mode of transport can be one of the main motivations for the tourists to travel. He also said that in the growth of domestic and international tourism, transport is the most critical element in the promotion. He continued said that transport links the tourist from the origin area with the destination area. Therefore it enables the holidaymaker, business traveler and other categories of traveler to purchase the products and experience what they have purchased. He added that transport may be an attraction in its own right. Tourists who travel by road may use public transport or private transport to experience a variety of destinations.

2.2 Transport and Tourism in Penang, Malaysia

A combination of East and West, Penang continues to grow in modernity but at the same time holding its traditions and old charm. Recently, because of the harmony of multiracial in Penang and the heritage buildings which are well preserved, these make the Georgetown being accorded a listing as a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage Site. Penang, long regarded as the food capital of Malaysia, it also attracts tourists with its beautiful beaches and delicious cuisines (www.tourismpenang.net.my).

Transportation in Penang is convenient. You can travel in or out of Penang by the well-connected of road, rail, sea and air. Not only the air and train service is good in Penang but the seaways also offer good transportation. Ferry and seaports are there to create convenient to the people in Penang and Buttterworth. Penang ferry is provided by the Penang Ferry Service that connects George Town, Penang and Butterworth. There are four terminals, one on Penang Island (Swettenham Pier) and three on the mainland. Next, railway act as one of the transportation in Penang, but they are not popular due to their low speed. Besides, international flights are available in Penang International Airport which situated in the Bayan Lepas area of Penang, Malaysia (www.asiarooms.com).

Goh (2010) said that traffic jams in Penang especially the major roads including Jalan Burma, Jalan Sultan Ahmad Shah, Jalan Jelutong and Jalan Mesjid Negeria re common although the population is small. Outside the city, jams are found even in Bayan Lepas and Telok Kimbar. He added that although the Jelutong Express Way had provided some relief to Jalan Jelutong and Jalan Mesjid Negeri, but the costs to Penangnites have yet to be calculated, although the highway is touted to be “free”. He suggested that Penang should follow the example of Crutiba. Crutiba is a city where the people rely on buses to avoid traffic jam. Recently, Rapid Penang buses are introduced for those who do not have car or have chosen not to use their cars.

2.2 Public Transportation

Zegeer (2002) said that good public transportation is an important to the quality of a community as good roads. According Ramanathan and Parikh (1999, cited in Ramanathan, 2001; Banister and Berechman, 2001; Ramanathan and Parikh, 1999; Eisner, 1991), transport is a vital element for the modern society now and key to sustained economic growth.

But, Ortuzar and Willumsen (2001) argued that the world of transport still face many problems of the past such as congestion, pollution, accidents, financial deficits and so on. They continued said that these problems will not get away until the traffic management improved.

Figure 1 Car and Public-transport vicious circle

Car and Public-transport vicious circle cited in Ortuzar, J.d.D., Willumsen, L.G., 2001, p. 8

They continue said that the transport problems have spread widely in both industrialized and developing countries. According to them, fuel shortages which are temporarily not a problem, but the increase in road traffic and transport demand has resulted in congestion, delays, accidents and environmental problems well beyond what has been considered acceptable so far. These problems have not been controlled to roads and car traffic alone. They added that economic growth seems to have generated levels of demand exceeding the capacity of most transport facilities. They continue argued that these problems are not likely to disappear in the near future. They suggested that it is necessary to ensure that a major effort in improving most forms of transport, in urban and inter-urban contexts.

With respect to the quality of prices and services, transport services have been traditionally been subject to tight economic regulation with respect to entering and exciting the market. In many countries, road and rail networks and airport and port systems are traditionally designed, built, and operated by the public sector itself, which is the ultimate form of regulation. This type of government intervention has resulted in excessive costs that are not matched by prices or quality, therefore creating an outcome that reflects the interests of the sector’s civil servants of contractors, unions, and other interests groups more than preferences of users and taxpayers (Estache and Rus, 2000).

According to UITP (2004), government and public transport share a same goal to make sure the public transport is accessible to all especially the traffic environments have to be well-designed and managed to let the people to reach and use public transport safely and with confidence. UITP suggested that government and the public transport community to work together to reduce not only the physical but also the psychological barriers such as cognitive, information, fear and discrimination to travel safely in cities.

UITP continues said that at any one time, an average of 25% of the population may have a degree of reduced mobility due to a physical or mental disability, impaired sight or hearing, or through having to carry heavy bags or travel with small children. UITP added, physical and sensory disabilities are often related to age and, as is well known, the proportion of the elderly population in western countries is growing and will continue to do so well into the 21st century. These are clear of the importance of improving accessibility to transport systems. According to UITP, benefits from improvements in transport accessibility are accrued not just to the disabled and ageing communities, but to all clients of the transport system.

2.3 Transport infrastructure

Traditionally, building extra capacity has been addressed due to the blockages in transport infrastructure. But the possibility is small for the further expansion of infrastructure in many urban areas where the demand for transport is highest. Furthermore, a number of reports have found that the construction of new roads and airports to relieve congestion is ineffective because it only serves to induce new traffic. On the other hand, a study undertaken by a Norwegian research organization, the SINTEF Group claims that infrastructure capacity increases are directly linked to decreases in polluting emissions from motor vehicles. Using a traffic micro-simulation, it showed, for example, that upgrading narrow, winding roads or adding a lane to a congested motorway can yield decreases of up to 38% in CO2 emissions, 67% in CO emissions and 75% in NOx emissions, without generating substantially more car trips (EurActiv.com, 2008).

According to Carcamo-Diaz and Goddard (2007, cited in IADB, 2000), Infrastructure, defined as the set of engineering structures, equipment and facilities with a long-term, useful life employed by households and the different productive sectors of the economy, is essential for economic growth (cited in Easterly and Serven, 2003) and integration. As pointed out by IADB (2002), there is a positive relationship across countries between income levels and the quality of infrastructure. According to Tanzi (2005), the implicit assumption about the direction of causation goes from infrastructure to growth, although this issue is still debated in the literature.

In many cases, the objective of transport infrastructure investment is to improve the accessibility of a given region by reducing travel time or increasing the potential to travel. Accessibility can be measured as the quantity of economic or social activities that can be reached using the transport labor, leading to increased competition and centralization. On the other hand, the impact for region concerned could be both positive and negative, depending on its initial level competitiveness (OECD, 2002).

According to ITF and OECD (2008), there are some features of surface transport infrastructure that make its provision distinct from many other areas of the economy and which will likely have to be accounted for when different models are being considered. They claimed that transport system does not exist for their own sake but rather to serve other economic and social activity, this is because transport is a ‘derived demand’. This means that the possible wider implications of capacity shortages in, and overall standard of, the transport system, must be taken into consideration in the design if any model for providing transport infrastructure.

2.4 Transport Infrastructure in Different Countries
2.4.1 Luxembourg

The pressure of congestion, excessive strain on transport infrastructure and environmental have led to a challenge due to a large and increasing number of commuters (OECD, 2008c). These pressures stem from both resident and cross-border commutes, which are broadly similar in number. High and increasing number of commutes among residents is reflected in Europe’s highest car ownership rate and one of the highest annual distances covered by automobile per capita. For cross-border commutes, 85% are made in passenger cars without use of public transport. These patterns lead to alarming levels of congestion on the main road transport corridors and there are now severe bottlenecks at the entrance to urban areas, notably in the city of Luxembourg. This results in wasted time, unsafe driving conditions, noise and high levels of emission and local air pollution (OECD, 2010).

2.4.2 France

According to Willis (2010), the transport infrastructure in France is one of the most modernized to be found anywhere in Europe and this makes international freight movements streamlined and effective. In the area of modern tramways, France is a world leader in railway technology. Rail transport is therefore always a best option for shipping companies and freight forwarders operating in France. The transport network is built as a web, with Paris at the center. There is a total of nearly 32,000 kilometers of track in France, most of which is operated by the French railway company, SNCF. Over the last twenty years, a set of high speed LGV (lignes a grande vitesse) have been constructed to connect most parts of France with Paris. There are same gauge rail links to adjacent countries of Belgium, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and Sweden, as well as the Channel Tunnel link with the UK. The TGV, the French high speed train has broken world speed records is a sign of the way that France is a true global leader in rail transport. For freight transport, rail is a model in France.

2.4.3 Germany

According to Willis (2009), Germany has a transport infrastructure that is the envy of the world and this has helped enable the development of a highly effective freight services industry. The phrase ‘Germanic’ is often used as a byword for efficiency and with good reason, if the freight services industry in Germany is seen as a measure. He continued said that when consider that it is less than twenty years since the Berlin Wall came down and East Germany started its process of integration within Germany, the efficiency of the transport network throughout the country is all the more remarkable. There is a very efficient network of waterways, railways and motorways that make internal connections fast and straightforward and also connect Germany with other countries throughout the world.

2.4.4 Middle East

Timon Singh (2010) claimed that the Middle East and North Africa region has invested heavily in its transport infrastructure and for the likes of the UAE in particular over the past few years. He continued claimed that the money has gone into planes and trains in order to better improve between states, but to turn the region into both a business and tourist hub. Air traffic in the Middle East is the fastest growing in the world, and in order to cater for the increasing number of passengers at their various airports and thus improving their general transport infrastructure, the UAE has been implementing various aviation projects.

According to him, rail is another part of the region’s transport infrastructure that has gathered support in the Middle East from Dubai’s Metro System to plans for an expansive network connecting the GCC states. Qatar and Bahrain have one of the most ambitious projects, combining both rail and metro lines, which is set to transform the emirate into a major transport hub. The project, which is rumored to be costing over US$36.6 billion (QR133.5 billion) and estimated to take six years, is expected to be finished in phases over the next six years, with three major sections being the focus of the scheme – the metro network within Greater Doha, the over-ground railways covering the whole of Qatar and then, linking it to the rest of the GCC region and cargo trains.

2.4.5 London, United Kingdom

McDougall (2010) asked how do cities meet the needs of a growing population, promote diverse and healthy communities, improve the environment and tackle climate change. The answer is it’s a tall order and one that London is tackling head on with their aptly named “London Plan”. He said that the London Plan sets out to ensure that London’s transport is easy, safe and convenient and encourages cycling, walking and electric vehicles. The ambitious plan sets out the overall strategic direction for an integrated economic, environmental, transport and social framework for the development of London over the next 20-25 years.

He continues said that the London Plan identifies what are termed “Opportunity Areas” in and around London’s major reservoirs of brown-field land. These areas are characterized by their potential to accommodate new housing, commercial and other development linked to existing or potential improvements to public transport accessibility. It is important to make sure that they can be developed without undue additional pressure on London’s already-crowded public transport, or on the limited funds available for anything beyond committed transport improvements.

2.4.6 India

According to Pradhan (2010), transport is a key infrastructure in the present study, as causes energy consumption as well as economic growth in India. Therefore, he suggested that increasing transport facility along with energy consumption will lead to more economic growth in India. The achievement of higher economic growth through transport infrastructure and energy consumption could be due to its various direct and indirect benefits in the economy. But he claimed that the level of transport infrastructure is not so good, both in quantity and quality, in contrast to developed countries in the world. He suggested that if there is sufficient transport infrastructure in the economy, the result would be much better. He continued suggested that a suitable transport policy should be required urgently to boost economic growth and to maintain sustainable economic development in the country since transport infrastructure is a big deal to economic growth.

2.4.7 Malaysia

The greatest advantage to manufacturers in Malaysia has been the nation’s persistent drive to develop and upgrade its infrastructure. Over the years, these investments have paid off and serious bottlenecks have been avoided. Today, Malaysia can boast of having one of the well-developed infrastructures among the newly industrializing countries of Asia (www.mida.gov.my).

The latest development of Kuala Lumpur Sentral has become a futuristic self-contained city, providing the perfect live, work and play environment. A modern transportation hub integrating all major rail transport networks, including the Express Rail Link to the KLIA and Putrajaya, the government’s new administrative center. Besides, the Peninsular Malaysia’s network of well-maintained highways is a gain to industries. These highways link major growth centers to seaports and airports throughout the peninsula and provide an efficient means of transportation for goods. (www.mida.gov.my).

Malaysia’s central location in the Asia Pacific region makes her an ideal gateway to Asia. Air cargo facilities are well-developed in the five international airports – the Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA), Penang International Airport and Langkawi International Airport in Peninsular Malaysia, Kota Kinabalu International Airport in Sabah, and Kuching International Airport in Sarawak. Malaysia’s biggest airport, the KLIA, surrounded by four main cities of Kuala Lumpur, Shah Alam, Seremban and Melaka has a capacity of handling 25 million passengers and up to 8 million tons of cargo per year. Cargo import and export procedures are fully automated at the KLIA to cut down delivery time (www.mida.gov.my).

Recently, Rapid Penang has introduced a state-of-the-art Intelligent Commuter Information System (ICIS), which provides real-time information on the arrival times of buses at terminals in Penang. The ICIS system, the first of its kind used by stage bus companies in the country, would enable some 75,000 commuters who use Rapid Penang buses daily to plan their journey more efficiently. It proved to be a success and has since been expanded for usage at the Komtar bus terminal, which sees the highest number of people boarding buses daily. A total of 200 buses operate from the Komtar bus terminal on a daily basis. The ICIS display system uses global positioning system (GPS) to map out the movement of all Rapid Penang buses and calculate the exact time of arrival of each bus at the Komtar bus terminal. The ICIS display system will later be extended to other strategic areas throughout the state including the possibility of having it installed in shopping complexes (newstraitstimes, 2010).

2.5 Bus Stop and Bus Terminal

There are bus stops all over the Penang and there are three main bus terminals for buses in Penang, Malaysia. They are Weld Quay Terminal, Komtar Bus Terminal and Sungai Nibong Terminal. According to Zegeer (2002), a well-designed transit routes a reachable stops are essential to usable system. He continues said that bus stops should be located at intervals that are convenient for passengers for safety purpose and should be comfortable places for people to wait.

UITP (2004 cited in Grenoble, 2004) argued that if the related infrastructure is inaccessible or inappropriately designed, much of the accessible vehicles will lost. Grenoble has carried out extensive research and development work to design tram and bus stops, starting some 20 years ago. The principle adopted by Grenoble was that the bus services should be made as accessible as the tram. According to Grenoble, the design standards found to be most effective for accessible bus stops were 14m(standard bus) and 20m(articulated bus) for overall length of bus boarding platform, 2.1m(minimum) and 2.6m(if a shelter is provided) for overall breadth of boarding platform, 3% for gradient of access ramp at end of platform, 21cm for height of boarding area, 60cm back from front edge of boarding area for safety line and 1.1m(minimum) and 1.3m(preferred) for clear space between front end of bus shelter and front edge of boarding area.

Zegeer (2002) said that besides the bus stop signing, a bus shelter with seating, trash receptacles, and bicycle parking are also desirable features. He suggested that bus stops should be highly visible locations where pedestrian can reach them easily by means of accessible travel routes. Therefore, a complete sidewalks system is essential to support a public transportation system. Convenient crossings are also important.

He continued suggested that proper placement of bus stops is key to user safety. For example, placing the bus stops on the near side of intersections or crosswalk may block pedestrians’ view of approaching traffic, and approaching drivers’ view of pedestrians. Approaching motorists may be unable to stop in time when a pedestrian steps from in front of a stopped bus into the traffic lanes at the intersection. Far-side bus stops generally encourage pedestrians to cross behind the bus. Reallocating the bus stop to the far side of the intersection can improve pedestrian safely since it climates the sight-distance restriction caused by the bus. Placing bus stops at the far aside of intersections can also improve motored vehicle operation.

Besides, he also suggested that the bus stops should be fully accessible to pedestrians in wheelchairs, should have paved connections to sidewalks where landscape buffers exist, and should not block pedestrian travel on the sidewalk. Adequate room should exist to operate wheelchair lift. Yet, it is also useful to install curb ramps at bus stops so that a passenger can board from the street if bus-lift deployment is blocked.

According to Iles (2005), problem may arise at bus stations which are used as intermediate stops for buses passing through the town or city when services are operated to schedule. Iles gave an example on when a full bus with a few passengers drop enter the station, they have the capacity to pick up same number

This chapter aims to outline the present public bus planning system and actors model in Johor Bahru City context. Through illustration, it could help to realize differences between the existing system and the ideal public bus planning system which has been developed in Section 2.5.

3.2 Transport Planning in Johor Bahru City

In essence, Johor Bahru City does have a transportation plan. The idea for the plan are formulated from national planning.and translated into the Johor Strucure Plan and subsequently into more detailed plans as presented in the district local plans. However, to what extend does these plans show how the planning system for public bus service in Johor Bahru? It is therefore necessary to understand Malaysian planning system and to see how transport policy and planning is translated from the top to bottom level.

