Category: Free Essays

So lets define the difference between apology, forgiveness and reconciliation. The following definition is from the Webster Dictionary. Apology is a formal justification, defense, excuse; an admission of error accompanied by an expression of regret. It implies an attempt to avoid or remove blame or censure. Steve Cornell posted on the web a really great insight into the difference between forgiveness and reconciliation. Here he summarizes a key distinction:

“It’s possible to forgive someone without offering immediate reconciliation. It’s possible for forgiveness to occur in the context of one’s relationship with God apart from contact with his/her offender. But reconciliation is focused on restoring broken relationships. And where trust is deeply broken, restoration is a process-sometimes, a lengthy one”.

So why the importance of distinguishing the difference? Steve continues to explain why recognizing the difference is important:

“The process of reconciliation depends on the attitude of the offender, the depth of the betrayal, and the pattern of offense. When an offended party works toward reconciliation, the first and most important step is the confirmation of genuine repentance on the part of the offender (Luke 17:3).” So another word that can be used for reconciliation is ‘Transformation’. So when we sin we separate ourselves from God’s love or put a barrier between God and ourselves. We have deliberately, by our own free will, performed an act of disobedience against God. We can apologize to God, but it does not hold the person accountable to change or transformation of oneself. But if we ask for forgiveness resulting in reconciliation, we then are asked by God for a commitment to change in which a transformation takes place of ones lifestyle.

The sacrament of reconciliation can also be used as a sacrament of healing. A healing of not only our spiritual self but also our emotional and psychological being. Sin leaves ugly scars on a person. These scars can be emotional and psychological which can have physical effects. A person can go to a physician and be healed from the physical aspect but if the scars go deeper into the spiritual being of a person then one is not completely healed. A good example are women who have had an abortion. No term can adequately express the heartbreak that abortion causes, but for the purposes of identification we will call it Post-Abortion Trauma. Common feelings associated with Post-Abortion Trauma include guilt, grief, anger and regret. These feelings frequently manifest themselves through anti-social, self-destructive, and other abnormal behaviors. Many who suffer from Post-Abortion Trauma experience flashbacks, nightmares, and varying degrees of depression. The woman who holds a Christian worldview is very likely to begin, at some point after her abortion, to feel like a “second-class citizen” in God’s economy, even though she may know this to be incompatible with Scripture. She usually will either turn away from the church completely or try to “prove herself” by being good long enough until God will finally forgive her. Many post-abortive women, as we have already described, are secretly convinced that their transgressions are literally in a class by themselves, beyond the reach of God’s forgiveness. The more important task, then is to accept on an emotional level what they may already know on an intellectual level: that God’s forgiveness is already available, and that they must decide to reach out and grasp it firmly. There are three important aspects to this “firm grasp” on forgiveness: (1) knowing Who ultimately has paid the debt, (2) allowing intimacy with God to be restored and (3) understanding the difference between punishment and consequences.

The Bible clearly teaches that God has made provision for the forgiveness of wrongdoing. But the post-abortive woman often has a very difficult time believing that forgiveness is available for her selfish and catastrophic choice. Thus, in apparent contradiction to (or ignorance of) her own theology, she cannot accept God’s forgiveness. Instead, she continues to live in a compartmentalized state in which her head knowledge and her heart knowledge do not match. Like the person described in the Matthew 18 parable, she has been told of her Lord’s forgiveness; but her guilty emotions still demand that she pay her debt herself.

Restoring intimacy is the second aspect of forgiveness, and it is perhaps best understood in the parent-child relationship. When a child chooses to do something wrong, a healthy, loving parent needs only to know that the child is genuinely sorry for her actions for reconciliation and intimacy to be restored. In the same way, God only needs for us to verbalize our responsibility and sorrow for our action in order to restore intimacy with Him.

Finally, the third aspect of forgiveness has to do with understanding the difference between punishment and consequences, which are all too easily confused. For the post-abortive woman. a consequence might be infertility. It is tempting for her to interpret this as a sign of God’s continued judgment and rejection. Instead, she needs to understand God’s care for her, and His limitless capacity to redeem the fallout from unwise choices in a fallen world. God, as a loving parent, is as grieved as we are about the losses brought on by our choices. But living with the consequences of our choices is a key part of the uncoerced relationship God desires to have with us.

The sacrament of confession unveils us and humbles us before God. Confession removes barriers of sin so that the love from the Father can be completely received by us and then we in turn are strengthened to return that beautiful unconditional love back to the Father and share it with others around us, particularly our spouse. Christ conquered the death of sin at the cross- He became sin itself, died and defeated it through the resurrection. Ironically, it is through Christ, that our sin brings us to new life. The more we reveal of ourselves, the more we are forgiven- where there is much forgiveness there is much love and gratitude. Our anger dies, our bitterness dies, our resentment dies, our critical spirit dies, and our desire for revenge dies. We are now set free so that we ourselves may forgive and live a joyful, fulfilling marriage in and through the grace of Christ. It may be that at one time or another we have found the sacrament of Reconciliation a burden. Perhaps we even can remember an occasion when we said, “I wish I didn’t have to go to confession.”

But certainly in our saner moments we find Reconciliation a sacrament that we love, a sacrament we would not want to be without.

Just think of all that the sacrament of Reconciliation does for us!

First of all, if a person has cut himself off from God by a grave and deliberate act of disobedience against God (that is, by mortal sin), the sacrament of Reconciliation reunites the soul to God; sanctifying grace is restored to the soul.

At the same time, the sin itself (or sins) is forgiven. Just as darkness disappears from a room when the light is turned on, so too must sin disappear from the soul with the coming of sanctifying grace.

When received without any mortal sin on the soul, the sacrament of Reconciliation imparts to the soul an increase in sanctifying grace. This means that there is a deepening and strengthening of that divine-life-shared by which the soul is united to God.

And always, any venial sins which the penitent may have committed and for which he is truly sorry are forgiven. These are the lesser and more common sins which do not cut us off from God but still hinder, like clouds across the sun, the full flow of his grace to the soul.

It is a spiritual medicine which strengthens as well as heals. That is why a person intent upon leading a good life will make it a practice to receive the sacrament of Reconciliation often. Frequent confession is one of the best guarantees against falling into grave sin. It would be the height of stupidity to say, “I don’t need to go to confession because I haven’t committed any mortal sins.”

All these results of the sacrament of Reconciliation-restoration or increase of sanctifying grace, forgiveness of sins, remission of punishment, restoration of merit, grace to conquer temptation-all these are possibleonly because of the infinite merits of Jesus Christ, which the sacrament of Reconciliation applies to our souls.

Jesus on the cross already has “done our work for us”. In the sacrament of Reconciliation we simply give God a chance to share with us the infinite merits of his Son.

“Your sins are forgiven.”

(Luke 5:20)

t was many years and many struggles later that I realized that it is in the solitude of the confessional when I most live by the way (or power) of the cross. It is in the confessional that I become soulfully naked and surrender my sinful life to God. He then gifts me with new life (His Grace). It is through God’s grace that the possibilities for life become endless and exciting. Philippians 4:13 reads “I can do everything God asks me to with the help of Christ who gives me the strength and power.” Realize the sacraments are living. God is actually present in the sacrament of reconciliation through His grace (the power of the Holy Spirit). God loves humility so when I completely reveal my weaknesses and failings to God in the sacrament of reconciliation, God gifts me with His grace and through His grace HE inwardly strengthens me against future sin and temptation. The Holy Spirit fills me with love, joy, peace, true happiness and a feeling of being content no matter what my life circumstances may be. Ultimately, in the confessional, I am slowly being set free from the bondage of sin because in my deepening love for God I loose desire to sin.

There are number of controversies surrounding womans role in the church with woman in ministry being one of them. Should a woman preach. Is it appropriate for a woman to be a leader in the church? What does the Bible say about this issue? Although, a woman being a priest is an acceptable view in various churches it is still not widely accepted. This is one of the most debatable issues surrounding the life of the church with no ultimate conclusions made. Some people believe that the main role of a woman is to be a caring mother and loving wife. While others think that a woman is able to preach and can be an amazing priest or leader. However, this is definitely not the matter of men vs. women, or in other words, the discrimination of a gender. It is issue of woman’s role in the church, which basically arises from mistakenly interpreting Bible. In this paper I will explore the three diverging views on women in ministry in the church – (1) women can be a part of the church, serving as the preachers. (2) Women should fulfill their primary goal – to take care of the family, (3) Both men and women can be great leaders. One way to look at women in ministry in the church is to be supportive. In traditional Judaism a woman’s primary role is to be a mother, a wife, a housekeeper. Is this statement limits a woman’s eagerness to serve? The answer is no. Since traditional Judaism also claims that women have a big influence on all families’ spiritual life. Looking back to the ancient times, “Greek men considered women by nature intellectually inferior to men”. (Bell, 1994, p.197) They are the ones that teach their children about the truth of God. They are the ones who raise priests, rabbis, and the highest rulers of the church. The fact that women were not allowed to go to the synagogue does not necessarily mean that they have no rights into the ministry in the church and have no voice regarding the issues of the church. Religion does not simply appear only in the synagogue. The basics of the religion emerge at home, where women are spreading the Good News. “ There have been instances in which women have begun ministries, missionary endeavors, or Christian organizations only to be later displaced by men in leadership positions.” (Tucker & Liedeld, 1987, p. 435). This argument proves that women are able to set a good example, to be good leaders and serve others. “By showing hospitality, sharing the gospel, and giving generously to the needy, the women of the early Church contributed greatly both to the spread of Christianity and to the support of the Christian community of which they were a part.” (Lynn, White). Most of the times it is not a women’s decision to serve in the church, but the calling of Holy Spirit, that cannot be contempt.

On the other hand, there are many disagreements about woman being a priest. One of the main disagreements is that firstly she has to accomplish her main goal – childbearing and housekeeping. Men and women were created for different purposes, to fulfill his/her duties. Woman was sent to this earth in order to take care of the family. Having an important role in ministry in the church would not allow her to devote herself fully for the family. What is the purpose of serving in the church, if one’s children are not fed and crying at home? It is believed, that woman is not able to serve and take care of the family at once. If she is fully devoted to God, then there is no time left for teaching her own children. Another point, which is proved by Bible is that women should not have an authority over men, “I do not permit a woman to teach or to have authority over a man” (1 Tim. 2:12) or another verse emphasize that women should not teach or preach in the churches, “<...> women should remain silent in the churches” (1 Cor. 14:34). As it is mentioned in the book “Daughters of the Church”, “Then the argument runs: woman is not inferior, but God himself has ordained a submissive role for Church her that excludes certain church activities.” It is widely discussed that women are not allowed to have an important role in the ministry in the church simply because Jesus was a man. Also, his twelve apostles were all man. Catholic Church declares that “While He was on earth, Jesus chose men to be His apostles and He passed on authority to these men to carry out His work of preaching the good news and forgiving sins.” (The Priesthood, 2010) It is believed that there is a reason for that. Looking from this perspective, woman’s calling is to take care of the family, be modest and let the men to take a role in the ministry at the church. “When women care about the Church and sense the Holy Spirit calling them to share the Good News and nurture believers, the stained-glass ceiling used by Church to limit women’s authority quickly becomes oppressive. ” (Finger, Sandhaas, 2011, p. 67) In order to appreciate what God has said, one have to consider, that the boundaries for women to be an authority over men, does not necessarily mean that they cannot be teachers or spiritual leaders. “The Bible also does not restrict women from teaching children. The only activity women are restricted from is teaching or having spiritual authority over men. This logically would preclude women from serving as pastors to men. This does not make women less important, by any means, but rather gives them a ministry focus more in agreement with God’s plan and His gifting of them.” (Lynn, White) Therefore, women primarily should concentrate on their family and do not try to get involve into the life of the church and to obtain an authority over a man. Last, but definitely not the least, is the perspective that both women and men can encompass significant roles in the ministry at the church. I strongly support this view, since it can be proved by Paul’s saying that, “There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus.” (Gal 3:28) According to Bible, both men and women are created by the image of God. If people would interpret this statement correctly, without any routing around, it would be clear that actually women are equal to men. As long as woman and man are in Christ – they are one and the same. One’s calling or mission is not superior to the other. Theologians Tucker and Liefeld claim that “Christians-both male and female-should, like the Son of Man, come to serve, not to be served. Questions about authority in the church, and particularly about the ministry of women, might be resolved more biblically if attention were given to the fact that “ministry” means “serving”. (Tucker, Liedeld, 1987, p. 441). This statement concludes that women can also preach and serve if their calling would be interpreted as “serving”. As it was mentioned before in this paper, women are able to teach and to preach as good as men do. Therefore, if there appears a situation when women’s help is needed, she always can endure her ministry in the church. The most important thing is that women would not neglect her family. For proper interpretation of this issue Bible has to be understood in a full context. Most of the debates come from New Testament passages, however, Old Testament has many great proves of women in ministry. First of all, it is written in Genesis, “God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them.” (Gen 1:27) This issue goes along with the Imago Dei doctrine, since everybody is equal in the eyes of the Lord. God has no intentions to set a barrier between the genders. Also, there are many examples of women in ministry in early church. One of them is Deborah, who was considered as a prophetess. She was a judge of Israel, who demonstrated great leadership to the entire nation. Also, four daughters of Philip are excellent examples of how the Holy Spirit works trough women and allows them to contribute to making God’s promise come true. There are much more great examples how women did their contribution to the spread of Christianity and helped to fulfill God’s will. To my way of thinking, to restrict women’s role in all of the life of the church is an obvious denial of gospel. The only issue that could appear is that women can be too spiritually devoted. If this problem appears, she should focus on her primary duties. To be a mother and at the same time a spiritual leader is a big challenge. Therefore, this is the main issue why women could not be fully engaged in the life of the church. However, I do not find it inappropriate if a woman devotes herself only to God and serves people, if she has a calling from Holy Spirit. A great example is a Mother Teresa, who devoted her life for serving other. Till these days she is the most honored woman in the life of church. She had a great impact on millions of people and fulfilled her mission on earth in the best possible way. A famous orthodox priest once said, “Today women make enormous and significant contributions to human societies. Their nurturing rule role within the family as grandmothers, wives, mothers and daughters provide a stabilizing influence upon the structure of the family. Indeed as Christians, women provide the church irreplaceable assistance.” (Seraphim) From all of these examples, I can state that women can indeed have a great impact on other people, therefore the distinctive line should be eliminated regarding women versus men preaching and serving in the church. Based on the discussion provided in this paper, should women have a role in the ministry in the church? There are many diverse opinions regarding this issue, however, I would state that both, men and women could be a good leaders and both could have an important role in the ministry in the church as long they have a calling and it does not contradict their primary duties. I would claim that the issue of the role of women in ministry in the church is ambiguous. To my way of thinking, the main problem is false interpretation of the Scripture. People often take few Bible verses and interpret them in their own way, without a full context, meaning and deeper understanding of the traditional Judaism culture. It is ussualy based on narrow thinking; which is mixed with pagan understanding and is useful for some particular layers of society. In the traditional Judaism women were highly valued and had an important role to educate their children. Only because of an excessive responsibility that they had in family and their devotion to the beloved ones, they could not be fully engaged in ministry in the church. After all, every woman, no matter who is she, a mother or a wife, if she is dedicated to serving God, if she feels that she is called by Holy spirit to take care of others, she has to appreciate this gift from God and not be afraid to fullfill the God’s will. Women, who are actively involved in church’s life, are surrounded by many different assessments. Nowadays women are working in various theology departments or conferences. Even in LCC International University we have women proffessors, who are dedicated to their work and are willing to share their experience, knowledge and complete their missionary work. The main problem is that our thinking is biased and it is framed that only men can dominate and be great leaders. In my opinion, as long as you have a gift from God to lead, to teach, then there is no longer an issue if the leader is a man or a woman. If it fulfills God’s wish to spread the Good News, everyone could be a teacher. Overall, both men and women should be engaged in the life of church, and both can bring their contribution to all levels of ministry.

