Category: Free Essays

1a How can the curriculum offer and delivery vary according to the education and training context or purpose?

The education and training context in this instance varies according to community outreach venues, specifically chosen to reach the parents of children needing ESOL teaching, who have low levels of first language literacy and so require potentially different means of supporting language learning. Different approaches to curriculum design are going to influence how the teacher develops the syllabus or the scheme of work, because this will affect how they select each topic to be taught, how sequence topics and themes, language stages, based on whether this is a process or product based syllabus, notional/functional syllabus, Communicative Syllabus, Top-based syllabus.^[1] For example, a content-based syllabus, based maybe on grammatical structure, would be organised according to sequencing structures, while a communicative syllabus might be more functional or based on identified needs.

Syllabus design is one of the means by which teachers can approach the process of facilitating language learning^[2]. However, in language teaching, syllabus design has been largely neglected. Curricula are ways of organising learning, indicating lesson content and learning progress, while syllabuses are much more concerned with what actually goes on in the classroom, forming part of ongoing development, review and refinement of the syllabus^[3] to meet the needs of the learner while satisfying the requirements of the institution or awarding body. Syllabus design is the selection and grading of content, and is argued to also relate to the selection of tasks and materials^[4]. Because of the complexity of language learning, selection of tasks and selection of content may be different than in other types of learning.^[5] “Lesson planning involves reinforcement with frequent feedback on learning, delayed feedback, allowing trial and error, and praise, marks and prizes.”^[6] All of these means of ordering learning are focused on what and how the ESOL student will learn.^[7]

In this context, the focus is on ESOL Keeping up with the Children – Family Learning, and so the curriculum is designed with this in mind, but the needs of learners in ESOL can vary, including a more academic approach, such as ESOL in FE^[8], or intensive ESOL training for Job Search, or Vocational ESOL (eg ESOL embedded in something else, like Catering). This would then require a more functional syllabus which would be focused much more on vocabulary, and schemes of work would take this into account, practicing key elements of communication rather than simply grammar. Dynamic language learning is more complex than simply the repetition of sounds, words and sentence structures, and so the communicative approach may be much better suited.^[9] However, all of these approaches could also potentially serve to help ESOL students integrate into the social world as well.^[10]

However, the syllabus design and development in this case is also constructed within the requirements of the awarding body, thus requiring that students learn sufficient and in the right manner to meet the assessment requirements, and develop a general English vocabulary which covers personal details and experiences, work, education & training, housing, family and friends, health, transport, weather, buying goods, leisure, UK society. The scope of such learning is significant, and cannot all be developed in one term, but the provision of vocabulary lists, and the implementation of constructive methods of learning can be built into the syllabus to allow for ongoing linguistic development which builds upon learning session by session.^[11],^[12]

1b How might the different approaches to curriculum design you have outlined influence the outcomes for individuals and groups?

The kinds of outcomes which relate to the curriculum here include looking at what skills, vocabulary and language structures will have been learnt in the different educational settings or contexts^[13]. For example, the work or occupational based ESOL courses will be limited to the kinds of vocabulary which relate to work activities and practices, and will be quite specialised, while the kinds of programmes which are to do with family learning are likely to relate more strongly to more practical language which can be used in the home and in key scenarios such as learning how to communicate with school teachers and other people about the child. But over-defined objectives can limit learning, rather than support the dynamic forms of learning which are often more suited to ESOL.^[14] One of the problems is that the primary contexts for learning, particularly if they are very specialised, such as the occupational learning context, or even learning English as a tourist, can lead to bad habits, because language learning is a process of developing attitudes and habits.^[15]