3.2.1 National Planning (Five-year Plan)

Malaysia has been following a federal type parliamentary form of democracy in respect of government and administration since independence. In terms of planning for national development, centralised planning has become the tradition of the country. Particularly since the inception of New Economic Plan, centralised national planning is taken very seriously by the federal government. For this purpose “Five-year Plan” system has been followed very consistently. This “Five-year Plan” is the top level of planning in Malaysia and involved numerous agencies (Figure 3.1). At the top of the hierarchy of planning agencies are Parliament and Cabinet where the broad socio-economic goals and strategies are formulated. The next in the planning hierarchy is National Development Planning Committee (NDPC) which is responsible for guiding the production of the five-year plans. Under the guidance and directions of NDPC, various central government agencies participate in the plan preparation. They are Treasury, Economic Planning Unit (EPU), Implementation and Co-ordination Unit (ICU), Socio-Economic Research Unit (SERU), Federal Ministries and Departments, a range of autonomous or semi-autonomous agencies and statutory bodies. Inputs from the States for the preparation of the five-year plans come mainly from State Economic Planning Units (SEPUs) and State Economic Development Corporations (SEDCs).

In Malaysia, the preparation for a new five-year plan begins during the last year of the previous plan period (for an example: preparation for the 2001-2005 Plan will begin in 2000). In the beginning stage, EPU will send out broad guidelines to all State governments asking them to submit development project for their respective states for the next plan period within three to four months. The State authorities in turn send out directions to all District Officers in their respective states to prepare and submit development project proposals for the individual districts. At the district level, there is a District Development Committee which operates under District Action Committee and is chaired by the District Officer. This Committee consists of all the district level heads of the various government departments as well as the peoples representatives. This committee is responsible to prepare and submit departmental project proposals to District Action Committee. After scrutinising the proposals, the District Action Committee will then forwards the combined district plan to the State authority.

Figure 3.1: Major Bodies and Agencies Involved in the National Planning and Development Evaluation Process

Source: www.epu.gov.my (2010)

At the State level, there is also the State Action Committee. The committee which consists of all the State Director of the various government and peoples representatives is chaired by Chief Minister. The committee together with SEPUs are responsible to further scrutinise and assess the proposals. The final proposals will then be submitted to the Treasury and ICU of the federal government. The Federal Ministries then based on the proposals submitted will have to prepare their development programs in order to forward it to EPU. All the proposals are then arranged sector by sector through EPU and the financial allocation for each sector will be assessed by the Inter Agency Planning Group, so that priorities can be determined and strategies of optimal utilisation of public fund can be ascertained. After the plan is adjusted, it will be submitted to NDPC for reviewing and co-ordinating proposals and policies. The plan will then be forwarded to National Action aCouncil (NAC) which is chaired by Prime Minister. NAC is responsible to undertake an economic and social evaluation of the combined plans, programs and projects. It also has the power and prerogative in respect of issuing policy directives and priority determination before and during the preparation of plan. The Five-year Plan thus prepared is then submitted to the cabinet and the Parliament respectively for approval and official adoption. The process for producing the National development plan has been established since 1961 and is a two-way process involving “top-down” and “bottom-up” flows of planning inputs (Quazi, 1986). Broad strategies which are formulated for transport sector in national level are shown as following:

Supply-driven approach will form the basis for the expansion of infrastructure capacities taking into consideration long-term demand, development projects and economic growth in order to ensure the availability of supply upon demand. This approach will be applied particularly to large infrastructure projects that are indivisible and require long lead time;

Long-term integrated planning that incorporate a total approach will be adopted in infrastructure planning to enhance co-ordination and ensure a more orderly, systematic and comprehensive development and implementation of infrastructure;

The promotion of multimodalism in the transport sector will be actively pursued to enhance the interfacing of all modes of transport as well as related services in order to increase the efficiency of infrastructure facilities and supporting services;

Further expansion of infrastructure facilities to rural areas in order to enhance accessibility in line with a more balanced and equitable distributive policy; and

Continuous review and stricter enforcement of performance standards and technical specifications for infrastructure projects in order to enhance productivity, efficiency and quality of life (Malaysia Government, 1996a).

These broad strategies will then provide a general guidance for state governments to formulate their transport sector-base study in the structural plan.

3.2.2 Structure Plan

In the state level of planning hierarchy, the State Department of Town and Country Planning is given the responsibility to prepare the developments plan (structure plan and local plan).

Normally, the plan should have a time horizon of 5 to 20 years and contain a key diagram rather than a map and cover the non-metropolitan area. The objectives of structure plan are:

to ensure that the provision for development is realistic and consistent with national and regional policy;

to provide the strategic policy framework for planning and development control locally;

to secure consistency between local plans for neighboring areas;

to set the broad framework for planning at the local level; and

to determine the location of action area plans.

The process of preparation of the structure plan is similar to the rational comprehensive planning system (Figure 3.2). State Department of Town and Country Planning will first determine the study area. Secondly, they will translate the general proposals and broad policies established in the National Planning (Five-year Plans) into detailed sector-based studies which includes the transportation sector. Primary and secondary data based on sector-based studies will then be collected and analyzed. After analysis stage, planning department will prepare the draft technical report. The completed draft technical report will be exhibited to the public, and the public is allowed to give their comments and opinions. The planning department will compile the comments given by the public. However, the compilation has been done in the manner to merely fulfill the requirements of the structure plan.

After the exhibition period, the department has to prepare a draft structure plan. The completed draft structure plan again has to be published in local newspaper and exhibited to the public. The public is allowed to express their opinions during the exhibition of the draft structure plan. However, it is only done in an administrative manner. The department has no commitment to be accountable and responsive to public opinions. That means, the public are treated only as consultative bodies with no power to influence the decision. After the plan is adjusted, it will be forwarded to State Planning Committee for approval. This committee is chaired by Chief Minister of Johor State which is responsible to determine the criteria regarding the conservation, uses and development of land in Johor State that should be based on national policy; acts as an advisor to state government and helps in the publishing of the plan. Normally, if there is no other amendments, the plan will then be approved and forwarded to State Government. Finally, State Government will gazette the plan as statutory plan in order to guide state development and planning.

Figure 3.2 Structure Plan Preparation Procedures

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Source: Johor State Structure Plan 2020

Normally, after structure plan has been prepared, it will translate into more detailed level in local plan. The local plan will then be used as a guidance for producing a more comprehensive public transport plan, and again this plan will be transformed into operational plans such as public bus plan.

3.2.3 The Local Plan

In the context of Johor Bahru City, the first ever local plan for the district was gazetted in 2002. Therefore, this detailed plan has been used to assist public bus plan in Johor Bahru City and is being used to guide of the most day-to-day planning decisions.

The process of preparation of the local plan is similar to that of the structure plan as there are also the preparation of draft as well as exhibition period to encourage the public to participate in the process (refer to Figure 3.2.1). Unlike the structure plan, there is a more technical aspect to the report as it is more detail oriented and involves the preparation of the technical report. The local plan recognizes the outlines provided in the structure plan and its statutory nature and translates it into a more physical detail layout to assist the planning process. This is particular important as it acts as a comprehensive guide especially in the context of public bus planning as it proposes the provision of routes as well as all the infrastructures related to bus services such as bus stations.

Figure 3.2 1 Structure Plan Preparation Procedures

Source: Johor Bahru Districl Local Plan 2002- 2020

In general, local plan provides a guide for transport planners in the formation of a public bus transportation plan as well as assisting the bus bus operators in the in their daily operational plan. The preparation of public bus plan in Johor Bahru City will be described in the next section.

3.3 Public bus Planning Process in Johor Bahru City

In Johor Bahru City, short-term public bus plan is carried out by bus operators themselves. This short-term public bus plan will determine daily operation tactics for bus operators to provide bus services within the area of Johor Bahru City. Normally, bus operators will base on the Johor Bahru District Local Plan to formulate their short-term public bus plan. This short-term plan has the objectives to provide new bus route services, to improve the level of service, etc. within a period of three years (personal interview with En. Che Joha, 2010).

In Johor Bahru City, the departments which are related to public transport planning are very unclear. Although there is a Road Transport Act, 1987 (Act 333) and Commercial Vehicles Licensing Board Act, 1987 (Act 334), they do not state clearly which department is responsible to prepare the public transport plan and how public transport plan should be carried out (Wahab, 1991). At the same time, Johor Bahru City still does not have a single transport department to deal with public bus planning. Currently, there are three departments involved in the system which are Unit Traffic of Johor Bahru City Council, Commercial Vehicles Licensing Board and Road Work Department. Normally, Road Work Department is responsible for the planning, design, construction, management and maintenance of road in Johor Bahru City. If there is a new road provided by Road Work Department to link the central business district with new housing estates, bus operator (their appropriate staff members, planners, engineers, schedulers, etc.) first has to prepare the short-term public bus plan in order to submit to Unit Traffic of Johor Bahru City Council for approval. This short-term public bus plan should include the proposed new bus routes, schedule of frequencies, hours of operation, fare changes, etc. Unit Traffic of Johor Bahru City Council will then scrutinise, assess and evaluate whether the proposed services is suitable for improving the quality of public transportation services in Johor Bahru City. If the proposal is in line with the public transport policy stated in structure plan and the routes proposed comply with the existing local plan, it will be approved by Unit Traffic of Johor Bahru City Council.

Notwithstanding, the submission has to be forwarded to Commercial Vehicles Licensing Board for their final decision. The Board has the following responsibilities (Ab. Rahman, 1987):

to consider all applications for licences for public transport services;

to attach conditions to licences and licence holders, such as fare rates, route schedules, stops, number of passengers for public transportation services, etc.;

to cancel and revoke of licences issued if the conditions attached to the licences are not adhered to, or when licences are not use for the purpose under which it was issued;

to fix the period of licences;

to make changes to the conditions attached to licences such as names, operational area, etc.; vi. to renew of licences;

to consider application for additional passengers and replacement of vehicles; and

to formulate proposals for the improvement of the transportation system, from time to time.

Normally, the Board may attach conditions [1] to any licence granted if they think fit. If the contents of short-term public bus plan are complied with the requirements given by the Board, bus operator will obtained the Licensing Permit to operate in that new area. On the contrary, if the plan could not fulfil the conditions imposed, the application may be refused by the Board. However, the applicant may submit their appeal to Minister. If the appeal is approved by the Minister, the applicant may obtain the licence, otherwise the applicant has to resubmit the application if the appeal is not approved. After applicant has obtained the Licensing Permit, he will operate and implement the new system. Thereafter, road transport officers and police are responsible to investigate and monitor the services provided. If bus operators fail to comply with any of the conditions attached to the licence, the holder of the licence shall be guilty of an offence [2] . Moreover, if the licence holder could not provide an efficient transport service in accordance with the terms and conditions of the licence, the Board has the power to refuse for renewal of licence (Act 334, Section 21 (3), p. 145).

The applicant for the grant or renewal of a licence who is aggrieved by the decision or any conditions imposed by the Board, may appeal [3] to the Minister. The Minister then may appoint a committee of two or more persons to consider an appeal. There shall be no oral hearing of the appeal and the committee will only based on the basis of the documents relating to the appeal to do the judgement. The decision of the Minister shall be binding and shall be final and conclusive (Act 334, Section 29 (3), p. 148). It is the general process of making public bus plan in Johor Bahru City (Figure 3.3).

In the context of public bus service planning process in Johor Bahru City, the national and structure plans are available for reference and the local plan serves as a tool for guiding transport operators to prepare their daily operational plans. However, the role of the Commercial Vehicle Licensing Board as the final decision maker is somewhat debatable and grant the whole process of planning irrelevant.

Figure 3.3: The General Public bus Plan-Making Process in Johor Bahru City

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Source: Modification from personal interview with En. Che Joha (2010)

3.4 The Actors Model in Johor Bahru City Context

Base on the previous section, various players are involved in the city’s public bus planning process. They are technical actors, community actors, political actors, private operators and users.

3.4.1 Technical Actors

In Johor Bahru City, technical actors who involve in the formulation of public bus plan comprise two categories. They are salaried civil servants and transport experts in foreign consulting firms. Since transport plans are formulated through two tier levels of plans, again the salaried civil servants can be divided into two categories. In local levels, they are the government officials in the Traffic Unit of Johor Bahru City Council. They are responsible for the planning and provision of public transportation facilities such as bus and taxi stands, terminals and other related facilities; the planning and organisation of bus routes within the city and the surrounding residential areas to improve the public transportation services; and all activities for improving the quality of public transportation services to achieve a `modal split’ suitable for Johor Bahru City (Ab. Rahman, 1987). Whilst, in national level, they are the government officials in EPU and Federal or State Town and Country Planning Department. In EPU, they are responsible for co-ordinating the programs and activities of the ministries, looking at the overall development in the country, distribution of resources as well as monitoring progress and achievement in light of the broad National Policies (Ab. Rahman, 1987). They are responsible also for setting the direction and policy for the government on the transport aspect and accountable to the government not the public. In Federal or State Town and Country Planning Department, technical actors act an advisor to both the federal and state administrations who do not have the staff or capability. These technical actors would use their scientific approaches to prepare the plans in order to facilitate the politicians. However, they work within a closed system because they believe that public interest can be found easily through correct scientific procedures.

Another type of technical actors are transport experts in foreign consulting firms. They are responsible to help government officials in EPU and Federal or State Town and Country Planning Department to prepare the plans. In Malaysia, most of the plans have been prepared by foreign consulting firms on contract to international development institutions. These plans have been criticised as “consultant plans” which do not explicitly adopt government policy (World Bank quoted in Malcolm, 1976, p. 107).

3.4.2 Community Actors

There are different citizen or community organizations that are interested in government policies especially those that affect their interests. As long as a certain transport policy arouses their interests, these groups will submit views to the government to take some lobbying strategies. In Johor Bahru City, there is a community actor or pressure group: Johor Bus Operator Association (JBOA) (Figure 3.4) which has already been set up since the 1950s. It acts as a representative channel for bus operators to express their business interests and to provide information to government during plan-making process (personal interview with En. Che Joha, 2010).

Notwithstanding, it is not very well organised and since the association only concerns with their business interests, it is therefore JBOA could not act as a proper channel to help users or the public to express their voice. Hence, Johor Bahru City still does not have any pressure groups to assist users to voice out their interests.

Figure 3.4: Organisation of Johor Bus Operator Association (JBOA)

Source: Personal Interview with En. Che Joha (2010)

3.4.3 Political Actors

In the state context, political actors are headed by a Chief Minister with a State Executive Council comprising not more than nine members appointed from among the government members of the State Assembly, and three ex-officio members (State Secretary, State Financial Officer and State Legal Adviser) (Rani, 1979). These political actors are the highest policy decision-making body at the state level. During the plan-making process, the State Chief Minister will play a leadership role as chairman of the State Action Committee comprising of both State Security and Development Committees with the State Development Officer as its secretary. The inclusion of all the State Executive Council members in the State Action Committee, members of parliament and State assemblymen in a District Action Committee is designed to enable local politicians to be officially and directly involved in the plan-making process. They are expected to oversee, participate in discussion, contribute towards resolving problems, co-ordinate their efforts as representatives of the people with those of government departments, and ensure the smooth implementation of development programs and projects in accordance with state and national planning objectives (Rani, 1979). In Johor Bahru City context, even though significant issues can be better identified through the involvement of amenity groups and the general public in the plan-making process, political actors are more willingly to bring in the inputs and comments given by consultants instead of by the public throughout the whole process. This is because most of the political actors have not much expertise or knowledge on transport service and therefore they have always relied upon the consultancy system for giving them advice.

3.4.4 Private Operators

In Johor Bahru City, private operators play an important role in short-term public bus planning. They would provide the input and information to technicians during the plan preparation process. They would also propose some recommendations, for an example: new bus route is proposed by transport operators for submission to Unit Traffic of Johor Bahru City Council for obtaining the approval. Normally, Unit Traffic would consider their views and interests in order to maintain stable and continuous transport services provision. After the submission is approved by Unit Traffic, it will be passed to Commercial Vehicles Licensing Board. The purpose is for obtaining the Licensing Permit in order for them to operate the new service. Now, there are five main private bus companies operated in Johor Bahru City which provide 58 bus routes in the city and around 62% of the bus routes are served in the area of Johor Bahru City Council. They are Handal Indah Sdn Bhd, Syarikat Pengangkutan Maju Berhad, Transit Link Sdn Bhd, Syarikat Pengangkutan S&S Sdn Bhd. and Triton Sdn Bhd.

3.4.5 Users

In Johor Bahru City, although there is a statutory requirement for public participation prior to or during the formation of draft plan, the public are involved at the very last stage of the plan-making process when all the major decisions have been made. That means, the public only could voice out their views during the exhibition of the draft plans. This is because the centralized government is willing to withhold information from the public and they have always relied upon the consultancy system for giving them advice. This will lead to ineffectiveness in information dissemination. As a result, the public do not have any opportunity to participate in the early stage of the plan-making process.

Nevertheless, critics and comments could be submitted to government during the exhibition of the draft plans. It is criticized that although the public could submit their opinions and interests to planning department, there is no obligation for them to explain to the public why the opinions and interests are not accepted. Thus, the public are only treated as a consultative body, but not decision forming partners. The public still cannot play an active role in every stages in plan-making process and do not have power to bargain and negotiate with the power holders (Table 3.1). If the planning process does not consider the public or users’ interests, the suggested policies will not reflect the actual interests of the whole society. This will further decrease the quality of the public bus services provided and cause users to suffer.