In todays day and age, there is a general perception that womens rights reached its momentum with the start of the Womens Liberation Movement of the 20th century, specifically between the 1970s-1980s. However, from the Islamic point of view, women’s liberation was not started by some radical political groups of the West, but was revealed by Allah to Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) in as long ago as the 7th century. The Qur’an and the Traditions of the Prophet (Hadith and Sunna) guarantee every Muslim woman certain rights and duties.

II. Women in Ancient Civilizations

In order to get achieve a better insight of the status of women today, it is worthwhile to preview how women were treated in previous civilizations and religions that precede Islam (Pre-610 C.E).

India: During the era of the Aryan civilization (2500 B.C), women were accorded almost the same status as men. Women were educated, had a say in their marriage decisions and own their own properties. Even prostitutes were admired for their expertise in the art of music and dance and widows were allowed to remarry. This trend took a nose-diving turn with the start of the Medieval era (1500 B.C) and unfortunately resulted in practices like Satti( dying with the husband at the funeral pyre), Jauhar (wives immolating themselves when they realized that their husbands were going to die in enemy hands) and child marriages.

Rome: was a typically male dominated society; so much so that in the Roman Republic a man could legally kill his wife or daughter if they questioned his authority. Women were also kept out of positions of power. They were not allowed to be senators, governors, lawyers, judges or any of the other official positions involved in running the Roman Empire. Women were also not allowed to vote in elections.

Athens: In the 5th century women in ancient Athenian societies were given no legal rights and were allowed to leave the house only for short distances with a chaperone. It was a common belief that women were emotional creatures who were dangerous to themselves and needed to be taken care of by men. Although women might own some personal items and have charge of a slave or two, they could not own property or enter into contracts.

III. Rights of a Muslim woman

In the Qur’an Allah frequently addresses both the man and the woman. In one passage Allah reveals:

“For Muslim men and women, for believing men and women, for devout men and women, for true men and women who are patient, for men and women who humble themselves, for men and women who give in charity, for men and women who fast, for men and women who guard their chastity, and for men and women who engage much in Allah’s praise – For them all has Allah prepared forgiveness and great reward.” (33:35)

i) Social Status:

As a daughter

-In Pre-Islamic Arabian tribes, the practice of female infanticide was a norm. However, according to the Quran, this practice is prohibited in Islam:-

“And when the girl (who was) buried alive is asked, for what sin she was killed.” (81:8-9).

-Moreover, the Quran even rebukes the unwelcoming attitude of some parents:-

“And when one of them is informed of (the birth of) a female, his face becomes dark, and he suppresses grief. He hides himself from the people because of the ill of which he has been informed. Should he keep it in humiliation or bury it in the ground? Certainly, evil is what they decide”. (Quran 16:58-59).

-Parents of a daughter are expected to treat her with justice and equality:-

“Whosoever supports two daughters until they mature, he and I will come on the Day of Judgment as this (and he pointed with his fingers held together).”

-The education of girls is supported:-

“Seeking knowledge is mandatory for every Muslim.”

As a wife

Islam views marriage as an equal partnership. When a person gets married they neither marry a slave nor a master. It is the basic, fundamental ideological fundamental of a Muslim that servitude belongs to God alone. Hence the Quran states:-

“And among His signs is this: That He created mates for you from yourselves that you may find rest, peace of mind in them, and He ordained between you love and mercy. Lo, herein indeed are signs for people who reflect.” [Quran 30:21]

To foster the love and security that comes with marriage, Muslim wives have several rights: the first one is to receive ‘mahr’ from the husband, which is a gift as part of the marriage contract A wife has the right to kind treatment. The Prophet (P.B.U.H)) said:

“The most perfect believers are the best in conduct. And the best of you are those who are best to their wives.”

As far as divorce is concerned, God provides general guidelines for the process of divorce with emphasis throughout on both parties upholding the values of justice and kindness in formalizing the end to their marriage:-

“And when you divorce women and they have [nearly] fulfilled their term, either retain them according to acceptable terms or release them according to acceptable terms, and do not keep them, intending harm, to transgress [against them].” (Surah 2. 231)

God encourages the husband and wife to appoint arbitrators as the first step to aid in reconciliation in the process of divorce. If the reconciliation step fails, both men and women are guaranteed their right to divorce as established in the Qur’an, but the question lies in what is the procedure for each. When a divorce is initiated by the man, it is known as talaq. The pronouncement by the husband may be verbal or written, but once done, a waiting period of three months (‘iddat) must take place in which there are no sexual relations even though the two are living under the same roof. The waiting period helps prevent hasty decisions made in anger and enables both parties to reconsider as well as determine if the wife is pregnant. If the wife is pregnant, the waiting period is lengthened until she delivers. At any point during this time, the husband and wife are free to resume their relationship, thereby stopping the divorce process. At this time, the husband remains financially responsible for the support of his wife.

The divorce initiated by the wife is known as khu” (if the husband is not at fault) and entails the wife giving her dowry to end the marriage because she is the “contract” breaker. In the instance of talaq where the husband is the “contract” breaker, he must pay the dowry in full in cases where all or part of it was deferred.

As a mother

Mothers have greater right and deserve more kindness, help service, good treatment and companionship than the fathers because the mother is the first one to care for the children and she suffers more directly with daily hardships in their upbringing. This tradition indicates that a mother has three times the rights of that of a father due to the sufferings she experiences during the various stages of her child’s life; in pregnancy, delivery, nursing, and raising the child.

“And We have enjoined on man to be dutiful and good to his parents. His mother bore him in weakness and hardship upon weakness and hardship. The duration of carrying him (in the womb) and weaning is two years. So thank Me and to your parents; unto Me is the final destination.” [31:14]

ii) Economic Aspect

a) Woman’s Right to Property (Inheritance):

“

“From what is left by parents and those nearest related there is a share for men and a share for women, whether the property be small or large, a determinate share.” (Surah 4, Ayah 7)

b) Financial Security and Inheritance Laws: Financial security is assured for women. They are entitled to receive marital gifts without limit and to keep present and future properties and income for their own security, even after marriage. No married woman is required to spend any amount at all from her property and income on the household. The woman is entitled also to full financial support during marriage and during the “waiting period” (iddah) in case of divorce or widowhood. Some jurists require, in addition, one year’s support for divorce and widowhood (or until they remarry, if remarriage takes place before the year is over). A woman who bears a child in marriage is entitled to child support from the child’s father.

c) Employment: Whilst women carry the heavy burden of bearing and rearing children, they may still be at par with men, that is, they have the right to seek employment as long as this does not interfere with her primary role as a wife and a mother. In Islam, however, the value and importance of women in society and the true measure of their success as human beings, is measured with completely different criteria: their fear of Allah and obedience to Him, and fulfillment of the duties He has entrusted them with, particularly that of bearing, rearing and teaching children.

iii) Political Rights

Any fair investigation of the teachings of Islam into the history of the Islamic civilization will surely find a clear evidence of woman’s equality with man in what we call today “political rights”.

This includes the right of election as well as the nomination to political offices. It also includes woman’s right to participate in public affairs. Both in the Qur’an and in Islamic history we find examples of women who participated in serious discussions and argued even with the Prophet (P) himself

During the Caliphate of Omar Ibn al-Khattab, a woman argued with him in the mosque, proved her point, and caused him to declare in the presence of people: “A woman is right and Omar is wrong.”

Although not mentioned in the Qur’an, one Hadeeth of the Prophet is interpreted to make woman ineligible for the position of head of state. The Hadeeth referred to is roughly translated: “A people will not prosper if they let a woman be their leader.” This limitation, however, has nothing to do with the dignity of woman or with her rights. It is rather, related to the natural differences in the biological and psychological make-up of men and women.

According to Islam, the head of the state is no mere figurehead. He leads people in the prayers, especially on Fridays and festivities; he is continuously engaged in the process of decision-making pertaining to the security and well-being of his people. This demanding position, or any similar one, such as the Commander of the Army, is generally inconsistent with the physiological and psychological make-up of woman in general. It is a medical fact that during their monthly periods and during their pregnancies, women undergo various physiological and psychological changes. Such changes may occur during an emergency situation, thus affecting her decision, without considering the excessive strain which is produced. Moreover, some decisions require a maximum of rationality and a minimum of emotionality – a requirement which does not coincide with the instinctive nature of women.

Even in modern times, and in the most developed countries, it is rare to find a woman in the position of a head of state acting as more than a figurehead, a woman commander of the armed services, or even a proportionate number of women representatives in parliaments, or similar bodies. One can not possibly ascribe this to backwardness of various nations or to any constitutional limitation on woman’s right to be in such a position as a head of state or as a member of the parliament. It is more logical to explain the present situation in terms of the natural and indisputable differences between man and woman, a difference which does not imply any “supremacy” of one over the other. The difference implies rather the “complementary” roles of both the sexes in life.

IV.Conclusion

In this report, the status of women in Islam has been described as purely given in the Quran and revealed by the Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H). However, the role of women has not only been shaped by Islamic text but also by the history and culture of the Muslim world. Moreover, the issue of women in Islam has been viewed as highly controversial through the centuries. While it is believed that these revelations on women’s liberation in the Quran made major improvements in the oppressed status of women in pre-Arab societies, the deterioration of this status took place soon after the death of the Prophet (P.B.U.H).

With the growth of the Women’s Liberation Movement in the West, many feminist writers came to view the practice of wearing the ‘veil’ as a symbol of women’s oppression and subservience to men. The hijaab in Islam is given as a way for women to conceal their attractiveness and appear dignified so that attention is drawn more to their character than physical beauty. Islam enjoins modest dress for both men and women, and in a Muslim society, the men as well as the women typically dress conservatively. The Qur’an tells them to dress modestly and cover their hair in all public situations, others insist that their whole body including hands and face are to be covered, yet others understand the guidance to mean a more general attitude of modesty both in dress and attitude. Many Muslim women freely choose to dress modestly in order to avoid the public scrutiny, judgments, and social dynamics associated with physical appearance. By dressing in ways that do not draw attention.

