Category: Free Essays

INTRODUCTION

Magnetic Instrumentations are the hardware in the system component of MRI that very significant in the production of Magnetic Resonance (MR) images. It act together with the software program such as pulse sequence and image formation program to complete the process including nuclear alignment, Radio Frequency (RF) excitation, spatial encoding and image formation. The example of hardware in MR imaging are magnet, RF source, magnetic field gradient system, computer system, and image processor.

MRI INSTRUMENTATION
1. Define gauss, tesla, and electromagnetic spectrum:
1.1 Gauss

Gauss (G) is the older unit of flux density or the unit of low magnetic field strength. 1 Gauss can be define as 1 line or flux per cm2 (Willis, 2009).

1.2 Tesla

Tesla unit is the preferred SI unit in larger magnetic field and it can be define as the field strength of 1 Weber per m2. 1 Tesla is equal to 10 000 Gauss (Willis, 2009).

1.3 Electromagnetic spectrum

Electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum of all electromagnetic waves or energy arrange according to frequency and wavelength. In MRI, radiofrequency (RF) refers to that portion electromagnetic spectrum which can be generated by alternating current fed to an antenna (Hardiman, 2005).

2. Define paramagnetic, Diamagnetic and Super magnetic:
2.1 Paramagnetic

Paramagnetic material such as Ferum, Magnesium and Gadolinium have unpaired electron resulting in positive magnetic susceptibility which induced small magnetic momen. Paramagnetic ion induced large fluctuating magnetic field in external magnetic field. Commonly, Gadolinium (Gd) is used as a MR contrast agent (Ballinger, 1998).

2.2 Diamagnetic

Diamagnetic materials have paired electrons such as water, wood, glass, and gold which show no net magnetic moment with the absent of magnetic field. Non magnetic material quickly repels the field when placed in magnetic field, resulting in small negative magnetic susceptibility which contribute to the loss of signal in MRI (Ballinger, 1998).

2.3 Super magnetic

Superparamagnetic materials such as iron oxide can be used as t2* as it has magnetic susceptibility slightly higher than paramagnetic (low positive) and lower than ferromagnetic material (high positive). It causes large magnetic moment in the presence of external magnetic field but no remnant magnetic moments when the field is zero (Ballinger, 1998).

3. Describe 3 types of magnet and give advantages and disadvantages of each:
3.1 Superconducting magnet

Superconducting magnet have high field strength up to 3.0 T in clinical scanner while 9.4 T in research facility. It is also high in field homogeneity over largest volume. As it provide high field strength, it cause high signal to noise ratio and also fast scanning. It gives low power consumption as it always produce a magnetic field and electric current without primary source (Blink, 2004).

Superconducting magnet is high in capital cost and cryogenic cost. It also produces acoustic noise, motion artifact and technical complexity as susceptibility effect is increased when imaging moves to higher field strength (Blink, 2004).

3.2 Resistive magnet

The resistive magnets commonly have open designs which make it light weight and overcome claustrophobia among the patient. It been shut off when not in used to conserve the power (Blink, 2004).

However, it has limited field strength which below than 0.2 T and low overall volume of homogenous field. It needs high power consumption and has large fringe field (Blink, 2004). Water cooling is required because large amount of heat are generated to produce the magnetic field by an electromagnet (Wang, n.d).

3.3 Permanent magnet

Permanent magnets have low power consumption and low operating cost. It also cause small fringe field and does not use cryogen (Wang, n.d).

Permanent magnets have limited field strength which is below than 0.3T and give no quench possibility. It is quite heavy and may require reinforced flooring to site the system, particularly if the magnet is not located at ground level (Blink, 2004).

4. Discuss field strength in relation to image contrast:

In general, image quality is based on contrast resolution and noise which influence by the field strength of magnet. High field strength provides more signal-to-noise ratio than low field strength. It allows fast imaging that reduces patient motion so that better spatial resolution and image contrast (Thomas Magee, 2003).

5. Discuss purpose of gradient in MRI:

Mainly, the gradient is used to either dephase or rephase the magnetic moment of nuclei (Guang Cao, n.d). It also used for slice selection, gradient refocusing, gradient echoes, and gradient moment nulling. It also can spatially locating (encoding) signal along the long axis of the anatomy called Frequency Encoding as well as spatially locating (encoding) signal along the short axis of the anatomy called Phase Encoding (ASRT, 2008).

6. Discuss the purpose of cryogen:

Cryogen is used in MRI to supercool the electrical conductor in superconductive magnet. It is because a quench cause a rapid loss of static magnetic field in MRI (Blink, 2004). So, the cryogen usually liquid helium and some liquid nitrogen is used to ensure the temperature as low as -269Esc (-452Esc) are achieve (C.L. Dennis, 2009).

7. Discuss the type and purpose of shielding and shimming:

In MRI, RF shielding use copper shielding or Faraday cage to reduce the transmission of electric or magnetic fields from one space to another. Meanwhile, magnetic shielding used to reduce the level of RF radiation that enter or leaves the shielded room (Hipskind, 2009). Passive magnetic shielding use a steel plate while active magnetic shielding employ additional solenoid electromagnet to reduce the area affected by the fringe field (ETS.LINDGREN, 2009).

Shimming is used to remove small inhomogeneities which present in the magnetic field (Z. Ren, 2009). It uses metal discs or plates in passive shimming to get magnetic field to a particular level of homogeneity and additional solenoid magnet in active shimming to optimize for each patient examination (D. Tomasi, 2009).

8. Discuss construction, use and selection of linear, quadrature, phase array, multichannel, transmits or receive coil and receive coil only:

Linear or surface coil consist of single or double loop of copper wire that use to improve SNR when examine the structure near the skin surface such as temporo-mandibular joint, orbit or shoulder (Blink, 2004).

Quadrature or circularly polarized coils contain at least two loops of wire which commonly used today that produce v2 more signal than single loop coil (Zhou, n.d).

Phased array coils consist of multiple surface coils which have the highest SNR but limited sensitive area (Zhou, n.d).

Multichannel or Helmholtz coil have pair of circular coil that widely used in MRI because of its fairly uniform magnetic field (Zhou, n.d).

Transmit/receive coil transmit RF then change to a receive mode to receive the MR signal. It allows acquisition of more slices and reduce artifact. It has complex design and decrease uniformity over volume of interest (Spring, 2005).

Receive only coil design only receive MR signal using body coil as a transmitter and they include surface and phased array coil. It has simple design which used together with the transmit body coil to provide uniform excitation over the entire volume of interest (Spring, 2005).

9. Explain the principle of magnetism, the specific of MR instrumentation, and hardware required for MR imaging:
9.1 Principle of magnetism

Magnetism not just occurs in ferromagnetic substances like iron. In an external magnetic field, magnetization can occur in tissue but it disappears when the field is removes (Michael N.Hoff, n.d).

9.2 Specific of MR instrumentation

Ancillary equipment needs an additional instrumentation for scanning such as ECG leads and respiratory bellows as well as the power injector. It also supplies patient monitoring like ECG, pulse oximetry and fiber optic while patient transportation provide a wheelchairs, stretchers, patient table and step stool (ASRT, 2008).

9.3 Hardware required for MR imaging

Other than magnet, gradient and radio frequency system, the hardware required for MR imaging is the computer. It controls all the system and has the pulse control unit as well as array processor for fourier transform and 2D and 3D imaging. Computer also stored the data in the hard drive as well as processing and handling it (ASRT, 2008).

10. Explain MRI imaging chain:

Diagram1: Schematic diagram of MRI imaging chain (Anonymos, n.d).

Mainly, the central computer controls the scanning operation. It specifies the shape of gradient and RF waveform as well as the timing to be used. Then, the information is passes to the waveform generator before the signal is passes to be amplified and sent to the coils. Once NMR signal has been phase, it is sensitively detected and turned to a digital signal by analogue to digital converter. The image is displayed on a monitor after digital signal sent to image processor for Fourier transformation (Anonymos, n.d).

The signal before Fourier transformation called raw data is stored to enable the application of corrections in the post processing. Matrix sizes of 2ⁿ are usually used to allow the use of fast Fourier transformation (Anonymos, n.d).

11. Describe MRI quality assurance program:

The evaluation of all MRI system should be done prior to and following installation. It must be monitor at least annually to ensure proper functioning and high-quality diagnostic images are produced (ASRT, 2008).

For the performance evaluation, it should include the tests phase stability, magnetic field homogeneity, calibration of all RF coils, image signal-to-noise ratio and uniformity for all coils, inter-slice RF interference, artifact evaluation, hardcopy and softcopy fidelity, spatial resolution and low contrast object detectability, magnetic field gradient calibration, intensity for all volume coil, film processor quality control, physical and mechanical inspection, and evaluation of MRI safety (Geoffrey D. Clarke, 2002).

In quality control program, the physicist/MR scientist should assist annually on the RF calibration and image SNR and uniformity for the head coil, film processor QC, physical and mechanical inspection, magnetic field gradient calibration, and hardcopy and softcopy fidelity. The corrective action is taken if the parameter falls outside control limit (Geoffrey D. Clarke, 2002).

The protocol of acceptance testing include the evaluation of the coil and follow-up procedure or written survey report from the physicist/ MR scientist to the physicians and to the responsible professional (ASRT, 2008).

CONCLUSION

In MRI system, a magnet is required for nuclear alignment, radio frequency source for excitation, magnetic field gradient system for spatial encoding, computer system for image formation process as well as the user interface, and image processor to convert signal into images. This hardware plays important role along the software program like pulse sequence and image formation program to produce the MR images. However, to ensure proper functioning and high-quality diagnostic images produce, the MRI system should be evaluated through Quality Assurance (QA) program because if there are parameter falls outside control limit, immediate corrective action is taken.

The world without Romania

There are some countries without which the world would have a completely different face from what we know today. I mean we can all imagine a world without USA, Great Britain, France, Russia or Italy. A world without hamburgers, pizza, chinesse food, a world without corporations, movies, Madonna, Michael Jackson or without Einstein. The list could go on forever. How many of you tried to think of a world without Romania?

Those of you who haven’t, please pay attention

Inventions

For example how would you imagine the world without Romanian inventions? For the beginning try to imagine writing your entire life with a pencil.Not so convenient, right? in case you didn’t know, Petrache Poenaru, who was a famous Romanian inventor of the Enlightenment era, invented the world’s first fountain pen in 1827, and also designed the current tricolour flag of Romania.

Aztefan Odobleja, another Romanian scientist was one of the precursors of cybernetics. He had established many of the major themes of cybernetics regarding cybernetics and systems thinking ten years before the work of Norbert Wiener, the founder of cybernetics.

How many of you flew by plane at least once in your life? Well, for traveling long distances in a short period of time we all should be grateful in the first place to Aurel Vlaicu, who built the first arrow-shaped airplane. He lost his life in 1913 near Campina while attempting to cross in flight the Carpathian Mountains in his aged Vlaicu II airplane. In the same category we can also remind Henry Coanda, the builder of world’s first jet powered aircraft, the Coanda-1910. He discovered and gave his name to the CoandA? effect.

Medicine

Romanians helped medicine to develop. For example, Nicolae Paulescu, the Romanian physiologist is the inventor of insulin, a very controversial invention initially and very much disregarded, only 50 years later after 2 canadians received the Nobel prize for the same invention, he was finally recognized and declared as The True Inventor of Insulin.

Another Romanian who received a Nobel Prize for his magnificent work in medicine is George Emil Palade, for discovering the vacuole.

Art

The history of art would have been many pages thinner without such a great sculptor as Constantin Brancusi whose works which blend simplicity and sophistication, led the way for numerous modernist sculptors. I’m sure you all heard about his works like “The Endless Column”, “The Table of Silence”, and “The Gate of Kiss” from Tg jiu or of “Mademoiselle Pogany” from Philadelphia Museum of Art which are appreciated all over the world.

Romania is also famous for The Gates from Maramures which are unique for their architecture. There is Indeed no other place in the world than Bucovina in Northern Moldavia, where The Monasteries are one of the greatest artistic monuments in Europe. This painted monasteries are part of UNESCO ‘s World Heritage for their rarity and beauty. A thing that not many people know is that Romania has found the most vibrant blue colour in the world. It is renowned world wide and nobody has been able to find the exact combination used to obtained it. It’s called Voronet blue from well renowned Monastery of Moldovia.

Probably a long time would have passed until someone may have thought of writing a complete history of religions. Mircea Eliade was the first one to do it.

Romanian people are known as optimistic and full of sense of humor. Nobody would have thought of mocking a serious matter like death. We have our own way of dealing with it by laughing in it’s face. We are the first nation to have a Happy Graveyard, renowned for it’s story telling funeral place.

Hollywood should thank us. We gave them inspiration to create one of the most famous character in the movie history, that is Dracula. Vlad Tepes, the Romanian medieval ruler, had the bad luck to become the blood thirsty demon of modern times.

Sport

Maybe slightly surprising for a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of sports. I’m sure few of you know that Americans have one thing to be greatful to us:their national sport. Romanians invented the godfather of baseball, a sort of baseball that is, oina.