Table 3.1: Comparison of Actors Model in United Kingdom And Malaysia (Johor Bahru)

Actors Model – Grant (1977)

Actors Model – Johor Bahru Context

Technical Actors – salaried officers in the planning department

Technical Actors – salaried civil servants, transport experts in foreign consulting firm and transport professionals

Community Actors – local organizations, businessmen or pressure groups in affected areas

Community Actors – members of citizen groups or business organization, Johor Bus Operator Association

Political Actors – political parties members in council

Political Actors – Chief Minister with a State Executive Council comprising not more than nine members appointed from among thegovernment members of the State Assembly, and three ex-officio members, etc.

Private Operators aa‚¬” Handal Indah Sdn Bhd, Syarikat Pengangkutan Maju Berhad, Syarikat Kenderaan S&S Sdn Bhd, Transit Link, Triton Sdn Bhd and City Link Sdn Bhd.

Users – cannot play an active role in the every stages in plan-making process and do not have power to bargain and negotiate with the powerholders

3.4.6 The Interaction Among Major Actors in Public bus Planning in Johor Bahru City

Among these major actors who are involved in public bus planning system in Johor Bahru City, political actors and technical actors are the most important actors. These actors involve in the planning and monitoring stages in the public bus system. However, their relationship are not so closed since technical actors always use their scientific approaches to defend the plans and unwilling to change their policies. Conflict might take place between these actors especially when the decision is determined base on political actors’ interests. The second most important actors in the system are the bus operators. Since bus operators have the responsibility to provide bus services to the public, they have to work closely with technical actors and political actors in order to obtain the licensing permit. Their relationship is close, even sometimes they have some controversial issues in terms of business interests. This is because all public bus services in Johor Bahru City are operated by private bus companies which their main interest is viability. That means a private bus company’s income must exceed operating costs and that sufficient funds have to be made available to permit any future investment.

Like bus operators, JBOA, the only community actors in Johor Bahru City also has interaction with technical actors and political actors. The association also has a close and maximum relationship with bus operators since their common interests are to protect business interests. They will join forces to fight for the common goal, if it is affected. The association is formed for the purposes of exchanging views and perspectives among the private bus companies on a general public transport policy matters as well as sharing experience in public bus planning, operation and management. They will consolidate their position on public transport issues before have a discussion with the political actors.

Notwithstanding, since the association has the characteristic which is only concerned with bus operators business interests, therefore Johor Bahru City still does not have any representative channels to help the public to express their views. In addition, political actors are dependent upon consultancy system to give them advice throughout the whole process. The public will just play a passive role during the preparation of plans. They do not have any opportunity to involve themselves in the early stage in plan-making process. They are also the most unorganized group and do not have the power to bargain and negotiate with the power holders. The relationship between the public and others actors is minimal and in conflict since interaction is limited among these major actors. Consequently, what have been made and recommended in the public bus plan could not reflect the actual interests of the whole community and will decrease the quality of the plan.

3.5 Conclusion

After the discussion of the public bus planning system in Johor Bahru City, we find that the appearances and characteristics of the present system are somewhat different from the ideal case. This gives us some hints that the present system might have some problems, and these problems might possibly affect the quality of the public bus services provided. However, judgement on whether the present system is ineffective or inefficient shall not be given until we also look at the users’ opinions on the public bus services provided. In Chapter Four, the current public bus performance level in Johor Bahru City will be investigated.

Wildlife and environment is an integral part of life. Protection of Wildlife and Environment has been present from the pre-colonial and the colonial times. During the 3rd century, Asoka, king of Magadha, passed a law for the protection of wildlife and environment. During colonial times, the British enacted India’s first codified law Wild Birds Protection Act, 1887 and the Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1912. The parliament passed legislation on 9th September, 1972 and is known as Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. This act was enacted under the Article 252. This is an Act “to provide for the protection of wild animals, birds and plants] and for matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto.” Wildlife is defined in the act under section 2(37).

The wildlife was under the state list according to the constitution but by the 42nd amendment it was transferred to the concurrent list in 1976. By 1991 the act was applicable to whole of India (except Jammu and Kashmir). This has helped the central government to increase its role in developing the national wildlife policy. This act provides protection of wildlife and preservation of the environment regardless of its location. The protection is based on two approaches – species approach and the ecosystem approach. The National Wildlife Board was legislated in the 2002 amendment.

Environmental protection is every citizen’s right according to Article 51A (g).The protection of forests, wildlife animals and birds where shifted from the state list to concurrent list. These were entries 17 A and 17 B respectively.

PROTECTED AREAS
INTRODUCTION

Certain areas are protected for the conservation of wildlife. These areas are known as Protected Areas. Protected areas are designated based on their level of protection and the laws binding the country. These areas are protected based on the environmental and cultural values.

According to IUCN, a protected area is, “A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.” Marine protected areas also are included in the list of protected areas.

Under the WLPA, the state government can declare an area of flush or adequate ‘ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance’ a sanctuary or a national park. Public entry is banned in a protected area and the destruction of the habitat along with its wildlife is prohibited and can result in serious consequences.

Protected areas are necessary for conservation of biodiversity and also the preservation of the existing environment. These areas help in balancing ecological cycles and other processes in the environment. This results in protection of watersheds, soils and protects humans from natural disasters.

Many of these areas are vital for the survival for indigenous or local people whose life depends on the sustainable use of resources of that area. They serve as backbone for the local communities. These areas are a physical gateway to hectic work schedule and help attain calm and peace. Certain protected areas are important for research and education and also apply to sustainable land use. The most important aspect of these areas is the tourism, which contributes to the economy.

The importance and the significance of protected areas are realized in the Convention of Biodiversity (CBD) (Article 8). Recently protected areas are facing threats because of climate change and pollution. One of the main reasons that have lead to the degradation of these areas is lack of political support and inadequate financing. The only body that has been actively involved in the protection of these areas is the WCPA.

IUCN PROTECTED AREAS MANAGEMENT CATEGORIES

WCU, founded in 1948 is one of the 6 commissions of IUCN. There are certain guidelines that offer help in classifying the protected areas management categories. The original intent was to provide an understanding of protected areas both within and outside the country.

It has categorized certain regions as protected based on the management objective and has classified protected areas into 8 distinct categories:

a. Strict Nature Reserve – scientific use

b. Wilderness Area – wilderness protection

National Parks – ecosystem protection and recreation

Natural Monument – conservation of specific natural features

Habitat/species Management – maintained for conservation through management intervention

Protected Landscape/Seascape – landscape/seascape protection and recreation

Managed Resource Protected Area – sustainable use of natural ecosystem

According to the IUCN survey, 30,000 protected areas around the world covers 13,250,000 sq.km by 2000. Barely 1% of world’s seas are protected.

PROTECTED AREAS IN INDIA

The protected areas in India cover 156,700sq.km which implies that approximately 4.95% of the total surface area. It has been estimated that there are nearly 5000 villages in protected areas (Shyam Divan and Armin Rosencranz, 2001).In India protected areas have been present from 1935. India has the following as protected areas based on the IUCN classification:

National Parks

Wildlife Sanctuaries

Biosphere Reserves

Conservation Reserve and Community Reserve

Village Forests and Panchayat

Private Protected Areas

Tiger Reserves

The country’s wilderness has been under threat due to rapid urbanization and industrialization. The number of protected areas has increased over the years. In 1988 there were 54 national parks and 372 sanctuaries covering about 3.34% of the country’s geographical area. In 2002, India has a total of 578 wildlife protected areas which accounts to about 4.70% of the country’s geographical area (wildlife institute of India).

The WII has recommended the government to increase the number of wildlife protected areas to 870 which includes 163 national parks and 707 wildlife sanctuaries and the approximate geographical area used will to about 5.74%(Rodgers, Panwar and Mathur, WII)(fig.1). Certain areas in India have very high percentage of protected areas. This is due to the conditions that are available for declaration of a protected area. (Table 1 and Table 2).

NATIONAL PARKS

A National park is a reserve of natural lands that is declared by government. It is declared and created for recreation purposes and protection and preservation of nature. National parks are declared under category II type of protected areas by IUCN. There are 7000 national parks worldwide. The largest national park in the world is the Northeast Greenland National Park. National parks are declared under section 35, 38 (2) and 66 (3). For an area to be declared as a national park it has to undergo a series of stages:

Intention notification

Determination of rights

Proclamation notification

Inquiry

Acquisition of rights

Final notification

The above procedure need not be followed if the rights of the land have extinguished and if the land is under the state government. India’s first national park was Hailey National Park, later renamed as Jim Corbett National Park. This park was established in 1935. There are 96 national parks as of April 2007 in India. National parks hold a higher authority and a high degree of protection than sanctuaries. The rules and regulations that bind national parks are stricter. A national park can be set up within or around a sanctuary.

WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES

Wildlife sanctuaries are areas declared for the protection and restoration of wildlife (endangered species). It is created through government regulations. A sanctuary is actually set up by the central government under the section 38. Only when the state government passes power of authority to the central government can a sanctuary be set up. A sanctuary cannot be created within an existing sanctuary. These areas are declared under Section 26A, 38(1) and 66(3). There are certain conditions that are required for setting up a sanctuary (section 18). These come under IUCN category IV. The main objective is to maintain and conserve species in a habitat.

There are about 489 wildlife sanctuaries covering 3.56% geographical area in India. By the legislation passed by the 2002 amendment the construction of lodges, safari trips, hotels need approval of National Board. The procedure is same as that of declaring a national park. The control of these sanctuaries is under the Chief Wildlife Warden (section 33). In India, there are about 28 tiger reserves out of the total wildlife sanctuaries. These reserves are mainly for the protection and the conservation of tigers. Therefore these reserves are species specific. Certain sanctuaries are named exclusively as bird sanctuaries, E.g. Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu. There are certain restrictions after a land or area has been notified and declared as WS (Sections 27, 29, 30, 31, and 32).

BIOSPHERE RESERVES

These reserves were established by UNSECO in 1973-74 under the Man and Biosphere programme (MAB).This programme aims at bringing the balance between use and conservation of resources. It main objective is in research and scientific outlook in the present’s world. In India, there are over 14 Biosphere Reserves as of 25th October, 2007(Table 3). Biosphere reserves are natural landscapes that extend over large areas. They can be terrestrial or marine or combination of both. These reserves are perfect paradigm for showcasing the existing harmony between man and nature. The reserves help in conservation of the habitat along with the species and also help in the economic development. These biosphere reserves actually have unique features nad are in very good condition. They come under Category V of IUCN classification.

In India, a National Biosphere Reserve Programme was established in 1986.The main criteria for declaring a biosphere reserve is that the area should contain rare and endangered species of flora and fauna. It should be an area that is protected and is a bio geographical unit that is extensive. These ecosystems actually are like alternate research models that provide educational information. A biosphere reserve has a layered structure that contains 3 important zones:

Core zone

Buffer zone

Transition zone

The core zone actually consists of the target species that need to be protected and conserved. This zone is legally protected from human interference. The Buffer zone is a middle zone that is adjoined to both the core and transition zone. In this zone certain activities like recreation, education, tourism and the restoration of area. In this area, if human activities are natural then these activities are allowed. These activities are only allowed if they cause minimal damage to the environment. The Transition zone is the outermost zone. In this zone all activities along with conservation and administration are carried out in harmony. This zone has no limits on human activities. In this zone there is huge economic revenue that is derived from tourism and management practices.

The biosphere reserves are established under the legal frameworks that have been legislated under WPA, 1972. In the process of declaring an area as biosphere reserve the central as well as the state government have roles and responsibilities to be carried out. The financial support is provided by the central government whereas the management and administration is the duty of the state government. The Indian National Man and Biosphere committee actually is constituted by central government and finds new sites, committees, policies, programmes and other activities for the betterment of the reserve. The ministry proposed certain areas for getting approved into the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, in November 2001, the International Coordinating Council (ICC) of Man and Biosphere programme of UNESCO designated and approved of Sunderbans (West Bengal) and the Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu) into the world network. The Nilgiri was already included in 2000.

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PROVISIONS PROVIDED BY WLPA,1972

The CEL – WWF India was launched in 1993. This organization took active legal actions in the country. They have fought legal actions for the protection and conservation of wildlife and environment. They came into forefront mainly because of the Bhitarkanika case, Narayan Sarovar case, and intervention in Delhi ridge. Through research and investigation it came to light that the provisions of the WLPA, 1972 were not being implemented.CEL – WWF filed a civil writ petition in May, 1995 in SC for protection and development of protected areas along with the wildlife. The SC accepted the petition and issued notices to every State Government and the Union of India on February, 1997.

During the course of the case hearing the SC has passed several contempt notices to the state and union officials to carry out their duties with honour and adhere to the orders of the court. In March, 1997 the Indian board of wildlife (IBWL) was ordered to submit a summary and report on the plight of the protected areas in India and its progress after the SC had passed the orders for strict surveillance. The states were requested to submit a report on its activities and the steps they had taken for the betterment of these protected areas. The SC also noticed that some states had WW while some didn’t. Those states who had appointed a WW were only for certain areas.

In response to the SC, the MoEF responded that the meeting of the Previous IBWL have not attended a meeting for the last eight years. This showed laxity at the national level and the action of the highest authority. This board was reconstituted in 1996 and appointed the Prime Minister as the Chairman. At the state level the states had not been adhering to the court orders and were not alert enough to file their replies. Even though it was laxity at the state level and the SC extended the deadline of the submission of the report and granted them another two months to file their answers. Finally, the SC accepted that all the States and Unions of India had constituted their wildlife advisory boards and confirmed the body. This was done in January, 1998.

One of the main issues regarding implementation was about the existing tiger population in India. The court ordered to bring to notice about the population of these cats. By a report submitted by the MoEF stated that the population of tigers had not declined since 1973. But the overall decline of population was due to the fragmentation of tiger habitats.

DE – RESERVATION OF PROTECTED AREAS

Some sanctuaries face a threat of being de – reserved by the state actions. The shield provided by the WLPA, 1972 can be removed by the state wildlife advisory board (state board) in case it’s not necessary. But the order passed by the SC directed the state governments to pass on a proposal of denotification or de – reservation of an area to the NBWL for its opinion and pass it on to the Legislative Assembly. According to the 2002 amendment of WLPA the NBWL has the power to alter PAs over the legislative assembly. Certain cases have already happened like, 1994 the Boriavli National Park was trimmed so that the slum people who resided near the national park would not be evicted. But in case of tiger reserve, it cannot be de – notified by a state board. But a tiger reserve can be de – reserved if it has the approval of the TCA and the National Board for Wildlife. The Forest Conservation Act, 1970 (FCA) actually restricts the authority of the state to de-reserve forest areas. According to the SC order dated 13.11.2000 the state requires prior permission for the diversion or de-reservation of forest land in national parks.

STATE LEVEL RESPONSES ON PROTECTED AREAS – TAMIL NADU

In Tamil Nadu the state board was constituted on 14.09.1995 and again reconstituted on 24.02.1997. The state appointed 10 WW to look after the implementation of the WLPA. Tamil Nadu was one the few states that actually interpreted the Supreme Court orders correctly. The state of Tamil Nadu also informed the Supreme Court that there are 6 WW and a Deputy Director for the Project Tiger. A district officer has also been appointed to look after the implementation of the WLPA properly in various national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. The Honorary Wildlife Warden (HWW) is appointed for the National parks and the Sanctuaries. They are appointed for tenure of 3 years. If the person appointed wants to resign before the period is completed then a notice of 3 months has to be given prior to resignation or cancellation of appointment. Many of the protected areas have been notified under the section 16 of the Tamil Nadu Forest act, 1882 and with reference to reserved forest the areas that were proclaimed and notified under the Tamil Nadu forest act, 1882 will enjoy a status equivalent to those that have been notified under the section 26A or 21, WLPA, 1972. Certain sanctuaries and national park come under the non – reserved forest areas. These areas are proclaimed under the section 21 of WLPA.

An order dated 20.03.1998 stated the immunization of all wildlife in NPs/WSs in every state. The state director of animal husbandry was given the authority to carry out the instructions at the district level. The District Forest Officers were instructed the vaccination of all wildlife in the 5 km radius of Protected Areas. Another order dated 20.03.1998 stated the registration of arms and issuance of licences. The State Director General of Police was instructed to comply with the order. The wildlife protection (Tamil Nadu) Rules, 1975 was framed. The Rule 33 is about the registration of arms in the vicinity of NPs/WSs. The DGPs and CWLWs are requested to take action in case of non – compliance.

Tamil Nadu has in total 5 NP and 8 WS, 12 BS, 4 Elephant reserves, 3 Tiger Reserves and 3 Biosphere Reserves (Table 3) which are under the UNESCO’s MAB programme. Almost one – sixth of Tamil Nadu is covered with forest. The state ranks in the 11th position in reference to total forest cover among the Indian states and Union Territories and ranks 13th position in reference to total recorded forest cover. Tamil Nadu ranks 14th position with reference to protected areas.

The diversity of flora and fauna are a boon to the state and need to be conserved and managed with great care since the extent of diversity is beyond our imagination. Forests and wilderness of the state actually defines the state. According to the 2008 census, tiger population increased in the state of Tamil Nadu. This was achieved due to strict and mandatory measures passed by the state board. For the development, conservation and administration activities the state has sanctioned and invested a huge sum of money which has proved to be successful to an extent.