Additionally, polygamy is seen as a sign of inequality amongst men and women. This concept is clarified stating that polygamy was introduced as a means to protect women and children who may otherwise be taken advantage of. Moreover, there are strict conditions placed on men to provide equal time and money to all their wives. The rights of divorce are also open to the wife if she is unfairly treated. The Prophet Muhammad was married to his first wife, Khadijah, for 25 years, and he did not take other wives until after her death. His marriages to several widows and divorcees in later years were primarily contracted for political and humanitarian reasons, as was expected of a man in his position. His home life was characterised by love, consideration, kindness and respect.

Despite all these teachings in Islam it is no secret that some brutal traditions are still prevalent in many Muslim societies. In many parts of Pakistan, female infanticide is still on the rise. According to the Edhi Foundation, some 1000 babies were found dead in different parts of Pakistan in the year 2011. Even though the Hijaab is meant to be a symbol of modesty and social identity there are innumerable societies where the purdah is more of a cultural restriction than a matter of choice. Domestic violence against women is almost a norm in many societies where women don’t come forward to claim their rights.

Literally, Sunnah means a clear path or a beaten track but it has also been used to imply normative practice, or an established course of conduct. It may be a good example or a bad, and it may be set by an individual, a sect or a community.

In pre-Islamic Arabia, the Arabs used the word ‘Sunnah’ in reference to the ancient and continuous practice of the community which they inherited from their forefathers.

The Sunnah, according to the scholars of hadeeths, is everything that has been related from the Messenger (SAW), of his statements, actions, tacit approvals, personality, physical description, or biography. It does not matter whether the information being related refers to something before the beginning of his prophetic mission, or after it. The statements of the Prophet include everything the Prophet said for various reasons on different occasions. The actions of the Prophet include everything that the Prophet did that was related to us by his Companions. This includes how he made ablutions, how he performed his prayers, and how he made the Hajj pilgrimage.

The tacit approvals of the Prophet includes everything that his Companions said or did that he either showed his favor towards or at least did not object to. Anything that had the tacit approval of the Prophet is as valid as anything that he said or did himself.

An adequate answer to the question as to whether the Sunnah is a mere supplement to the Qur’an or a source in its own right necessitates an elaboration of the relationship of the Sunnah to the Qur’an is tried in the following paragraphs:

The Holy Quran is the foundation of Islamic Law. It is the miraculous speech of Allah that was revealed to the Messenger, may the mercy and blessings of Allah be upon him, by way of the angel Gabriel. It has been transmitted to us with so many chains of authority that its historical authenticity is unquestionable. It is written down in its own volume, and its recitation is a form of worship.

As for the Sunnah, it is everything besides the Holy Quran that came from Allah’s Messenger. It explains and provides details for the laws found in the Holy Quran. It also provides examples of the practical application of these laws. It is also either direct revelation from Allah, or decisions of the Messenger that were then confirmed by revelation. Therefore, the source of all the Sunnah is revelation.

The Holy Quran takes precedence over the Sunnah in two ways. For one thing, the Holy Quran consists of the exact words of Allah, miraculous in nature, down to the last verse. The Sunnah, however, is not necessarily the exact words of Allah, but rather their meanings as explained by the Holy Prophet (SAW).

The Position of the Sunnah in Islamic Law

During the Messenger’s lifetime the Holy Quran and Sunnah were the only sources of Islamic Law.

The Holy Quran provides the general injunctions that formed the basis of the Law, without going into all the details and secondary legislation, with the exception of a few injunctions that are established along with the general principles. These injunctions are not subject to change over time or with the changing circumstances of the people. The Holy Quran, likewise, comes with the tenets of belief, sets down acts of worship, mentions the stories of the nations of old, and provides moral guidelines.

The Sunnah comes in agreement with the Holy Quran. It explains the meanings of what is unclear in the text, provides details for what is depicted in general terms, specifies what is general, and explains its injunctions and objectives. The Sunnah also comes with injunctions that are not provided by the Holy Quran, but these are always in harmony with its principles, and they always advance the objectives that are outlined in the Holy Quran.

The Sunnah is a practical expression of what is in the Holy Quran. This expression takes many forms. Sometimes, it comes as an action performed by the Messenger. At other times, it is a statement that he made in response to something. Sometimes, it takes the form of a statement or action of one of the Companions that he neither prevented nor objected to. On the contrary, he remained silent about it or expressed his approval for it.

The Sunnah explains and clarifies the Holy Quran in many ways. It explains how to perform the acts of worship and carry out the laws that are mentioned in the Holy Quran. Allah commands the believers to pray without mentioning the times that the prayers had to be performed or the manner of performing them. The Messenger clarified this through his own prayers and by teaching the Muslims how to pray. He said: “Pray as you have seen me praying.”

Allah makes the Hajj pilgrimage obligatory without explaining its rites. Allah’s Messenger explains this by saying:

“Take the rites of Hajj from me.”

Allah makes the Zakat obligatory without mentioning what types of wealth and produce it is to be levied against. Allah also does not mention the minimum amount of wealth that makes the tax obligatory. The Sunnah, though, makes all this clear.

The Sunnah specifies general statements found in the Holy Quran. Allah says:

“Allah commands you regarding your children: to the male, a portion equal to that of two femalesaˆ¦” (Holy Quran 4:11)

This wording is general, applying to every family and making every child an inheritor of his or her parents. The Sunnah makes this ruling more specific by excluding the children of Prophets. Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said:

“We Prophets leave behind no inheritance. Whatever we leave behind is charity.”

The Sunnah qualifies unqualified statements in the Holy Quran. Allah says:

“aˆ¦and you find no water, then perform tayammum (dry ablution) with clean earth and rub therewith your faces and handsaˆ¦ (Holy Quran 5:6)

The verse does not mention the extent of the hand, leaving the question of whether one should rub the hands up to the wrist or the forearm. The Sunnah makes this clear by showing that it is to the wrist, because this is what Allah’s Messenger did when he performed dry ablution.

The Sunnah also comes emphasizing what is in the Holy Quran or providing secondary legislation for a law stated therein. This includes all the hadeeths that indicate that Prayer, the Zakat, fasting, and the Hajj pilgrimage are obligatory.

An example of where the Sunnah provides subsidiary legislation for an injunction found in the Holy Quran is the ruling found in the Sunnah that it is forbidden to sell fruit before it begins to ripen. The basis for this law is the statement of the Holy Quran:

Do not consume your property amongst you unjustly, except it is a trade among you by mutual consent.

The Sunnah contains rulings that are not mentioned in the Holy Quran and that do not come as clarifications for something mentioned in the Holy Quran. An example of this is the prohibition of eating donkey flesh and the flesh of predatory beasts. Another example of this is the prohibition of marrying a woman and her aunt at the same time. These and other rulings provided by the Sunnah must be adhered to.

The Obligation of Adhering to the Sunnah

A requirement of believing in Prophet-hood is to accept as true everything that Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said. Allah chose His Messengers (SAW) from among His worshippers to convey His Law to humanity. Allah says:

“aˆ¦Allah knows best with whom to place His Messageaˆ¦” (Holy Quran 6:124)

Allah also says:

“aˆ¦Are the Messengers charged with anything but to convey the clear Message?” (Holy Quran 16:35)

The Messenger is protected from error in all of his actions. Allah has protected his tongue from uttering anything but the truth. Allah has protected his limbs from doing anything but what is right.

Allah has safeguarded him from showing approval for anything contrary to Islamic Law.

In conclusion, it may be said that both sides are essentially in agreement on the authority of Sunnah as a source of law and its principal role in relationship to the Qur’an. They both acknowledge that the Sunnah contains legislation which is not found in the Holy Quran. The difference between them seems to be one of interpretation rather than substance. The Qur’anic ayat on the duty of obedience to the Holy Prophet (SAW), and those which assign to him the role of the interpreter of the Qur’an, are open to variant interpretations. These passages have been quoted in support of both the views, that the

Sunnah is supplementary to the Qur’an, and that it is an independent source. The point which is basic to both these views is the authority of the Holy Prophet (SAW) and the duty of adherence to his Sunnah. In the meantime, both sides acknowledge the fact that the Sunnah contains legislation which is additional to the Qur’an. When this is recognized, the rest of the debate becomes largely redundant.

He (SAW) is the most beautifully complete of Allah’s Creations. This is clear from how Allah describes him in the following verses of Holy Quran:

“By the star when it sets. Your companion has neither gone astray nor has he erred. Nor does he speak of his own desire. It is only revelation that has been revealed.” (Holy Quran 53:1-4)
QUESTION:
Kamali asserts that “The essential unity of Sharia’ah’ lies in the degree of harmony that is achieved between revelation and reason. Ijtihad is the principal instrument of maintaining this harmony”. Discuss how personal reasoning (Ijtihad) has helped to develop Islamic jurisprudence?
ANSWER:
1. Introduction:

Ijtihad played an important role in the development of Islamic legal theory. The aim of this essay is to discuss the concept of Ijtihad in the development of the Islamic legal theory. Thus it will not be out of place to give a brief introduction of the concept of Ijtihad.

2. Ijtihad:

The Arabic word Ijtihad is derived from the ‘Juhud’ which means ‘expending of maximum effort in the performance of an act’. In Islamic jurisprudence Ijtihad means the effort made by the Mujtahid in seeking knowledge of the Ahkam (Rules) of the Sharia’ah through interpretation. (Nyazyee, Ch. 14: P. 263).

This definition implies the following:

That the Mujtahid should expend the maximum effort, that is, he should work to the limits of his ability so much so that he realize his inability to go any further.

That, the person expending the effort should be a Mujtahid. An effort expended by non-Mujtahid is of no consequence, because he is not qualified to do so.

The effort should be directed towards the discovery of the Rules of the Sharia’ah that pertain to the conduct.

The method of discovery of the Rules should be through interpretation of the texts with the help of other sources. This excludes the memorization of such Rules from the books of Fiqh or their identification by the Mufti. Thus, the activity of the Faqih and the Mufti cannot be called Ijtihad.

3. The Three Modes of Ijtihad:

The Jurists in general practice three types or modes of Ijtihad. In reality, the activity of the jurist cannot be split up into separate modes. Ijtihad is single seamless process, but for simplification and ease of understanding this activity is divided into three types as follows;

In the first mode, the Jurist stay as close to the text as he can. He focuses on the literal meaning of the texts, that is, he follows the plain meaning Rule.

When the first mode of literal construction is exhausted by the Jurists, he turns to syllogism, which is Qiyas. This mode is confined to strict types of analogy. These are called Qiyas Al-Ma’na and Qiyas Al.illah.

The second mode of Ijtihad is confine to the extension of the law from individual texts, while in the third mode the reliance is on all the texts considered collectively. This means legal reasoning is undertaken more in the line with the spirit of the law and its purposes rather than the confines of the individual texts.

4. Role of Ijtihad in the development of Islamic legal theory.
Early notion of Islamic legal theory and the concept of Ijtihad:

At the time of the Holy Prophet (SAW) the only source of the Sharia’ah was revelation. That revelation had two types, one was the direct speech of Allah, namely the Holy Quran, and the other was indirect speech of Allah which the Holy Prophet (SAW) expressed in his own words, that is termed as Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW).

The Holy Quran by nature is implicit. It does not provide details of each and every individual case, rather it describes general principles, examples etc. the Holy Prophet (SAW) used to explain and implement those principles and general rules in individual cases, that is Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW), in that sense the Sunnah is the explanation of the Holy Quran, though as it is mentioned earlier that explanation was also directed by the God.

Although as it is mentioned earlier that the only source of law at that time was revelation, but some time the Holy Prophet (SAW) practiced Ijtihad in its narrow sense in the absence of reveled rule(s) as the Holy Prophet (SAW) said, ‘when I do not receive a revelation I adjudicate among you on the basis of my opinion’ (Abu Dawud, 1984:1017). However, the difference of that Ijtihad with ordinary Ijtihad bil ray is that whenever, He (SAW) mistook, a verse would be revealed in order to inform him the correct decision. For instance, once the Holy Prophet (SAW) was asked by a woman about the rule of dhihar. The Holy Prophet (SAW) answered her “I don’t think that the rule is different from that of divorce”. Then Allah revealed verses regarding the hukum of dhihar, which was not similar to divorce and then the hukum of dhihar had been corrected.

The companion of the prophet used to do Ijtihad at that time also. When the Prophet was not available or when the Prophet sent them to somewhere, they use to do Ijtihad in the absence of explicit Qur’anic verse or Sunnah of the Prophet. They use to interpret the verses of the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet as well as in cases of completely new issues they use to do Ijtihad on the basis of the principles of Sharia’ah. The advantage of them was if they mistook they could correct themselves by asking the Prophet or Allah would revealed the correct rule(s). Therefore, Sharia’ah was very much based on the revelation at that time, i.e. either Allah would reveal the hukum of a certain mas’ala or He would approve the decision(s) of the Prophet and his companions or He would disapproved and correct their decision(s). Hence, despite the fact that the practice of Ijtihad was started from that time, but it did not get the status of a source of Islamic legal theory then.