The most popular sport in Romania is football. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureAYti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title. This victory was achieved thanks to Helmuth Duckadam who defended four penalty strikes in a row, performance that got him to guinness book. Another famous football player is Gheorghe Hagi. Nicknamed “The Maradona of the Carpathians”, he is considered a hero in his homeland as well as in Turkey. He has won his country’s “Player of the Year” award six times, and was recently named Romanian football player of the century. In present time we also have internationally known football players like Adrian Mutu, Cristian Chivu or Bogdan Lobont.

Handball is the most popular sport in Romania after football. The Romanian men’s national team has won the Handball World Cup a record 4 times. The only other team to have matched this record is Sweden in 1999. Romania women’s national handball team has won the Handball World Cup in 1962. Steaua and Dinamo have also won several European titles over the years.

Basketball is a very popular sport among Romanian youth. Gheorghe MureAYan was the first Romanian to enter NBA, and he became known as the tallest man ever to play in that league. Another product of the Romanian basketball school was Toni Alexe.

Ilie NA?stase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times.

In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComA?neci became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect “ten”. She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fourteen.[1] Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.

Landscapes

Romania offers a lot of tourist attractions and vacation experiences unique in Central-Eastern Europe. Enjoy our top five things to see in Romania movie.

The world couldn’t live without…

Our beautiful women. The Romanian girls are known all over the world for their beauty, but also for their talents and intelligence. Also if we are good at one thing, that is having a good time. Gastronomically speaking we are the proud owners of the most tasty dishes in the world. And if you try these, we strongly recommend you to feast your senses with our word renown wines.

We are beautiful, we know how to have a good time, but also we are known for our intelligence. Maybe not all of you know that the second spoken language in Microsoft Company is Romanian.

Romania Records

Most expensive newspaper copy-Romanian newspaper sets world record BUCHAREST, Romania– The “Auroch and the Eagle” (“Zimbrulu and Vulturulu”), bought for 830 000 Euros by Joseph Hackmey. sets the world record for the most expensive newspaper copy in the world.

At the last auction, held in Geneva by the „David Feldman” auction house, the piece had a starting price of 500.000 Euro and was sold for 700.000 Euro to Joseph Hackmey. With fees and commissions involved, the final price reached 829.500 Euros. The amount made The Auroch and the Eagle (“Zimbrulu and Vulturulu”) the most expensive newspaper copy in the world.

Longest Love Poem-world record set by the “Luceafarul” IASI, Romania — “Luceafarul” by Mihai Eminescu, a 98 stanzas long poem about the impossible love between immortal Luceafarul and a beautiful mortal princess sets the world record for the Longest Love Poem.

Largest administrative building-world record set by The Palace of the Romanian Parliament [April 4] BUCHAREST, Romania–The Palace of the Romanian Parliament has a floor area of 360,000 square meter -setting the world record for the largest administrative building. The Palace of the Romanian Parliament is also the world’s Haviest building and also the world’s Most Expensive Administrative building in the world: updated total costs (2006) are estimated at 4 billions USD.

Most successful women coach-world record set by Maria Bitang [April 18] BUCHAREST, Romania–Maria Bitang, 46, Romanian gymnastics coach (1992-2005), has set the world record for the Most Successful Women Coach: 19 Olympics Medals and a total of 152 medals at World and European Championships and Olympic Games. They say behind every successful man, there is a woman. Octavian Bellu has coached the Romanian national squad since 1981. Maria Bitang joined him in early 90’s. Along with the team they have obtained more than 250 international medals. The outstanding results Maria Bitang and Octavian Belu achieved made them the world’s most successful coaching duo.

Largest indoor flag-the Romanian flag displayed at Aarhus WC [June 26] BUCHAREST, Romania– The largest indoor flag in the world is the 6?9 m Romanian flag, displayed by the Romanian fans at the World Gymnastics Championships in Aarhus, Denmark, last October. The giant flag was proudly displayed by the Romanian gymnastics fans.

Most powerful Human Magnet-world record set by Aurel Raileanu [Sep 20] BUCHAREST, Romania — Aurel Raileanu, a hospital worker has set the world record for the most powerful Human Magnet-he can lift a 26kg TV set. Aurel Raileanu, known as The Human Magnet for his extraordinary ability, can even make a 26kgTV set cling to his chest without the aid of wires, blue or string. The 40-year-old bachelor, who lives with his mum, claims he doesn’t know how he becomes a magnet for objects. Aurel Raileanu admits he cannot explain his gift, which allows many objects — not just metal — to stick to his chest, neck and forehead.

Longest Skydive Jump-world record set by romanian skydivers [Oct 19] BUCHAREST,Romania–Romanian skydivers , sport masters Popescu Valerica, Rites Ionut Irinel, Grigore Dan Cristian and Andrei Gabriel from Romanian AirClub has established the new world record for The Longest Skydive Jump , jumping in second Millenium and landing in third Millenium. In the night between 31.12.2000 and 01.012001, jumping from 1000 m on the second Millenium and landing in third Millenium, the skydivers marked the Millenium change in free fall. This particular skydive was a very difficult jump to be made because of several factors : night time , low temperatures and an unusual trajectory between exploding fireworks.

Youngest Skydiver-world record set by Valentina Mihanciu [Nov 5] STREJNIC, Romania –The 9 year old Romanian VALENTINA MIHANCIU has set a world record for the youngest skydiver, after performing a jup in tandem with her trainer at Strejnic, Ploiesti-Romania airfield, from a height of 4000 m, with a free fall of 55 seconds.

Largest Wedding Vow Renewal set world record in Bucharest [July 7] BUCHAREST, Romania– 305 couples who are married for more than 50 years were reunited today in Bucharest for their wedding vow renewal and set a new world record for the largest wedding vow renewal.

The “Golden Marriage” celebration was joined in by more than 1,000 guests. The official ceremony included a religious service, messages from high respected artists, film directors and the mother of Romanian Prime Minister. After the wedding vow renewal, the 305 pairs were offered a champagne reception by the mayor Ontanu and the possibility to attend as special guests some of the 91 new marriage concluded today.

Largest Bride Parade-world record set in Bucharest BUCHAREST, Romania –Around 100 brides sporting full bridal regalia took part in a parade in Bucharest, to promote the institution of marriage in Romanian society-setting a new world record category for the Largest Bride Parade.

Organizers of the “Bride Parade” said they intend to promote marriage as a way of maintaining traditional family values in this Orthodox country. The atmosphere was celebratory as dozens of women dressed in various white dresses, veils and tiaras marched to the sounds of trumpeters playing wedding songs.

Youngest Successful Singer-world record set by Cleopatra Stratan BUCHAREST, Romania– Cleopatra Stratan was aged only 3 years when her two hours, 28 songs long concert was performed on August 20, 2006 in Bucharest, Romania. The concert was limited to 400 people and Cleopatra Stratan was accompanied on guitar by her father; singer Pavel Stratan (a top Moldavian artist). She is actually the first artist ever to perform live on a stage in front of a large audience at the age of 3.

Longest Condom Chain–world record set by PSI Foundation [Nov 1] BUCHAREST, Romania–Romanian organization the Population Services International (PSI) Foundation set up the Longest Condom Chain in the world, which at 3,300 meters was registered as a new world record. In the presence of Romanian celebrities-like Romania’s Pop Diva Loredana Groza Boncea (see photo) and other NGOs active in the HIV/AIDS field, 1683 people tied togheter 25.773 Love Plus condoms, making a 3268,47 meters long condom chain.

Pornography and the Internet: A Healthy Marriage

To say that pornography is a profitable industry is to terribly understate reality. Though it does not have it’s own NAICS ‘code’, estimates of the extent to which sex sells range from at least $1 billion to up to $50 billion dollars annually (Byers 2004, p. 6; Cronin & Davenport 2001, p. 38; Davidson 2003, p. 92; Murray 2004, p. 9; Simpson 2003, p. 1). Clearly, the estimates are wide ranging, due in large part to the lack of formal reporting methods for such occupations as “prostitute” and “exotic dancer” while adult bookstores may, from an industry accounting perspective, may simply be viewed as a “bookstore”. In addition, it is important to note that the pornography pseudo-industry is not just a multi-billion dollar force, it is a growing industry.

Market Overview

The principal reason for its recent explosive growth is in many ways similar to reason for pornography’s first “boom”, the invention of the printing press. The press permitted wide scale distribution and subsequent access of not just Bibles and books but other ‘subjects of interest’ which allowed the public’s latent desires to be aroused. In more recent times, the internet represents the application of disruptive technology in that it is a form of distribution that, especially for pornography, presents additional advantages over the pornography of yesterday with regards to a distribution that is an order of magnitude larger than the press is capable (Davidson 2003, p. 91). Pornography that is online represents a significant portion of the broader category of pornography in general which also includes print, television and music media. This category in turn is part of an even larger segment of “sex” which further encompasses adult clubs, escort services and other products and services that are estimated to contribute the almost half a trillion dollar global industry. Of this, though estimates are difficult due to the nature of the industry, analysts suggested in 1999 that between $2-2.5 billion is from online sources, a figure which constitutes perhaps ? of all online revenues (Cronin & Davenport 2003, p. 38; Byers 2004, pp. 6-7, Thompson 2005, p. 32). Concurrent with the growth in revenue is the proliferation of a pornographic web content which witnessed an eightfold (8x) growth between 2001 and 2005 (Thompson 2005, p. 32).

One net effect of this is an overall industry is that it is both an attractive industry with regards to margins yet is highly competitive and fragmented. In further consideration of the industry, the following analysis is presented:

Strengths – Pornography is perhaps as recession-proof an industry as the funeral home business. The product is backed by a millennia of biological imperative and fueled by a never-ending thirst for satisfaction and pleasure. When enabled by ubiquitous internet technology, it is easier to access and this access breeds familiarity which in turn creates a creeping social acceptance.
Weaknesses – Clearly pornography is not ‘embraced’ by society as a whole. While there is evidence that its consumption may lead to a host of social ills such as violence or exploitation of children, this industry faces a stigma greater than industries such as alcohol, tobacco, gambling or firearms.
Opportunities – Though there are some signs that, in its current iteration, the industry is maturing (Cronin & Davenport 2001, p. 45). Despite this, there should be little doubt that, “…the digital age is porn’s golden age” (Byers 2004, p.8). Additionally, the nature of both the industry and the technology presents a very low cost of entry to a trade for it seems there is an insatiable demand.
Threats – Perhaps the greatest threat is simply negative stigma attached to pornography as being obscene, indecent, perverted, ‘dirty’ or other negative label. Though consumers are relatively assured of anonymity, there remains a fear of being discovered whether by one’s spouse, supervisor, congregation, neighbors or others. Worth mentioning is the threat of being “outlawed”. Though pornography functions under a broad interpretation of the US first amendment concerning free speech, illicit pornography still manages to flourish, especially in the age of the internet.

Overall, though pornography may be a maturing industry, due in large part to the omnipresence of the internet, it is an evolving one due to the fact that 2/3 of Americans have internet access (Management Today 2005, p. 19: Thompson 2005, p. 32). Of this online activity in 2004, excluding pornography, the market for paid online content was almost $2 billion of which “personals and dating” and “entertainment & lifestyles” construed approximately half (Thompson 2005, p. 32). This evolution is a consequence to the interest to facilitate the distribution anonymous, affordable and on-demand pornography. This broad distribution, while meeting an apparent pent-up consumer demand, has had the side effect of ‘decentralizing’ a formerly constrained industry. For example, whereas one previously had to venture to seedy locales that were, for the most part, geographically restricted to a certain area of town to partake of pornography, pornography is now virtually everywhere (Davidson 2003, p. 97). Subsequently, this decentralization has resulted in a broader acceptance manifested by both wider recognition of its existence and the ‘pushing back’ of the line of what constitutes socially acceptable “pornography”. For example, consider the 1995 release of music from convicted felon Snoop Doggy Dogg in which group and oral sex was ‘advocated’ (!). Prior to this controversial release, one might have thought that the fundamental laws of economics and the general sensibilities and tolerances of even youth would essentially squelch such ‘filth’ yet, to the surprise of many, the songs in questions hit the top of the charts and sold over 300,000 copies within weeks (Davidson 2003, p. 100). Clearly, such an example illustrates the slipping lines of what is tolerated, accepted and even embraced by society.

Technology Enabled Pleasure Marketing

With this degree of financial impact pornographers, regardless of perceived social virtues, there is a penultimate combination of marketing- and technology-savvy that is driven by the motivation of the obtaining just a piece of the fortunes that seemingly stand to be taken. Beginning with a virtually irresistible and attractive product, modern pornographers have been at the forefront of profitably e-commerce almost since the inception of the internet. Pornographers are widely regarded as the first and most profitable internet business models (Davidson 2003, pp. 191-192; Vinas 1996, p.11). Though they are marketing a highly desirable product, pornographers have both employed technology and been facilitated by the nature of the technology of the internet in a number of ways to enable their business.