THE SARISKA CASE: TARUN BHARATH SANGH, ALWAR Vs UNION OF INDIA

Tarun Bharath Sangh is a non – governmental organization (NGO) whose concern was about the rural development of Rajasthan. The main issue of concern was the availability of water resource. Illegal mining activities were being carried out in Alwar district of Rajasthant taht resulted in shortage of water. The organization launched the Sariska Case. The area that was under scrutiny is now what is known as the Sariska Tiger Sanctuary. This Tiger Sanctuary is a species specific Protected Area and comes under the Tiger Reserves category and it is an exclusive hunting area for the Rulers of the Quondam, Alwar state.

This NGO approached court petitioning that the illegal mining activity that was going on in the Alwar district of Rajasthan needs to cease in the interest of environment and nature to sustain. They pointed out that the mining is being carried out in a protected area that has been declared by the government. The area is declared as a tiger reserve under Rajasthan Wild Animal and Birds Protection Act, 1951. This area is also declared as a WS and NP under WLPA, 1972. Under these acts such activities in WS or NP or a tiger reserve is prohibited and can result in dire consequences. The permission of the government for such activities actually contradicted these legislations.

The petitioner’s side of argument was that mining permission lease was not granted to the company. For such an activity to be carried out they have to acquire prior permission from the Government of India – section 2 FCA,1980 and rule 4(6) of Rajasthan Minor Mineral Concession Rules. They stated that no permission was obtained and the government illegally issued 400 mining permission leases. This has caused degradation of ecology and devastation of the environment. In this case, the court was called upon to ensure that the laws for the protection of the environment were enacted on.

The state on its behalf countered that the grant of these mining activities where due to some confusion regarding the difference between NP and reserved forests and were confused regarding the exact location of mining areas. But the state was humble enough to agree that the mines were in the protected areas and realised that appropriate action should be taken so that the provisions of the statutes are enforced. The irony is that the state of Rajasthan while proclaiming that they protect the environment actually is part of a huge scam and allows the degradation of the environment.

The central government stated that the FCA provisions extend to reserved, protected forests and all the areas that have been recorded as forests in the government records. They also submitted that no mining should be allowed to take place without the prior permission from the central government. The central government passed a notification on 7 May, 1997 under section 3 of EPA. This notification prohibited the mining in the Sariska NP, Sariska WS and other areas that were protected. According to the Rule 4(6) of the Rajasthan Minor Mineral Concession Rules, 1982, no mining lease can be granted within a forest without going through the rules and provisions provided by the FCA, 1980. The chair man of committee Shri.Justice M.L.Jain recommended 215 mines mentioned in appendix A that are placed wholly in protected areas are closed. The purpose of FCA and EPA are totally different. In the sense that the closure of the mines that were situated in the protected forests may not benefit for the environmental purpose but will surely benefit the forest purpose.

The central government stated that no permission was acquired for the mines that were in the protected forests. The court after the final hearing ordered and issued notice to the listed mines to stop their activities immediately. But the mines outside the tiger reserve were allowed to continue their activity for 4 months within which they could approach the central government with an application to continue their operation. If permitted they are allowed to continue their mining activities with no hindrance. If no permission is obtained then they will have to cease their mining operations immediately. Some miners who felt that they were wronged filed a review application and the SC rejected the application on 7 May, 1994. This case is a perfect example of Industry Vs Protected Areas.

CONCLUSION

Nature cannot be compared in terms of beauty. There is nothing that surpasses her. The presence of nature along with her children playing around carefree and not worried about the future was what God pictured when he first created Earth. But unfortunately, the rosy picture painted by God was not reality. Man has been the root cause of the upheaval.

Protected areas have a very important place in the process of restoration of the environment. These areas conserve and restore the environment along with its flora and fauna. These areas are critical for the conservation of endemic biodiversity. India has a very diverse population of fauna and flora. But now even the smallest of species are facing a threat of extinction. The protection of natural areas is the fundamental conservation strategy. These areas are key habitats since they can be conserved by species approach or ecosystem approach. These provide refuge for wildlife to restore them and protect them from the outside cruelty. They also protect mankind indirectly by protecting the trivial life on earth and help in balancing the nature’s cycle. These areas are life for the local tribes.

The WLPA, 1972 legislation was passed for the protection of wildlife. But ironically until recently the provisions of the act have not been implemented to full strength. Until the SC intervened the State Board and the National Board were very poor respondents. This statute needs to be revised and amended in various aspects. There should be a section legislated in the WLPA dedicated to the implementation of the provisions and instructions. It should be made mandatory. The authorities in charge need to be penalised in case rules and regulations were flouted. Even though there are rules regarding the entry of people, registration of arms into these areas if someone throws in some cash anything under the sun can be achieved, including flouting the wildlife laws. The main reason is that the base of the whole structure is so weak that nothing can be done. Unless we realise and build the system again from the foundation the future is bleak and is very much predictable. This can be seen the case of Tarun bharath Sangh,Alwar Vs Union of India,1992. Here the government themselves are villains by allowing illegal mining operations in a protected forest.

Flouting of wildlife laws has resulted in grave consequences. One such case comes to light about the extinction of tigers from the Sariska Tiger Reserve. In December 2004, all tigers had disappeared from the Sariska Tiger Reserve. In 1973, Project Tiger was established for the conservation of tiger. The shock waves that were created and sent across the country resulted in the establishment of the Tiger Task Force; it was specially formed for the Tiger conservation.

Through investigation it was revealed that poaching was the main issue for the dwindling population of tigers. The last six that remained were poached during the last months of 2004. After this devastating story, the wardens are instructed to shoot poachers on sight when they are sighted. Tiger (Panthera tigris) is our national animal. The danger we are putting it through is a heart wrenching story. Now it doesn’t even have a place to call home since its struggling with mankind tooth and nail for survival.

Joining our national animal are other wildlife species like the lion, Asian elephant, snow leopard etc. Even though these are protected and conserved in areas or reserves they still face the threat of poaching. There are also other reasons that affect the conservation strategies. One of the main reasons is the failure of the forest dwellers or local people in helping to conserve the wildlife. They assist the poachers in killing those animals giving the reason that they are threatened by its presence. Therefore there is no cordial relationship between the management and the local people. But we cannot blame the local people for their action because their whole livelihood is through deriving resources from the forest reserve. The recording and rights of people living near forests and reserves started way back when the acts were legislated but even now many are pending. Many people are still in hope to get their rights so that they can live peacefully with nature. This is a perfect paradigm for Man Vs Wild. These conflicts have been present for ages but have increased over the years because humans expand their cities or towns with reference to development. This has resulted in us exploiting their habitat. Other reasons that can lead to threatening the wildlife in their protected abode is illegal activities such as mining, construction, noise etc.

Protected areas along with its varied flora and fauna actually conserve the value of the country. Even though these areas are protected half the population of the country are not aware that an Act has been implemented for protection. People don’t realise the consequences and the penal codes of the constitution regarding environment. This is basically due to ignorance and illiteracy. Therefore awareness needs to be achieved.MoEF

One act of random kindness will change the life of many. Environment and mankind are interlinked. That is because every living thing has a place and a role to play on this planet through a food chain or a food web. So even if one level is disrupted the whole web goes haywire and can result in a catastrophe that man didn’t perceive. So if he wants to live he needs to start thinking twice before taking a crucial step. But it doesn’t mean that development stops. Development can take place but not at the cost of the environment. Nature should not take the brunt of man’s action. Only recently have people started to stand up to the atrocities being done to animals. But even then the response is poor compared to the huge population of India.

Man being a greedy animal, has never been satisfied with his life and in the name of development has destroyed the environment. When he does realise the mistakes that he has committed it would be too late to turn back and start again. He is already standing on the edge of the cliff, one wrong move and he sinks without a trace. Being the most intelligent creature ironically man has been doing the most foolish thing of his lifetime. What is life without any morale and values? Are we so inhumane to even listen to the pain that these animals cry out when they are being killed? Are we deaf to the pleas that reverberate out of them and asking us for their help? But instead of helping them we are using them for our benefit. This is what life has become to develop our race we step onto the lives of another.

GLOSSARY

Art.252 Power of Parliament to legislate for two or more States by consent and adoption of such legislation by any other State.

Art.51A(g) “It shall be the duty of every citizen of india to protect and improve the natural environment including forests,lakes,rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.”

Entries 17A and 17B Forests and Protection of Wildlife in Concurrent list

Art.8 In – Situ conservation of protected areas

Art.21 Protection of life and personal liberty.-No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.

Section 2(37) “wild life” includes any animal, bees, butterflies, crustacea, fish and moths; and aquatic or land vegetation which form part of any habitat;

Section16 notification declaring forest reserved

Section 18 Declaration of sanctuary

Section 26 A Declaration of area as sanctuary

Section 27 Restriction on entry in sanctuary

Section 29 Destruction,etc., in a sanctuary prohibited without permit

Section 30 Causing fire prohibited – No person shall set fire to a sanctuary, or kindle any fire, or leave any fire buring, in such manner as to endanger such sanctuary.

Section 31 Prohibition of entry into sanctuary with weapon – No person shall enter a sanctuary with any weapon except with the previous permission in writing of the Chief Wild Life Warden or the authorised officer.

Section 32 Ban on use of injurious substances – a No person shall use, in a sanctuary, chemicals, explosives or any other substances which may cause injury to or endanger, any wild life in such sanctuary

Introduction

It is important to appreciate the size and scope of the cruise industry before discussing the issues and challenges associated with it. This paper provides an overview of the cruise industry, key players, growth, recent trends and developments and informs on the key impacts and effects that this fast growing cruise industry has on its destinations, communities, the waterways, passengers and the environment, It further analyzes the economic, social, cultural, health, safety, environment and taxation attributes of the cruise business and discusses both the positive and as well as the negative aspects of cruise tourism. The cruise industry provides economic and other benefits to the destinations, from the tourists’ expenditures and ships’ operational purchases to the taxation benefits for the communities in those destinations. It gives satisfaction and relaxation to the cruise passengers and results in profits for the cruise companies. At the same time, there are many negatives associated with cruise ship tourism, a number of which are significant and seriously damaging to the very same destinations, communities and the environment.

Statement of Purpose

The primary purpose of this paper is to provide a balanced snapshot of the industry and to highlight several key concerns and provide recommendations towards reducing their negative impact, and have more controlled and sustainable cruise operations. There is not one single cure-it-all solution to what is a very complex problem, but it is believed that more assertive policies and legislations that are international in scope and internationally enforced are a big part of the answer.

Cruise Industry Overview

The cruise ship industry is the fastest growing segment in the travel industry and since 1980 the average annual growth rate of cruise passengers worldwide averages 8.0%. As of January 2004, there were 339 active oceangoing cruise ships; this global fleet amounted to a total of 10.9 million gross tons, with 296,000 beds. [1] In 2007, the worldwide cruise passengers grew to 12.9 million. According to the Cruise Industry Report 2012 by the Florida Caribbean Cruise Association [2] , the 2011 passenger number was over 16 million, of which 11.2 million originated in North America. The 2012 forecast is 17.0 million worldwide, with the Caribbean as the most preferred destination. The cruise lines continue to add new ships and exciting options to ensure continued growth. Today’s ships offer a new generation of dizzying onboard innovations, including surf pools, planetariums, on-deck LED movie screens, golf simulators, water parks, self-leveling billiard tables, multi-room villas with private pools and in-suite Jacuzzis, ice skating rinks, rock climbing walls, bungees and trampolines. With all of this luxury and increase in passengers’ numbers, the impact and the challenges in such areas as economic, socio-cultural, environmental, safety and security and taxation are a major concern.

Economic Effects

These economic benefits arise from five principal sources: 1) spending by cruise passengers and crew; 2) the shore-side staffing for their local offices, marketing and tour operations 3) expenditures for goods and services necessary for cruise operations; 4) spending by the cruise lines for port services; and 5) expenditures for the maintenance. According to CLIA, the economic impact of the U.S cruise industry from 2005 to 2006 resulted in expenditures of $35.7 billion in gross output in the United States, a 10.2 percent increase. This increase generated 348,000 jobs in the U.S.A., a total of $14.7 billion in salaries. It should be noted that accommodation of large cruise ships in ports requires a great deal of initial capital investment in infrastructure and maintenance costs, which is absorbed eagerly by the host port, not by the cruise line. It is recommended that to create a more balanced port development the cruise companies must contribute financially towards the local infrastructure costs, and put a pause on increasing the size of new ships so that existing ports can welcome new ships without costly port rebuilds.

Impact of Powerful Cruise Companies

The top 10 brand operators control 64% of the global cruise berth capacity, with Carnival, Royal Caribbean and Star/NCL groups controlling 35% of the cruise vessels and 68% of the berth capacity worldwide. Carnival alone controls 22% of the vessels and 39% of the berths. [3] If one adds to it the growth rate of 8% annually, the net result is that the above three cruise companies exert a lot of power globally. Cruise business has become a revenue and profit churning machine and this is often with the exclusion or restriction of local providers. Arguably, cruise lines benefit the most from the activities associated with the passengers both onboard and off-board.

There are minimal profits for the providers of local tourism services as cruise lines obtain all income from items sold on board such as the rental of aquatic equipment, food and beverages or souvenirs, leaving the local tour operator with relatively little profit. Tourism service providers have to pay for promotion on board; videos, brochures, and the cost of an actual booth ranges up to U.S. $16,500. [4] Others income comes from “dream islands”, cruise line’s private island property and once again reducing the economic benefit to impacted communities.

The cruise industry also has a strong lobbying group to push for policy and legal decisions in their favor. From 1997 to 2007, Cruise Line International Association spent US$10 million on lobbying the U.S Congress. These cruise sectors try hard to avoid or minimize paying local taxes, as their ships go under the flags of convenience, Liberia, Bahamas and Panama and cross international borders, which are exempt from paying certain destination taxes and pollution fees, and it is difficult for the local jurisdictions to enforce such payments. This causes apprehension to hotel operators who are obligated to pay such taxes and it makes them less competitive and profitable than the cruise lines. One suggestion is for a new international standard where cruise ships are obligated to pay a local port tax and economic development contribution based on the size of the ship and number of passengers, payable while in port.

Environmental Effects

Cruise ships generate a number of waste streams that affect the marine environment, e.g. sewage, graywater, hazardous wastes, oily bilge water, ballast water, solid waste and also emits air pollutants to the air and water. These environmental costs are significant but incalculable given that the cruise ship industry is largely unregulated. As an example, blackwater and graywater generate 15,000 to 30,000 gallons per day by a typical large ship with 3,000 passengers, and 24% of vessel solid waste worldwide comes from cruise ships. The few regulations that are there are not always successful enforced. In 1999 Royal Caribbean paid a fine of US$18million for discharging oily bilge water in Alaska, the same amount was paid by Carnival Cruise Line in 2002 for dumping oily waste from five ships and still not much has changed. Although cruise ships represent a small percentage of the entire shipping industry worldwide, public attention to their environmental impacts comes in part from the fact that cruise ships are highly visible because of the industry’s desire to promote a positive image.

LeAna B. Gloor’s article on cruise tourism impact on Hilo in Hawaii [5] illustrates the social, physical and environmental concerns. She states that while Hawaii is benefiting economically at unprecedented levels, it is also being impacted negatively on the environmental side of things at unprecedented levels. She advocates for a stronger legislation, more aggressive enforcement and more bills such as the Clean Cruise Ship Act. She also calls for a more proactive, sustainable vision of the future from the port communities themselves.

Social and Cultural Effects

Interactions between resident and cruise passengers can have positive effects but at the same time, high frequency and density of cruise activities can restrict the available space for local residents and push them to adopt different moral and cultural standards. There are often negative reactions from the residents triggered by the cruise tourism in small ports, where the ratio of cruise tourists to inhabitants is high, in places such as Aruba, Antigua, Barbuda or Dominica. This leads to local resentment, overcrowding and lack of services such as taxis, beach space and available seats in restaurants on the cruise days, or lack of demand and no work on the days when cruise ships are not in port. This differs for ports such as Miami, Barcelona and European destinations, where the number of cruise visitors’ ratio is small compared to other tourists and local residents. Another negative is that ships with flags of convenience have questionable labour and work safety standards and often have no legal minimum wage enforcement. Past efforts to have this changed by organizations such as the ITWF have failed. It is recommended that standard minimum wage, work hours and days of rest for cruise ship workers are established and enforced internationally.

Health and Diseases

A number of recent studies have focused on the health risks and disease directly attributable to cruise ships with their high concentration of people from different countries. One such study [6] looked at the risks and diseases caused by contaminated water and found that the organization of water supply to and on ships differs considerably from that of water supply on land. Risks of contamination can arise from source water at the port or during loading, storage, or distribution on the ship. The authors reviewed 21 documented outbreaks of waterborne diseases associated with passenger, cargo, fishing, and naval ships, and findings showed that the majority of reported outbreaks were associated with cruise ships. Risk factors included contaminated port water, inadequate water treatment, improper loading techniques, poor design and maintenance of storage tanks, contamination during repair and maintenance, poor connections, and insufficient disinfectants.