Development of Islamic legal theory and the concept of Ijtihad:

After the death of the Holy Prophet (SAW), the gate of revelation has been closed for ever. Therefore, in order to deal with new problems, the companions of the Holy Prophet (SAW) used to depend on the Ijtihad. However, it did not substitute the Holy Quran and Sunna at all, rather whenever they faced a new phenomenon regarding which they did not know any Qur’anic verse or Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW), they used to ask the other companions whether they knew any Hadith of the Holy Prophet (SAW) concerning that. They used to do Ijtihad in the absence of the revealed rule and whenever they found any Hadith regarding that case they use to abandon their Ijtihad and followed that Hadith.

Because of the quick expansion of the Muslim world in first century, a huge number of people embraced Islam. A number of the companions of the Holy Prophet (SAW) migrated to different places in order to teach the new Muslims the science of Islam. People gathered around them to learn Islam. Through their teaching they created groups of scholars. Those groups were the producers of the different schools of thought.

Two distinctive trends of thought emerged at that time, namely Ahl al-Ray and Ahl al-Hadith. The trend of Ahl al-ray can be traced back to the second caliph Hazrat Umar (RA) and a renowned companion Hazrat Abdullah ibn Mas’ud (RA), whereas the trend of Ahl al-Hadith can be traced back from two renowned companions and scholars Hazrat Zaid Bin Thabit and Hazrat Abdullah Bin ‘Umar (RA) (Abdur Rahim,2003:55). Ahl al-ray are those who depend on personal opinion (Ijtihad bil ray) in order to solve the problems and analyze the Ahkam of Sharia’ah and extract the major causes of those in order to draw out those to new phenomena’s. Ahl al-Hadiths are those who depend on only authentic evidences. There strategy is to express exactly what is in the authentic narrations. They do not involve in causation of the Ahkam of Sharia’ah and extend those to new phenomena’s. Nevertheless, the more the Muslims faced new problems the more the former trend became prominent, because of their wide practice of Ijtihad they could solve the new phenomena’s better than Ahl al-Hadith School of thought. However, Ahl al-Hadith school of thought did not completely deny or overlook the concept of Ijtihad. Ijtihad also played a big role in the development of that school of thought. However, their concept of Ijtihad was narrower than that of Ahl al-Ray as discussed in the following section of the essay. Hence, it could be said that by the end of first century, Ijtihad became an important source of Islamic jurisprudence through the practice of it by the companions of the Holy Prophet (SAW) and their followers, although there were difference of opinion among them about the definition, scope and way of practice of it.

Institutionalization of Islamic legal theory and the role of Ijtihad in it:

The last companion of the Holy Prophet (SAW) died in the end of the first hijra. Around that time the process of institutionalization and compilation of Islamic jurisprudence started. The notion of Madhhad (School of thought) emerged at that time in different places. Although there were countless Madhhabs, but, apart from four Madhhabs others are not existed now a day. We will discuss here the development of those four Madhhabs and the concept of Ijtihad in those.

Hanafi school of thought: Hanafi school of thought is based on the jurisprudence of Imam Abu Hanifa. The Usul of Imam Abu Hanifa as he describes, is as follow:

“If I find any hukum in the Holy Quran, I confined myself with that. If I do not find that there, I accept Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW) which has come to me through authentic narrators. When I do not find that in the Holy Quran and in the Sunnah, I follow the opinion of the companions meaning their general consensuses. In case of their disagreement with each other I accept or abandon which ever I want, but I do not prefer others opinion over theirs’. In case of the opinion of others, I have the right of Ijtihad as well as they have”.

The Maliki School of thought: The Maliki Madhhad is based on the jurisprudence of Imam Malik (93-179 A.H.). The method of his jurisprudence which is the method of Maliki Madhhad as well is that, in order to find out the hukum of a certain issue he first used to look in the Holy Quran, if it is not available in the Holy Quran then he used to look it in the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW). Similarly if the Quran describes the principle or indirect hukum of the issue he also used to search the Sunnah in order to find out the details of that. He used to consider the practice of Ahl-Medina as Mutawatir Hadith. If he did not find the solution in the Holy Quran or in Hadith he would refer to the general consensus of the companions who were known as faqih, if there were no general consensus regarding that matter then he would follow the individual opinions of the companions or would do Qiyas. If it was an abstract matter where there is no room for Ijtihad bil ray then he would follow the opinion of a companion, else he would prefer Ijtihad bil ray.

Al-Shafi School of thought: Imam Al-Shafi emerged during the period of the compilation of the above mentioned two school of thought’s jurisprudence. He is credited as the inventor of Usul al Fiqh. However, Kamali argues that the Usul al-Fiqh was existed before but until the time of Al-Shafi it was not in a form of science. Imam Al-Shafi authored a book regarding the principles and rules of jurisprudence namely Al-Risalah, which is considered as the first book on Usul al-Fiqh (Kamali, 1991:3, 4). The motivations which prompted Al-Shafi to introduce the usul al-Fiqh are some inconsistencies which he observed in the discourses of his predecessors. He mentioned those in the beginning of his book kitabul Umm.

It is appear from the reform activity of Al-Shafi that the objective of that was to make the Ijtihad systematic and to demolish the tendency of unconditional imitation of the predecessors Fatwas and hence to reopen and widen the scope of Ijtihad. Although, he excluded Ray from the category of Ijtihad, especially he was critical about Istihsan, and emphasized more on qias but he made the point clear that he is against ‘the following of one’s personal whim and amounts to unjustified legislations.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, it can be argued that Ijtihad played an important role in the development of Islamic legal theory. It appears from the essay that some of the school of thought emerged as a reaction against Taqlid or blind imitation of predecessors and the objective of them was to reopen and widen the gate of Ijtihad.

QUESTION:
In Islamic legal theory the law preceded society and is considered to be eternal as Allah. Explain, how today’s states, with elected governments and independent judiciaries apply these rules of law.
ANSWER.
Introduction:

The Holy Quran is a complete code for mankind and provides guidance for man in all walks of his life. It has its own concepts of ethics, politics, economics and sociology.

It is an irony of fate that, now a days the demand for the enforcement of the Islamic law has come to surrounded by such a thick mist of misgivings that a mere reference to it raises a storm of criticism not only in non Islamic but even in Islamic countries also. Thus for instance, the questions are asked: Can a centuries old legal system be adequate to fulfill the requirements of our modern state and society.

To be sure, these questions are not the outcome of any antagonism towards Islam but mostly of sheer ignorance which must quite naturally breed suspicion.

The first task, therefore, is to explain to people the meaning and applications of Islamic Law, Its objectives, its Spirit, its Structure and its categorical and unchangeable injunctions along with the reasons of their permanence.

They should also be informed of the dynamic element of Islamic Law and how it guarantees the fulfillment of ever increasing needs of the progressive human society in every age.

Islamic Law:

The establishment of political authority which may enforce Islamic Law requires a Constitutional Law and Sharia’ah clearly laid down its fundamentals. The Sharia’ah has provided answers to the following basic questions of Constitutional Law.

What is the basic theory of the state?

What is the source of the authority of its legislation?

What are the guiding principles of state policy?

What are the qualifications of the ruler of an Islamic State?

What are the objectives of an Islamic state?

In whom does the sovereignty reside and what are the different organs of the state?

What is the mode of distribution of power between different organs of the state, viz.: Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary?

What are the conditions of Citizenship?

What are the rights and duties of Muslim Citizens and what are the rights of non Muslim citizen?

The guidance which the Sharia’ah has provided in respect to these questions constitutes the Constitution of Islam.

Besides laying down the fundamentals of Constitutional Law, the Sharia’ah has also enunciated the basic principles of Administrative Law. Beside that there are precedents in administrative practice established by Holy Prophet (SAW) and the first four rightly guided Caliphs of Islam (Khulfah-e-Rashidin). For instance, the Sharia’ah enumerates the sources of income permissible for an Islamic State and those which are prohibited. It also prescribes the avenues of the expenditure. It lays down rules of conduct for Police, the Judiciary and Administrative machinery.

Elected Governments and Islamic Law:

The Holy Quran and Holy Prophet (SAW) encourage Muslims to decide their affairs in consultation with those who will be affected by that decision. The concept of consultation is known as SHURA in Islam. Shura is an Arabic word for “consultation”.

Majlis al-Shura and a Parliament

Many traditional Sunni Islamic Jurists agree that to be in keeping with Islam, a government should have some form of council of consultation or Majlis al Shura, although it must recognize that sovereignty belongs to ALLAH ALMIGHTY and not the people. Jurists have written that members of the Majlis should satisfy following three conditions:

They must be just,

They have enough knowledge Islamic Injunctions to distinguish a good caliph from a bad one, and

They have sufficient wisdom and judgment to select the best caliph.

Many contemporary Muslims have compared the concept of Shura to the principles of western parliamentary democracy. For example: What is the Shura principle in Islam?

It is predicated on three basic precepts. First, that all persons in any given society are equal in human and civil rights. Second, those public issues are best decided by majority view. And third, that the three other principles of justice, equality and human dignity, which constitute Islam’s moral core, are best realized, in personal as well as public life, under Shura governance.

Judiciary and Islamic Laws:

Islam is the religion that Allah wants for mankind from the time that He sent Holy Prophet (SAW) shows great concern for the judicial system and those appointed to carry out its responsibilities. Islam prescribes for it many legal injunctions. How else could it be, when Islam is the religion of mercy, equality, and justice? It is the religion that comes to free people from worshipping Creation and bring them to the worship of Allah. It is the religion that comes to remove people from oppression and iniquity and bring them to the highest degree of justice and freedom.

Allah’s Messenger (SAW) was the greatest of judges. He used to act in the capacity of judge in the city of Medina, which was the first Islamic state. He used to appoint people to be judges in other cities

In the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, the head of state continued to be the one to appoint judges, govern their affairs, protect their independence, and keep the governors and political appointees and even the Caliphs subject to the judge’s verdicts. Hazrat Umar bin al-Khattab (R.A.), the second Caliph, was the first person to make the judge an independent entity, distinct from the Caliph and the governors.

So it was Islam that not only called for independent Judiciary but also the first religion and state that actually setup the independent Judiciary.

Conclusion:

The Islamic Law, the Law which Holy Prophet (SAW) delivered unto mankind for all times to come, this Law admits of no difference between man and man except in faith and religion. Those religious and social systems and political and cultural ideologies which differentiate between men on grounds of Race, Country or colour, can never become universal creeds or world ideologies for the simple reason that one belonging to a certain race cannot get transformed into another race, one born in certain country cannot tear asunder his entity from that place, nor can the whole world condense into one country, and the colour of negro, a Chinese and a white man cannot be changed. Such ideologies and social systems must remain conned to one race, community, or country. They are bound to be narrow, limited and nationalistic and cannot become universal.

Islam, on the other hand, is universal ideology. Any person who declares belief in LA ILAHA ILLALLAH MUAMMAD-UR-RASULLULLAH enters the pale of Islam and entitles himself to the same rights as those of other Muslims. Islam makes no discrimination on the basis of race, country, colour, language, or the like. Its appeal is to the entire humanity and it admits of no narrow minded discriminations.

This law is eternal. It is not based on the customs or traditions of any particulars people and is not meant for any particular period of human history. It is based on the same principles of the nature on which man has been created. And as that nature remains the same in all periods and under all circumstances, the law based on it unalloyed principles should also be applicable to every period and under all circumstances. And this universal and eternal religion is Islam.

The secularization of 19th century England was multicausal. Various factors contributed to this process. Among them were post-effects of The Enlightenment namely humanistic philosophy that manifested itself with the spread of deism and Enlightenment aesthetics. Other factors included science and natural theology. Natural theology was the attempt of the church to stave off secularization, but in fact hastened the process. Clearly science was more responsible for the secularization of nineteenth century England than Enlightenment humanistic philosophy. This essay will explore the watershed of natural theology and its demise in nineteenth century England.

Recognizing the intellectual context and environment that existed at the turn of the 19th century helps illuminate why humanistic causes contributed to England’s secularization. There was, as Thomas Kuhn states, a “paradigm shift” in society. The industrial revolution led to massive urbanization that often occupied previously religious building for commerce and industry. Cathedrals, abbeys, and churches gradually became merely additional spots in a city and no longer the city centres or primary places of gathering. There was a shift from superstitions and spiritual explanations for different phenomena to physical and reason-based explanations especially between the 17th century before 1660 and the Enlightenment of the 18th century. (155) For example, before this paradigm shift people dealt with the insane via exorcism because their insanity was attributed to Satan. (Brook 1993, 155) Afterwards, new medical elites deemed these practices madness and attributed insanity to non-spiritual causes. Among these events specific groups formed, which were led by this appeal of rationality over conventional religion such as the aesthetes and deists.