Key to facilitating online pornography are the following characteristic of e-commerce (Cronin & Davenport 2001, pp. 36-37):

Transparency – The internet as a consumptive product is truly “WYSWYG”, the compu-speak acronym for “what you see is what you get”.
Immediacy – With the internet, one’s delay in gratification is limited solely by the size of one’s wallet (or purse), the bandwidth of connection and the speed at which one can click.
Disintermediation – Clearly, the internet is a medium which readily lends itself to a direct-to-consumer business model in which profit-taking, cost-increasing middlemen are eliminated.
Price Competition – A key aspect of the ability of the internet to facilitate comparable prices for comparable products is the speed and availability of consumers to ‘price shop’ and vote with their financial patronage for the product which grants them the greatest utility.
Convenience – 24/7. No clerks. No “Closed” signs…. And you never have to even get dressed and leave the house.
Accessibility – The internet in not only in your home, it is also in your office (a fact that has been the bane of some), it is on the road and if you do not own a computer, you can likely borrow a public access terminal at the local library.
Modularity – A consumer is not forced to ‘one-top shop’ – they can fulfill one fetish of their pastiche identity at one site and another at a different site…. Something for everyone, or rather, everything for almost anyone.
Low Switching Costs – There is little “lock-in” through contracts or any other means. A consumer can, with little or no direct or indirect cost incursion, switch from “this-is-my-fantasy” to “that-is-my-fantasy”… they can even likely have both, maybe, bandwidth permitting, simultaneously.
Impersonality – This factor is one of the most salient in that, within reason, anonymity is relatively assured. For ‘respectable’ persons to be able to acquire smut desires of their heart without having to risk discovery is likely a key driver of the how technology is driving the financial success of pornography.

Similar to the nine factors above, other theorists similarly summarize the key drivers of the proliferate success of online pornography such as Cooper’s ‘Triple A Engine’ in which access, affordability and anonymity come together for tremendous synergy (Byers 2004, p. 1). An additional factor that is present in online pornography is found in the very nature of internet technology itself: the ability to gather, analyze and act upon actual consumptive data (Davidson 2003, p. 181). Pornographers are perhaps among the world’s greatest marketeers in their ability to mine data and utilize this information to drive additional sales or, as one report puts it, charge and collect a fee for the customer to have the opportunity to spend even more money (Weber 1997, A1)..

Thorns of E-Commerce

Though surfing the internet is perhaps functionally anonymous, there are nonetheless bits and pieces of data left behind of which many cases are involuntarily and unknowing. For example, if a certain user, identifiable initially by a specific IP address visits one certain site, porn marketeers make use of computer algorithms to predict additional sites of interest which are then presented as pop-ups or other intrusive internet marketing techniques. For consumers who voluntarily submit information such as might be utilized for “club”-access, the pornographer has access to even more information in addition to information gleaned from recurrent visits such as which web pages were viewed, etc.

As technology has enable pornography, pornographers have quite likely made full use of this technology using, at best, ethically questionable marketing tactics. Such tactics are designed redirect unsuspecting internet surfers to either an explicit web site or to a gateway to one. Once there, pornographers often make it very difficult to leave yet very easy, i.e., automatic, to come back. While it is an accepted retailer strategy to take such steps as utilizing larger shopping carts, positioning commodities such as milk or toilet paper at the back of a store, and to utilized free samples, pornography-in-general has a reputation for ‘virtually’ kidnapping browsers through hiding or re-tasking exit buttons, unrequested software downloads, resetting home pages and other techniques designed to direct consumers to their sites, entice them with their wares and keep them there longer than they might want to stay (Murray 2004, pp. 63-67).

The increasing proliferation and acceptance of pornography represents a significant market force for marketeers as this force works ‘both ways’. That is, as pornography gains a larger market, the ‘pie’ grows in size while, consequently, what was taboo becomes more normalized, pornographers must become increasing creative in pushing the envelope. The downside for pornographic producers is that they are fundamentally limited by a fixed number of body orifices and the arriving at some new form of ‘sex’ would seem to be a finite proposition.

This dual-natured dilemma is also represented in the efforts of some in society to squelch or at least, contain pornography by the proposal of a “.xxx” internet domain designation for ‘x-rated’ sites. On one side, such a device would make it easier to filter out unwanted pornography yet it requires compliance from both the pornographic industry and a desire for compliance on behalf of the consumer. Additionally, in the event that such a requirement was enacted, it would serve the ‘undesirable’ purpose of legitimatizing an industry that many would just as soon pretend did not exist. Finally, such an action might have the ‘net’ effect of essentially doubling the available cyber-shelf space of pornography as marketeers could simply operation two identical sites (one site with two IP addresses) (Trueman 2005, p. 12a).

As pornographers gain financially, they do not do so in isolation. In addition to generating revenue from targeted ad placements in pornographic media, other firms profit directly from its success and distribution. For example, payment intermediaries such as Visa, Mastercard, PayPal and similar firms capture a fixed percentage of every ‘dirty’ dollar and, as was indicated previously, there are ‘many-billion’ of them. Despite the massive financial gain, credit card firms may be under pressure from groups that would prefer pornography not to exist (Lubove 2003). Regardless of the hassles that the credit card oligopolies seek to impose, the sheer financial impetus of the industry is assurance that the mother of invention, if needed, will create a solution that will deliver the goods to lonely, demanding consumers.

The Future of Pornography

Regardless of one’s love or hate of pornography, it is the nature of fallen man to seek pleasure and avoid pain. It is the nature of the capitalism to meet the needs of any market with funds sufficient to cover the costs. Thus, the question is not whether pornography will exist, rather, the question is what will it look like and how will it be delivered? Currently, the continuing emergence of broadband and multimedia applications is fueling the growth of mobile telecommunications equipment. This segment resulted in over $600M revenue in Europe in 2003 and is projected to grow 5x in less than three years to over $3 billion (Booth 2003, p. 17).

With regards to the current version of online pornography, there is likely to be either increased regulation of marketing practices or the growth of third-party software providers to block aggressive attempts and the pornographers’ online version of the telecommunications industry’s ‘slamming’ practices. As cyber space becomes more crowded and competitive with seemingly indistinguishable offerings, more traditional marketing strategies such as ‘adding value’, emphasizing communities and clubs and niche marketing will be more extensively utilized. In addition, due to the social stigma associated with not only pornography but advertising it as well, marketeers will likely focus on programs that are subtle, suggestive and semiotic (rather than ‘in-your-face’). In addition, the continued integration of technology is likely to be a coming event. Mobile phone internet browsers that make computing at home, at the office or on the go a nearly seamless digital environment in which you can be with either stored or streamed content of your choice anywhere.

Finally, it would seem as the next step of the industry and the ultimate future of online pornography will complete virtual sex experiences in which there is participation as well as sights, sounds and sensation. Though “teledildonics” is a well-explored concept, there are no commercially available products currently available (Balderson & Mitchell 2001). Regardless, the arrival in the homes of technology that currently exists with remote surgery apparatus will herald a new techno-sexual renaissance which, as history has witnessed, pornography will eagerly adopt.

Works Consulted

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Balderson, M., and Mitchell, T. (2001). “Virtual Vaginas and Pentium Penises

A Critical Study of Teledildonics and Digital S(t)imulation”. http://www.georgetown.edu/users/baldersm/essays/teledildonics.pdf. Accessed February 3, 2006.

Booth, N. (2003, November). “More Bang for Your Buck”. Total Telecom Magazine, p. 17.

Byers, L. (2004, April). “Pornography and the Internet”. University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada (MA Thesis).

Cronin, B., and Davenport, E. (2001). “E-Rogenous Zones: Positioning Pornography in the Digital Economy”. The Information Society, (17), pp. 33-48.

Davidson, D. (2003). Selling Sin: The Marketing of Socially Unacceptable Products, 2^nd edition. Praeger: Westport, Connecticut.

Lubove, S. (2005, March 1). “Visa’s Porn Crackdown”. http://www.forbes.com/2003/05/01/cz_sl_0501porn_print.html.

Murray, B. (2004). Defending the Brand: Aggressive Strategies for Protecting Your Brand in the Online Area. American Management Assocication: New York, New York.

Simpson, N. (2003, Fall). “The Money Shot: How the Porn Business Resurrected the Studio System”. University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada (MA Thesis).

Thompson, M. (2005, August). “Online Recreation”. Technology Review, p. 32.

Trueman, P. (2005, September 15). “.XXX Would Legitimatize Porn”. USA Today, p. 12a.

Vinas, T. (1998, September 21). “X-Rated and on the A-List”. IndustryWeek, pp. 11-12.

Weber, T. (1997, May 20). “The X-Files: For those who scoff at internet commerce, here’s a hot market — Raking in millions, sex sites use old-fashioned porn and cutting edge tech — Lessons from the Mainstream”. The Wall Street Journal (Eastern Edition), p. A1. New York, New York.

INTRODUCTION

Technology entrepreneurship is a recent field which has its roots in the now established field of entrepreneurship. The aims is to study the specificities of entrepreneurial activities in technology-intensive environments. Thus the technoprenuer is different form the entrepreneurship because needs the understanding of the concept of technological opportunity seen as an anticipated profitable business so as to enable researchers and practitioners to develop procedural knowledge. Moreover, technopreneur seems to involve both high potential future profits and high uncertainty which means have been implemented the creation and early growth of high tech ventures.

The lack of funding and support are sort being discuss in the technology-based industry, so an example Cradle Fund Sdn Bhd is an agency under the Ministry of Finance, Malaysia, has their own objective to support and provide an ecosystem that help the technology entrepreneur. Through their program to initiate as the provider of the early stage funding that innovate and aspiring the technology-based entrepreneur by encourage, support, stimulate and nurture the development of Malaysian entrepreneurship in high growth technology industries and the generation of ideas for an innovative knowledge-based society and economy.

We can see the success that have been achieved, for example, The Unified Alert Messaging System, which has achieved sales of above RM100,000 and is expanding its market overseas, is designed for ease of use by both small and medium sized businesses and corporations. According to Jeffrey Tan, the leader of the team that developed the Unified Alert Messaging System, an enterprise-level unified alert messaging system that grew from the WebNiche UAM (WebNiche Unified Alert Messaging) says the innovation is a natural extension of their business model. Tan says their first project provided unified communications services to SMEs, where they noticed a lot more potential if they could move up the value chain to offer hosted contact center solutions to corporations and public sectors. Those example should encourage the young technopreneur to more success and generate more idea to overlapping the advancement of the technology industry.

FINDINGS

The call for the Malaysian society to be a highly-technocratic one is not a new idea. In his Vision 2020 working paper in 1991, former premier Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad highlighted the need to establish ‘a scientific and progressive society’ as the sixth challenge out of nine outlined in the national agenda. In Budget 2011 tabled by Prime Minister Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak last year, the government would provide the ‘Entrepreneurship Enhancement Training Program to train 500 new technopreneurs and attract more investors.

Additionally, the Malaysian Technology Development Corporation (MTDC) would be provided with a startup fund amounting to RM100 million to furnish soft loans that allowed loan repayments only after companies had generated income. Obviously, the government wanted to see more technopreneurs running the small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in the country. “SMEs had to grow at about 8.5 per cent annually in order to contribute about 41 percent to Malaysia’s gross domestic product (GDP) by 2020,” stated SME Corporation Malaysia’s (SME Corp) chief executive officer Datuk Hafsah Hashim recently.

As futuristic as it may sound, a technopreneur is basically an entrepreneur with both business and technical training background or one who applies technology and innovation as the business core operating model. In Malaysia, this branch of enterprise is usually represented by ICT and multimedia SMEs, either at seed level or already over the startup stage. According to Bank Negara Malaysia, a general definition of an SME refers to an enterprise with shareholders’ funds of less than RM10 million. On the other hand, SME Corp stated that an enterprise that generated an annual sales turnover not exceeding RM25 million and with full time employees not exceeding 150 people was considered an SME. “Its contribution to the country’s economy remains significant,” stated SME Corp’s Hafsah.

The Technopreneurs Association of Malaysia “TeAM” has been formed by a group of Malaysian Technopreneurs to further the interests of Technopreneurs and to assist in the development of the technology based industry in Malaysia.

Membership to TeAM is open to all individuals related to technology industry in Malaysia. Membership to TeAM is divided into 3 types namely, Member, Honorary Member and Student Member. Since its founding, TeAM’s efforts in accelerating the adoption, growth and development of the ICT industry in Malaysia has resulted in a number of successful key initiatives such as the Cradle Investment Programme (CIP), Excite the Entrepreneur Programme, TeAM Clinic, Malayisan ICT Trade Directory (with Matrade), MSC Global Technopreneur Forum 2004 (with MDeC formerly known as MDC) among others.At the same time, TeAM takes an active role in fostering ICT development efforts in support of initiatives by the Government of Malaysia to make Malaysia a major ICT and Biotechnology player in the region. TeAM annually participates in the Malaysian Government’s annual budget dialogue and proposed ideas and initiatives to enhance the technopreneur sector in the country.

IMPACT AND INFLUENCES

Malaysian technopreneurs are likely to face an uphill climb growing their businesses this year due to several ongoing challenges, say industry observers.

The lack of seed-stage funding, slowdown in global economy, shortage of innovative ideas and absence of relevant skillsets, will hinder the country’s tech entrepreneurs’ expansion plans this year. Cradle Fund CEO Nazrin Hassan said there is still a gap, commonly known as “go-to- market” funding, which exists for companies between the pre-seed and seed stage of commercialization. Established in 2003 by the Malaysian government under the auspices of the Ministry of Finance, Cradle provides pre-seed funding and advice to Malaysian technopreneurs. “Deepening and expanding market access for local technopreneurs to secure deals and contracts still remain a major challenge, be it locally or overseas,” said Nazrin, who is also the former president of the Technopreneur Association of Malaysia (TeAM). He noted that about 80 percent of local technopreneurs are at the early stage of development, but many of them cannot grow further due to the lack of funds.