The recommendations include the need for hygienic and comprehensive handling of water all along the supply chain from source to consumption. This may be achieved in the future by the adoption of improved Water Safety Plans that cover design, construction, operation, and routine inspection and maintenance. Another study [7] of waterborne diseases on cruise ships concluded that the overall decrease of gastroenteritis during 10 years prior to 1986 was directly attributable to the improved enforcement of the Vessel Sanitation Program (VSP) of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Another study [8] reported in 2006 a number of outbreaks of Norovirus on cruise ships, with 43 outbreaks on 13 vessels. Cruise ship holidays create an environment in which Norovirus is easily spread. It was recommended that an active reporting system could function as an early warning system, but more important would be to implement internationally accepted rules and guidelines for reporting, investigating, and controlling Norovirus and other diseases on cruise ships. As Los Angeles Times headline on February 4, 2012 stated: “Florida cruise ships riddled with Norovirus. Anyone surprised?”

Safety and Security

After the terrorist attacks on New York’s World Trade Center, cruise related tourism has been seen as one of the safest ways to experience foreign travel. Yet, as P. Tarlow indicates in his rather somber study on cruise risks [9] , the cruising is not immune to dangers ranging from virus outbreaks to terrorism to accidents. He lists a number of major disasters, terrorist attacks, robberies and on-board assaults to demonstrate his point. Cruise tourism can lead to incidents where the ship can become a trap, as the recent examples such as Costa Concordia grounding and Carnival’s ship engine fire and subsequent stranding at sea demonstrate. This author lists a number of specific recommendations for tourism professionals to follow in order to mitigate safety and security risks.

Taxation

There are no common standards in the application of port taxes to cruises. Some ports charge levy that is reasonable, some excessive. Some ships pay, some do not. Another unresolved situation is that the cruise lines are allowed to operate under the “flags of convenience” (FAO), usually, Panama, Liberia or the Bahamas. Such cruise ships are then exempt from multiple tax responsibilities and it is easier for them to implement lenient standards of safety, undergo few environmental inspections, their operating costs are lower, they recruit staff without adhering to national or international regulations. The most obvious is Panama, where the ship pays for each passenger landing in Panama, in order to encourage the use the Panama flag of convenience. [10] A

good recommendation would be to adopt an internationally binding comprehensive policy and standards related to taxes, minimal fees, address key areas of staff and passenger safety, and the ships’ environmental responsibilities. Only then can we have a more sustainable, controlled development and operations of cruise lines where rules are adhered to rather than avoided.

Conclusion

There is no question that cruise ships bring money to local businesses and to the operators. However, ensuring the sustainable development of a cruise destination and the environment comes with very high cost which the cruise lines must be a part of. The major players in this highly consolidated cruise industry have to take a more proactive and self- policing measures to ensure a sustainable future for cruise tourism while preserving cruise destinations and cruise waterways. This essay discussed some of the key pros and cons of cruising and offered some recommendations for improvement towards a more balanced, sustainable growth.

The onus as well needs to be on the port communities, as on one hand, there is a portion of the decision makers that pressure for more cruise tourism, but there is frequently no policy at the local government level to control the impacts of such activity. The cruise industry will not be going away anytime soon, so it is more important to improve the situation that is not balanced or sustainable. Ports need the cruise ships as much as the cruise ships need the ports, the waterways need to be maintained in a more sustainable way, the cruise workers need fair employment standards and the local population needs to have a voice in the local planning for the impacts of tourism. With the continued growth of the cruise industry now is the time to create new set of international policies and rules that are binding for all participants. This paper tried to inform on some of the pros and cons and challenges facing this industry and to provide recommendations towards change in key areas of impact. More research needs to be done, more data needs to be collected, and more engagement from all involved parties is needed. There is much to do.

Works cited and references

It is important to appreciate the size and scope of the cruise industry before discussing the issues and challenges associated with it. This paper provides an overview of the cruise industry, key players, growth, recent trends and developments and informs on the key impacts and effects that this fast growing cruise industry has on its destinations, communities, the waterways, passengers and the environment., It further analyzes the economic, social, cultural, health, safety, environment and taxation attributes of the cruise business and discusses both the positive and as well as the negative aspects of cruise tourism. The cruise industry provides economic and other benefits to the destinations, from the tourists’ expenditures and ships’ operational purchases to the taxation benefits for the communities in those destinations. It gives satisfaction and relaxation to the cruise passengers which results in profits for the cruise companies. At the same time, there are many negatives and a number of which are significant and seriously damaging to those same destinations, communities and the environment. This paper will as well provide a balanced snapshot of the industry and highlight several key concerns and provide recommendations towards reducing their negative impact and with a future of more controlled and sustainable cruise operations. It should be noted that there is not one single cure-it-all solution to what is a very complex problem, but it is believed that more assertive international policies and legislations that can be enforced are a big part of the answer.

Cruise Industry Overview

The cruise ship industry is the fastest growing segment in the travel industry and has had an annual growth rate of 8.0% since 1980. Just imagine about 339 active cruise ships with well over 10.9 million gross tons and about 296,000 beds. [1] In 2007, the worldwide cruise passengers grew to 12.9 million. According to the Cruise Industry Report 2012 by the Florida Caribbean Cruise Association [2] , the 2011 passenger number was over 16 million, of which 11.2 million originated in North America. The forecasted numbers for 2012 forecast was 17.0 million worldwide, with the preferred destination being the Caribbean. The cruise lines continue to add new ships and exciting options to ensure continued growth. Today’s ships offer a new generation of dizzying onboard innovations, including surf pools, planetariums, on-deck LED movie screens, golf simulators, water parks, self-leveling billiard tables, multi-room villas with private pools and in-suite Jacuzzis, ice skating rinks, rock climbing walls, bungees and trampolines. With all of this luxury and increase in passengers’ numbers, the impact and the challenges in such areas as economic, socio-cultural, environmental, safety and security and taxation are a major concern.

Economic Effects

These economic benefits arise from five principal sources: 1) spending by cruise passengers and crew; 2) the shore-side staffing for their local offices, marketing and tour operations 3) expenditures for goods and services necessary for cruise operations; 4) spending by the cruise lines for port services; and 5) expenditures for the maintenance. According to CLIA, the economic impact of the U.S cruise industry from 2005 to 2006 resulted in expenditures of $35.7 billion in gross output, a 10% increase, which generated 348,000 jobs and paid out $14.7 billion in salaries. It should be noted that accommodation of large cruise ships in ports require a great deal of initial capital investment in infrastructure and maintenance costs, which is absorbed eagerly by the host port, not by the cruise line. It is recommended that to create a more balanced port development the cruise companies should contribute financially towards the local infrastructure costs, and also put a pause on increasing the size of new ships to allow the existing ports to still welcome new ships without incurring additional rebuild costs.

Impact of Powerful Cruise Companies

Three main cruise lines, Carnival, Royal Caribbean and Star/NCL control around 35% of cruise vessels, with Carnival controlling 22% of that 35% alone. [3] If one adds to it the growth rate of 8% annually, the net result is that the above three cruise companies exert a lot of power globally. Cruise business has become a revenue and profit churning machine and this is often with the exclusion or restriction of local providers. Arguably, cruise lines benefit the most from the activities associated with the passengers both onboard and off-board. There are minimal profits for the providers of local tourism services as cruise lines obtain all income from items sold on board such as souvenirs, rental of aquatic equipment, food and beverages, leaving the local tour operator with little profit. Tourism service providers also have to pay for promotion on board; videos, brochures and booths. A booth can costs up to U.S. $16,500. [4] Other income comes from “dream islands”, cruise line’s private island property and once again reducing the economic benefit to impacted communities. The cruise industry also has a strong lobbying group to push for policy and legal decisions in their favor and during the period from1997 to 2007, the Cruise Line International Association spent US$10 million on lobbying the U.S Congress. They try their hardest to avoid or minimize paying local taxes. For example, many of their ships go under the flags of convenience, Liberia, Bahamas and Panama and cross international borders, where they are exempted from paying certain destination taxes and pollution fees, and where it is difficult for the local jurisdictions to enforce these payments. This causes the local hotels to get angry as they are obligated to pay such taxes and it makes them less competitive and profitable than the cruise lines. One suggestion is for a new international standard where cruise ships are obligated to pay a local port tax and economic development contribution based on the size of the ship and number of passengers, payable while in port.

Environmental Effects

Cruise ships generate a number of waste streams that affect the marine environment, for example, sewage, graywater, hazardous wastes, oily bilge water, ballast water, solid waste and also emits air pollutants to the air and water. These environmental costs are significant but incalculable given that the cruise ship industry is largely unregulated. As an example, blackwater and graywater generate 15,000 to 30,000 gallons per day for a ship with 3,000 passengers, and 24% of vessel solid waste worldwide comes from cruise ships. Unfortunately, the few regulations that are there are not always successful enforced. In 1999 Royal Caribbean paid a fine of US$18million for discharging oily bilge water in Alaska, the same amount was paid by Carnival Cruise Line in 2002 for dumping oily waste from five ships, and still not much has changed. Cruise ships have a positive image of glamour, even though they only represent a small percentage of the entire shipping industry worldwide, and because of this their environmental impacts are tolerated and continue to be unregulated.

LeAna B. Gloor’s article on cruise tourism impact on Hilo in Hawaii [5] illustrates the social, physical and environmental concerns. She states that while Hawaii is benefiting economically at unprecedented levels, it is also being impacted negatively on the environmental side of things at unprecedented levels. She advocates for a stronger legislation, more aggressive enforcement and more bills such as the Clean Cruise Ship Act.

Social and Cultural Effects

Interactions between resident and cruise passengers can have positive effects but at the same time, high frequency and density of cruise activities can restrict the available space for local residents and push them to adopt different moral and cultural standards. There are often negative reactions from the residents triggered by the cruise tourism in small ports, where the ratio of cruise tourists to inhabitants is high, in places such as Aruba, Antigua, Barbuda or Dominica. This leads to local resentment, overcrowding and lack of services such as taxis, beach space and available seats in restaurants on the cruise days, or lack of demand, and no work on the days when cruise ships are not in port. This differs for ports such as Miami, Barcelona and European destinations, where the number of cruise visitors’ ratio is small compared to other tourists and local residents. Another negative is that ships with flags of convenience have questionable labour and work safety standards and with no legal minimum wage enforced. Past efforts to have this changed by organizations such as the ITWF have failed. It is recommended that standard minimum wage, work hours and days of rest for cruise ship workers are established and enforced internationally.

Health and Diseases

A number of recent studies have focused on the health risks and disease directly attributable to cruise ships with their high concentration of people from different countries. One such study [6] looked at the risks and diseases caused by contaminated water and it showed that their water supply is very different from the water supplies on land. . The risks of contamination were much higher due to the way it was sourced during loading and also the dispersal on the cruise ship. The authors reviewed 21 documented outbreaks of waterborne diseases from various vessels and it was discovered that the bulk of the outbreaks were on cruise ships. Some other risk factors involved already contaminated water from the port to the ship and contamination in their storage tanks, which could be a result of poor maintenance and lack of disinfectants. The recommendations include the need for hygienic and a better comprehensive system to handling of their water supply from source to consumption. This may be achieved in the future by the adoption of improved Water Safety Plans that cover the overall design of the water storage tanks, better internal operations and regular inspection and maintenance. Another study [7] of waterborne diseases on cruise ships concluded that the overall decrease of gastroenteritis over a 10 year period prior to 1986 was directly attributable to the improved enforcement of the Vessel Sanitation Program (VSP) of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Another study [8] from 2006 involved 43 outbreaks of Norovirus on 13 vessels. It is a known fact that cruise ship holidays create an environment where Norovirus spreads easily, so it was recommended that an active reporting system could function as an early warning sign, but more importantly steps must be taken to implement internationally accepted rules and guidelines for reporting, investigating, and controlling Norovirus and other diseases on cruise ships. A Los Angeles Times headline, February 4, 2012 stated: “Florida cruise ships riddled with Norovirus. Anyone surprised?”

Safety and Security

After the terrorist attacks on New York’s World Trade Center, cruise related tourism became one of the safest ways to experience foreign travel. Yet, as P. Tarlow indicates in his rather somber study on cruise risks [9] , that cruising is not immune to dangers ranging from virus outbreaks to terrorism to accidents. He lists a number of major disasters, terrorist attacks, robberies and on-board assaults to demonstrate his point. Cruise tourism can as well lead to incidents where the ship can become a trap, as the recent examples of the Costa Concordia grounding and Carnival’s ship engine fire and subsequent stranding of passengers for several days at sea.

Taxation

There are no common standards in the application of port taxes to cruises. Some ports charge levy that is reasonable, some excessive. Some ships pay, some do not. Another unresolved situation is that the cruise lines are continually allowed to operate under the “flags of convenience” (FAO), usually, Panama, Bahamas and Liberia. This allows them to be exempt from multiple tax responsibilities, it is easier for them to have lenient standards of safety, they undergo few environmental inspections, their operating costs are lower, and they recruit staff without adhering to international regulations. The most obvious is Panama, where the ship pays for each passenger landing in Panama, which further encourages the use the Panama FAO. [10] A good recommendation would be to adopt an internationally binding comprehensive policy and standards related to taxes, fees, and as well address key areas of staff, passenger safety, and the ships’ environmental responsibilities. Only then can we have a more sustainable, controlled development and operations of cruise lines where rules are adhered to rather than avoided.

Conclusion

There is no question that cruise ships bring money to local businesses and to the operators. However, ensuring the sustainable development of a cruise destination and the environment comes with very high cost which the cruise lines must be a part of. The major players in this highly consolidated cruise industry have to take a more proactive and self- policing measures to ensure a sustainable future for cruise tourism while preserving cruise destinations and cruise waterways. The onus as well needs to be on the port communities, as on one hand, there are some decision makers that pressure for more cruise tourism, but there is frequently no policy at the local government level to control the impacts of such activity. The cruise industry will not be going away anytime soon, so it is more important to improve the situation that is not balanced or sustainable. Ports need the cruise ships as much as the cruise ships need the ports, the waterways need to be maintained in a more sustainable way, the cruise workers need fair employment standards and the local population needs to have a voice in the local planning for the impacts of tourism. With the continued growth of the cruise industry now is the time to create new set of international policies and rules that are binding for all participants. This essay discussed some of the key pros and cons of cruising and offered some recommendations for improvement towards a more balanced, sustainable growth. More research needs to be done, more data needs to be collected, and more engagement from all involved parties is needed. There is much to do.

Work Cited

Brida, J., & Zapata-Aguirre, S. (2008). The impacts of the cruise industry on tourism destinations. Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1298403

Brida, J., & Zapata-Aguirre, S. (2009). Cruise tourism: Economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts. nternational Journal of Leisure and Tourism Marketing, 1, Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1332619

Chin, C. (2008). Cruising in the global economy. Retrieved from http://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=pw3GGaY84akC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=related:JzINeoWcSTMJ:scholar.google.com/&ots=29X-WtBHnH&sig=ivsupSeYhJmVT5hTOROibMm8EVo

Daniels, N., & Karpati, A. (2000). Traveler’s diarrhea at sea: Three outbreaks of waterborne enterotoxigenic escherichia coli on cruise ships. 4, Retrieved from http://jid.oxfordjournals.org/content/181/4/1491.short

Dowling, R. Cruise ship tourism. Retrieved from http://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=gZ3_28wi_UkC&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&dq=cruise

Ebersold, W. (2004). Cruise industry in figures. Business Briefing: Global Cruise, Retrieved from http://www.touchbriefings.com/pdf/858/ACF7B5.pdf

Florida-Caribbean Cruise Association (2012). Cruise Industry Overview – 2012: State of the Cruise Industry. Pembroke Pines, Florida.

Gloor, L. (2005). Riding tourism’s new wave: Evaluating the cruise industr’ys impact in hilo . Retrieved from http://hilo.hawaii.edu/academics/hohonu/documents/Vol04x14RidingTourismsNewWave.pdf

Roon, R. (2004). A review of outbreaks of waterbourne disease associated with ships. 119, Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1497646/pdf/15219801.pdf

Tarlow, P. (2012). Cruise risks, threats and dangers: A theory. 1, Retrieved from http://wscholars.com/index.php/ajtr/article/view/107

Verhoef, L., & Boxman, I. (2008). Emergence of new norovirus variants on spring cruise ships and prediction of winter epidemics. 14, Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2600213

Wu , B. (2005). The world cruise industry: A profile of the global labour market. Retrieved from http://www.sirc.cf.ac.uk/uploads/publications/WorldCruiseIndustry.pdf

Cost -Above noted, there are many different way of getting to the Caribbean, as a result of the When region at a good affordability, especially when compared to different places in the world there is an off season the ticket get less expensive. More over these essential factors make a enormous he tourism region. These attractions such as dolphin cove and mystic mountain they develop and implement more facilities and resorts that offer the taste of the Caribbean. The official industry touted “past time” as a priority.

Accommodation- Caribbean region has a risen vacancy in the hotels, spas and resorts. These options means that tourists comes from all over the level of region to come visit , but in the addition the vacancies is also affordable. Hotels and resorts continue to give low prices, for the rooms to the visitors. Other opportunities such as golf, netball, tennis and other recreational activities is available in the resort towns which concentrate on water activities particularly diving, jet skis to lesser, extent, boat hire. With more person visiting the room include additional sports and recreational facilities like yachting, shopping.