The aesthetes, such as Irish author Oscar Wilde, deists and other groups resented bourgeois society particularly the rigid conservatism, oppressive hypocrisy and suppression of intellectualism of the church. Historians of Victorian intellectual life such as David J. DeLaura have recognized that numerous Victorian atheists and agnostics left the Christian church because they believed Christianity was becoming immoral.

“The loss of religious faith in such representative early Victorian agnostics as F. W. Newman (John Henry Newman’s brother), and J. A. Froude was not due to the usually suggested reasons of the rise of evolutionary theory in geology and biology. The dominant factor was a growing repugnance toward the ethical implications of what each had been taught to believe as essential Christianity –the doctrines: Original Sin, Reprobation, Baptismal Regeneration, Vicarious Atonement, and Eternal Punishment.” (DeLaura 1969, 13).

Murphy’s journal article The Ethical Revolt Against Christian Orthodoxy in Early Victorian England (1955) in The American Historical Review explains how it was predominantly ethical rejections of Christian Doctrine that led to the secularization of 19th century England. He presents case studies of three individuals F. W. Newman (1805-97), J. A. Froude (1818-94), and Mary Anne Evans (1819-1880). Murphy explains that contrary to the popular views, that once Darwin and Lyell demonstrated that neither the origin of the earth nor the origin of man according to Genesis was congruent with scientific discovery that the majority of thinking people became agnostic or atheist, secularization occurred during the Victorian age predominantly due to conflicts between orthodox dogma and meliorist ethical bias of the times. (Murphy 1955, 801) Murphy argues that science did provide important ammunition once the attack on orthodoxy had begun, but it did not produce the attack. The records of these three people leave no trace of having read Lyell and they all had left the church 10-20 years before Origin of Species was published. Newman grows up in a Christian home but later writes a book Phases of Faith where he describes that he is disturbed by the dominant Christian doctrines believing them to be unethical. Newman finds through critical reasoning that the sacrifice of Christ serving as atonement was not logical because attacking the infinite strength of Christ was evading not satisfying justice as Christ was not really harmed. (Murphy 1955, 803) Murphy explains that Froude “did not waste time on fine points of science or Biblical scholarship, but came straight to the main point: the intolerable ethical primitiveness of the vicari-ous-atonement principle” (808) Froude states the atonement principle’s claim that the guilt of a man’s sin be transferred, even voluntarily, to an innocent Christ is a perversion of justice. Furthermore to then state that a man’s sin is a loss that God suffers by which He would need satisfaction that needed to be paid, without it mattering by whom, is an insult to God’s persona. Finally, Evans deviates from the faith because she believes that it is unethical and untrue that religious faith is a necessary prerequisite to attaining moral excellence. In an article entitled “Evangelical Teaching: Dr. Cumming” (Westminster Review, October 1855) she writes about Dr. Cumming, a self-righteous admired London preacher to be teaching Christian doctrine found “to be subversive of true moral development and therefore positively noxious. ” (Evans 1855, 1) Thus, these case studies demonstrate how the secularization of 19th century England occurred due to meliorist rejections of ethical issues found in church doctrine.

However, what even more greatly contributed to the secularization of nineteenth century England was the development of science. “Science was viewed as a vehicle of social and intellectual liberation.” (Brooke 1993, 155) Natural Theology attempted to make theological claims about the existence of God by observing nature and drawing conclusions via the design argument instead of making claim’s based on God’s own self-revelation via scripture. The design argument is proposed by Paley in his work Natural Theology (1802) “There cannot be design without a designer; contrivance without a contriver; order without choice; arrangement, without anything capable of arranging.” (12) Paley believes nature is a mechanism, and hence was intelligently designed. He made this connection because he was writing while England was experiencing the Industrial Revolution.

American Philosopher Alston in Perceiving God defines natural theology as “the enterprise of providing support for religious beliefs by starting from premises that neither are nor presuppose any religious beliefs” (Alston, 1991b, p.289) Natural theology as defence of Christian theology proves fatal. Swiss theologian Barth rejects Natural Theology. He states that this belief causes a bifurcation of knowledge of God into natural knowledge of God and revealed knowledge of the triune God, which is scientifically & theologically intolerable. “Barth argues that unless rational structure [is] bound up with the actual content of the knowledge of God it [becomes] a distorting abstraction.”(Torrance, 1970, 128). American philosopher Platinga views Natural Theology as an attempt to prove or demonstrate the existence of God. This is a problem because it supposes that belief in God rests upon evidential basis. Hence belief in God is not a basic belief and self-evident. Belief in God necessitates being grounded on a more basic belief, but doing this gives the more basic belief greater epistemic status than belief in God. Platinga argues that belief in God is itself basic and does not need justification with references to other beliefs.

Natural theology provided deists and atheists new ammunition to establish their own arguments. If God could be explained exclusively with empirical evidence, then His non-existence could also be explained exclusively with empirical evidence if that evidence could be attributed to another origin. Lyell in his Principles of Geology (1830) argues for “uniformitarianism” stating that the same physical and geological forces observed in the present have been active over a colossal span of time in the past. Darwin in On the Origin of Species (1859) poses a similar argument along with counter-teleological arguments of natural selection, presenting “directionality within nature without implying progression or purpose.” (McGrath 2010, 36)

Biologist Thomas Huxley and Physicist John Tyndall make significant contributions in delegitimizing natural theology and using science to secularize England. Huxley debates and rebukes Oxford bishop Wilberforce when Wilberforce denounces Darwin’s evolution theory in their debate of 1860 at the British Association meeting at Oxford. This was but one of many events concerning the clergy’s lost domination of intellectual life in Britain. When the British Association for the Advancement of Science was founded in 1830 clerics composed 30% of its total members. During the period 1831-1865 forty-one clergy were in association. Then in the period 1866-1900 only three remained. (Brooke 1993, 50) “Between 1660 and 1793 the scientific world established more than 70 official scientific societies (and almost as many private ones) in urban centres as far removed as St. Petersburg and Philadelphia”. (Brooke 1993, 152) Huxley and his colleagues use the conflict thesis of science vs. religion to attack the Anglican and Roman Catholic churches. Draper’s History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science (1874) and White’s History of the Warfare of Science and Theology in Christendom (1896) made the Conflict thesis well know arguing that it is the nature of science & religion to be in opposition. Draper in his work states, “The history of Science is not a mere record of isolated discoveries; it is a narrative of the conflict of two contending powers, the expansive force of the human intellect on one side, and the compression arising from [traditional] faith and human interests on the other.” (Draper 1874, vi) Northwestern University History Professor Heyck argues that Victorian scientists “wanted nothing less than to move science from the periphery to the centre of English life” (Heyck 1982, 87) Tyndall in 1874 gave a speech in Belfast, a very religious city, before the annual meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. He argues that science holds greater authority than religion or non-rationalist explanations. In his attack on religion Tyndall upholds rationalism, consistency and scepticism.

Thus, at the close of the 19th century, the concept was cemented into the English psyche that science and religion were in grave conflict and that, as such, science needed to be divorced from religion or non-rationality. Natural theology had been warped into a new breed of naturalistic science where the observations of nature provided evidence for an evolutionary origin not needing a religious explanation.

Although post-effects of the enlightenment clearly did contribute to the secularization of 19th century England, they were not as significant as the contributions of science. Secularization in England had to do with changing society so that it was no longer under the control or influence of religion. The argument that meliorist objections to the ethical components of Christian Doctrine were the driving force that disempowered the church does not hold. Issues regarding ethics did decrease the membership of churches, but it did not disempower the church like science did. Science through the rise and fall of natural theology gave birth to a whole new generation of figures such as Huxley and Darwin who undermined the role of the church in society. Ethical grievances marginalized specific groups of people such as the aesthetes from the church but it did not remove the church’s influence over society to the same degree that scientific development did. The demise of natural theology led to a series of publications and conferences that took away the church’s predominant role in the field of science and society. Post enlightenment effects such as questions on ethics acted as a catalyst for secularization, but it did not lead to significantly greater removal of church influence. The enlightenment and science are inextricably linked but the effects science and natural theology had on removing church influence and supremacy in Victorian England caused greater paradigm shifts in society than ethical conflicts as evinced by the sources.

Thus, it is clear that science to a far greater extent led to the secularization of nineteenth century England. The evidence demonstrates that Natural Theology did not strengthen but instead weakened the church. By attempting to demonstrate God’s existence and presence by empirical analysis exclusively theologians provided a platform for a new emergence of deism and atheism. Lyell, Darwin, Huxley, and Tyndall acted as catalysts to this process as they used the premises of Natural Theology to draw new conclusions about the origins the earth and living organisms. Draper and White towards the end of the nineteenth century concluded that science and religion had become enemies in their conflict thesis undermining religious activity as non-rational. Post effects of the enlightenment, such as the meliorist objections to the ethics of church doctrine and the emergence of new anti-religious groups such as the aesthetes did contribute to England’s secularization but to a lesser extent. Hence, science was the predominant factor in the secularization of England in the 19th century.

Word Count: 2054

The above essay is all my own work: the source of all material used in its compilation has been duly cited and all help received is acknowledged. The essay does not substantially duplicate material previously or simultaneously submitted to academic staff at any academic institution.

Jesse Alvarez

Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s ‘The Rime of the Ancient Mariner’ is said to be his attempt to bring supernatural terrors to a naturalistic setting. Some critics have argued that the moral truths of the poem are not only unintelligible but also irrational. But for other critics, this irrationality is what gives the poem its greatest quality. In analyzing and critiquing Coleridge’s poem, an in depth analysis of the irrational is needed. This irrationality is not Coleridge’s failure to explain the supernatural but actually an evidence of its Christian moral code and that the poem’s irrationality emerges because of Coleridge’s inner conflict with his conversion from Unitarianism to the Anglicanism religion. This hermeneutic must be in mind when attempting to interpret Coleridge’s poem.

Before we can look at modern critics such as Christopher Stokes, J Robert Barth, John T Netland, and even Jerome J. McGann, we must first look at how earlier critics have looked at Coleridge’s work through a Christian eyes. The article “Coleridge And The Luminous Gloom: An Analysis Of The ‘Symbolical Language’ In ‘The Rime Of The Ancient Mariner’” by Elliott B. Gose, Jr. examines the poem through a Christian perspective only because Gose believes “the poem is filled with Christian trappings” (239). Gose shows how symbols carry a Christian ideology and spends considerable time on examining how the sun (whether glorious or red) represents God while the other forces in the poem represent the forces of nature. In the end, Gose claims that nature is subordinate to God and that the Mariner’s voyage does not deal with a physical voyage but it represents a “Romantic urge to explore the eternal soul and the temporal emotions” (244). But throughout the article, Gose fails to fully explain the other stranger elements in Coleridge’s poem. For instance, he brings up life-in-death, who wins the Mariner in a gamble, but then dismisses her by stating how “she is obviously outside the Christian hierarchy and is connected with a whole strand of non-Christian figures, incidents, and images in the poem” (242). He interprets this from the obscure explanation given from the gloss and continues with the rest of the poem still in Christian ideological framework. More modern critics will point out how though much of the poem seems to use Christian terms, the more stranger elements and the ambiguous details create distance between familiar and unfamiliar which gave trouble to many earlier Christian critical readings of Coleridge’s text.

Gose’s confusion with the gloss and its obscure Christian emphasis can be explained in “Reading And Resistance: The Hermeneutic Subtext Of The Rime Of The Ancient Mariner” by John T Netland. He suggests that the poem displays an “incongruous mixture of pagan and Christian symbols” (38) and examines the use of the gloss as a hermeneutic. Although the “gloss-writing editor” is responding to the original poem and seeks to interpret it for a modern audience, the editor marginalizes the Mariner’s experiences and emphasizes the Christian overtones of the poem. Netland states the gloss and the poem itself create a unique tension “between contrasting religious imaginations” (41). One is a world of categorized and rational set of religious experiences (inferred from gloss) while the other a spiritual, mystical, irrational religious sublimity (from the poem). Netland states that Coleridge may have gotten his idea from Bibles at that time with their gloss notes that gave a clearer interpretation of the biblical text. This is very similar to Jerome J. McGann’s examinations in his brilliant article, “The Meaning Of The Ancient Mariner”, where McGann briefly details the poem’s history from its initial criticism to Coleridge’s embracing of Christian ideology to his Higher Critical analytics of the re-interpretative process of the Bible to Coleridge’s attempt in mimicking this layered hermeneutic upon his own work. McGann points to the fact that Coleridge’s poem was originally a literary ballad among all the other lyrical ballads found Wordsworth’s printed work, Lyrical Ballads. With the second edition, and with Wordworth’s concerns, Coleridge made alterations to make the poem less a literary ballad and more a lyrical ballad. Coleridge may have realized what he was doing was similar to what occurred in Biblical narratives. Coleridge had argued in length on issues of Higher Criticism that Scriptures were “not an unmediated and fixed biblical text but an evolved and continuously evolving set of records which include the Church’s later glosses on and interpretations of the earlier documents” (47). McGann remarkably suggests that Coleridge’s revised version of his poem shows four clear layers of development: “(a) an original mariner’s tale; (b) the ballad narrative of that story; (c) the editorial gloss added when the ballad was, we are to suppose, first printed; and (d) Coleridge’s own point of view on his invented materials” (50). The last shows Coleridge’s own theory of religious and symbolic interpretation. McGann believes that “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” is Coleridge’s imitation of “a culturally redacted literary work” (51).