“There is a gap that exists between the pre-seed and seed stage of funding,” he explained. “Pre-seed funds only help technopreneurs to develop their ideas, but good ideas will need a bridge to get to the next level.” Nazrin said.

According to Michael Ta, CEO of the FSBM Group’s multimedia arm, technopreneurship in Malaysia is often about “positioning the right people, in the right places” to secure a project. “This is why many local technopreneurs only do well in Malaysia but not when they are pitted against the other players in the world arena,” Ta told ZDNet Asia in an e-mail interview. The Malaysian IT services company has made inroads in China with Java- based mobile applications.

According to Deputy Minister of International Trade and Industry (MITI), “The Malaysian government has consistently urged the SMEs and the industries to innovate and utilize technology and ICT solutions to remains competitive as a way of charting a new path out of the present global economic turmoil”. He also added that ICT industry is the main pillars of the Malaysian economy and the New Economic Model (NEM). He also stressed that the development of the local entrepreneur were the crucial to position Malaysia as a developed status nation by 2020. He also mention that the SME should adopt the abundance enterprise software as a management tools, content and data delivery mechanism to increase their efficiency and effectiveness.

DISCUSSION

Technology industry is still in early stage in Malaysia and still in developing. The government should give huge essential toward the technology industrial because it can generate tremendous profit and growth of economic. Our product are still in the in research and try to penetrate the market as well try to fit in the technology advancement.

According to this issue Malaysia still lack knowledge and funding compare to Japan and Korea that mostly have full facilities and high technology. Multimedia Development Corporation (MDeC), the custodian of the Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia (MSC Malaysia) initiative, launched the ‘Icon2 – Second MSC Malaysia Integrated Content Development Program’, the sequel of the first content development program. Similarly to its predecessor, Icon2 would furnish local developers with the skills and means including the startup capital to create content-based products. The program was also initiated to provide a platform for the younger generation to play an active role in the country’s transformation into a fully-digital economy, following the target outlined in the Economic Transformation Program (ETP).

Furthermore, Malaysia still lack of training and expertise in the development of the technology. Lack of conventional training and support also become barrier to development of industrial-based technology, there for the youth generation should have early exposure regards technology as we can generate more technpreneurs in the future that can globalize the Malaysian towards technology.

Last but not least, developing THE Technopreneur Center (TEC) to play the role of an information Center that spreads information about technopreneur development and commercializing technology. TEC will create a synergy with activities that is being organized by other units in the university and any place of study.

RECOMMENDATIONS

First of all, the technopreneur flagship should have their own representative on their committees entrepreneur that have involve in the technology industry. To make sure this can encourage more technopreneur show their interest efficiently represented and the more representative should be extended in the flagship application. Therefore the MSC should success to ensure that broadband access are available nationwide, which means allow ICT companies enjoy pioneer status and tax incentives.

Next, Malaysia need showcase locally breed technopreneur winner. Aside from the publicity, Malaysia should highlight the viable ICT business environment to foreign investors. By these the government should introduce sponsored programmes on the development that aims and sharpen the new technopreneur business skills, this will facilitate buyers to sources for expertise among technopreneur. The government also need playing field by channeling the bidding of some government contracts to certain classes of startup companies while excluding establish companies, this will show the government act as catalyst.

Moreover, technopreneur need to be more resourceful and exhaust all available sources of fund before seeking institutional funds. Friends and families intend to invest in the early stages. There is agency that help the technopreneur to understand ICT and promote funds to the industries, such as TeAM or any others government agencies. They also need to create their own forum to match international financiers with Malaysian ICT companies. By establishing a virtual web forum to aggregate and promote Malaysian business can be interest the investor that can cause an impact. They also should create an one stop agency that assist technopreneur to apply for various grants and other government aids.

Furthermore, technopreneur should work together with existing development authorities in traditional sectors such as Malaysian External Trade Development Corporation (MATRADE) and Malaysian embassies abroad to collectivity market local ICT companies. As ICT is enabling technology that transcends various industries to develop marketing channels into Malaysia. With this establish Malaysian sponsored exhibition booths at major international trade fairs where local technopreneurs can participate more affordably by sharing costs. As current government sponsored exhibits are not well publicized, that ensure these initiatives are communicates down all entrepreneurs

Lastly, government should grants assist Malaysian companies to create the necessary software support infrastructure in foreign markets that may be shared with others Malaysian companies in pooled basis. For start, regional markets that are closer to Malaysia should be targeted. With the foreign competitor have better resources and marketing tools, local entrepreneur need to find a place that takes advantages of local expertise and product that have local comparative advantages. By all these we can develop more technopreneur in technology-based industry.

CONCLUSION

Technology-based industry has reached all corners of the world. There are a lot achievement and success have been made appeals to emotions and drive decisions. With numerous programmes set up by the government to develop ideas into products, all parties should team up to take these ideas to next stage of full commercialization. On the support provider’s side, the government and its respective agencies should promote these programmes more aggressively. On the recipients’ side, they should explore more which meant they must ask around, seek around and act. Prime Minister Najib summed it quite poignantly during the launch of the 23rd MSC Malaysia Implementation Council Meeting in October. “Do we want to just be achieving what is expected; or do we want to springboard ahead of the pack?”. Thus, government support is needed necessary, as the local technopreneurs are definitely not in the same league as other global technology-bases industry entrepreneurs.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SHARIZA ABDULLAH ON 27TH OCTOBER 2014 http://www.nef.org.my/v_2010/

Cradle 2014 http://www.cradle.com.my/2012/03/mobile-network-radio-optimisation-gis-tool-or-xeus/

TeAM 2014.http://www.team.net.my/

Borneopost.com http://www.rightsarawak.com/rightv2/subpressrelease/2011/11_Dec_2011-Technopreneurship_A_promising_call_for_the_unemployed.pdf

Bernama.http://www.cruisegpssystems.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=90:malaysia-sme-mukhriz-technopreneurs-crucial-for-economic-growth&ca

Mohd Abdullah Jusoh, Sultan Idris Education University, Malaysia Hazianti Abdul Halim, Sultan Idris Education University, Malaysia :

Role of Technopreneurs in Malaysian Economic

Abdul talib bon :

NEW MODEL AND CONCEPT FOR TECHNOPRENEURSHIP STUDIES IN UNIVERSITY THROUGH EXCELLENCE CENTER

Handbook of Research on Techno-Entrepreneurship :

Francois Therin

Edwin Yapp, ZDNet Asia. Malaysian technopreneurs are likely to face an uphill climb growing their businesses this year due to several ongoing challenges, say industry observers.

“There is an urgent need to examine the catalytic and enabling role to be played by the government in ensuring that IT provides new opportunities for the 40 per cent of the people who are living below the poverty line, so that they may move above it.”

–Government of India Working Group on Information Technology for Masses

Write an essay, that highlights examples that support the second opinion i) Describe 6 different case studies that show how the technology is being used in villages in developing countries (South-East Asia, Africa, Latin America) ii) Assess each case, commenting whether you believe it is beneficial to the community or not and whether those same case studies can be used by supporters of the first opinion above.

Case Studies:
Balaghat, India

As described by Sumeet Chatterjee (2001) the IT initiatives in this village constitute a great example of the wide variety of applications for IT in developing countries. The district is rural and the core industries are farming and mineral extraction with the majority of the people being poor. A major problem in the area is corruption of government officials. People need papers to prove land ownership and other official documents and prior to the IT project’s arrival it typically took weeks to obtain and required expensive payments to officials. Now a villager can go to the local “Soochnalaya” (information centre) and have the information in minutes and for a fraction of the cost. Other information of interest to the villagers such as crop data, rainfall patterns and other documentation are available.

The centralized internet point is a key aspect in bringing IT to the masses. Without government funding to buy a computer and set up the infrastructure there would be no Soochnalayas. IT in this case is a major benefit to the people of the region as it brings information at a low cost which is exactly what these people need to help them in the struggle to develop.

Padinettankudi, India

In an online article about this rural village in India Mukti Jain Campion (2002) relates an anecdote about how IT is being used to treat health problems in areas without access to medical technology. In this town an entrepreneur-run public internet center was set up with the help of a large Indian IT government and private venture with the aim of bringing IT to the masses. For few rupees email, information and government forms to the rural poor.

In the case described the internet also serves an important medical service to the people of the area. Only 40km away lies the Aravind Eye Hospital, a hospital dedicated to treating eye problems and where money is not an issue. The problem is having access to patients as majority of people are unable to get to the hospital without considerable difficulty. So at the internet centre a webcam is used to take photos of the symptoms and online chat can be used to talk with the patient. Sound medical advice can then be given for the cost of a few rupees. This is a fantastic application of IT in development and the available benefits are enormous.

Capetown, South Africa

When describing IT initiatives often only computers and internet access are mentioned but IT involves so much more. In South Africa HIV is a major issue with over15% of the population being infected by this terminal disease (Nick Miles. 2005). The SA government has begun to allot drugs to the people who need them but keeping track of the patients and having doctors to check on them all is expensive in terms of both time and money. This is where IT enters the scene. Using mobile phones a non-medical aid worker can interview dozens of people and record the information in the phone. The survey results are then sent by text message to a center where the data is entered into computer software. The software can identify people who need attention and a doctor can pull up the record of any patient and see up to date information. The benefits are obvious.

Cuba, Brazil and Open-Source

The cost of software is often a major percentage of the price of a computer. A copy of Windows XP costs significantly more than the average person in the developing world makes in a day. Despite Microsoft’s initiative to sell Windows at reduced costs to developing nations, free is preferred to paying a fee and nations like Cuba and Brazil are exploring free OS choices.

In a 2004 article Mark Ashurst describes how Brazil is attempting to move from Windows to open-source Linux. There is political resentment against Microsoft but there is also the attraction of free software and no licensing fees that attract people form Windows to Linux. Also susceptibility to viruses and the cost of a network going down also drive people to Linux. Ashurst describes the state of the switch to “Linux in terms that almost 1/3 of computers will soon have Linux installed”.

Cuba is following suit and recently announced a government initiative to switch all computers to Linux (Computer Business Review, 2005).

Whether this IT initiative with greatly benefit the people of these countries remains to be seen. Linux may be cheaper but it requires more training and long term benefits are hard to predict though with reduced costs possible more computers could be distributed.

Samoa

The Samoan government recently announced a nationwide initiative to bring internet to every person in the country (Prosser, 2004). The government has taken this step to help isolated Samoa increase communication with developed nations in hopes of boosting GDP and therefore standards of living. In the nation of 180,000 only 2% of people use the internet and trade with other nations is difficult to facilitate as New Zealand is the closest developed nation at a 4hr flight away.

The Samoan government has received help from the United Nations Development Programme and is using the money to expand the IT infrastructure. Computers are being placed in schools to help children develop IT skills and also in community centers to allow people access to information and even medical help.

This case is similar to the Indian cases where a single internet centre in a village can make a large difference in the lives of people.

Taita Taveta, Kenya

In Africa there exists the Association for Progressive Communications prize which rewards innovative IT projects in Africa. Last year’s winner was the Global Education Partnership – Wundanyib which is a non-profit computer training programme in one of the poorest regions of Kenya (Association for Progressive Computing, 2005). The project aims to develop business skills in people aged 15-24, training them using IT for setting up their own business. In 9 years nearly 1000 people have graduated and 200 of these were awarded capital to start a business. In Taita Taveta the unemployment rate is 66% so job prospects are hard to come by. By focusing on youth and entrepreneurs the region benefits greatly if any business are started. The youth are given hope and a reason to stay and develop their region.

Conclusion

Each case examined here shows the advantages of IT in plans for development. The cases show ways to improve lives through IT in a variety of avenues, paving the way for regional and national development. The Government of India Working Group on Information Technology for Masses’ statement is correct and bringing IT to poor areas is an important catalyst for development.

Bibliography

Ashurst, Mark. 2004. Brazil falls in love with Linux. Available from .

Association for Progressive Computing, 2005. Winner of the 2004/5 APC Africa Hafkin Communications Prize. Available from . Copyleft Association for Progressive Communications APC 1999 – 2005.

Campion, Mukti Jain. 2002. Connecting the villages. Available from . © British Broadcasting Corporation.

Chatterjee, Sumeet. 2001. Indian village takes to IT to tackle corruption. Available from . © Indo-Asian News Service

Computer Business Review. 2005. Cuba joins the Linux revolution. Available from . © Computer Business Review.

Miles, Nick. 2005. Texting to help SA HIV patients. Available from . © British Broadcasting Corporation.

Prosser, David. 2004. Samoa plans internet for all. Available from . >. © British Broadcasting Corporation.

Technology: Changing Our Behavior and Relationships for the Better or Worse?