Reputation- The Caribbean standard is most profounded from the 1800s and for this the reputation is raised every year so tourist wants to come here to see the people culture etc. In fact, the Royal Victorian Hotel was built in the Bahamas during the American Civil War, one of the earliest such establishments in the region. This repeat vacation. Also, the region is known for being safe, alleviating concern from families and single visitors.

Quality service

Quality in the tourism and hospitality industry involves consistent delivery of products and guest services according to expected standards. Delivering quality service is one of the major challenges the hospitality managers will defacing in the following years as it is an essential condition for success in the emerging, keenly competitive, global hospitality markets. There are various tools that measure and improve quality service, as well as mechanisms for quality recognition in the tourism and hospitality industry. The weigh up the impacts of cost-profit and be in a position to priorities towards a quality improvement process for their own property managers should identify record and the present study shows that tourism stakeholders perceive quality service in a hotel as value for money, a comfortable room, friendly staff and tasty food. Moreover, the survey shows that there is always room for further improvement of the hospitality services. Other results of the surveys reveal that the most important factors for a hotel’s future are guest satisfaction, guest retention and word of mouth advertising. Aiming at excellence and profitability, the outcomes of the survey suggest focus on quality service; retention of existing guests by exceeding their expectations; continuous quality improvement; employment, regular training and empowerment of service-oriented staff; search for best practices through benchmarking; and, finally, pursuit of quality accreditation through the various schemes, such as the eco-labels, ISO and the EU Foundation for Quality Management. The delivery system is designed to provide the customer with the required variety of services and with the minimum delay. A common feature of delivery systems is the customer line or queue. A key aspect of any system is to control the length of queues. The unique tourism aspect service industry belongs to service delivery system. The term covers aspect of operation that taken place at any given time customers or client requested.

Title of my Paper: Travel Tourism Sector

Student’s name: Natanya Williams

Colbourne College

Lecture: Ms Michelle Branch

November 13, 2012

Report

This assignment is base on the fort most knowledge on travel tourism sector. Travel tourism is the movement of objects, people between two geographical locations of relative distance. More times tourism includes the movements of different destination as a stop point to move from destination to destination to reach the final destination. Recently it has been discover that the centre stage in terms of vacation and holidays or mostly acquired to the term Business Travel and Cargo.With these advance technology travel tourism has become more revolutionized with passage of time. Travel has become such a global need for all security measure has become a priority for all.

Table of content

Report 1

Quality services 2

Pros and cons of community based tourism 3

Main factors that attract tourist to the Caribbean 4

Conclusion 5

Bibliography 6

Pros and cons of community based tourism

Pros- The implications of pros on the country on a whole is that the convention visitors bureau need to develop efficient products for locals and international person and that product must be environmental friendly for society and civilization. The convention visitor bureau needs to generate income through sustainable resources by organized local resources by people. The member of the tourist board need to put the pros forward and try to resolve them and put Jamaica on the mop for the most experience tourism spot in the world. The sustainable, giving that the pros revised on the topic of the rural and poor communities and its source of income. In this type of area this aspect is valid and varied lives of local and indigenous people while they preserve the environment and the culture heritage. There are projects set aside for benefits to the community as a whole. When international tourist arrives to a certain areas it is rich in culture and biodiversity and at the same will get more involved as a country.

Cons-The conservation implicated on the country on a whole by the variety of activities that is encourage and support a wide range of development and conservation for e.g. (economic and social). This chapter of the project identifies the issues that affect community base tourism and the sustainability and promotion, with every growth interest, tourism development and marketing strategies that associated with a specific industry and its components. In this section it is useful to produce a clear definition of community base tourism to its readers. There are several different specialized tourism activities e.g. ecotourism, Nature base tourism etc. Although there is a estimate of 10%-15% conservation of nature – related tourism. It is difficult to generalized countries and there natural environment as the primary key attraction for most international visitors, and the increasing of domestic tourist.There is a excessive amount of accurate data and it clearly show that the community base industry need to rise it standards.

Conclusion

I am currently discussing the achievements of the travel and tourism sector project and looking to the future of great gesture. It is interesting to receive the amount of information from the different resources in respect of their different opinion. I have achieved the primary goal of this project and everyone has benefited in many ways from being involved in the project.

Perth is described as Western Australia’s growth capital and there are some pros and cons about Perth Tourism Development (Tourism Western Australia 2010).

Perth has been ranked in the top three most desired hotel investment markets together with Sydney and Brisbane in the HTL Capital Advisers 2008 Industry Survey.

Perth is the point of arrival in Australia for 70% of the state’s international visitors (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2009).

When talking about the background of Perth, the ecological footprint of residents of Perth Western Australia is among the highest in the world (Urlich 2000). General affluence and high standard of living are primary contributors. Urban form and housing styles are also contributors, directly and indirectly. Perth is extremely low density (R8 on average). Low density suburban development over decades has caused the loss of large areas of bio-diverse vegetation and habitat. Automobile dependency is relatively high. Greenhouse emissions are consequently extremely high on per capita basis (which creates policy and cultural tension).

In and around Western Australia’s capital Perth, there are inner city parks, bustling markets and a colourful lifestyle, as well as water-based activities like fishing, boating and surfing. Western Australian is the nation’s fourth largest economy, responsible for the production of 13.6% of the Australia’s gross domestic product (GDP). Perth city is a hub for the state’s activity and the point of dispersion for the state’s interstate and international visitors (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2010).

Perth has grown to become a city of international significance – an increasing population, high workforce participation and productivity continues to fuel demand.

Perth has been ranked the least sustainable city in an assessment of the carbon footprint of Australia’s 20 largest cities (ABCNews 2010).

This report is going to discuss the impacts of Hospitality and Tourism industry to Economic, Social and Environmental aspects in Perth. And to some extent, these three aspects would affect tourism industry in Perth also.

Besides these, it also takes an example of Holiday Inn Hotel City Centre Perth in the area of CSR (Corporate social responsibility). The hotel has been engaging lots of charity programs.
2. Economic impacts
Tourism growth

Perth and Western Australia have achieved marginal growth in their market share of Australian international visitation since the year 2004. This is most evident in Western Australia’s market share of international visitors, which was up 1.1 percentage points to 13.6% as at year end 2009( Tourism Western Australia,2010).

International visitors spent a total of 21.2 million nights in Western Australia, 17.0 million of which were spent in Perth. This represents a 42% increase for Western Australia and a 39% increase for Perth, since September 2004. The difference between the growth in visitors and growth in visitor nights reflects the growth in average length of stay, approximately 25% (6 days) and 23% (5 days) for Western Australia and Perth respectively – almost half of which occurred in the year to September 2009( Tourism Western Australia,2010).

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More quality hotel rooms for Perth, in a world class city with vibrant waterfront and cultural precincts.

The focus on the development of significant tourism infrastructure will mean Tourism Western Australia will pull back from its traditional involvement in smaller ‘industry development’ activities.

Tourism Western Australia will develop a new Statewide Major Events Strategy to create new home-grown events and attract more national and international events to Western Australia (Tourism Western Australia, 2010).

Tourism in Perth:

Tourism and the related business activity are playing an important role in Perth Economy, although a relatively greater one in terms of employment.

An estimated 4.0 % of local workers are employed in the tourism services sector in Perth. However, the tourism industry – and in particular, segments such as accommodation – also is playing a key role in business and corporate activity much more broadly, providing not only the services but also facilities to support activity in these sectors(Tourism Research Australia 2009).

Economic Stress in Perth

It is generally believed that Hospitality and Tourism is a booming industry. The rising level of stress in Perth is perhaps indicative of the local impacts of the wider economic downturn. Large numbers of people engaged in vulnerable industries, such as hospitality. The economic slowdown has seen increasing numbers of people engaged in these industries out of work. It is, however, likely that the recovery in the resources sector, and the State economy more generally, will see economic stress decrease in Perth suburbs such as Butler, Alkimos and Yanchep (Tourism Western Australia 2010).

Perth Airport: the regional gateway

Perth is playing a major role in facilitating tourism activity.

Perth airport serves as the gateway to Western Australia, facilitating 9.4 million passenger movements annually, including 2.6 million international passengers(Perth Airport, 2009). Indeed, Perth is the point of arrival in Australia for 70% of the state’s international visitors (Tourism Research Australia 2009). Looking forward, passenger movements at Perth airport are projected to double over the two decades to 2029, with international passenger movements growing by 4.0% to 5.6 million and domestic passenger movements growing by 3.3% to 13.4 million (Perth Airport 2009).

3. Social Impacts
New hotel development in Perth

Tourism Western Australia welcomed plans for a quality hotel development on Beaufort Street in Perth (Tourism Australia 2009).

The capital city, Perth, offers a sought after lifestyle for the international investment community with its natural, relaxed and multicultural environment, low sovereign risk, pro-development government policies, a highly skilled and innovative workforce and world-class infrastructure (Deloitte 2009).

Market fundamentals for Perth hotels are very strong with double digit yield growth over the last three years projected to continue for the next five years. The outlook for mid market and first class hotels is very positive despite current global economic uncertainty (Marin and Jafari 2002).

Projects of strategic importance in Perth have attracted significant international investor interest creating an exciting business, tourism, residential and entertainment hub to put Perth in the international spotlight (Transocean Consulting Services 2007).

This combined with Perth’s strategic global location, positioning as a major international business hub with close proximity to Asia, makes Western Australia an attractive investment destination.

From the statistics, Perth occupancy rates are still amongst the highest in Australia at 81 per cent.

Perth’s consistent growth over the last five years is encouraging to investors such as the Rothchester Group and its preferred operators (Tourism Australia 2009).

There is strong demand for hotel accommodation in Perth and a particular shortage of high quality hotel accommodation in the city.

In Hong Kong more than 70 per cent of delegates chose Australia as their preferred choice for investment.

Tourism Western Australia will continue to assist investors to ensure quality hotel developments are built in the Perth central business district and regional Western Australia.

Raising awareness of local issues and needs

Tourism can also raise awareness of local issues and needs.

Branding of local product and achievements creates regional identity not only nationally but also internationally.

There is a trend towards investment in interpretation of natural and cultural resources in Perth. Perth attraction to natural and heritage icons often helps fund conservation important efforts and provides opportunities for effective management of sensitive and important areas.

Tourism is largely an experience driven industry, and Perth local culture is a unique experience – more so local personality, hospitality and food than so called built attractions. (McCool and Moisey 2000)

Tourism can boost the preservation and transmission of cultural and historical traditions (Weaver 2000). This often contributes to the conservation and sustainable management of natural resources such as John Forrest National Park and Matilda Bay Reserve in Perth , the protection of local heritage like Aviation Heritage Museum and Heritage Cottage Bed & Breakfast, and a revival of indigenous cultures, cultural arts and crafts.

More education and training programs in Hospitality and Tourism Industry

One of the biggest problems which occurs to Tourism Industry is Occupational Skills Shortage ( Sommerville 2007).

There are not enough qualified and experienced people, and for many of the jobs in short supply, however, education and training usually is not provided for a long time in Perth. At the same time, an increasing number of people seem to leave the workplace than entering it. It is hard to increase the numbers of people being trained because of the need for experienced employees to supervise and mentor apprentices, trainees or graduates and the limitations this placed on the number of new entrants that could be employed and trained. More than that, these education and training courses are often not keeping pace with the innovation and technological change in the workplace in Western Australia (Sommerville 2007).

4. Environmental impacts:
Air Pollution in Perth

Not many tourists might choose Perth as their destination or even locals might not stay in Perth during summer and winter times, due to severe Air Pollution in Perth, While Perth has a relatively small population when being compared with some other Australian capital cities, air pollution in Perth is very significant (Department of Environmental Protection 2009).

The following analysis shows that Perth has levels of air pollution which might present health impacts to tourists and locals. The levels of photochemical smog (ozone) in Perth during summer regularly exceed national standards (Department of Environmental Protection 2000). Besides this, during winter months, a smoke haze frequently hangs over Perth. In most cases these episodes of unacceptable air quality are influenced by weather conditions that prevent air pollutants from detracting quickly (Department of Environmental Protection 2000).

Figure: The sites of the Perth Air Quality Monitoring Stations

Source: Air Quality in Perth 1992-1999 report (DEP 2001)

A detailed analysis of the air quality in the Perth metropolitan region is contained in the DEP’s Air Quality in Perth 1992-1999 report (DEP 2001). In summary the report shows that:

aˆ? Ozone levels in summer are tending to remain high, approaching or exceeding the acceptable standard;

aˆ? Background levels of ozone are increasing;

aˆ? Airborne particle (haze) levels in winter are relatively high, and during spring and autumn are relatively low.

As the population grows, even if the level of car ownership remains the same as it is now, there will be even more cars on the road.

On top of this, the length of vehicle trips is expected to increase as the size of Perth grows.

It is expected that for every one per cent increase in population there will be a 1.6% increase in the number of vehicle kilometers travelled.

Figure: The total vehicle emissions of carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen going into Perth’s air each day.

Source: Air Quality gets a Black Mark, Australian Environment Review, Vol 11, No 4, May 1996.

Figure: Predicted daily vehicle emissions of carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen for Perth in 2011 assuming there is no new anti-pollution

Source: Air Quality gets a Black Mark, Australian Environment Review, Vol 11, No 4, May 1996.

As for the solution of the Air Pollution, reduction in motor vehicle ownership and usage is the key target. Increased use of public transport -international experience, and recent local successes strongly indicate that rail should be the focus for Perth (Department of Environmental Protection of Perth 2003).

In Hospitability and Tourism Industry, Some forms of recreation, including rowing, bushwalking and rock climbing, make little or no contribution to air pollution (Department of Environmental Protection of Perth 2003). Other pursuits however, affect the quality of our air. Trail bikes, jet skis and power boats all put toxic emissions into the atmosphere.

It is possible to continue to enjoy all forms of recreation and at the same help to improve air quality.

Coastal erosion

As for Tourism Industry, Coastal Erosion is very serve phenomena.

Hotels, resorts or even local houses along the coast would be affected to some certain extent (Medlik 2003).

Rising sea levels, more frequent storms, cyclones and floods along the coastline are putting beach front properties at risk. Coastal erosion is the permanent loss of land along the shoreline (World News 2009).

Natural causes of erosion (World News 2009): Changes in wave climate such as an increase in wave height change in the angle of wave approach or increased frequency of high magnitude waves. Reduction in the amount of sediment delivered to the coast from reef and rising sea level.

Human-induced causes of erosion (World News 2009): Sand extraction from beaches that reduces the sand volume of the coast, coral mining, insertion of structures such as seawalls which locally alter wave processes and change sediment transport patterns and removal of mangroves.

Waste Water Management in Hotels
Environmental Effort = Reduced Consumption = Lower Operating Costs

Hyatt Regency Perth Hotel is the example of doing Waste Water Management.

Environmental impacts of Hospitality and Tourism are described as following points:

· Large draw on public infrastructure and utilities (electricity, water, sewage) which must be shared with local communities

· Discharge of untreated effluents into the environment in large quantities

· Massive import of goods to service the industry- excess packaging and waste

· Improper land use planning and poor designs of infrastructure systems

These impacts on the community in Perth can be indicated as following: shortages in public utilities – (water rationing, brown outs), ineffective hotel wastewater treatment plant might cause human health impacts and rise in disposal costs for waste removal (Water Corporation 2006).

Protecting Perth’s Public Drinking Groundwater Sources

The growth of Hospitality and Tourism industry in Perth, to some extent, is helping to protect Perth’s Public Drinking Groundwater Sources through raising public awareness.

The main sources of groundwater in Perth are the Jandakot and Gnangara Mounds on which the Jandakot, Gnangara and Perth Coastal (Water Corporation 2007).

Underground Water Pollution Control Areas (UWPCAs) are defined. Within these areas policies have been developed to protect water resources from pollution. The Department of Environment (DoE) is responsible for the protection of water resources used for public drinking water supplies throughout Western Australia (Water Corporation 2007).

5. Corporate social responsibility (CSR)

In terms of Corporate Social Responsibility, some hotels and resorts do make very good examples. Some hotels have 10 percent of the total guest room revenue donated equally to a charity of their choice and Community Footprints, the social responsibility program. Some hotels win lots of popularity through their outstanding and continuing social contributions to the local community which included numerous social initiatives in the fields of sustainability, environment, heritage, community interaction and youth development ( Cq Researcher 2010).

Activities involved are such as inspiring the younger generation with environmental awareness and to instill a sense of ownership for the future of their country. More than that, supporting under-privileged children and eco-friendly green initiatives for many years are also examples of some hotels’ social responsibilities (Cq Researcher 2010).

Holiday Inn Hotel City Centre Perth
Holiday Inn City Centre Perth builds customer loyalty and strengthens employee commitment through a program of charitable engagement with the multiple local communities in which they operate (Cq Researcher 2010).
In the area of corporate social responsibility (CSR) Holiday Inn City Centre Perth is involved in many initiatives aimed at reducing its impact on society, for example energy and water conservation.
The focus of this briefing is on its engagement with charities and how it has helped their business.
The charities are in their core interests of Community, Employees, Arts, Youth & Education, Environment and Human Rights.
The charities they involved such as Children In Need, the Red Cross and so on.
The hotel is also helping to upgrade schools with sanitation facilities as well as library and science equipment, workbooks and classroom materials.