But coming back to Netland’s article, the gloss, he believes, becomes an inadequate hermeneutic for analyzing the poem. Netland suggests that the gloss is inadequate as a hermeneutic since the editor reduces the Mariner’s spiritual journey, actions, and sufferings into a straight-forward neat plot to emphasize Christian redemption. Netland states that “the Marineraˆ¦has experienced something of the religious sublime (whether real or delusive), and his compulsive retellings of his story point to the inexplicable profundity of his experience” (51). The writer of the gloss fails to understand this and the gloss represses the Mariner’s heightened religious experience. Netland suggests that we instead respond like the stunned Wedding Guest which is far more consistent to Coleridgean hermeneutics when analyzing the journey of the Mariner.

But can the gloss be ignored? McGann disagrees and states that the changes (as well as the addition of the gloss) from 1798 to 1817 show an important story in Coleridge’s development of the purposes of his poem. Many believed that these changes were “a reactionary movement in which a daring and radical poem is transformed into a relatively tame work of Christian symbolism” (42) when Coleridge retreated from his radical views to his later Christian ideology. McGann, in his article, dives deeply into Coleridge’s understanding of the Higher Critical analysis of the Christian Bible to show Coleridge’s Hermeneutic Model of his poem originating from his ideas of the process of the Bible’s creation. Coleridge saw how God’s Word was “expressed and later reexpressed through commentary, gloss, and interpretation by particular people at different times according to their differing lights” (43). Coleridge’s poem is presented as just this type of reinterpreted text retaining its own ideological coherence even through the fragmentation from reinterpretation. McGann states that the poem shows Coleridge’s process of “textual evolution” and the symbolic meaning of that process is a Christian redemptive one.

We can see how the very nature of religion affected Coleridge in his earlier 1798 version and his later 1817 version (with gloss) and can conclude that the poet himself and his faith must be examined. J. Robert Barth’s book, Romanticism and Transcendence: Wordsworth, Coleridge, and the Religious Imagination, delves deeply into Coleridge’s theories, struggles, and faith. Although, he spends the first four chapter exploring Wordsworth’s works and how it practices Coleridge’s theories of imagination, he examines closely the nature of religion in “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” in chapter 6. Although Coleridge had theological speculations, he was a “practical Christian” (89). Coleridge believed in living out the practical aspects of his faith. Barth does not give a complete examination of Coleridge’s poem, but hones in to what he believes gives strength and beauty to Coleridge’s poetry. The notion of “polarity” (a “balance or reconciliation of opposites” (6)) is central to Coleridge’s theories of imagination. Opposite objects, qualities, or “tensions exist within the same ‘field of force’” (6). Barth also looks at prayer as a means of bringing these two forces into harmony (natural and supernatural). Coleridge is concerned with prayer but at a deeper level as a means of “uniting the creature with the Creator” (90). Coleridge’s guilt and need for redemption is bound to his longing for forgiveness and friendship with God. Coleridge calls prayer the “the effort to connect the misery of Self with the blessedness of God” (90). It is a means of connecting the natural to the supernatural, the temporal to the eternal, and the immanent to the transcendent. Barth states that even though Coleridge does move from his Unitarian ideology to his Christian ideology, a shift that can be seen in the poem and its revision, this idea of prayer is still deep within Coleridge’s soul. Although, Barth explores prayer within the poem during Coleridge’s conversion, this shift of faith can be explored further as means for a proper hermeneutic in interpreting Coleridge’s poem.

Christopher Stokes’ article “‘My Soul In Agony’: Irrationality And Christianity In The Rime Of The Ancient Mariner” explores the struggle between the physical and the spiritual world in Coleridge’s poem. His poem contains strange elements that seem unintelligible and irrational. Stokes states that these elements stem from Coleridge’s Unitarian moral theory that he subscribed to at the time. Because these strange elements are unintelligible, there is an ambiguity between the supernatural events and orthodox religion. Though much of the poem seems to use Christian terms, there is still details that are ambiguous and this creates distance between familiar and unfamiliar. Stokes states that these ambiguous moments create a divided tone and he claims this is from Coleridge’s difficult transition from Unitarianism to Anglican Christianity. Coleridge struggled with Christianity’s concept of “original sin” and a closer examination must be conducted to understand why he possibly struggled with it.

The concept and doctrine of “Original Sin” was developed by the early Roman church and was based on Paul’s teachings found in the Book of Romans. In the Old Testament (specifically from Genesis), Adam and Eve disobeyed God in the Garden and the result was that they were cursed and banished out of the Garden. Because of the actions of Adam and Eve, “sin” (a propensity to disobey God) originated in the Garden and continued to all future generations. Paul teaches a reinterpretation of this Genesis story. In Romans 5.12, Paul states that “just as sin entered the world through one man, and death through sin, and in this way death came to all people, because all sinned.” At the time of Paul’s teaching, audiences of the early Gospels will be familiar with the story of Jesus (especially since Mark and Matthew may have been circulating prior to Romans being written). The audiences would understand that Jesus died as a sacrificial lamb for the sins (actual personal committed sins; a personal disobedience) of all man. But Paul goes to reinterpret Christ’s death to add that Jesus died to not only remove our personal sins but also to remove the hold of original sin on humanity which results in death. “For just as through the disobedience of the one man the many were made sinners, so also through the obedience of the one man the many will be made righteous” (Romans 5.19). This meant that all humanity was guilty for their personal sins and guilty for the sin of Adam and Eve that was passed to generations.

Later under the Roman church, Saint Augustine of Hippo taught that all of humanity was in a state of sin that came from Adam. Man is born with sin and a weakened free-will that gravitates toward sin. Adam and Eve’s sin and guilt is carried onto each generation (Kelley, 34-38). This was the concept of “Original Sin.” This is a belief that is still held today by Catholics and Protestants (although, it may vary based on demonization).

But Unitarians do not believe in the concept of “Original Sin.” They do not believe that the sin of Adam and Eve corrupted all of humanity and that we still carry their guilt. They state “it would contradict the love and justice of God to attribute to us the sin of others, because sin is one’s own personal action” (JoI?zsef, 107). This was a key to why Coleridge struggled in his conversion to Christianity and is evident in his poem. Stokes, in his article, explains the struggle readers have with the strange and irrational elements in the poem are reflective and evidence of Coleridge’s struggle in his departure from Unitarian ideology to Anglican ideology. An example can be seen with the killing of the Albatross which many critics agree is a strange element to the poem. The Mariner simply kills the bird with no thought prior and the only shock is from the Wedding Guest. The crew at first thought it wrong, but then agreed that the bird was bad luck. Without the gloss notes (and in the original 1798 version), it seems that even nature is unmoved by something that seemed like a crime and the reader isn’t given any reason that the killing set any clear event in motion (a “determinative effects of motives” based on Unitarian moral theory (5)). The albatross’ death is a “powerful but initially unintelligible event” but has “no obvious moral or religious significance” (6).

Coleridge, after his conversion and firming in Christian ideology, comes to term with original sin and revises his work (through additions, subtractions, and including a gloss for the poem) giving it a more Anglican tone. The gloss becomes an Anglican hermeneutic bringing the poem under a Christian ideology and moral order. The poem under the gloss gives it a Christian “salvational trajectory” (20). It is only through the gloss (and Coleridge’s later revision in 1817) that we learn that “the ancient Mariner inhospitably killeth the pious bird of good omen.” Stokes understands the common critical belief that “the Mariner conspicuously relies on Christian rituals and beliefs . . . the Christian doctrine fails to explain his world of excessive suffering and irrational events” (11). But he states that before we dismiss these strange elements as irrational, we must explore Coleridge’s religious thinking at the time of writing the poem and both its revisions. It is only through the examination of his personal faith and conversion that we can develop a proper hermeneutic to interpret Coleridge’s poem.

It would be erroneous to assume irrationality as a failure of the poem’s Christian moral code. One must look at Coleridge’s conversion as well as his struggle with the Christian doctrine of original sin that creates the irrational or at least creates ambiguous language. It is only through this hermeneutic that we can fully understand and appreciate Coleridge’s poem where he attempts to understand and present to us the concepts that are beyond understanding.

What Contributions did your individual make to the Renaissance, Reformation or Scientific Revolution? Why is your individual unique and why were his/her contributions necessary to advance European and western civilizations?

Based on the Information, I have gathered Galileo Galilei was born in 1564, and died in 1642.Galileo had made quite a few major contributions to the renaissance. One of Galileo’s Improvements towards the Renaissance was to the branches of physics and Mechanics. In 1586, He Improved Science and had deployed the telescope and eventually changed our view of the nature and the solar system universe completely, and later on he had became aware of the sunspots. His most adventurous moment was in January 1610, he had watched Jupiter for the first time telescopically, and had found out that the plant has 4 satellites. Galileo’s Pisa experiment was unique because he proved that an item with a heavier mass doesn’t mean it will fall quicker, in fact an item with a lighter mass had fallen much quicker than one with a heavier mass. Also, I believe that Galileo was a big role in why the renaissance had moved towards advancing in European and western civilizations. I think that without Galileo we would have never advanced in science as far as we did in the renaissance. Galileo had a quite impact on the scientific revolution in the renaissance; he had brought the studies of physics to today’s culture. He had also made quite a few different objects, he had invented the first telescope to let us view our nature in a different way and he also brought us the method of a hydrostatic balance. He had let us see science in a whole new different way than we would have without his improvements during the renaissance period.so like I said before I believe the Galileo had a huge impact on the renaissance Era as we still use some of his inventions today! Galileo had made some big inventions during the renaissance era and had helped improve science for today people, without him and all his contributions to science in the renaissance, reformation, and scientific revolution I don’t believe that science would be what it is today because of everything he had done!

Who influenced your individual and who did your individual influence in turn? In Other words, how did your individual rely upon previous scholars and how did your individuals work affect others and the world today?

Based on the information I have gathered, I have to come to a conclusion that Copernicus influenced Galileo. Copernicus created the sun-center, also known as the heliocentric theory! This astronomy theory had concluded that the center of the universe had to be the sun, and that all the other objects in the universe had rotated around it but the sun had never moved. Galileo had a pretty big impact on Science. Galileo additionally created many advances in scientific fields and inventions that area unit still relied upon in some type or another to the present day. I believe that Galileo had influenced Isaac Newton, Who had created the Laws of Motion. Galileo had branched modern science off into the Astronomy field. Galileo was also tackling the problem of motion. I believe without Galileo we would not be in modern science like we are today, because he had invented the telescope so we could see nature’s solar system in a whole different view. He had also invented the hydrostatic balance for the determination of relative densities. One of Galileo’s major improvements to the renaissance was the theory of falling bodies. He had stated that a body will move along a flat surface. .i believe that Galileo had influenced a lot more people also, i mean a lot of people still continue to talk about his inventions and accomplishments today. Galileo was a very brilliant man and he is very intelligent and also he is very well known for what he did, he is still talked about quite a bit in today’s science classes!

Question 3: Describe a “day in life of your individual. Where did you individual live, and what did he/she experience on a daily basis. Your response should NOT be a history of the life of your person.

Though Galileo is nearly universally proverbial by his name, he was born urologist on Feb fifteen, 1564 in Pisa, a city of northern European nation. His father, a poor member of a decent family from Florence, was Vincenzo. Vincenzo was distinguished by his skills as a musician and a man of science. Galileo was a bright kid and initially his father steered his kid aloof from a career in arithmetic. He had hoped that Galileo would eventually create his fortune in business. However Vincenzo was wise enough to visualize that his son had alternative skills and interests that may higher suit him in some type of knowledgeable career. In 1581, at the age of seventeen, Galileo’s father sent him to review drugs – a profession that paid way more than one within the educational world – at the University of Pisa. Interest and talent notwithstanding, Galileo was compelled to quit the University in 1585 Galileo’s 1st real contribution to physical science came within the year 1604 with the looks within the heavens of a “new” star. I believe that Galileo’s day of life had started as the sun rose, Galileo had woken up and ate breakfast, and then he had briefly checked on his latest inventions. Galileo then had made his way over to the University and started to advance his career in the field of study of Astronomy! Galileo had always believed that Astronomy was going to be today’s future which in a way it did. But After Galileo was done at the university, he then returned back to his lab to advance in his latest inventions which at this time just happened to be the telescope. Galileo then had slowly started to end his night as he invented he had then started to settle down and slowly started to bring his day to an end. Galileo had invented quite a few different inventions while he attended the university and while he advanced his career into the Field of Astronomy and many other areas! Galileo had a very interesting and very long “day of life” as you would say. His Day of life consisted of many different contribution towards his advancements in his inventions. He had also attended a university to advance and extend his career in many different ways.