Thus the habits that have been developed in one context, may benefit or hinder the use of language and the learning and development of further language skills in another setting. However, supporting a degree of learning awareness and self-direction in learning is important, and depending on whether the curriculum is didactic or communicative, this could be more easily achieved or else become more difficult. A communicative approach is much more focused on the needs of the learner, and so is more dynamic, and more likely to foster self-direction in language learning. ^[16] Self-direction and the identification of structural regularities in language, such as learning applied grammar, can be enhanced by more directed learning approaches, or by a mixture of content-focused syllabi and communicative approaches^[17], which has been the author’s experience in their current context. Despite the strengths of different approaches, the context of learning is very significant in how and how well students learn.^[18],^[19] However, language learning curricula, and the impacts of different approaches to teaching and learning, are still relatively poorly researched, and it would be useful to have more, diverse research and case studies which identify what kinds of approaches have been proven best in which settings.^[20], ^[21]

References

Armitage, A., Bryant, R., Dunhill, R., Hammersley, M., Hayes, D., Hudson, A., Lawes, S. (1999) Teaching and Training in Post-Compulsory Education, Open University Press.

Brillinger, K. (2003) From Theory to Practice: Creating Intermediate ESL Reading Materials Based on Current SLA Research and Theories, Newsletter of the Association of Teachers of English as a Second Language of Ontario, 29(3), 1-6

Burns, A. (2006) Surveying landscapes in adult ESOL research, Linguistics and Education, 17, 97–105

Curzon, L. B. (1997), Teaching in Further Education: an Outline of Principles and

Practice, (5th ed.). London: Cassell.

Dagenais, D. Beynon, J. and Mathis, N. (2008) Intersections of Social Cohesion, Education, and Identity in Teachers, Discourses, and Practices Pedagogies: An International Journal 3 (2) 85 – 108.

Ewald, J.D. (2004) A classroom forum on small group work: L2 learners see, and change, themselves. Language Awareness 13 (3) 163-179.

Ferris, D.R. (1994) Lexical and syntactic features of ESL writing by students at different levels of L2 proficiency. TESOL Quarterly 28 (2) 414-420.

Lochtman, K. (2002) Oral corrective feedback in the foreign language classroom: how it affects interaction in analytic foreign language teaching International Journal of Educational Research 37 (3-4) 271-283.

Long, M. (1996) The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In Ritchie, W. and Bhatia, T. (eds) Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (413-468) San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Morgan, B. (1997) Identity and intonation: linking dynamic processes in an ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly 31 (3) 431-450.

Morrice, L. (2007) ‘Lifelong learning and the social integration of refugees in the UK: the significance of social capital’, International Journal of Lifelong Education, 26(2), 155-172

Reece, I. and Walker, S. (2000). Teaching, Training and Learning: a practical guide.

Sunderland: Business Education Publishers.

Roberts, C. & Baynham, M. (2006) Introduction to the special issue: Research in adult ESOL, Linguistics and Education, 17, 1-5

Rogers, A. (1996), Teaching Adults, 2nd edition, Buckingham: Open University Press.

Widodo, H.P. (2006) Approaches and procedures for teaching grammar. English Teaching: Practice and Critique. 5 (1) 122-141.

Zamel, V. and Spack, R. (2006) Teaching Multilingual Learners across the Curriculum: Beyond the ESOL Classroom and Back Again. Journal of Basic Writing (CUNY), 25 (2) 126-152.

1

Teaching English in Saudi Arabia – The Cultural Context
Introduction

In this essay, I aim to examine the cultural context predominant in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) in so far as it might affect effective teaching and learning styles and strategies in the EFL classroom.

My interest in this topic is grounded in the reality of the post-9/11 world where the Western world has been pitted against the Arabic world as if there is a great social, cultural and religious divide that might never be bridged – or so the message in the media goes. This poses a great challenge and temptation for EFL teachers working in or curious about the region.

The KSA makes for a particularly interesting study into how the local cultural and religious context might impact on successful English teaching and learning, because of the Kingdom’s “politically sensitive geography” (Marcinkiewicz, 1995). The holy cities of Mekkah and Madinah are situated right within its borders and the KSA has thus “undertaken a protectoral role in religion.”