Besides Holiday Inn City Centre Perth, the other hotels in Perth are also helping to make it much easier for their staff to be environmentally friendly. The provision of bike lockers and shower facilities means that staff can gain some exercise and be ready for their day at work. Some hotels even provide child-care facilities, this means that busy mothers and fathers can reduce the distances they drive, or even better, enjoy some time with their children as they travel together on public transport(Cq Researcher 2010).

6. Conclusion
This study report introduces the city Perth and analyzes how Hospitality and Tourism Industry affect the city Perth based on social, economic and environmental factors. Not only that, it also discusses the issue about Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and gives some examples about the hotels in Perth.

Sustainable development is the objective, not just the protection of biodiversity and species.

Tourism is a fast growing industry and a valuable sector, contributing significantly to Perth economy. Perth is experiencing substantial growth in terms of inner-city living, development and Hospitality & Tourism industry, servicing 100,000 daily visitors and workers in addition to its 15,000 inner-city residents. The City of Perth is a main provider of free entertainment for the 1.6 million people in the metropolitan area and is the premier destination for business, entertainment, nightlife, culture and the arts.

Around 4.0 % of local workers are employed in the tourism services sector in Perth. However, they lack training and education. Moreover, local employees usually work at very low paid and unskilled jobs.

People also enjoy living close to recreational areas such as the Swan and Canning rivers and near the open spaces of the various parklands, wetlands and the hills.

There is a tendency for the people of Perth to live in single residential home surrounded by private gardens. Transport is another factor people consider when choosing where they live. These factors have all contributed to Perth becoming a sprawling city. This pattern of development is expected to lead to people travelling greater and greater distances so they may satisfy their work and social requirements.

This report addresses the issues of economic stress and tourism growth in Perth. As for Environmental impacts, Air Pollution, Coastal erosion, Waste Water Management in Hotels, Public Drinking Groundwater Sources are some of the issues are being discussed above. Perth has been facing very severe air pollution. Hyatt Regency Perth Hotel manages well in terms of waste water management. And when comes to social impacts, Tourism can also raise awareness of local issues and needs. More than that, Western Australia also welcomed new hotel development in Perth.

To conclude, Hospitality and Tourism Industry has huge impact on Perth in terms of three factors which discussed above. More than that, it is clearly that some local patterns also affect tourism industry in Perth.

The new travel agency business for luxury seeking focuses in supplying entire end are little, personal trips (maintenance). There is a general, full service travel, which can persuade the rudimentary desires of both business and leisure markets and travel into the future. These services may encompass air, ground transport, cruise and inns, as well as tips and exceptional trips.

With effectively no trading efforts, this new travel agency business aims to deal many of vacation adventures. Sales of protection principles and other services will be supplemented and probably add more. It will offer a full variety of services to support adventurous traveler, encompassing briefings before and after vacations, travel protection, as well as a book or directions of services exact to each place traveled to and activity. In supplement, it boasts a full variety of added services to support adventurous traveler, double-checking that they have a pleasing and memorable. These services encompass protection, pre-and post-vacation bundle data and book or directions of recommendations and data services exact to each place traveled to and excursion activities.

It would like to encourage its services utilizing the customary procedures of public relatives, and Internet activities. In customary public relatives include:

aˆ? Press Releases

aˆ? Advertising Company

aˆ? Articles of the periodical

In the Internet, the business can supply new excursion on the Internet or for e-newsletter. Functioning beliefs of the business is trading to focus, supplying an effective service utilizing expertise and a restricted number of employees. Capitalization on his know-how, he may suggest and direct purchasers on the kind of gear that will require to travel, to make the most of their vacation

Purpose of the business
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The development of this new one travel agency to help the keeping of clients, while sustaining the essence of the junction agency of dealers and power over increasing prices.

Prepare a high grade of clientele approval in the industry.

Segment and goal luxury travelers in the district of travel.

Mission

The mission of this new business is to offer exclusive trips and luxury travel know-how for the market niche for the perceptive clientele, which directs to their approval, as evidenced by the replicate alignment as well as affirmative response by phrase of mouth. This Travel Agency Business hunts for to differentiate you as a professional in the area of luxury travel and be identified for spectacular service and foresee desires and yearns of their clients. And, in future procedures, are committed in smart persons will not only obtain those services, but those who give it, relish the know-how and goods, as well as all to be joyous with the expert first-class service.

General market area

The total locality of the market of a new travel agency business is to evolve and sustain strategic alliances with service providers nationally and internationally, and the tourism professionals to conceive new sales passages for businesses. It will offer several older goods to which clients will travel memorable. His aim will be on supplying a full variety of services, focused in their purposes have deep information of recreation and excursion that are offered. Market study displays that the major condemnations of his kind of customer’s living travel bureaus that their representatives are not cognizant of their goods, they easily open and read the catalog to convey one of the numerous travelers are disappointed.

Basic organizational design

New business travel agency is a business that focuses in little packages luxury travel for perceptive consumers. It will work with 2 database to advance clientele service over the homeland and internationally. The founders and workers of this assembly of skilled travelers and travel bureaus who are to blame travel, adept and fervent about the services that the travel agency for the development and supply. The business has reconsidered its approximates of functioning charges and evolved an allowance for the first year of operation. Expenditure is mostly dedicated to trading and functioning costs and administration are limited. Initially, the business will use advisors to assist travel the mechanical facets of the tourism commerce, but running a website administration business, subject to the public displaying commerce, required to run the travel agency. To boost market share and boost emblem perception, the trip will be suggested primarily at the grade just underneath the market rate. Thus, short-term earnings from the procedure should be reduced to medium. Where commerce has conceived a groundwork of trusted clients and emblem perception has expanded, permitting the business to lift charges trips at market rates, functioning earnings margin is anticipated to increase.

Industry and Market Analysis

In the tourism business, more and more, the business will aim on the tourism market of purposeful luxury travel. Its major clients are persons, twosomes and assemblies with a high cost that the proximity of recreation and travel not less than one time a year. Looking for the supreme travel know-how, your clients demand high value undertakings and places to stay the largest grade of service (Renshaw, 2007). The business designs to deal its services through a Web sheet, Internet advocating and public relations. This travel agency will offer incorporated infrastructure expertise that presents smart investigation of travel facts and numbers, permitting businesses to maximize come back on their buying into travel. For travelers, this will supply a reliable service and a broad variety of assets to assist them stay persuaded, creative and concentrated on their enterprise objectives. An assessed tendency in tourism is expanding deregulation. Deregulation has expanded the requirement for differentiation and, in numerous situations, decreased charges on airline permits and other travel associated services (Marian, 2002). Additional tendencies encompass limits on the establishment of a charge by most foremost airlines, a boost in excursion travel, and decrease profits. Many promise clients are not certain of the location they desire to achieve. The business will save time and cash from clients and assist double-check that they are persuaded with their visit. It will supply comprehensive and unaligned travel recommendations permitting our purchasers get access to a broad variety of tourist services and goods, the most relevant. It will offer large savings on air travel in enterprise class in most airline flights. It has the promise and get access to the best of tariff bindings on the market. Excellent sales abilities needed for their activity. Thus, all will be completely taught sales. In supplement, each month, it will ascertain each other observing the undertakings of trading half of the day and supply response on the power and flaws in skills. It will furthermore be utilising the scheme, communicate administration, which will supervise the effectiveness of diverse advocating schemes and distinct trading messages. The key to its strategic benefit is to have higher facts and numbers about prospects and customers.

Competitive analysis

This new business is a new travel agency that is found in a locality that focuses on the diverse excursion vacation. Nevertheless, there are numerous excursion travel businesses in the capital and lesser towns that could contend with that association, to supply holiday travel packages of adventure. Although the expert excursion travel agencies, for example a business, we have applied, only 15% of the market, 65% of clients will use them again. The aim is to boost that percentage through our value services.

This is a new travel agency business will have a good comparable investigation and comparable benefit over other possibilities in this market by supplying little parcels more exclusive clientele visits of these assemblies have close individual vigilance from hosts travel. It will evolve this place from 1 to 1 communicate with promise clients individual communicate with an dignified travel agency, whose prime goal assembly of our market and broad-based programs come to a kind of newspapers, exceptional happenings, as well as interactive, full-service Web site. This new business will have all facets of travel expertise at his disposal (George, 2003).

Key achievement components for the functioning of this new project will assist to the work as a travel agency that focuses in luxury travel segment in the tourism commerce and the development of replicate enterprise from a groundwork of trusted, persuaded customers. This class of travel is alike to numerous others. There will be a large-scale nationwide systems, little home-based enterprises, consolidators on the Internet, etc. Membership rates for some travel associated associations give some suggestion of the number of participants in this market.

Operations

At the starting of the procedure will comprise of two constituents of the public and professionals in the area of tourism and a board constituent, which focuses in trading and Internet technologies. A usual transaction will take location as follows:

The agency will communicate the promise clientele to find the site. The agency will have all the essential data required to aid the purchaser profile on the site. Database Consulting Business cruises are accessible encompassing the applicable facts and numbers as input facts and numbers, charge, accessibility, and trips of the dock, the agency can agree clients require to cruise. Booking data by e-mail is also a key task of this new business. Confirmations will be dispatched to the client. The agency will be to blame for correct storage and assemblage of payments for goods. Wholesale dwellings will be begun to purchase large amounts of permits and trading online at discount prices.

Marketing concept

During the present time span of fast financial development, this new enterprise travel agency will depend on numerous significant possibilities in the area of tourism. In full engrossment on the tourist market, will offer a restricted set of sophisticated packages, but depart, as well as supervising their services rich professionals, it can rendezvous the desires of its customers. His information and know-how will travel excursion to rendezvous and pass their clients are competitors. This will conceive personalized travel itineraries for purchasers and supply the most entire, informative service excursion travel. Offering a full variety of services, this business can differentiate itself from its competitors.

It is established in the heart of the city. The natural attractiveness and a plenty of outdoor undertakings appeal numerous fitness-oriented. Per capita, the district has more persons than any other in the homeland is dynamically engaged in hill and water sports for example skiing, ascending, kayaking, rafting, hill biking, etc. These persons are the goal market of this company. It will aim on the sale and advancement of excursion travel, mostly to personal persons, but furthermore for business purchasers in the region.

Human Resources

HR will permit clients to navigate the often time-consuming, so the most productive means for travel from the issue of outlook of convenience and cost. In this case, they should sort large volumes of data, with the outlook said that the mean traveler may not have. This business will offer a kind of places in all parts of the tourism industry. Recruitment services covering enduring, provisional and agreement work Travel and centre competencies for the teaching trip. HR purposes of the business will be the principle with consider to recruitment and assortment, disciplinary methods, remuneration principle is the acknowledgement that human assets design and teaching and development, but furthermore all purposeful localities of HR will be coordinated and correlated in alignment to fit into an general enterprise strategy. This scheme HR Travel Agency is a comprehensive design in relative to the implementation of exact HR purposeful areas.

Human Resource strategic design the business will require data about where the business likes and how HR undertakings to support the company’s goals. Integration of human asset administration with business goals and objective will assist to the general goals of the company. Thus, the rudimentary human resource’s function will be to create strategic design to capture the “people” components and how they concern to the future achievement of the company. The business carries the tourism commerce of expert formation of the primary staff. The adviser will be the company’s vegetation in 5 days. During this time span, the consultant:

aˆ? Training employees in rudimentary methods and directions of the cruise commerce

aˆ? Staff teaching on sales methods

aˆ? Systems Supervisory Board

The Company accepts as factual that this time span of groundwork and the company’s computer schemes will supply expanded effectiveness when possible.

The promotion of Rajasthan as a heritage tourist destination1. Introduction

In order to accomplish the aims and objectives, this piece of work focused on the promotion of Rajasthan as a heritage tourist destination in the world. The vital idea behind the selection of this topic is to discuss the importance of heritage tourism.

Tourism plays an important role in the socio-economic development of any country. It is also one of the major sources to earn foreign exchange, and generating employment for urban as well as rural public. This chapter have 6 parts. Background of the study

Background to the study:

Tourism industry in India is on a great boom at the moment. India has a great potential to be a major tourist destination in the world. It’s the second highest foreign exchange earning industry and government gave travel and tourism industry an export status. Indian tour and travel industry is one of the most profitable industries in the country. During the year 2006, four million tourists visited India and spent US$8.9 billion (Economy watch, 2006).

The buoyancy in the Indian tourism industry can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, the tremendous growth in the Indian economy, because of that the disposable income of the middle-class increased to expend on their recreation. Secondly, the IT sector in the country by which India famous as an IT hub in the world. Which attract people globally for business trips. Thirdly, the aggressive advertising campaign “Incredible India” by the tourism ministry of India also changes the image of India worldwide. Tourism industry also provides employment to millions of people directly and indirectly in the country. Which help the society and solve the big issues of unemployment in the country. Estimates of 20 million people are directly employed by this sector in the country currently. According to the above lines Rajasthan the north-west state of India is very popular among the national and international visitors. The royally palaces and forts, endless golden desert, hardworking and colourful people make the state more exciting to visit.

Besides all this, Probably India is the only country which offers various categories of tourism. These include history tourism, adventure tourism, medical (Ayurvade and other) tourism, eco tourism, culture tourism, rural tourism, religious/pilgrimage tourism, spiritual tourism and beach tourism etc (I love India, 2007)

Justification of the study:

Heritage tourism is now big business. In economic and entrepreneurial terms, it is one of the major success stories of recent years. At a time of declining Industrial activity and rising unemployment in any society, heritage tourism has provided an alternative form of enterprise, creating jobs and generating wealth for local economies (Herbert, 1995).

Tourism in India has the potential to do wonder in this upcoming industry of profit as well as fun. Rajasthan the largest state, and one of the most eminent tourist destinations, which is famous for its pictureqous natural beauty and wonderful construction. Rajasthan are usual attractions for first time visitors (Mintel, 2008).

The outlook for travel industry in India looks extremely bright. “Conde Nast” rank India 6th amongst the top 10 tourist destination in the annual “Reader’s Award” in 2004, which was 9th a year before. The magazine ranked Raj Vilas, in Jaipur (Rajasthan) as 3rd in the overseas leisure hotel category for Asia (Business Standard, 2004). The JBIC (Japan Bank of International Cooperation) rank her 5th most attractive investment destination.

The report “Indian Tourism Industry Analysis” provides an insight into the Indian tourism market. According to the report, India is one of the most potential tourism markets in the world. India expected to see 10million international tourist by 2010, which was 5million in 2007. Andhra Pradesh, Utter Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Rajasthan are the leading tourist destinations in the country (Bharat Book Bureau, 2004)

Aims and Objectives:

To critically assess the opportunities to promote Rajasthan as a heritage tourist destination

Objectives

Evaluate the potential of Rajasthan’s heritage to develop as tourist destination.

Critically evaluate the present tourism promotion system and the government policies on Rajasthan tourism.

The development of recommendations for the promotion of Rajasthan as a heritage tourism destination.

State profile:

The colourful and exotic state of Rajasthan lies in the north-western part of India. It is the largest state (132,150 sq mi) and also knows as the land of kings, the home of Rajputs (Indianhills). Rajasthan is bordered on the west by Pakistan. In the west of state is the Thar Desert and the upland region of Deccan in the eastern part. The Aravalli hills cross the state from north-east to the south-west. The state was formed in 1948 from several former principalities states of Rajputana. Rajasthan is one of the strongholds of the conservative Hindu (75% of the population) then Muslims, Jains and native people (Encyclopaedia).

The largest state with 33 districts and a population of 56.47million (2001 census) with a literacy rate of 61.03%, Jaipur is the state’s capital as well as the cultural, financial and trade capital of the state. Rajasthani, Sindhi and Punjabi are the regional languages of the state. Hindi and English also commonly used by people (Answer.com).

Heritage is not only the monument or historic buildings, but everything which relate us to the rich past of that particular culture or tradition is heritage. The folk dance and music, souvenir (cloths and jewels), craft work (handicraft like paintings, iron or wood work) and festivals, fairs food and lifestyle are also the part of the rich cultural heritage of any destination.

Rajasthan is a state with entirely different visage, the most scenic state of India. The culturally rich state of Rajasthan is popular for its festivals & fairs, luxury trains, folk dances/music, arts/crafts and royal legacy in the form of palaces, forts and gardens. It medieval forts and palaces, the very distinctive nomadic desert lifestyle is unique all over the world.

A world of colour, splendour and spectacle awaits visitors to India’s largest and the most romantic state. With its wild desert scenery, ancient sandcastle forts, pastel colour cities, dust speckled light and its swathes of scarlet, and marigold textiles (The Independent Asia), which creates Rajasthan one of the most popular tourist destinations in west India. It can be said as; it is the cultural capital of India. There are various popular destinations in Rajasthan but the main tourists attracting cities are Ajmer, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer and Udaipur. All these cities were the former Princely states, as the result tourist can witness the imperial legacy everywhere in these cities. Here we have the brief panorama of the famous cities and their heritage.