Sources:

Hard Copy Source:

Hauptman, Fleischmann, Science Biographies Volume 4

Danbury, Connecticut: Grolier Education 1996, Biography

Internet Sources:

Works Cited.

Graney, Christopher. “Seeds Of A Tychonic Revolution: Telescopic Observations Of The Stars By Galileo Galilei And Simon Marius.” Physics In Perspective 12.1 (2010): 4-24. Academic Search Premier. Web. 31 Jan. 2013.

Works Cited.

A. M. Nobili, et al. “Dynamical Response Of The Galileo Galilei On The Ground Rotor To Test The Equivalence Principle: Theory, Simulation, And Experiment. I. The Normal Modes.” Review Of Scientific Instruments 77.3 (2006): 034501. Academic Search Premier. Web. 31 Jan. 2013.

Works Cited.

Morgan Reynolds, Inc. “Galileo Galilei And The Science Of Motion October.” Galileo Galilei & The Science Of Motion (2004): 1-38. History Reference Center. Web. 31 Jan. 2013.

To understand this article The Case for Contamination, it helps to know that Kwame Anthony Appiah is an advocate of Cosmopolitanism, a global ethics which aims to establish universality and shared values as a determinant or common denominator.(Appiah book, 2006). Cosmopolitanism is still a brewing concept, although the idea has been traced to the cynic Diogenes of Ancient Greece (410 B.C.) who claimed world citizenship and to the 2nd century stoic Hierocles who drew the Concentric Circle Model of the “self” opening out for concern to family, local group, citizens, countrymen and humanity. Whether it is simply an idea, an ethical way-of-life or a movement, Cosmopolitanism is still to gain wider acceptance by present-day thinkers, moralists, and ideologists. In his book Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers,” Appiah clarifies that Cosmopolitanism is basically an ethical principle. Still, he forewarns, not every ethical principle, inclusive of religion, which claims universality, is Cosmopolitanism. To understand this mind-set, Appiah’s aforesaid article deserves examination.

Analysis

Unlike his book Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Stranger, the article under consideration focuses less on Cosmopolitanism and more on the phenomenon of cultural change. Through personally drawn examples, expressed in a descriptive narrative way, Appiah shows that cultural assimilation takes various forms. And in his own home place in Asante, Ghana, Appiah finds exotic traditional customs being observed by fellow-Ghanaians, even as they show signs of modern 21st century living, wearing Western suits and using technology gadgets like cellphones. And while rooted in their traditions, Appiah comments, Ghanaians have established connections with the West, and such is the case with his Ghana president who is a Catholic and an Oxford graduate, while Ghandian youths are students and working immigrants in London, the United States, Japan and other developed countries in the globe. Appiah notes that there are cultural purists, who advocate the preservation of pristine cultural values and traditions. However, this attitude does not conform to the ethics of globalization or Cosmopolitanism. For him the appropriate object of moral concern in Cosmopolitanism is the individual, not whole nations, tribes or peoples. Each and everyone is a citizen of the world, but the world is not closer to Cosmopolitanism, he adds, when homogeneity means only superficiality or artificiality in cultural changes. He describes how common it is for people to change in ways they like “inventing new forms of differences: new hairstyles, new slang, even new religions” (Appiah article, 2006). Also, some changes may be liked, while others disliked. For example, the influence of global economy may be a problem to those who have to adjust crops and livelihood, although acceptable even exciting for the well-placed who find opportunities in global change. In the case of religion, Christianization may have succeeded by way of mass conversions, but some elements of folk religious practices continue to prevail showing the fact that Christianity has been accepted in external form, but not in essence.

In this article, Appiah treats religion in two distinct ways: First as a cultural artifice, subject to change as any other, and secondly as a dangerous new form of anti-cosmopolitanism. In the first form, religion plays the role of a cultural artifact, which undergoes change, and evokes different responses, good or bad. In this way, religious cultural change is like other cultural changes that are brought about by increased globalization of ideas. It plays a common role as other aspects of culture, such as dress, language or custom. It simply affects change, and some people like that, some do not.

Appiah thinks that diversity in culture, including religious traditions, is an acceptable situation. However, the process of cultural change which creates only one cultural mode is unacceptable. This is so, since artificial cultural diversity and homogeneity may actually be an entrapment which prevents man’s evolving into a higher nature. Rather than artificiality and homogeneity, diversity may be more conducive to man’s nature to attain the maturation of his mental, moral and aesthetic potentials, as well as to man’s getting a fair share in happiness in life.

For Appiah, religion can play a second and more dangerous role. He cites the neo-fundamentalist idea of a global utopia, which can be a problem to humankind. In his book, Appriah explains that a religious utopia displays a facade of faith in human dignity and shared ideals with people in many countries (2006). However, behind this facade is intolerance which can embolden utopian ideologues to make war against any nation that goes in the way of their sense of universal justice. For Appiah, whenever religion is upheld with a fundamentalist attitude to culture, the imperialist disposition is unleashed. He drew similarities from sinister ideologues like Marx, Mao and Pol Pot who used the name of universal humanity, but who also sought to stamp out religion.

Alternative approach

Appiah’s portrayal of the roles religions play in cultural change contributes to his aim to advance Cosmopolitanism along substantial cultural change that advances global citizenry in the world. He appears too defensive however, of Christian fundamentalism and centuries of hybridization which, for example, transformed through the centuries the historical Nazarene from a beloved teacher to a Pauline liberator of the gentiles, a God-Word among Gnostics, a God-Son in Roman Christianity, the Pantacrator or Omnipotent in Greek Christian Orthodoxy and many other forms comprising what scholars consider as the mythical Jesus. Artifice in religious cultural change may be blamed but the imperialistic connivance by state and religion is more likely to the cause of prolonged religious separation, bias and violence in human history. Thus, the barriers to genuine Cosmopolitanism and universalism appear more formidable than it seems. Even today, while radical fundamentalism is worrisome, institutional differences among religions are the main barriers to Cosmopolitanism. Ethical advocates like Appiah may call for tolerance and respect for the freedom of individuals to make their own choices, but the world will remain divided among hundreds of institutional churches and thousands of religious denominations, sects and cults in the world.

The historical Jesus was faced by the dilemma of separation among orthodox Jews and the unorthodox Samaritans, and was asked outright whether Jews should worship in Jerusalem or Samaria. To the surprise of his listeners, Jesus said it is in neither of the two places will Jews and non-Jews worship God. Rather than worship localized in places, Jesus predicted that in a future time worship will be done only “in spirit and truth.” He may have spoken his mind on Cosmopolitanism.

Conclusion

Cosmopolitan advocates speak in various ways, but they all agree on the need for non-curtailment of cultural freedom. Within this cultural freedom based on political, economic, religious, circumstances, autonomy should be respected in order to provide the foundation for otherness. Otherness is comprised by cultural differences in aims, structures, and other differences. I argue, however, that while religion is situated within cultures, it is also innate in nature, which has been awakening through the centuries in defining truth, knowledge, acceptance and other facets of human harmony with life.

Religious cosmopolitanism? It is an idea that already finds concrete application in the United Nations and international agencies, foundations, and organizations. The man of the world actually came during the ancient times of Greek Stoicism, but his message was far beyond his time and above the grasp of the people of his days. Through the centuries state-church imperialism held its reign and the “his rule, his religion,” principle established empires, kingdoms and fiefdoms. The social and political landscape continued to change until the advent of Humanism in the fifteenth century, paving the way for the Reformation and the Period of Enlightenment which broke Christendom and ushered in modern society. After the industrial and technological revolutions, we may have an emerging phase of civilization favorable to cosmopolitan identity. However, as Cosmopolitanism makes a demand for estrangement of one’s culture and history, the political system of nation-states may take more time to change. The fundamentalist adherence to religious culture that foments global terror is also especially problematic today. This situation makes it more difficult to say if ethical universality is near. In the end, the answer may be found in the words of the mystic George Macdonald: “Our consciousness will not be rebuilt in a night. It takes a long time to finish the new creation of this redemption.”

In a way, all humans are divine because we were made in the likeness of God. If we look at Genesis 1:27 So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them. Also, look at how the verse right before this one starts off; Genesis 1:26 Then God said, “Let us make man in our image, after our likenessaˆ¦..So we were made in the image of God, so in a sense all humans are somewhat divine. However, that being said, the texts we read this week all had a divine character, mostly God himself, interacting in them.

In all of the texts we read this week, the main divine character was God himself. In Genesis, God creates mankind in the likeness of himself and then he forms special bonds with some of his creations. There is not enough room to talk about all of them is this essay so let us just take a look at Noah and Abraham.

The relationship between God and Noah is from Genesis 6:8 to 9:28. It is pretty much a one sided relationship in which God comes to Noah and tells him to do certain things. God seen that the wickedness of man was great on earth and decided to wash them away, all except for Noah and his family. In Genesis 6:8 But Noah found favor in the eyes of the Lord. Genesis 6:13 And God said to Noah, “I have determined to make an end of all flesh; behold I will destroy them with the earth. Then God told Noah to make an ark and how specifically to make it. Genesis 7:1 Then the Lord said to Noah, “Go into the ark, you and all your household, for I have seen that you are righteous before me in this generation. There was a flood for forty days in which everything on earth was washed away. Genesis 8:15 Then God said to Noah, “Go forth from the ark, you and your wife, and your son and your sons wives with you.” God told him to let all the animals in the ark free so that they may multiply. Noah built an altar to the Lord and the Lord said he would never curse the ground because of man again. Genesis 9:1 And God blessed Noah and his sons and said to him, “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth.” God also made covenant to Noah and his family that never again shall a flood be used to destroy the earth.

Next, there is also the relationship of God and Abraham. The life of Abraham is Genesis 11:26-25:10 of the Hebrew Bible. Abraham’s original name was Abram. In Genesis 12:1 Now the Lord said to Abram, “Go from your country and your kindred and your fathers house to the land that I will show you.” So Abram took his wife and his nephew and started travelling. He traveled in many different directions and to many people when the Lord came to him again. Genesis 13:15 for all the land in which you see will give to you and your descendent forever.” God also came to Abram through visions. Genesis 15:1 After these things the word of the Lord came to Abram in a vision, “Fear not Abram, I am your shield; your reward shall be very great.” God came Abraham many times and many ways and influenced and changed his life greatly. Abraham never questioned the voice of God, even when God told him to leave his country and his kin. Abraham always put his trust in the Lord.

The next part of our assigned reading this week that had the inclusion of a divine character was The Bhagavad-Gita. There are four main characters in the Bhagavad-Gita. Lord Krishna, who is its author and hero, and the three other main characters.

Lord Krishna is said to be the human avatar of Visnu. Visnu is the god who keeps order in the universe. So in this story we still have a god (divine character) interacting with humans in some way. These three other main characters can be used to represent three methods in which man can receive divine knowledge from God.

Arjuna represents method number one. He receives his knowledge using the direct method. He is one of the few people in our human history who have ever stood face to face and conversed with God. He got to speak to God personally. He is the direct descendent of the Gita.

Sanjaya can be used to represent method number two. He received divine knowledge through his advance psychic abilities. He received the entire Gita through his mind. Not only did he have perfect psychic powers, but he was also a “pure” soul that the Lord seen fit to use as a vehicle to transport knowledge to Dhrtarastra.

Dhrtarastra, the blind king, gets his knowledge through method number three. The most common way. He received his knowledge from another person. Dhrtarastra received his knowledge from Sanjaya who had already received his knowledge from God. His blindness in the Gita can be symbolic for his ignorance or spiritual blindness. You can say he was a tainted soul, too driven by his desires and very deeply attached to his family and Kingdom. His blind passion for the throne is what leads to the battle of Mhabharita.

All of these people can be defined as divine characters because of Gods influence in their lives. God has come to them in in dreams, visions, prophecies, or miracles and as a result of that divine power has changes their lives.

Let us take a look at the core value of Respect at Saint Leo University;

Respect-Animated in the spirit of Jesus Christ, we value all individuals’ unique talents, respect their dignity and strive to foster their commitment to excellence in our work. Our community’s strength depends on the unity and diversity of our people, on the free exchange of ideas and on learning, living and working harmoniously.

When reading religious texts and stories from other religions we need to keep Saint Leo University’s core value of Respect in mind. Because these texts and stories may not be our own religious beliefs, but they are someone else, and may be very important to others. Therefore they should be respected.