Most of us are familiar with this scenario: A group of friends out on a lunch outing, each with their cell phones or laptops out, busily texting, catching up on the latest news, and surfing the internet instead of conversing with the people in front of them. Today, we are living in the era of digital technology where it is difficult to not be encompassed by the realm of digital world. More than two billion people use the Internet, and about five billion people are cell phone users. Technology is growing at an increasingly fast pace. It seems like everywhere we go, we are constantly surrounded by the presence of technology. In compliance with the increasingly advanced technology, our lifestyles are adjusting to keep up with it. In the increasingly technological society with new gadgets in the market, acquiring technological devices seems like the only way to fit in with the crowd. However, have you ever thought about the effects that heavy technology usage might have on your behavior and personal relationships? Overusing technology, such as cell phones and the internet, can cause us to neglect the people around us, and, ultimately, cause our behaviors and relationships to change detrimentally.

It is of no doubt that technology is pervasive throughout our lives. A 2014 study done by Nielson reveals that the average American is digitally connected for approximately 11 hours every day (in-text citation). Social networking sites, email, online games, are among the most popular interests of the digital world. Although young adults are the dominant group of internet users, a study done by the Pew Research Center reveals, “Over the past year, the biggest growth in usage was among older users. Nearly half of Americans ages 50-64-and a quarter of those 65 and older-now use SNSs” (Clemmitt 5). For years, the heated topic of debate centers upon whether technology changes our lives for the better or worse. With the rise of smartphone users in the recent years, many have complained about being neglected by their family and friends, who are constantly engaged by social media networks, text messaging, and taking pictures of themselves. There is discussion on how the rise of social media sites invades our privacy and create a thin line between our private and public lives. As of this year, Facebook membership skyrocketed to over 1.35 billion users. Mark Zuckenberg, the creator of Facebook, argues “People have gotten really comfortable not only sharing more information and different kinds, but more openly and with more people” (Clemmitt 3). Along with the rise of Facebook and other social networking sites, the number of people sharing more personal information about themselves, and the time they spend on these sites has escalated. A Facebook account can surely reveal a spouse’s infidelity, a suicidal teenager’s thoughts, and much more than we are aware of.

The internet is tool that we use to communicate with family and friends, as well as to publish information on mediums to a large audience. A study done by Nielson, a leading global information company whose primary objective is to seek understanding of consumer behavior, reveals that Americans spend approximately 23% of their online time on social media networks (Kessler 1). This number is on the rise every year, as more people are becoming exposed to the digital world. For many of us, it is extremely difficult to ignore the impulse to check our cell phones for a new update or an incoming text message. Some experts worry that soon social media will dominate face-to-face interaction, resulting in increased narcissism, decreased relationship quality, and lead to serious issues like cyberbullying.

Many analysts argue that technology pushes our society to become increasingly impersonal and causes people to spend less time having face-to-face interaction. Thanks to technology, our society is relying more and more on text messaging, video chatting, and social media sites as means of communication. A survey conducted to find the preferred modes of communication discovered that people born between 1990 to 1999 prefer texting and social networking above all other forms of communication. For this generation, face-to-face interaction is the least preferred form of communication. In contrast, all of the generational groups born between 1940 and 1989 chose face-to-face interaction as their most preferred form of communication, and none of these groups listed social networking as a mode of communication. (Clemmitt 2). Today, many people forgo face-to-face conversation in favor of digital communication because it encourages more brevity and openness. Katie E. Davis, a professor at the University of Washington, asserts, “It feels much safer to broach uncomfortable subjects when you don’t have to look someone in the eye” (Clemmitt 5). In other words, digital communication allows us to delge into topics that we are normally uncomfortable conversing.

However, there are several issues that arise when technology is used as the primary mode of communication. First and foremost, technology doesn’t always enable people to express their thoughts and emotions without being misunderstood. When people communicate by text messaging or through social media sites, several nonverbal communication cues, such as body language, tone of voice, and body gestures are unavailable. As a result, it is easy to misinterpret an unintended message. Furthermore, it is often difficult to interpret face-to-face conversations that do take place without an adequate understanding of these cues.

Some people argue that technology is a valuable asset to people who have trouble having face-to-face interaction with others, such as those that suffer from autism or psychological disorders. They maintain that these people find solace in the digital world, as well as a place where they can socialize without being ostracized. However, I beg to differ. Social media sites create the illusion of companionship, and does nothing to help these people develop proper social skills. Many of these people suffer from depression and loneliness in the first place, and by solely interacting with others online rather than in real life, these problems will worsen and they will be further detached from society.

Another crucial aspect of technology is that it affects our attention span, thus causing us to become ignorant of our priorities. Several studies and researchers point out that students have difficulty focusing in class and adults have trouble concentrating at work when their cell phones are nearby. Michael Suman, a professor at the University of Southern California, asserts that even with their phones off, students are unable to fully concentrate on their education because they are under the influence of technology.

Technology is one of the leading influences in our relationships with our families and friends. By delging into our personal lives, technology changes how we interact with our loved ones. Although the digital world can be an asset in many aspects, it can also destroy relationships and trust. Steve Tucker, a relationship counselor, claims that many of his clients have come to him after they discover a racy text message, exposing their partner’s infidelity. Some of these affairs begin in online chatrooms, which proceed to flirtatious text messages. He insists “People have actually jumped out of a marriage and filed for divorce and never met the person who’s the new object of their romantic interest” (Newsome 3). Although most of these affairs are

not even sexual, they ruin the arguably most important aspect of a relationship, trust. In addition to infidelity, online games and pornography are equally distracting and detrimental to establishing healthy relationships. Alot of people are so enamored with online video games that they spend hours in front of their computer screen, forsaking their jobs, education, and relationships.

However, it is critical to note that technology has also opened the doors to happiness for many couples, who have found love online. Although this is true, there are several possible issues that arise, such as the possibility of identity fraud when finding a romantic partner online.

Furthermore, in some incidences, a suicidal individual’s life is saved when someone reports their provoking thoughts and messages. Yet, it is often difficult to tell whether the person is authentic, or just trying to seek attention.

Furthermore, technology also impairs relationships with its distractions and interferences. Technology has made it difficult for us to ignore the impulse to check for updates. A study completed in 2011 discovered, “Smartphone users are developing checking habits-recurring 30-second glances at social media such as Facebook- as often as every 10 minutes” (Clemmitt 5).

Consequently, it makes us oblivious of others around us. Clifford Nass, a professor at Stanford University, states, “Today, people think it’s okay to text in the middle of dinner, at a meeting, in class, wherever” (Greengard 18). As a result of the society that is becoming more interdependent on technology, it is now not unusual to see a father more intent on texting at his son’s football game, rather than on watching his son play. Accordingly, family members spend less quality time with each other when they succumb to the addiction of heavy technology usage. For instance, in a technology dominated household, the father might spend all his time watching television, the mother could spend hours shopping for the latest fashion trends, and the children may perhaps endlessly play online video games.

Although some people claim that technology connects family and friends across the globe, many studies have pointed that even if our loved ones are around us, we turn a blind eye and retreat to our technological devices.

Moreover, technology gives us the delusion of Technology gives us the illusion of intimacy.

“Constant connectively offers the illusion of companionship without the demands of friendship.”

Two educators at the University of Essex, Andrew K. Przybylski and Netta Weinstein, conducted an experiment that demonstrated cell phones do indeed affect relationship quality. The study divided the experimenters into two groups, one with their cell phones with them, and the other without. The participants were told to have a conversation. At the end of the experiment, the group with their cell phones nearby reported that they experienced a conversation with less empathy. which demonstrated that cell phones detrimentally affect relationship quality.

Paragraph: Cyberbullying

Cyberbullying is one of the few fundamental issues that arise from heavy technology usage. By definition, cyberbullying is the use of technology to threaten, defame, or harm someone. Every year, thousands of lives are claimed due to cyberbullying. According to a national study conducted by Jaana Juvonen, a psychology professor at the University of California at Los Angeles, “More than 70 percent of heavy Internet users ages 12 through 17 — mostly girls — said they had experienced at least one incident of online intimidation via e-mail, cell phones, chat rooms and other electronic media in the previous year” (Billitteri 2). Although many cases are moderately harmless, some cases leave long-term effects.

A study done by Justin W. Patchin, a professor at the University of Wisconsin, reports “Between 10 and 30 percent of children and teenagers report having been on one side or the other of an online bullying incident at some point” (Clemmitt 5).

Works Cited

Clemmitt, Marcia. “Social Media Explosion.”CQ Researcher. N.p. 25 Jan. 2013. Web. 25 Sept.

2014.

http://mashable.com/2011/09/12/23-percent-online/

Technology can have positive and negative impact on social interactions

This is an excerpt from Dimensions of Leisure for Life by Human Kinetics.

With the proliferation of technologies that are able to overcome the obstacles of time and space (e.g., airplanes, cars, the Internet), one would think that these tools would be used to gain an understanding of other cultures, meet people all over the world, maintain and strengthen familial relationships, communicate effectively with others, and help people to become more socially adept. However, some technological advances cause people to be distracted, overly stressed, and increasingly isolated. Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty. Obviously, technology has had a profound impact on what it means to be social.

Society is likely on the cusp of a social revolution, during which it will be important to redefine socially appropriate and acceptable behaviors (with regard to digital or virtual interaction). We are at a point in history where very few people have given critical thought to new social realities created by technology and what those realities mean for the individual and society. In this section we closely examine a few social technologies that influence leisure. The section first looks at virtual communities, social networking sites, and today’s communication tools. Then we critically reflect on gaming and television. Think about how each technology affects your social life and social skills. Keep in mind that these are only a few of the technologies that may affect you socially. A comprehensive list is not feasible here.

A study of students and information technology found that 85 percent of undergraduates surveyed used social networking sites (Salaway et al., 2008) (see figure 8.2). Many of the respondents reported using such sites daily. Figure 8.3 indicates how undergraduate students use social networking sites. This report found indications that use of these sites is increasing yearly. Let us now look critically at whether this trend is positive.

The use of social networking sites has both positive and negative consequences. It is amazing how someone can find a long-lost friend through a social networking site, enabling them to reconnect. In a society where people have become quite mobile and family and friends are often geographically separated, it is convenient to keep in touch through technology.

However, one need not look far to find problems associated with social networking sites. There is a lively debate about whether Internet addictions are real. To me it appears to be a real problem (perception is often reality in a social context) with which people have to grapple. Some assert that these Web sites contributed to cheating on significant others, often leading to divorce. People have been fired from their jobs or put under pressure because they use these sites at work or because something is posted on a site that undermined the person’s professional standing.

Although divorce and loss of employment are serious issues, perhaps they are not as common as other problems that have the potential to stem from social networking sites. Narcissism—excessive interest in one’s appearance and in oneself—is sometimes manifested on social networking sites. These Web sites have been found to be an avenue for people to display their narcissistic traits online (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008). I often wonder whether people use these sites to display their popularity to the world rather than use them as a vehicle to develop meaningful relationships.

Creating meaningful relationships is often about sharing our lives with others, and technology can allow us to do so through photos, videos, text, and music. In conducting research for my doctoral dissertation, I looked at how eight senior citizens used technology and how it affected their lives. My hope was to find that they used technology to stay in touch with friends, family, and people with similar interests. Although the participants did use e-mail to stay in touch with family and friends, almost all of the study participants talked about how vapid chat rooms and discussion boards seemed to be. Most had tried chatting a few times and then gave up because they viewed it as a waste of time (similar reasons were given by undergraduates in the ECAR study who did not use social networking sites). However, one participant was a chat room monitor for a fantasy baseball site. As he spent more time in that chat room he began to realize that it was not as shallow as he first imagined. People were in that virtual community because of a shared or common interest. Gradually he got to know people and care about their lives. He was eventually able to meet some of these new, online friends in person and said they connected as if they had known each other for years.

While working on my dissertation I visited many chat rooms and discussion boards that catered to older adults. After visiting many such sites, I began to be discouraged because of the inane nature of many of the conversations. However, I stumbled on one online discussion board in which two World War II veterans wrote about their experiences in the war. They also lamented the fact that where they lived, there were no more veterans of that war left. They felt alone and isolated, but this chat room was a forum where they fit in again. They were able to share similar interests and experiences.

Perhaps overcoming a sense of isolation is one of the greatest features of online communities and virtual worlds. Someone might feel like an outcast in her own community or family but might find someone online with similar hobbies, pursuits, and interests. Consider someone who enjoys photography as a serious leisure pursuit. This person would be able to share that passion with people all over the world by using the Internet and its powerful tools (e-mail, video chat, discussion boards, online video, family Web sites). However, simply sharing common interests and pursuits with people through technology does not necessarily have a positive impact on social skills and social development.

Gaming and Social Development

Gaming is an instance where you may encounter potentially serious social setbacks. I lead a group of Boy Scouts who share a love of a certain online virtual world game. This game seems to be all they talk about. When given other opportunities for deep, respectful, meaningful conversation, these boys are sometimes rather inept. Although linking their online gaming to poor social skills might be spurious, studies show negative social impacts of some video games. One study tested whether high exposure to video games increased aggression over time. It was found that playing violent video games is a significant risk factor for later physical aggression in both Japan and the United States—for boys and girls (Anderson et al., 2008).