It follows then that the Islamic religion is not only the most pervasive aspect of local culture, impacting directly on teaching method and content, it is also a significant motivating force for KSA learners who are “intensely religious, Islam having a strong influence on their minds and hearts.” (Al Haq and Smadi, 1996). It can thus be expected then that the religious dynamics in the KSA will “cause friction in the classroom” (Traynham, 2006). With Islam being the “strongest denominator” of students in the KSA (Kniffka, 1996), cultural awareness must inform any teaching methodology in order to achieve successful outcomes.

Outline of essay

I will introduce the cultural context underpinning effective language teaching and learning and give a brief background of the history of English instruction in the KSA as a way of introducing the larger historical and cultural context in which English-language instruction occurs. I will next consider some of the specific sociocultural and sociolinguistic issues that impact on the learning styles and strategies preferred by students and teachers in the KSA. Referring to the relevant literature, I will suggest connections between the local cultural context and the effectiveness of learning and teaching methods and strategies employed. Finally, I will conclude that while the local culture affects both students and teachers – and teachers must respond to this at the practical and theoretical levels – teachers must, at the same time, avoid overgeneralizing about cultural and religious factors and understand that each and every classroom exhibits a unique dynamic between a given set of individual students and their teacher and that, in fact, in many cases a universal education culture exists in all EFL classrooms regardless of social and cultural geography and context.

The cultural context underpinning effective language teaching and learning

In the past decade the concepts of context and culture have become increasingly more important in the literature on language teaching (Byram and Grundy, 2003). This is due to the increased acknowledgement of the significance of socio-political factors in teaching and learning and of the perception of learners as social beings who respond to learning a new language with “feelings and identities” (p. 1). In language teaching, cultural context is “usually defined as a/the culture associated with a language being learnt” (p. 1).

As far as the English language is concerned, English has been taught in the KSA ever since the Kingdom was established, in 1932 (Al-Seghayer, 2005). The explosion of economic activity within the oil industry resulted in rapid development of English language programs in the 1970s, so that Saudis could successfully communicate in English with imported manpower and outside interests. Today, English is used as the major medium of instruction in universities where science, medicine, engineering and technology subjects are taught. English instruction begins in elementary school and is centralized and controlled by the Ministry of Education. Despite the ever-increasing importance of English in Saudi Arabia “as an essential vehicle for personal and national growth,” (Al-Seghayer, 2005, pp129), the system still fails to produce a satisfactory level of English language proficiency in Saudi learners.

This seems to be an incongruous result, considering that the socio-cultural motivations for learning English are quite significant. Al Haq and Smadi (1996) find that a good knowledge of English rewards with social prestige and is considered to be a kind of duty to help Saudi Arabia advance economically, culturally and religiously at both the Islamic and international levels. With English being the lingua franca, in so far as technology and the sciences are concerned, Saudi citizens see English as a vital tool in advancing in this modern world.

But this might be part of the problem. The English language – as the bearer of the goods of technology and science – necessarily comes with Western culture. Languages are expressions of national, historical and cultural identities. Languages are also “ideological because they are associated with aspirations of unity, loyalty and patriotism,” and “social because they are perceived as symbols of status, power, group identity, and belonging,” (Wesche, 2004, p. 279). As such, there is a fear in the KSA that the “use of English entails Westernization, detachment to the country, and a source of corruption to […] religious commitment.” (Al Haq and Samdi, 1996, p. 308).

The sociolinguistic features of the English language – the grammar, phonetics and vocabulary – necessarily impact socio-affectively on the society of EFL learners (Khuwaileh, 2000, p. 287) wherever they might be situated in the world. In the case of Saudi Arabia, English language instruction often relies on Western cultural content that conflicts with Islamic culture and ideals. For example, Traynham (2006) explains how many EFL textbooks contain vocabulary – dating, alcohol, music, dance – that is offensive to Saudi students and to the Islamic faith.

Khuwaileh (2000) also found similar sociolinguistic obstacles and cultural barriers when learners in an English for Science and Technology class refused to write on topics that included “taboo vocabulary” such as, AIDS, sexual diseases and contraception (p. 286), because for one student, at least, “religion,” “honor” and “politeness” were more important than gaining the certificate in English. Khuwaileh concluded that, unless modified, “course material rich in taboo content can significantly hinder the learning process.” (p. 287) Moreover, in a study of EFL textbooks – largely those written by non-Saudis and non-Muslims – used to teach freshman English in Saudi Arabia, Alhaidari (2003) found that they contained images and vocabulary “that clashed directly with Islamic and Saudi cultures.”