Though no tradition can be considered representative of all religions, this essay will focus on Islam and whether it should be considered ‘bad’ for women’s development and the pursuit of gender equality. Although focussing on Islam, it will become clear that there is no single manifestation of this religion and, therefore, some interpret it in a way which is bad for women’s development. The recent shooting of 14 year old Malala Yousafzai for promoting the education of girls in Pakistan is one of many shocking occurrences used by the Western media to paint a sombre picture of women in Muslim countries (BBC 2012). The essay will begin by demonstrating that the literature surrounding this topic leads us to assume that there is one model of ‘women’s development’ and one model of Islam and that the two are at odds. Next, it will argue that this assumption is the result of Islamophobia and more specifically gendered Islamophobia which has increased since the September 11th attacks (Zine 2006). Gendered Islamophobia relates to the negative stereotypes presented by Western media and institutions of vulnerable veiled women (ibid.). The primary purpose of this essay is to demonstrate that Islam has been considered ‘bad for women’s development’ because it seems to contradict Western ideas about gender equality, but that this is only part of the picture. It will highlight the fact that there has been a rejection, from within Islam, of the fundamentalist Islamic perception of women. It will argue that Islam has the potential to be ‘good’ for women’s development as Muslim women have been establishing new spaces of discussion and opportunity within their religion and are fighting against the negative stereotypes placed upon them.

In recent decades, the Western perception of Islam has been almost entirely influenced by the increase in what the West describes as ‘Islamic Fundamentalism’. Although I acknowledge that views within the Western world are not uniform, the term will be used to describe the mainstream political and developmental discourses on Islam and Muslim women. ‘Fundamentalism’ is a delicate term which refers to the conservative, apparently misogynistic interpretation of the Qur’an and the enforcement of Islamic law, Shari’ah. Shari’ah has increasingly been used to justify the oppression of women in all areas of their lives and child marriage and the veil are two of the more visible examples (Othman 2006; Hopkins and Patel 2006).The conservative interpretations of the Qur’an directly oppose traditional Western development discourse, exemplified in the universal aims of the United Nations’ (UN) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and Millennium Development Goal 3 (MDG 3) to ‘Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women’ (United Nations date unknown a; United Nations date unknown b). Feminist notions of women’s rights based on equality between men and women are central to the development of women and bills and policies such as CEDAW and MDG 3, regardless of religion. It is clear that this Western approach is at odds with the treatment of women required by some conservative forms of Islam. This leads to the assumption that Islam, as a whole, is a definitive barrier against women’s access to human rights, such as the right to freedom, the right to education and the right to safety (United Nations 1995a) and is therefore ‘bad for women’s development’.

However, the views traditionally held by the West are criticised for a variety of reasons and are, in fact, thought to be detrimental to Muslim women. Western policy depends on a simplistic and over-generalised version of Islam based on the culturally-rooted traditions of the dominant minority which are seen as the defining feature of this religion. It therefore employs secular, feminist ideals in order attempt to free women from this supposedly patriarchal religion (Tomalin forthcoming). Although some Muslims are fighting against the veil, others challenge Western ideology and defend their right to continue with what the West would conceive as ‘radical’ Islamic practices. They claim that the Western model itself has created oppressive roles for women by reducing women to their physical appearance and they believe that they could choose to cover themselves in order to be defined by their brains, not their bodies (Afshar 2000.) They challenge the generalised Western notion that the veil is an unequivocal sign of oppression and argue instead that they are examples of a woman’s agency over how her body is to be represented, which frees them from sexual objectification (ibid.). They view any opposition to this choice as an attack on their civil liberties and human rights (Critelli 2010). Nevertheless, this approach does not challenge the root problem of the objectification of women. These women are merely resigned to the fact that gender relations will always be based on sexuality and it is up to women to sacrifice their freedom in order to be protected from men. This does show, however, just how complex Islam and Islamic culture are and highlights the need for dialogue and cooperation rather than simply viewing Islam through a western lens.

Islam is unlike religions which have developed in the West, such as Christianity, as it has no one authority that monopolises religious meaning (Barlas 2004). It is a multifaceted religion which draws on more than the culture and traditions it is famed for and the Qur’anic scriptures and legal interpretations of Shari’ah law also play crucial roles in the lives of Muslims. Islam cannot easily be conceptualised and, therefore, Western institutions fail in their attempt to do so in such a simplistic way. The absence of a critical attempt to come to terms with Islam as a heterogeneous tradition in development discourse, and the universality of bills such as CEDAW and MDG 3, deepen pre-existing inequalities and strip Muslims of their own vision of women’s rights (Bradley 2011).Traditional feminist development appears to offer no way to achieve human rights and wellbeing for women other than through the Western model, which implies that women in the West are liberated and Muslim women are trapped. This approach is destined to fail since it alienates Muslim women who may be equally against radical ideologies but are not willing to reject their religious identity (Jawad 1998). Some Muslims view traditional development as a threat to Islam and this has produced increased hostility towards Western institutions (Adamu 1999). It is counterproductive to continue to view Islam in this way, as it will only ever be portrayed as a negative force against women and prevent any meaningful cooperative action from being taken.

Although there is a tendency to misrepresent or ignore Islam in the field of development, some organisations are beginning to engage with this religion. Oxfam is a secular organisation that arranged two workshops in 2004 and 2006 to determine the opportunities found within Islam (Hopkins and Patel 2006). These workshops confirmed that the stereotypical portrayals of Muslim women as helpless victims often make them invisible in the process of development. Moreover, international human rights treaties are viewed as a display of Western arrogance and are dismissed for being culturally irrelevant and incompatible with Islam (ibid.). Therefore, Oxfam is approaching development through the eyes of the recipients and use quotes from the Qur’an to try to prove that their vision of women’s rights and equality are compatible with the teachings of Islam. In addition, the secular organisation the Women’s Action Forum (WAF) in Pakistan is increasingly engaging with conservative versions of religion, as they consider this the only way to truly promote change in Pakistan (Pearson and Tomalin 2007). Including Islam in their fight for women’s rights shows that they are engaging with women on their level and in a language they understand, rather than undermining their culture using Western, secular methods. Both Oxfam and WAF are open about this engagement being a strategy. However, it is not clear whether they are doing so because it is the only way to undermine the oppressive dimensions of Islam, or whether they actually believe that Islam can contribute to women’s rights. Nevertheless, it is clear that both of these organisations understand that issues of faith and gender are intrinsically linked and that to criticise Islam as ‘bad for women’s development’, would be to ignore the reality of Muslim women’s lives.

The notion of ‘Islamic feminism’ is used to describe the way in which women are using aspects of their religion to counter the Islamist patriarchal interpretations of conservative Muslims and the gendered Islamophobia these have created in the West (Kirmani and Phillips 2011). Islamic feminists reject the imposition of Western, secular approaches which they see as reflecting imperialist ideologies. They believe that they have the right to participate in an understanding of Islam and that this right to autonomy is being denied to them both by ‘fundamentalists’ and the West (Anwar 2001). Islamic feminism calls for Muslim women to reclaim their religion by reinterpreting the Qur’an in order to establish the ‘authentic’ foundations of their religion. Islamic feminism states that the patriarchal culture of pre-Islamic Arabia heavily influenced modern Islamic law and states that Islam should not be judged for the oppression caused by the traditions carried out by Muslim people, as many of these actions are also forbidden in the Qur’an. At the fourth World Conference on Women, the Prime Minister of Pakistan and the first women elected to the head of a Muslim state, Benazir Bhutto (Bostan 2011), proclaimed that “Muslim women have a special responsibility to help distinguish between Islamic teachings and social taboos spun by the traditions of patriarchal society” (cited in United Nations 1995b: para. 14). Thus, it is culture, not Islam, that is bad for women and Islamic feminists are working towards a distinction of the two and are fighting for rights on their terms.

There are various versions of Islamic feminism. The first believes that Islam is not bad for the pursuit of women’s equality and uses the Qur’anic teaching to re-educate Muslims that inequality is not prescribed by their faith (Jawad 1998). Although sharing the common goal with the West of achieving equality between the sexes, these Islamic feminists have different visions of how to achieve equality as well as different motivations from conventional development, which is viewed as drenched in neo-colonialism. This type of development implies that in order to achieve equality and access to rights, Muslim women must reject their religion. However, some Islamic feminists claim that they can be a Muslim, a woman and equal. Sisters in Islam (SIS), for example, is a Muslim women’s organisation established in 1988 in Malaysia to promote the equal rights of women from within an Islamic framework (Bostan 2011). They draw from parts of the Qur’an that assert that men and women are equal and that men have no priority over access to education and that Muslims are to marry of free will, for example (Jawad 1998). Central to their mission is the belief that feminist interpretations of the Qur’an are the true Islam and they abrogate Shari’ah law on the ground that it is human derived and not divine (Mashour 2005; Ahmed-Ghosh 2008). This conviction has put SIS at the forefront of pressures to change family laws in Malaysia and in lobbying for women’s equality and rights (Bostan 2011; Ahmed-Ghosh 2008). The view that Islam is good for women and the pursuit of equality is the driving force behind SIS and, therefore, Islam cannot be dismissed for being detrimental to women as it depends on one’s definition of what Islam is.

Another type of Islamic feminism challenges the view that equality can be achieved at all. Certain Islamic feminists believe that Western women forfeit their biologically determined roles in order to be more like men but never actually achieving equality (Afshar 2000). These feminists see the Western vision of women’s development as a flawed model and see no reason that they should adopt it. It could be argued, therefore, that striving for equality is bad for women and what is in fact needed is equity. In Iran, Malaysia and other parts of Asia, the equality versus equity debate is prominent in Islamic feminism (Ahmed-Ghosh 2008; Foley 2004). This type of feminism believes that since women are not the same as men, equality can never be achieved. Instead of the individualistic priorities of equality, which encourage the breakdown of the family, communitarian rights found in the Qur’an are deemed to grant women rights while staying true to their biologically determined roles (Foley 2004). They state that the Qur’an grants them equal but different rights, such as the right to be provided for when pregnant (ibid. Ahmed-Ghosh 2008). This type of interpretation of Islam separates what is good for women from gender equality. Therefore, if Islam is bad for equality it does not necessarily mean that it is bad for women. This version of Islamic feminism would agree with the conventional secular approach that suggests that equality can only be discussed in secular terms and not within the framework of Islam. However, this simply means that they believe that the different but equally valid pursuit of equity is needed within Islam.

Both secular and Muslim critics of Islamic feminism continue to strip Muslim women of opportunity. It is thought that the term ‘Islamic feminism’ is oxymoronic since Islam can never been in favour of women. Moghissi, for example, asks “How could a religion based on gender hierarchy be adopted as the framework for struggle for gender democracy and women’s equality?” (1999: 126). Moreover, she argues that Shari’ah law is inherently discriminatory against women and is incompatible with human rights based on equality. However, concerns such as these are based on one view of Islam, reducing it to a narrow and negative conception which will further delegitimise the progress made by Muslim women. In addition, feminist groups such as SIS call for the rewriting and modernising of Shari’ah law to include gender equality rights. Therefore, opposition to them appears negated by the incorrect assumption that Islam cannot change. In addition, if Islam is incompatible with gender equality, this simply reinforces the feminist argument in favour of equity. However, there is also a tendency to speak of Islamic feminism as if it too had only one form. Islamic feminists in general have been criticised from within Islam on the grounds that they have no right to speak about Islam because they are not properly educated in Muslim schools (Othman 2006). However, this once again discriminates against women who can never be part of the patriarchal hierarchy put in place to ensure the continued appointment of men as the deciders of this religion. There is no consensus as to “what Islam and whose Islam is the right Islam” (Anwar cited in Hefner 2001: 227) and Islamic feminists truly believe that there is a place for all interpretations of women’s rights within Islam.

This essay questioned whether the human rights promoted by CEDAW and MDG 3 should be treated as universal and the implications on women and development in Islam. This essay has demonstrated that Islam is not a static phenomenon of patriarchy and oppression and that gendered Islamophobia only serves to worsen Muslim women’s struggle. Equally, there is no unique model of what is ‘good’ for women’s development and Islam has only been perceived as ‘bad’ for women because some interpretations contradict Western discourse. Contrary to the belief that Islam is bad for women, it has been shown that Islam is also a feminist resource. Islamic feminists must be commended for rejecting fundamentalism and the dominant secular Western development discourse and fighting for rights on their own terms. They battle the culturally-created element of their religion by using the historical texts to claim and defend the rights of women guaranteed to them in the Qur’an. The varieties found within Islamic feminism and conservative interpretations are all living forms of Islam which highlight the complexity of this religion and development institutions would avoid dangerous generalisations if they accepted this complexity and engaged with, rather than dismiss, Islamic feminism. However, it is also important to understand that Islam is just one part of women’s identities. Therefore, it is vital that Muslim women are able to speak out on national and international scales in order for them to access the rights they want and deserve. It is clear that Islam is both part of the problem and part of the solution for Muslim women and, therefore, what is good for women’s development must be defined by the women themselves.

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