However, linking video games to poor social skills and behaviors often misses the bigger picture. People might participate in other activities (take football, for example) in which the social problems that arise from the activity may be the same or even worse than those of gaming. Evidently it is not enough to simply blame the medium. In fact, in many instances, gaming may aid in relationship building. The 13th Annual MediaWise Video Game Report Card (Walsh & Gentile, 2008) indicated that 75 percent of gamers play with other people. Since my family received a Wii as a gift, we have spent countless hours of enjoyment playing together. Naturally, overindulgence in this one activity would have deleterious results, but the limited time we do spend playing together seems to strengthen our family.

Television and Social Development

Television is another technology that has mixed reviews with regard to social skills and social lives. Some researchers suggest that spending a limited amount of time watching wholesome programs can strengthen families and friendships. Others believe that television contributes to the downfall of social values in this country. It does seem that many people spend less time with others in their community than they do with the people they watch daily on television. Television tends to be a passive medium, which requires little skill and thought on our part (although some programming bucks this trend). Therefore, television provides little opportunity for meaningful interaction while watching. Watchers simply sit there and ingest what is presented to them without having to respond or react to another person. Obviously this can have serious effects on people’s social skills because viewers are not practicing how to relate to and deal with other people.

Exposure to what is viewed on television can have some other serious effects on people’s social lives. For example, exposure to television shows with sexual content may increase the chance of teen pregnancy (see figure 8.4) (Chandra et al., 2008). Furthermore, when some people see violence, sex, and all manner of lasciviousness on television, they may be prone to mimic the behavior and think that it is acceptable. Were everyone to copy the social behaviors portrayed on television, our society would lack morals, and many levels of individuals’ lives would be destroyed.

It is apparent that technology has the potential to harm or enhance your social skills and social life. The key is to analyze how technology affects you socially. Do technologies help you build positive, meaningful relationships, or do technologies hinder this process? Are you better able to communicate, listen, and share because of the technologies in your life? Do you use technologies to improve your relationships and build new ones? Are you letting a few choice people know who you are and what you contribute to this world, or are you merely distracting yourself with shallow pursuits? Does technology increase or decrease your concern for others, your compassion for others, and your desire to serve them? Such are the critical questions regarding technology and social development.

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/positive-effects-of-technology-on-society.html

Positive Effects of Technology on Society

Technology runs in the veins of society. It is the fuel that drives our lives. It is an integral part of daily life. It has definitely benefited society. It has brought luxury in the life of every common man. Automation brought about by technology has saved human effort and time to a large extent. It has brought distant places closer and simplified information access. It has made the world a smaller place to live in. Let us look at some of the important areas, where technology has brought a positive change. Automation of Processes in the Industry and the Household: Technology has automated many of the critical processes in the industry as well as the household. Imagine the amount of labor that must have been involved in industrial processes when the concept of automation did not exist. Electronic gadgets have entered homes of the common man to rescue him from the boredom of daily chores. Imagine the amount of time people must be spending doing household chores during the time there were no machines and household appliances. It’s better not imagined. Today’s is the age of robotics. Machines can learn, adopt new things and perform tasks with near-human efficiency. Changed Modes of Transport: The automobile industry and technology are interwoven. Time has witnessed this industry evolve from mechanical scooters to automated aircraft. Animals were the only modes of transport in the olden days. Technology was the driving force behind the creation and design of the modern-day automobiles. Bicycles evolved into scooters and sports bikes. The idea of having four-wheeled modes of transport gave rise to the creation of cars. Modes of air and water transport came up, thanks to technology. Reduced Risk to Human Life: Machines have automated many crucial industrial processes. Machines are now taking up mundane jobs that were once done by human workers. Technology has evolved to an extent where machines can perform tasks that are not feasible for man, either because they are risky or life-threatening or because they are beyond human capacity. The use of advanced technologies like robotics and artificial intelligence has proven to be helpful in life-risking endeavors like mining and space exploration. Data Management and Information Retrieval: Computer technology, needless to say, has changed the face of the world. Computers can store, organize and manage huge amounts of data. They can process large amounts of information. Computers have given rise to the software industry, one of the most progressive industries of the world. The Internet that seeded from computer networking concepts is the most effective communication platform and the largest information base existing today. Impact on the Entertainment and Advertising Industries: The Internet has brought a positive change to the entertainment and advertising industries. Over the Internet, advertisements can reach the masses within seconds. Internet advertisements have changed equations of the advertising industry. Branding on the Internet is much more effective that other forms of product promotion. The entertainment media has progressed because of advancements in technology. Movies, songs, games are a few clicks away. People have begun using the Internet to watch and download movies, listen to music, play games and entertain themselves. Thanks to handy, mobile and user-friendly devices, all this has become really easy. Onset of the Digital Age: There’s hardly anything analog now, we live in a digital world, a digital age. Talk pixels and bytes. The digitization of information has made it possible for us to store it in a compact form. Ever wondered how gigabytes of data can be stored on a small chip? Digitization it is! Also, digitization enriches the quality of data storage. Digital voice and digital images are of a higher quality. Digital cameras and digital TVs provide users with an enriched picture quality, thus bettering user experience with technology. Communication Redefined: Cellular communication has revolutionized the communication industry. The conventional telephone, also a piece of technology, was one of the earliest technological developments in communication. Mobile phones have broadened the horizons of communication by enabling convenient long-distance calling and mobile use. Letters have taken a backseat and emails and cell phone messages have become the easiest means to connect. Owing to developments in technology, communication is wireless. Social networking is another defining factor here. It has given an all new dimension to communication, entertainment and recreation. Satellite Technology: Satellite communication is an important facet of technology. Satellite TV and satellite radio have eased the broadcasting of events across the globe. How else do you think could matches and concerts be broadcasted live? Not just TV and radio, even communication to ships and airplanes wouldn’t have been possible if not for satellite communication. Even your hand-held devices wouldn’t be of use, if not for radio communication. These were still a few fields influenced by technology. It is almost impossible to enlist all the positive effects of technology on society. The fast-advancing technology on the whole, has given impetus to developments in various fields and improved the quality of human life. There’s less risk, less effort, less mess. There’s more leisure, more ease and more speed – all because of that ten-letter word – not a word, a phenomenon – technology.

INTRODUCTION

There are innovations that do not advance from the different sources. The addition consistent from analysis, arrangement and harder plan is all that can be discussed and presented as the practice of innovation. But this is all that charge be presented back it absolutely covers at least 90% of all able innovations. And the amazing performer in innovation, as in every added area, will be able abandoned if ashore in the conduct and skill of it.

Purposeful, systematic innovations begin with the assay of the opportunities. It begins with cerebration through what I accept alleged the sources of avant-grade opportunities. In altered area, altered sources will accept altered accent at altered times.

It is said that ‘very few of us accept Leonardo’s ability or genius and can apprehend that our notebooks alone will assure immortality.’ Innovation is conceptual as well as perceptual. On this earth, we can see a lot of technology based minds about us who we as well accredit to as ‘techno-freaks’, but basically they are the sole acumen for the luxuries that we get these days! If Edison wouldn’t have had agitated about the absence of ablaze about him again he would never have had invented the bulb. Same goes with every individual invention and discovery that has taken abode in this world back time immemorial.

Technology according to me is what keeps man going and enjoying what he does. If work has no interest left in it then the situation will come one day that everything will stop from developing and remain in the same place for ages. Hospitality industry is a sector which needs constant updating, in this industry we are in 24/7 contact with the guests so we need to cater their demands and give them the best services that can possibly be given. 5 of such major developments of technologies that has contributed to the operational efficiency of global hospitality industry are discussed further.

Chapter 2

Mobile Robots

2.1 Introduction:

There is a growing interest in applying different concepts and techniques in assistant robots these days. Due to the increasing work load all the major companies and the hoteliers expect to have sharers which should have a number of characteristics such as easy reconfiguration, anatomy, robust perception systems and most importantly the ability to interact with humans. Automatic hotel assistant systems are based on a number of principles that help in the interaction with guests and service personnels to perform different tasks. Accompanying the guests to their rooms, providing them with usual information, delivering small items to the guests and showing them different points of interest in the hotel are some of the aspects that we get to see in such robots. Each robot can as well apart handle some regular appointed tasks.

2.2 Working:

The robots can perform tasks based on the circumstances triggered by the buildings automation system (BAS) apart from the user generated and appointed tasks. A local network (Ethernet) connects the robots and the BAS to a central server. Creating and developing the system and testing it in different environments was done by Robotics Integrated Development Environment (RIDE).

Service robots were mostly advised as humanoid administration able of allowance bodies in altered means with sophisticated communication systems. Over the past few years a few acknowledged examples of account robots appeared on market.

These robots are chipped in the hotel building and affiliated to the central server via Wi-Fi. The guests can make a request for their need either by the terminal in their room or by directly interacting with the robot. From the terminal in their room, they can make a request for small items like newspapers or snacks. In this way the central server will receive the request made by the guests and thus decide which robot to send. While the robots are not working, they are connected to the charging stations. There is a task manager in the central server which will allocate the particular task to the robot else will queue it in case of unavailability. The robot will plan the work and move accordingly from the starting point which has the collection of the items asked for to the updating by the guest on the touch screen of the robot which indicates the end of the work i.e. the guest received his order. Further, the robot will check for the next task or else go back to the charging station.

2.3 Example:

Sacarino, is a type of a robot which interacts with the guests using its touchscreen and the Loquendo voice recognition system. This robot includes a chat box which provides more detailed things that include the restaurant’s schedule, location of the shops, weather forecast and about the services that the hotel provides. These adaptable robots are acclimated by Hotel Novotel in Valladolid (Spain).

2.4 Future scope:

According to the Uncanny Valley theory, robots should be made more human like in order to create a friendly atmosphere around so that the guests become increasingly positive and empathic towards the robot. Giving this human touch to the department of robotics will prove to be more beneficial in the near future.

Chapter 3

Airfare Forecasting Feature

3.1 About Kayak:

Kayak.com is a travel website which can be further stated as a travel metasearch engine operated by Kayak Software Corporation. On the 15th of January 2013 at 12.45 pm, kayak.com launched an airfare forecasting feature in its website which they believe will help the travellers make the right decision.

Kayak is not the first company to offer an airfare forecasting feature, in 2003, Farecast.com debuted an agnate concept, touting an all-embracing accurateness of about 75%, it was bought by Microsoft in 2008 which further became the base for Bing Travel. Kayak has two important aspects which makes it more efficient and powerful. The first one is the range of confidence level and the second one makes up the ability to initiate and develop new technologies to this feature due to the great financial horsepower which they inherited by the purchase of kayak by Priceline for $1.8 billion. Kayak is also superior in terms of tapping more information than what Bing actually does.

3.2 About the feature:

This feature anticipates weather the price will rise or fall with a confidence level in the divination over the next seven days. For instance, flights from A to B has 1200 flight options along with a graph showing the price trends and an inscription reading ‘price may rise in 7 days’ with a suggestion besides it as ‘book now’. Further clicking on the graph a set of information is revealed which talks about the price trend history over a particular period with the confidence level saying that the price may rise or fall within a certain approximation amount. Being a very useful tool, this feature of kayak has almost 1 billion searches annually.

3.3 Basis:

Kayak states that it developed the forecasts with the help of mathematical models and algorithms that are based on past pricing history from sources like online travel agents, wholesalers, low cost carriers and reservation systems.

3.4 AFF (Confidence level):

This tool of kayak covers roughly 50% of the searches for the flights done by the people on the site. The confidence level of this particular feature ranges from 55% to 95%. However high the confidence level is, no system can be 100% accurate so there is always a scope for error and improvement. Hence, kayak always tells their customers to book it if they see a good price.

3.5 Impact after usage:

After using this feature, the travellers are happy because it saves their time and helps them in every possible way. The prediction of rise/fall of the prices helps them make a better decision. In this way, not only Kayak is benefitted by getting an ample number of searches but also the customers are satisfied because of the fulfilment of their needs which primarily includes saving money!

Chapter 4

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)

4.1 Introduction:

Due of the increasing demands, there is an increase in the pollution as well as degradation of the natural things observed. The hotels are the prime places where we cannot compromise for luxury or even for the demand of the guests for that matter. In this case, the safeguarding of nature is almost impossible! For such a crisis Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) came up with a program in which the hotels would be rated according to their efficiency and the level of maintaining the green buildings and use the resources efficiently.

4.2 Criteria for certification:

Based on the location, environmental awareness and applications, construction and the designs of the buildings, the hotels are judged. The hotels eligible for this certificate have to share all the details of the energy and water used by them over a certain period of specified time. It is not at all easy to get through this. Only two hotels in US are certified by LEED till date.

4.3 Hotels in US certified by LEED:

They are Proximity Hotel in Greensboro, North Carolina and the Bardessono Hotel in Yountville, California.

4.4 The Bardessono:

The Bardessono, a boutique hotel in Napa Valley was given the LEED platinum certification by the US Green building council in 2010. This hotel uses a 200 kilowatt solar power system. There are about 947 solar panels mounted on the hotels flat roof top. These solar panels make the hotel almost invisible to the neighbours. There are geothermal systems installed along with these solar panels which provides cooling and heating to the rooms.

4.5 Impact and scope:

In order to get the LEED certification, the hotels have started adopting the different ways and applications of green technology. Water conservation which was the major issue since ages is now being taken under consideration. LEED contributes to the environmental safeguarding to a great extent thus giving the hotels a wider scope for developing in this area, developing the “green building” theory.