These issues might seem easily solved, if common sense prevails even before theoretical and pragmatic considerations are examined. Offensive material should be avoided by designing unique material adapted to the socio-cultural reality of the student group. Even so, the pervasive presence of the textbook as the “dominant tool in teaching” holds a “powerful influence” over both cognitive and affective factors in individual students (Alhaidari, 2003, p. 3). Cultural revulsion towards a given text might impact on a student’s attitude to authority (in this case, the English language and English teacher) and on a student’s attitude to how important a text might be. A negative response, which is likely to be expected, will surely result in “learning difficulties, probably lost teaching objectives and, consequently, useless curricula.” (Khuwaileh, 2000, p. 287).

Cultural issues in Saudi Arabia affecting effective language learning strategies

For all of these reasons, awareness of cultural issues is not only beneficial, but a necessity, and Kniffka (1992) stresses that EFL instructors need to increase their level of expertise in cultural awareness and teaching language within a cultural context. Cultural awareness begins with the understanding that culture is a concept that concerns the role of the individual in the “unending kaleidoscope of life situations of every kind and the rules or models for attitudes and conduct in them” Oxford (1996, p ix). Context includes the beliefs, perceptions and assumptions that directly influence two things: language learning styles (the general approaches that guide learning) and language learning strategies (the specific steps or techniques used by learners).

Of the six types of learning strategies – cognitive, metacognitive, memory, compensatory, affective and social – outlined by Oxford (2003, pp. 12-15), studies (introduced below) find that Arabic students tend to use cognitive and metacognitive strategies with greater frequency, and socio-affective strategies with lesser frequency, though students also exhibit an optimistic flexibility toward using a wide range of learning strategies.

Abu-Ghararah (1996) found that “a wide variety of learning strategies were used” even while the majority of the EFL students surveyed in three public schools in Madinah “tended to use more cognitive strategies […more] than socio-affective strategies […] in acquiring English as a foreign language” (p. 6). Abdan and Almuarik (1992) also found that students exhibited a preference for multiple learning styles. In fact, gender and subject major, in their study, made no difference at all to their preferences. Riazi and Rahimi (2005) similarly found that while their Iranian student subjects used metacognitive strategies “at a high frequency,” overall they were “ medium strategy users.” This can be extended to Saudi Arabia, because both Arab countries have a “similar history, culture and language” (p. 282).

These studies show that students regularly “combine all the learning orientations.” Riazi and Rahimi (2005, p. 110) suggest that this openness and flexibility results from a “specific philosophy of life” where “a human being can only be perfect, when he studies all of the sciences and arts.”

Reasons pointing to more frequent use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies might be that these strategies offer students direct ways to control learning and are strategies that can be employed in private study, rather than in group situations, which seem to be less preferred. Another factor suggested was that these students might not have much exposure to English in social situations so as to “pick up” the target language “unconsciously.” Reasons pointing to the minimal use of other strategies might be, apart from cultural background, “improper teaching,” and again lack of exposure to English in a native environment with native speakers.

For Riazi and Rahimi, at least, it is up to the English instructors to introduce other strategies by discussing them with their students and providing appropriate opportunities to develop and use those “neglected strategies” (p. 123). To this end, Zaid (1996) evaluated the methodological preferences of teachers in an English department at a major KSA university and found that the overall preference was for a communicative style of teaching. This is interesting when considered against the findings of Riazi and Rahimi (2005, p. 103) where social learning strategies were the least frequently used strategies of EFL students. In fact, Khuwaileh (2005, p. 282) also concluded that social strategies, such as group work and openly expressing opinions in the classroom are “culturally bound practices which seem to hinder English language learning.” Zaid (1996) warns against teachers developing “personalized theories” of teaching when it might result in a “methodological gap” between what they are doing in the classroom and what program administrators – working within the socio-cultural framework of the KSA – expect. Personalized teaching might also result in a preferential gap between how the teacher prefers to teach and how the students prefer to learn.