1.5.1 Panorama of the Heritage Cities of Rajasthan:

Ajmer Founded in the 7th century by ruler Ajaypal Chauhan. Have a famous fort called “Ajaimeru” or Invincible hill, lakes gardens and many other visiting places. Ajmer is about 130km south-west from Jaipur is the major religious centre for Muslims. This city is famous for the tomb of Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chisti, a medieval Sufi Saint, where pilgrims gather from over the world (India hills.com). 16km from Ajmer, Pushkar a very small town named after the holy lake “Pushkar”. 400 temples and 52 Ghats around the lake make it a very popular religious centre of Hindu community. The one and only lord Brahma temple is here. Otherwise sleepy town turn into a hub in the annual Pushkar festival in October or November every year (Travel 2 Rajasthan.com)

Mount Abu, Rajasthan’s only hill station is home to Dilwara Jain temples known’s for their amazing marble carving. The oldest of the five temples dates to AD 1031. Nikki Lake, sunset point, Achal Garh fort and Guru Shikar the highest point of Rajasthan are the other famous visiting spot in Mount Abu.

Chittaurgarh located 70 miles northeast of the City of Udaipur is the home of Chittaur fort India’s largest fort and the ultimate symbol of Rajputs chivalry and pride. The nine-story Vijay Sthambha or Tower of Victory is the most highlighting feature of the fort (Ref J). http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=6&hid=5&sid=af82485a-215e-4122-a4ff-0942348b33c5%40sessionmgr11

Located on the foothills of a sandstone hillock, the city of Jodhpur seems like an oasis in the vast desert was founded by Rao Jodha Ji (Rathore clan) in 1459. It named after him only. Jodhpur is the second largest city of Rajasthan, divided into two parts the old city (which is inside the 10km wall) and new city. Jodhpur is a very popular tourist destination. The city landscape is very pleasing and attractive. The city has lots of attractions in the form of forts, palaces, gardens, temples and lakes. The city is known as “Sun City” because of its bright and sunny weather throughout the year (Jodhpur India), and also the building were painted in light blue hue. Located at the edge of the endless golden Thar Desert, Jodhpur is a fascinating medieval city known for its amazing architectural splendour, lively culture, brilliant craftsmen, gourmet cuisines and lots of shopping. The city has various attractions in the form of Maharangarh fort, Umaid Bhawan Palace, Mandore garden, Mahamandir temples and Jaswant Thada the royal cenotaphs. This attracts the domestic and international visitors equally (Palace on wheels).

The ‘City of Lakes’ (often referred to as the ‘Venice of the East’) Udaipur is the home to lakes Pichola and Fateh sagar, both are amazingly beautiful for cruise and sunset. The city is also famous for City places and Lake palace (hotel), Sahelion Ki Bari or “Garden of the Maids of honour”, museum and temples are the other visitors attractions. Marwar festival fall in the spring is also very famous in national and international visitors.

The Golden city of Jaisalmer is famous for its fort, havelies, national park and Sam (sand dunes). Nothing else in India is remotely similar to Jaisalmar, with its fort that straight out of an Arabian Night fable.

The capital city and the natural gateway to the exotic state Rajasthan, Jaipur popularly known as ‘Pink City’ in the world is the main visitors delight. Founded in 17th century and named after is founder Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh. Jaipur is the cultural, trade and financial capital of Rajasthan. With Delhi and Agra, jaipur is the third important vertex of the ‘Golden Triangle’.

Stunning backdrop of ancient forts: Nahargarh, Amer, Jaigarh and Moti Doongari fort. Hawa Mahal, City Palace, and Jal Mahal are some well-known landmark palaces in the city with famous Albert hall museum.

Significance of tourism to the Indian economy:
2. Literature Review

Literature pays a major role in any research or case study. Virtually no research can be done without the benefit of references, whatever the scale or nature of the project will be (Brunt, 1998). Fink (1998:3) believes that literature review is a “systematic method for identifying, evaluating and interpreting the work produced by researchers, scholars and practitioners”

Yin (2003) also suggest that evidences for good literature may also come from six sources suck as documents, archival records, interviews, direct observation, participant-observation and physical artefacts. Yin (2003) further suggested that literature review provided all sort of information like data, statistic, graphs and scholar view about the topic. A useful overview of the six major sources considers their comparative strength and weaknesses. You should immediately note that no signal source is highly complementary, and a good case study will therefore desire to use as many sources as possible.

A good literature review is not just a description of previous work; it also appraises, compares and contrasts it with other relevant work, and with the authors own work (Brown, 2006). Literature review is the section which will provide reference, if followed up, will widen your knowledge and stimulate independent thought (Altinay el at, 2008:25).

Hart (1998) explained the importance of literature review by suggesting that “without it you will not acquire an understanding of your topic, of what has already been done on it, how it has been researched, and what they key issues are” (Hart, 1998:1).

At this point of report the critical review of the available literature is important in order to achieve above mention aims and objectives. In order to get main aim which to promote Rajasthan as a heritage tourist destination, number of academic Books related on heritage tourism and development will help to critically evaluate the prosperous cultural heritage of Rajasthan, which is the first objective of this report. Through this literature the value and significance of the heritage can identified, and it will also help to check the scale of the heritage in Rajasthan.

As the new trend of getting information by electronic media like: Television, internet will be a great help, particularly the official tourism websites of Rajasthan or India tourism will provide the latest information on this sector. And also provide information about the recent tourism development promotion, policies and issues. Internet is the best ever, faster and the more efficient information provider these days, and also the information on the sites are more authentic and quick.

Daily news papers contain articles, interviews and editorial will give the current updates about tourism industry and its achievement. Editorial column will provide critical analysis of government’s tourism policies and tourism forecast. Leading national and local dailies (Rajasthan Patrika and Danik Bashkar and The Times of India) will show case current events and news on Rajasthan tourism.

The official statistics compiled by the government department and public sector agencies provide a valuable source of information (Burnt, 1998). This can provide by the official website, news dailies and journals based on Rajasthan.

2.1 What is Heritage and Heritage Tourism?

In 1983 National Heritage Conference defined heritage as: ‘that which a past generation has preserved and handed on to the present and which a significant group of population wishes to hand on to the future’ (Hewison, 1989). Hardy (1988) said most researchers accept that heritage is linked to the past that it represents some sort of inheritance to be passed down to current and future generations, both in terms of cultural traditions and physical artefacts (Dallen et al. 2003:2). These definitions indicate culture choice; its focus on preservation and the fact that some people will adopt a conservationist view of heritage. (Herbert, 1997:8). Heritage is like a gift which is passed by one generation to another in the form of culture, nature, customs which is different and unique from others.

Prentice (1993) said heritage can be classified as tangible immovable resources (buildings, natural areas) and tangible movable resources (objects in museums, documents in archives); or intangibles such as values, customers, ceremonies, lifestyles, and including experiences such as festivals, arts and cultural events. Heritage can also classified according to type of attraction (Dallen et al. 2003:3).

Oxford English dictionary define heritage (1983) as which has been or may be inherited. That’s mean anything which pass from previous (old) generation to another (new) in the form of physical, cultural, natural and financial or other can be heritage.

Tourism is not just an aggregate of merely commercial activities; it is also an ideological framing of history, nature and tradition; a framing that has the power to reshape culture and nature to its own needs said by MacCannell in 1992, (Herbert, 1997:1)

The origins of tourism are ancient. Urry (1990) suggested that tourism was known in Imperial Rome with the use of seaside ‘resort’; certainly in medieval times pilgrimages to the Holy Land involved pleasure and sightseeing as well as religious duty. As a concept and a reality, the Grand Tour was established by the late seventeenth century as a component of polite society’s social round (Herbert, 1997:6). Heritage is not just the historic monument or cenotaphs buildings, but all which relate people with the rich past of that particular culture or tradition is heritage.

These above lines explain that tourism is nothing recent, by which we can say that it’s a very new concept in the society. Tourism is very old and was present in the different form like seaside or pilgrims.

But in 21st century it become more immense and fascination by the media. And tourism is different from leisure because in tourism people go out from there home overnight and stay there and enjoy the place by any reason. It can be religious, medical or just leisure. To show case the historic monuments to handicrafts or artefacts, and allow for community to view and be taught about there great past is heritage tourism.

2.2 Modelling of heritage and heritage tourism

This debate reveals that heritage and heritage tourism is complex. To simplify and to make it more clearly the following model is proposed; model of heritage and heritage tourism. Figure 1

This model is approach the behavioural perspective within behavioural geography. It suggests that heritage exists within the two types of environment; ‘phenomenal (unique) and ‘behavioural’ (human behaviour).

The previous is an expansion of the normal concept of environment that include natural phenomena and cultural and built environment that have been either altered or created by human activity on the other hand, the behavioural environment is where the social and cultural facts existing within the phenomenal environment are passed through a filter of human values (Dallen et al. 2003:7)

According to Kirk (1963), these environments forms on the basis on which decision are made which may, or may not, be acted upon to be translated into action within the phenomenal environment.

Heritage tourism experience is in the core of this model, and the key outcome is good experience out of every trips. As the expanded inner section of the model illustrate, the heritage tourism experience is formed within what is labelled here as the “experimental heritage environment”. The core heritage tourism experience is influence and shaped by mixed elements like supply and demand (of the destination), politics (government policies), authenticity, conservation (of heritage) with in any destination region. How all those element influence each other and by their role they play in heritage tourism experience.

The model of heritage tourism clearly gives answer, that heritage and the heritage tourism is very complex and they overlap each other in different environments. And they both (phenomenal and behavioural) affect the destination with other components in the core; economic filter and cultural/societal filter.

It is important now to return to the question of a heritage spectrum (range) as advocated earlier by Richards (1996). This concept is very important as it helps to clarify the existence of many types of heritage experiences and heritage landscapes. It purely means that when we talk about tourism experience it has all types of tourism with its landscapes types and heritage attractions.

The heritage spectrum model suggest that the heritage landscapes pass through a multiplicity of setting ranging from the natural and immaculate to then built urban and artificial heritage landscapes. The model also shows that heritage tourism has common characteristics of ecotourism (nature based) on the left side and urban tourism (theme perks) and cultural tourism (viewing cultural heritage, architecture) in the right side and middle respectively.

The following model also demonstrates that the tourism types (eco-tourism, cultural-tourism and urban-tourism) should not be viewed as mutually exclusive as overlaps most certainly exist. Because of this reality the model refers to heritage tourism as an overlapping concept.

Types of tourism in heritage tourism overlap each other but also give types of landscapes and type of heritage attractions separately. In which ecotourism give natural and rural types of landscape if visiting national parks in the type of heritage attraction.

2.3 Value and significance of heritage

The focus of value shifts to the significance people place on heritage. Hall and McArthur (1993) identified four interrelated areas of significance in heritage: economic, social, political and scientific significance.

Economic significance: Heritage is not cheap! Restoring a property maintaining it, installing necessary facilities (i.e. toilets and drinking water) and establishing and running an interpretive programme can easily cost twice as much (Dallen, 2003:143).

Zeppel and Hall (1992) believe heritage is preserved because of the value it offers in terms of expenditures, of visitors to site (Dallen, 2003:13). Tourism is big business and really in demand. People have started paying these days for outdoor fun, and if the destinations have potential they will not think twice to visit there. Rajasthan heritage have the potential to attract the tourist all over and generate foreign exchange.

Social significance: this refers to the private and collective identity that people and society have with ‘their’ heritage. That’s what local person and community think about their heritage, and how they value to it. The people of Rajasthan feel pride on is rich and colourful cultural heritage. A social ethics will often be the driving force to consider preservation in the first instance (Dallen, 2003:13).

Political significance: As Hall and McArthur note, heritage by definition is political, in terms of reinforcing what is conserved, how heritage is told, and placing the wishes of private owners of heritage into conflict with government or public interests.

In the words of Johnson (1999:187), ‘heritage tourism is not just a set of commercial transactions, but the ideological framing of history and identity’. Politics is in its very essence about power, and heritage by its very nature is apolitical phenomenon, since history is always told from the perspective of winners of wars and people in positions of power (Hall 1994, 97, 2000), (Dallen, 2003:257).

The history of Rajasthan is all about war and warriors. Politic is all over the place in Rajasthan. Even though in literature, arts and crafts there are a pinch of politic.

Scientific significance: many national parks and protected forest areas may contain genetic material and ecosystems (flora and fauna) that will be useful to medicine and research work. They also provide habitats for rare and endangered species. There is also an educative part to heritage-providing visitors with information about the living history, culture, and people of areas (Dallen, 2003:13).

Not only the national parks, protected forest and wildlife’s had their scientific significance in the heritage of Rajasthan, but the agrological site as well. The site of Indus valley civilisation in Indian sub-continent is very important for the study of river valley human history. The Harappa civilisation considers one of the oldest civilisations on earth.

2.4 Scales of Heritage

Heritage is not homogeneous (uniform); it exists in different level and scales, namely world, national, local and personal (Graham et al. 2000; Swarbrooke 1994; Timothy 1997). Given model illustrates these scales of heritage tourism experience, suggesting that they are all linked by the notion of ‘shared heritage’ (Dallen, 2003:14).

Heritage is very heterogeneous (varied); it can be different in one destination. And if the destination is in India the probability is much because India is a very diverse country with the birth place of many cultures and civilisation. Rajasthan which is the largest and the most colourful state is also not an exception in is cultural heritage.

World: Timothy (1997) noted that world scale heritage attraction draw large masses of tourists from many countries. How ever, for most foreign tourist, these sites themselves are likely to be only a small part of more extensive itinerary. For example visiting a historic agrological site of Harappa visitor can witness the life and culture of that era.

Visiting an international heritage attraction is a way of appreciating universal civilisation and achieving some degree of human unity (Moulin 1991). The idea to conserve our heritage came first in the early 1970s by UN’s environment programme and UNESCO’s Man Biosphere Programme.

National: ‘Through time, certain heritage features came to symbolise a society’s shared recollection (Lowenthal 1975:12). Foe example the Holy town of Pushkar is a symbol (pilgrim) of Hindu community and Ajmer is for Muslims in Rajasthan. On this level, historical monuments often represent durable national ideals, and national pride can be an important stimulus of preserving the built environment in western societies (Lowenthal 1975; Timothy 1997) these type of historic site can be pride of any society like Taj Mahal is a pride for each and every Indian.

Local: Lowenthal (1979:554) noted that the local level, communities need familiar land marks so that they can remain in touch with their own collective pasts in a rapidly changing world. There are many sites which are not very popular but they still have their local importance like, The nine-story Vijay Sthambha or Tower of Victory is the most highlighting feature of Chitturghar fort is the memorial of their local hero’s, women and children who sacrifice their lives for the motherland. For visitors it just a memorial tower but the significance for the local were very different, it very important for them.

‘Memorials erected in memory of a community‘s earliest pioneer efforts, or a local historical museum can provide an important experience for local to which outsiders may not be able to relate’ (Timothy 1997:752).

Personal: Lowenthal (1979) asserted that modern-day destination of historic relics has deepened people’s sense of nostalgia for the past. A search for root and historical identity and an increased appreciation for one culture and family legacy are evidence of this phenomenon. Timothy said (1997) of the four type of scale of heritage here personal heritage has received the least attention in the literature and hence is least understood.

Personal scale of heritage is very private. For example family reunions travel to historic or religious place, cultural and vocational interest is another form of personal scale of heritage. The attachments with family houses or souvenirs are perfect example of personal scale of heritage.

2.5 What is Marketing and Destination Marketing

‘Marketing is the management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer requirement profitably’ define by the Chartered Institute of Marketing, CIM UK. And the other hand the American Marketing Association ‘Marketing (management) is the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organisational objectives’ (Seaton et al.1999:6).

As per Adcock remark ‘The right product, in the right place, at the right time, at the right price’. The most influential and dominant word of 21th century is marketing or if said like this, that everything is saleable if the packaging is good i.e. the right product marketed at the right place at the right time (season) with a right price (in compression to competitors) is marketing by Adcock. It means that marketing is not only selling or advertising, but also to promote the brand value and quality to the customers. And also build a connection between the producer and customers. The aim of marketing for an organisation is to achieve profit or other objective. Marketing is not only important for the manufacturing or production industries, but equally necessary for the promotion of hospitality and tourism industry to achieve desire goal. A social and managerial process by which individual and groups obtain what they need and what through creating and exchanging products and value with others is called marketing (Kilter, P 2003).

Destination marketing:

Seaton (1999:351) said that the destination marketing is the spirit land of tourism marketing. The destination has the internal connection to all the other industries (stakeholders) in the tourism sector like transport, hotels and attractions. Destination management is not just managing the physical product (i.e. the venue, hotels, transport system, visitor attractions) but also very much to do with building companies reputation and teamwork across the destination, its also has an important component to play in creating understanding and recognition across the community for the economic importance of the conference, trade and events sector (Davidson et al. 2006:35).

Marketing is the process of planning and execute and the promotion of the product of achieve the desire goal and objective in terms of profit and brand success. Like the same theory functioning behind the destination management or tourism marketing management. Destination marketing management show case the destination as product and highlights to get profit out of it heritage and culture.

Benefits of destination management
Marketing Mix:

‘Kotler (1984:68) define it as ‘T