Chapter 5

Decision Support System

5.1 Introduction:

The awfully increasing number of allowance (hotel rooms) bookings are not alone intensifying the competition in the travel industry, but as well alert travel intermediates (i.e. e-companies that accumulate information about altered travel products from altered travel suppliers) into the fierce competition of travel products i.e. hotel rooms for the best prices. A GIS (Geographic Information System) based decision support system is used by hotels now-a-days that using essential location and hotel characteristics can predict objective rates of rooms of the hotel and anticipate temporal room rate prices. The temporal anticipation of room rates can be used for calibrating the cost of the future contract by examining the hotel room rate history.

5.2 Working:

DSS unites a widely used data mining framework that allocates access to many of ready to run algorithms that a domain expert uses and it presents the possibility of attaching new algorithms once they are matured. This system has been created and evaluated in co-operation with companies where travel technology solutions are generated, specifically catalogue management and costing solutions for many websites and travel agencies worldwide.

In DSS, by accessing all the required data from the corporate database, the analyst is able to choose the section of investigation. It permits him to add additional data that he thinks is significant in the analysis. Such data could be the things of interest around the hotels, availability of the transportation, historical places etc.

5.3 GIS:

The GIS technology was specifically used for estimating the distance between the properties and mapping (Sarip, 2005). GIS was segregated into an automated process for property valuation (Gracia et al., 2008) which allocates support in adjustment to ascribe and layer spatial data; to represent compound spatial relations; to examine spatial data and to show that data in the form of maps (Densham, 1991).

5.4 Models:

Two types of models form the basis of the GIS based decision support system viz., the one on hedonic pricing theory which is made up of the hotel’s intrinsic characteristics (amenities, facilities) and different locational characteristics (museums, restaurants) And the second model is made up of the historical room rates of the hotels.

Chapter 6

Streamlined RFP Technology

6.1 Introduction:

On the 14th of April, 2010, Cvent, a prime event provider of online event administration, website selection and event sourcing solutions, has extended its association with Hyatt by merging the Cvent Supplier Network, as electronic Request For Proposal (RFP) program for events and meetings, with Envision, a point of sale propriety sales application of Hyatt. After Hyatt experienced a substantial increase in group business RFP volume as an aftereffect of retailing its hotels on the Cvent Supplier Network, this technological affiliation was established in 2009. With the rush of group business leads being sent to Hyatt Hotels, an amalgamated solution was essential to seamlessly transform the RFP’s of Cvent to the in-house sales application at Hyatt.

6.2 Working:

This affiliation permits for a seamless shift of data between Cvent and Envision, so that all RFP’s directed to full service Hyatt properties via Cvent Suppliers Network will automatically arise in the Envision System, says the Executive Vice President of Sales and Marketing at Cvent, Chuck Ghoorah.

Sales delegates at Hyatt will be able to review Cvent RFP’s inside the Envision database, accelerating the accuracy and reaction time in reproducing. The Envision database comprises data about guests and also the Hyatt hotel features which include guestrooms, banquet and meetings bookings and moreover the agendas for Hyatt properties globally.

6.3 Impact after usage:

With this integrating of the RFP program, the Hyatt properties can save a lot of time. They no longer have to go on Cvent every time to check for their bookings for events and meetings, these directly are transferred to their software, Envision, thus simplifying a lot of things.

Chapter 7

Summary

Technologies have always played a vital role in the development of mankind. They not only make people well upgraded but also quick paced in this competitive world. The good old days of simplicity are slowly fading away and all people want is the top most luxuries and facilities that anyone can ever get or even think about. Five of such technologies that have contributed to the operational efficiency in the global hospitality industry have been discussed above. This generation is supposed to be the time when all the ideas and the theories were to be converted into practical and it is happening likewise. The time is not far when technologies along with the applications and systems will overpower man. Then, the terms of luxury and comfort will have a different meaning altogether.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION EXCELLENCE THROUGH INNOVATION.

INTRODUCTION:

Maidanavaruna general authority and power in the world of technology is an effective analytical tool due to global engineering education internationalization of education is a concept that shifts has turned out. Education excellence in manufacturing initiative primarily of an organization to obtain good fit and intelligent functionality in the context of the paucity of technical institutions in the country, second tier are available in number. India is now a major driver for innovation and engineering teaching has to be a balance of entertainment and Engineering Journal of teaching in the part of the company to engage with ISTE is the next to join the exciting and hearting . Acceleration of technical change is a feature of modern society leading. International National Stadium in technology has become a powerful tool for projecting power and strength.

Research and increase
advance and free enterprise
excellence and official approval Process
manufacturing contribution

SUMMARY:

The world faces sociological problem that is the result predominantly of the practical advance such as trouble of fast and extreme use of valuable and depletes raw resources.

Engineering subject is bilateral and lectures from side to side “Chalk and Talk” may not be sufficient. With great latent obtainable with newest high speed CD computer, it has been possible to develop suitable teaching aids to conceptualize difficult engineering phenomena and products.

The rapid advancement in ICT are making it inexpensively feasible to gather, store, procedure and transmit information at breathtaking speed, reduced cost particularly the transaction cost, raise output and increase financial good.

Connectivity”: The access budding for in order and communique skill must be slow by improving living infrastructure.
“Capacity”: There is a require to increase person’s ability from side to side training to deploy in order and communication skill wisely and in their own notice.
“Content”: in order and message technology application and happy must be urbanized and provided as necessary or related to the reality of life i.e., the in order in the net must be available even in the local lingo.

There is a greater than ever fear that the enlargement of ICT will go later than alive appearance of shared and financial system difference and perhaps even make stronger prevalence example of shared care out.

During India, literacy was 65.4% according to the latest poll in 2001. Not additional than 10%of our inhabitants has education above 10^th benchmark.

The National information assignment (NKC) constitute by management of India has purposeful on a integer of issues to add to autonomy and answerability and improved quality in higher edification

Class of tuition at any level depends on the class of higher learning; of course the stress should be on improving the quality of teachers.

Tutoring and research are continuous processes of advancing science and skill. We have a long way to go in the area of delve into publications and outcome of research students.

Since there is a shortage of experienced and trained research engineer and technologist it would be appropriate to expand these facilities particularly in the engineering departments of the University, in its place of creating new research cells outside. Inter departmental collaboration of investigate and growth work would be and be grateful for means for such growth.

CONCLUSION:

It twisted third main technological and technical personality survival of significant R$D institution, fourth major army and railway system. India is produce all her required of purchaser goods a bull of creator kit. Making do, novelty and performance are vital constituent in understanding of a lively technical society of the prospect considerably depends on your ability to think authenticity.

ENGINEERING EDUCATION AND INNOVATION.

INTRODUCTION:

Education is an important input both of the swelling of the society as strong as for the individual instruction opens new horizon for an personage. Knowledge and developed are product of elementary discover in basic science inventive genius tried to use these discover of new developed product and for other human needs. Novelty Engineering is to help persons reignite culture of novelty within their organizations by transform the mindset of both the management and the labor force. This is accomplished by educating and enable innovation changeThe engineering education in India arose out of necessity for the tanning of obverses intended for construction and maintenance of public structure, road candle and port, and of the training of artisans and craftsmen.

Role of technical education in the growth of India has been recognized in independent India pt. Nehru our first primenister, referred to India’s first IIT at kharagpur as’’ representing India urges India future in the making symbolic of the changes that are coming. One of the essential purpose of higher education is produced original thinker’s who revel in expending frontiers of knowelegement engineering education is a key part higher education system in India.

SUMMARY:

It must also be realize that public costs on edification have also better many folds throughout last two tactics and the central government have shaped many new and modernism institute such as IIT and NISER in adding to new IIT and IIM and central universes. Administration tactics to set up thirty new universities, five new Indian institutes of science education and research. During a variety of period of our history this core of learning continued but new addition were made by thickness, education and run through people in each era consisted with the need of the society later.

Novelty in curriculum and programmes teaching means and aids interdisciplinary.
Enduring learning and the qualitative alteration and.
Recognize ion and assessment.
Scholar satisfaction method.
Industry feedback. Developed of more demanding curriculum material.
Govt. set standard, ongoing programme for intensive teacher training.
Student appraisal, restricting of learning location.

The aooroches and development used for it can be any or all of the following, modeeernized of syllabi, enlarged and branch and increased allotment of funds. As India as all the resource and potential to became a regional therefore an increasing number of student from neighbour country will choose the countries as their preferred destination for higher education. Our system of assessments and benches making must be integrated with those of the world. The process must be transparent and based on the parameters used globally for such benchmarking. Composition of teams at work place both organized and unorganized sector shall be must skilled multi cultural mulltingul and multi ethnical system employer would have no simple say in choosing the team. The total number of university stood at 367 now.

CONCLUSION:

The earth need freedom from strife, progress, collective cohesion and muscle to live tighter readily available is a require to express our young age group to idea of ordinary patience and peace. The prospect programme for teaching will be to empower person assure high quality of existence and pave way to knowledge society. The new scheme of teaching has to be entrenched culture and dyed-in-the-wool to progress and makes feel superior to be Indian. Who revel in expending frontiers of knowelegement manufacturing education is a key part superior teaching arrangement in India.

KNOWLEDGE INFRASTRUCTURE FOR EXCLLENCE IN ENGINEERING EDUCATION, RESEARCH AND INNOVATION.

INTRODUCTION:

Knowledge rigorous education and research environment, it is important to strengthen knowledge infrastructure in engineering institution to foster world classiness, tech-savvies and quality of service for excellence in education, research and innovations. The society has made a significant contribution to the growth of academic quality, to the promotion of quality UG and PG project, to the causes of Faculty Development and to the causes of bridging the gap between the current state of technology and knowhow and the knowledge and skill set imparted in the institutions. The national knowledge commission in its Report to the Nation 2006 has called for creating a synergy between Education and Research in the technical education. Creation of such a network for the country shall empower our higher education system to take full advantage of the power of connectivity and power of networking which will then be utilized to create advantage India in higher education, more so in technical. Further the cause of excellence in technical education in India and for that reason anywhere else in the world cannot be effectively served in the connected knowledge economy today without the access and use of the vast knowledge warehouse available on the net.

SUMMARY:

Crisis of India as an information Superpower in the new years is now life form well recognized approximately the globe. India, porcelain and WE are being future as the top three economies of the world. India’s rapid progression to a fastest growing economy could be likely primarily since of important growth of science and technology institution well-known in the country during the last 4 decades.

Innovation Engineering is a new field of college study and industrial live out based on a body of knowledge comprise of 48

Skills. It is a multi-disciplinary field blending the humanities, engineering, production, and obvious law.

In piece of information, the world famous IT organization such as a Microsoft, Intel, AMD, Oracle, CISCO and others have utilize the genius of Indian manufacturing graduates to propel technology innovation and manufactured goods development. Extra, Research centre being set up in India both by Indian and foreign company keep on to attract manufacturing and technology alumni from Indian institutions.
In the near era where knowledge reigns utmost, it is important to identify that the maturity of a country is propel by the supremacy of scientific and technological innovations and is driven by the growth of knowledge easy industrial background.
focus of engineering and technology institutions, except the IITs and a few selected PG institutions, has been primarily to provide undergraduate studies in engineering and technology while the postgraduate studies and research have been limited to approximately 35000 candidates in 268 AICTE approved institutions of engineering and technology in addition to 54167 candidates enrolled in MCA in 1012 institutions as per the Annual Report 2003-2004 of AICTE.
Creating Knowledge Infrastructure in engineering and technology institutions is a dire need at present if we have to transform Indian engineering education system to a system tuned to technology and product innovation alongside with the development of world-class quality human capital.
Research and Development – programs that support innovation through investments into research projects and/or investments into research centres and equipments, by establishing Centres of Excellence for Information and Communication technology.

It is an asset to prepare Indian Technology Universities to rasp the challenges of the acquaintance age.

CONCLUSION:

The nationally Knowledge duty in its account to the realm has outline the urgency of create the synergy between lessons and research in institutions of higher in order. acquaintance modernization nurture in the S&T in India on the might of the inventive genius and back by a in the soft tissue powerful knowledge interactions can go faster the pace of India’s march on the Knowledge super pathway. extra, in the area of technical education leveraging benefit technology assist by the power of technology innovation can help in considerably improving the quality of teaching and research, effectively meeting the challenge of acute sense shortage and current low pace of world class research and new manufactured goods development. Let us make an unconditional assure to fostering a new era of excellence in technical tutoring, investigate and innovation in our institutional campus.

Systems development concepts, issues and approaches and the relationship between technologies and their social context

Question 1:
Why are conventional approaches to systems design considered to be techno-centric?
INTRODUCTION

This paper presents a thorough explanation of the various processes related to systems design and to the problems that face the conventional, or traditional, methods according to which computer systems, of all kinds, are designed. The paper will then explain why the traditional approaches of system design are considered to be techno-centric.

Before being able to answer the main question of this paper, we should define certain terms in order to clarify all the elements that will be discussed later on.