Good practice then is clearly a collaboration between program administration, teacher preference, and the expectations of students as a group and as individuals. “Individual” is stressed here because, as Oxford (2003, p. 16) emphasizes, a teacher needs “adequate knowledge about their individual students’ style preferences” in order to provide the most effective classroom instruction. The literature examined in this essay, while clearly suggesting learning trends and preferences based on cultural background, also suggest an openness and flexibility in the learning strategy preferences of Saudi, and other Arab, students. In fact, the impact of culture is often found to be influenced by other factors, such as individual personality traits (Oxford, 2003), gender, as well as motivation (Kaylani, 1996, p75). Individual learners who are more motivated – regardless of cultural background – will use a wider range of learning strategies thus ensuring greater success in their learning (Oxford, 1996a, p118). This may further imply that students may successfully adjust preference and expectation if a teacher introduces new activities “on trial” (Tomlinson, 2005), in the first instance, and only incorporate lesser used strategies should students find them useful and enjoyable.

In fact, Tomlinson (2005) suggests that while learners may well have expectations based on cultural norms and experiences, the level of innovation introduced by any given individual teacher into the EFL classroom may have the effect of creating a new and unique to the classroom “temporary culture.” Tomlinson finds that even in significantly different cultural contexts, “educational cultures seem to be remarkably similar” (p. 139), what he refers to as a “universal” education culture. He calls it a Tomlinson seeks to stress the “teacher’s attitude” in response to the perceived cultural context in which they work and warns against the “dangers of cultural overgeneralization.” He concludes that teachers should remember that in a classroom teachers teach to a “class of diverging individuals rather than to a convergent group of cultural stereotypes.”

Conclusion

In conclusion then, the sociocultural and religious context in the KSA clearly influences teaching and learning. Teachers should not only be aware of the cultural context in which they teach and but this context should directly inform their choices of method and materials. However, teachers should avoid, on the one hand, making methodological choices based on overgeneralizations and preconceived ideas about how cultural issues influence their students, and on the other hand, should also avoid personalizing their methodology to suit their preferences and ideology. Methods and strategies employed in EFL instruction should always be negotiated anew between the teacher and the group of individual students. And all of this, of course, within the general framework of the sociocultural and religious dynamic prevalent in the KSA.

References

Abdan, A.A., and Almuarik, S.A., 1992. The Learning Style Preference of Saudi EFL University Students. In Journal of King Saud University. Educational Sciences & Islamic Studies. [online] Vol. 4, No. 1, Abstract from King Saud University Journal Digital Library,

Available from: http://digital.library.ksu.edu.sa/paper2214.html. [Accessed 15 November 2008].

Abu-Ghararah, A.H., 1996. The Learning Strategy Uses of EFL Students. [online] In Educational Journal, Faculty of Education, Kuwait University. Vol. 10, No, 38, pp. 15-32,

Available from: http://abughararah.com/App_content/File/Researches/07.pdf [Accessed 16 November 2008].

Alhaidari, A.O., 2003. The Compatibility of Freshman EFL Textbooks Used by Saudi Universities with Islamic Culture. [online] In Journal of King Saud University. Educational Sciences & Islamic Studies. Vol. 15, No 2, pp1-41,

Available from: http://wwww.ksu.edu.sa/printpress/researches/V28M206R2970.pdf, King Saud University Journal Digital Library. [Accessed 17 November 2008].

Al Haq, F.A., and Smadi, O., 1996. Spread of English and Westernization in Saudi Arabia. In World Englishes, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp 307-317.

Al-Seghayer, K., 2005. Teaching English in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Slowly but Steadily Changing. In G Braine, ed. Teaching English to the World: History, Curriculum, and Practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, p 125-191.