Simmers (2004, p.542-543), states that “a computer system is an electronic device that can be thought of as a complete information-processing center. It can calculate, store, sort, update, manipulate, sequence, organize, and process data. It also controls logic operations and can rapidly communicate in graphics, numbers, words, and sounds.”

Another definition is presented by Avgerou and Cornford (1998, p.1), as they state that information systems “refer to information and data handling activities in human organizations. Information handling in this sense is a purposeful activity sustained over time, and includes the activities of collecting information, storing it, directing it to appropriate places and people, and utilizing it in various tasks within the organization.”

The designer of the system attempts to identify a specific problem within a given environment of work, for example, and creates a set of processes that should be able to resolve that problem according to pre-determined instructions and requirements (Kelkar, 2004).

SYSTEM DESIGN

A system is supposed to handle a variety of issues related to an organisation and to enable the people whom are considered to be the individuals that deal with those issues to function properly, swiftly, more efficiently, and more accurately. This usually also involves the interaction (inter-connectivity) between all those working in a specific section.

The person (or group of people) that are supposed to design the desired system should study and analyse thoroughly the problem sphere, identifying the various elements and factors involved in it, proposing different system options, put them into test (preferably in real working environments), and finally selecting, with the help of the management of the organisation in question, the best solution.

Computer systems designers, almost from the very beginning of this field, tended to work exclusively within their technical realm; meaning that they were identifying the problem and creating the solution that, evidently, was successful, but that was only operable and facilitated to themselves and to people of the same technical background. This created a reality which made it, somewhat, hard for average users, who are also supposed to be the end users of today’s computer systems, to deal, interact, let alone produce efficiently using those systems.

The main problem in this context, as explained by Doherty & King (2005, p.2), is that the designers do not, in most cases, follow most required steps in what concerns the analysis of the impact of utilising the computer solution on the organisation and in what concerns the interaction between the created system and the human factor of that organisation. According to Poulymenakou & Holmes, 1996 (in Doherty and King, 2005, p.2), “the adoption of techno-centric development approaches can be a very dangerous strategy, as it encourages developers to deliver and implement the information system, and only then, if at all, worry about adapting it to its organizational context.”

The conventional methodology, which depends solely on creating a computer system that is successful in resolving a given problem and that works from a technical (or computer programmable and configurable) point of view, is considered to be techno-centric because the most important factor in designing the system, which is the human factor, has not be taken into consideration fully by the designer (or the designers) during the implementation of their initial plan of work.

Many specialists and researchers keep on calling for a methodology of system design that focuses more on the social aspect of the created tool: “little progress has been made in the development of practical socio-technical methods and approaches that have succeeded in making the transition from research laboratory to widespread commercial usage” (Doherty & King, 2005, p.2).

Davidson and Chiasson (2004, p.6) state that the three main stages of information technology are the development, the implementation, and the assimilation. They stress on the fact that all the details that are related to the daily use of the technology may not be seen at the time of planning because the “attention is focused on overall business goals and implementation strategy.” This makes the period following the installation and the initial implementation highly important as all the social and human related factors must be adjusted and modified to suit the users and the organisation as a whole.

There are various examples of systems that were created according to the conventional, techno-centric, approach and that have failed at the time of implementation because the designers lacked the social-oriented element in their design Doherty and King (2005, p.2) mentioned several failed experiences of this kind; cases such as the London Ambulance System, the Taurus System, and the Benefits Payment Card System.

Other examples were presented by Davidson and Chiasson (2005, p.6-12) who reported that the electronic medical record systems (EMRS) that were used in two healthcare organisations were also a cause of concern, to a certain extent. The authors confirm that the original systems created for the health organisations needed to be socially modified through the implementation of TUM (Technology Use Mediation) during system development stages and throughout the period in which the systems were in use. “System configuration required changes to software infrastructure and code. Organizational size influenced the availability and the effectiveness of mediation resources.”

Another factor that is involved in the conventional approach is the total underestimation of previously existing systems which is also another characteristic of techno-centric methods of design and system development. Ignoring the ‘old’ systems leads the designer to create something that is totally new to the organisation, and this also excludes the effects, the advantages, and the usability of the previous system. The usability of the system and the ability of people within the organisation to work with it came as a result of a long period of system modifications (whether hardware or software) and of personal training and different processes of errors and corrections; which is what can be considered as the social-related side of system development. All those elements will be totally discarded by the designer during his/her development of the new system, which will result in the new system going through the same stages that the old system passed through, and this is another form of time-related and financially-related losses to the organisation.

Chae and Poole (2005, p.19) pose an important question: “Is it possible for a large-scale information system to be developed ‘from scratch’?” Their explanation confirms that:

Accounts of system development and the systems development literature often focus primarily on the new system and tend to underemphasize the role of pre-existing systems… Few pay much attention to the role of pre-existing information systems in IS [Information Systems] development. To the extent the new system must integrate with pre-existing systems or use existing hardware and software… Existing systems have also been regarded as problems or barriers to the development of new IS and as disablers of IS-based organizational innovation and change… This approach, too, tends to treat pre-existing systems as objects, black boxes (e.g. Markus, 1983).

Those mentioned above are the most notable points when studying computer design in its conventional method, which is, as can be seen, techno-centric.

CONCLUSION

Even though conventional approaches of system design have been applied from the beginning of the age of Information Technology, they are still techno-centric. What designers should focus on are those system characteristics that are more operable by the individuals of an organisation; this includes the interface design, the language used within the various parts of the system (those related to both the software and the hardware) Another important point is the adaptability to the organisation that requested the system; the designers should understand fully that various factors that can lead the newly created system to be more social-oriented and to be what the organisation needs.

Techno-centric designs can work, but only in technical related fields and sections. Previous systems should be studied carefully before initiating the design plan for new ones; this will enable the designer to understand what characteristics worked previously, what structure are the employees and the managers used to work with, and which tools can be re-used within the new system.

Anderson and Vendelo (2004, p.27) explain the problem of techno-centric design by stating that “when introduced into a field, the technical system often needs to be changed to take into account the more holistic requirements that are present in the field, as users need to accommodate the technology in their daily routines.”

Reference List

Anderson, K. V. and Vendelo, M. T. (2004) The Past and Future of Information Systems, Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.

Avgerou, C. and Cornford, T. (1998) Developing Information Systems: Concepts, Issues and Practice, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Chae, B. and Scott, M. (2005) ‘The surface of emergence in systems development: agency, institutions, and large-scale information systems’, European Journal of Information Systems, 14, 19-36.

Davidson, E. and Chiasson, M. (2004) ‘Contextual influences on technology use mediation: a comparative analysis of electronic medical record systems’, European Journal of Information Systems, 14, 6-18.

Doherty, N. and King, M. (2005) ‘From technical to socio-technical change: tackling the human and organizational aspects of systems development projects’, European Journal of Information Systems, 14, 1-5.

Kelkar, S.A. (2004) Structured System Analysis and Design, New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.

Simmers, L. (2004) Introduction to Health Science Technology, New York: Thomson Delmar Learning.

Question 2:
Are the work systems considered in week 2 readings based on an organisational or activity oriented perspective?
INTRODUCTION

This paper explains the various modes in which organisations operate in order to achieve their business related objectives. This includes the organisational approach and the activity-related approach.

The paper also describes the work systems considered in the readings in order to identify according to which mode they operate, though the understanding of their structure and implementation of the various processes and procedures.

To be able to give a comprehensive response to the main question of this paper, we should understand the meaning of each term presented within it; and this will be of great help in the next parts of this paper.

As explained by Cope (2006, p.62), “a work system is a system of people and/or machines which perform a business process. An organisation is normally made up of many work systems. An information system supports and/or structures and/or controls and/or automates the work performed by other work systems”

Another source defines a work system by stating that it is “a complex network of means-ends relations. The basic many-to-many relationships in this network and its loose coupling is the basic source of the need for human intervention in order to remove ambiguity and to control the functional state” (Salvendy & Karwowski, 1994, p.69). This means that a work system includes every person and all items or tools that are functioning to perform a certain process required for the continuity, and profitability, of an organisation.

ORGANSATIONAL vs. ACTIVITY-ORIENTED

As explained by Sachs (1995, p.36-37) there are two perspective methods of performing the various operations and processes of an entity, these are either organisational or activity-oriented. The organisational scheme can be determined and discovered through the evident use of different “sets of defined tasks and operations such as those described in methods and procedures, which fulfil a set of business functions” The activity–oriented method, on the other hand, “suggests that the range of activities, communication practices, relationships, and coordination it takes to accomplish business functions is complex and continually mediated by workers and managers alike.” As stated by the author, activity-oriented methods allow the employee or worker to improve, learn more, function better, and, ultimately, enhances the way in which the business as a whole functions. “An activity orientation draws on insights about work practice from several disciplines, including anthropology, history, and psychology, and in so doing provides a holistic approach to the analysis of work.”

Anderson and Vendelo (2004, p.143-144) agree with Sachs and explain that the method according to which an organisation functions will affect a “number of fields – including management studies, business administration, information systems development, organizational behaviour, job design, human resource management, training, etc.” and in relation to systems design, the authors confirm that this growing significant view reconceptualises “the nature of work and organizational life, and the role of information technology support. It emphasizes work practices, and the way learning is accomplished within communities of practice.” They also state that organizational mode is still the major one in the organisations of today; as it is considered to be “grounded in scientific management ideas, focusing on training, tasks, procedures, workflow and teams” while the activity-oriented method concentrates on “learning, know-how, networks, conceptual understanding, work practices, judgement, and communities”.

The example reported by Sachs for what concerns the organisational perspective is the one of the Trouble Ticketing System (TTS) which is a huge database system that is based on organising work tasks and distributing them on workers. In this case, the tasks performed by workers are only those that are considered by the system, while the activity-oriented method depends on each worker to solve problems from start to end rather than perform single tasks. “The underlying design assumption in organizational thinking is that technology design should eliminate human error. This differs sharply from the underlying assumption in activity-oriented thinking, which is that technology design should enhance the human capability of finding problems and solving them. Organizational thinking assumes that people create human error. Activity-oriented thinking assumes that people solve problems.” (p.40).

In the case of United Parcel Service (UPS), as explained by laudon and Laudon (1995, p.17), we find that it is clearly working according to the organisational method. This is evident as all the structure of work is organised through the use of a centralised system that communicates to drivers the required destinations of various packages, and gathers the delivery information concerning each package and adds it to its main database which can be consulted by anyone through the use of any Internet connected device. Communications between the employees are reduced to the minimum as all work related information can be obtained from the system; this includes the delivery department, the customer service department, the shipment department and management. Even the requests of customers can be done directly through the system as all the required information is provided (shipping rates, shipment routes, times, etc).

But on the other hand, there is a side of UPS that can be considered activity-oriented; this can be found in what concerns the sales department and the marketing department; these two functions require a different approach and it is being followed. The focus, when it comes to these two sections of the work process, depends solely on the performance which is not measured through tasks, but through problem solving from start to end. Communication, training, and know-how are essential here. The duty of the departments in question is to identify problems, locate the causes, and come up with successful solution.

A clear case of the organisational approach is the one of the company called Electronic Banking System Inc. In this company, every single individual is responsible for a specific task, he/she is being monitored all the time, the production of each individual is checked continuously, conversations between employees/workers are not allowed if not related to task performance, and even looking out the window (which is considered to be nothing more than distraction from work) is not allowed (Horowitz, 1996, p.322). According to this system, any error is digitally monitored and immediately reported. As explained earlier, in a system such as this one, there is no space for improvement, and there is no need for problem solving skills; what each person should do is pre-set and no special talents or know-how qualities are required.

CONCLUSION

System design in organisational businesses and entities is, to a certain extent, fairly simple; as the tasks are well defined before the designer, the level of the various users’ rights and privileges is evident, and the processes to perform are directly requested by the organisation.

Development in the activity oriented environment is difficult as it is needed to separate the situational and the personal elements and the effects each one has on the other during the process of interaction. The designer should be able to identify the required processes and operations through the help of analytical tools (Peiro, 1995, p.284). This means that a social study in what concerns the various functions of the system should performed by the designer in advance in order to enable him/her to produce the required work system.

Another important factor for the designer is to be able to comprehend the various policies within the organisation in question in order to reach the desired system which complies with those rules and policies. It is also possible for the designer to offer a possibility of continuous communications, learning, and enhancement through the system even in businesses based on the organisational method.

Reference List

Cope, C. (2006) Beneath the Surface, Santa Rosa, CA: Informing Science Press.

Salvendy, G. and Karwowski, W. (Ed.). (1994) Design of Work and Development of Personnel in Advanced Manufacturing, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Sachs, P. (1995) ‘Transforming Work: Collaboration, Learning, and Design’, Association for Computing Machinery. Communications of the ACM, 38, 9 36-44.

Anderson, K. V. and Vendelo, M. T. (2004) The Past and Future of Information Systems, Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.

Laudon, K. and Laudon, J. (2005). Management Information Systems: Managing the Digital Firm, 9th edn, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Horowitz, T. (1996) ‘Mr. Edens Profits from Watching His Workers’ Every Move’, in Kling, R. Computerization and Controversy, San Diego: Academic Press, pp.322-325.

Peiro, J.M. (1995) Work and Organizational Psychology: European Contributions of the Nineties, East Sussex, Erlbaum (UK) Taylor & Francis.