Byram, M., and Grundy, P., eds., 2003. Context and Culture in Language Teaching and Learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Kaylani, C., 1996. The Influence of Gender and Motivation on EFL Learning Strategy Use in Jordan, p 75-88. In Oxford, R.L., ed., 1996. Language and Learning Strategies Around the World: Cross-Cultural Perspectives. : University of Hawai’i Press.

Khuwaileh, A.A., 2000. Cultural Barriers of Language Teaching: A Case Study of Classroom Cultural Obstacles. In Computer Assisted Language Learning, Vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 281–290.

Kniffka, H., 1992. Cultural Identity, Life Cycles and Intercultural Communication: Teaching German to Adults in Saudi Arabia. In Language Teaching Journal, Vol. 2, pp. 75–80.

Marcinkiewicz, H.R., 1995. Educational Technology Transcends the Saudi Desert and Cultural Mores. [online] In TechTrends, Vol. 40, No. 2. Preview available from http://www.springerlink.com/content/m415w713355677h4/fulltext.pdf?page=1, Springer Boston [Accessed: 16 November 2008].

Oxford, R.L., 2003. Language Learning Styles and Strategies: An Overview. In Learning Styles & Strategies: Oxford, GALA.

Oxford, R.L., 1990. Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House.

Oxford, R.L., 1996. Language Learning Motivation. Manoa: University of Hawai’i Press.

Oxford, R.L., ed., 1996a. Language and Learning Strategies Around the World: Cross-Cultural Perspectives. Manoa: University of Hawai’i Press.

Riazi, A., and Rahimi, M., 2005. Iranian EFL Learners’ Pattern of Language Learning Strategy Use. In The Journal of Asia TEFL, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 103-129.

Tomlinson, B., 2005. English as a Foreign Language: Matching Procedures to the Context of Learning. In Hinkel, E., ed., Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, p. 137-154.

Traynham, M.S., 2006. Challenges for EFL Students and Teachers in Saudi Arabia [online] TESOL Courses. Available from: http://www.tesolonline.com/articles/complete_articles.php?index=177&category=59 [Accessed: 15 November 2008].

Wesche, M., 2004. Teaching Languages and Cultures in a Post-9/11 World. [online] In The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 88, No. 2, pp. 278-285. Available from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3588759, Blackwell Publishing. [Accessed: 16 November 2008].

Zaid, M., 1996. Ascertaining the Pedagogical Preferences of EFL Teaches in Saudi Arabia. In Journal of King Saud University. Educational Sciences & Islamic Studies. [online] Vol. 8, No. 2. pp. 1-20. 20. Available from http://digital.library.ksu.edu.sa/V8M317R2260.pdf

Abstract from King Saud University Journal Digital Library. [Accessed 15 November 2008].

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Education Students Disabilities2.1 The role played by teacher’s attitudes towards education of students with disabilities in the development of inclusive education.

It is a well known fact that attitude of teachers affect the atmosphere of learning and influence whether students with limited abilities receive equal educational chances. This can be shown by looking at situations in different parts of the world.

In Ghana for instance, the idea of education that is inclusive is aligned with the policy of increasing access, participation and retention of all students of school going age in education. Challenges exist in areas of access, quality education and retention especially for students with disabilities.

This is attributed to lack of professional activities of development for teachers, limited resources and ineffective monitoring system provided to schools. Negative attitude and prejudice is the most critical of all barriers to free universal education especially for disabled students. Interestingly, some teachers still name the curses from gods as the cause of disabilities. (Agbenyega 2005)

Beliefs about ethnicity, disability, concerns, ethnicity and attitude of teachers influence practice of all inclusive education, educational materials’ quality and instructions received by students. Many regular education teachers feel unprepared and scared to work with disabled learners and display anger, frustration and negative attitude towards education. They also believe it lowers academic standards. (Education Act, 1996)

Teachers’ beliefs about inclusion suggest that they do not like teaching disabled students especially those who have sensory impairments as in regular classes. They prefer them being educated in special schools. Their defense is that with usual students too much time is not wasted in support and guidance. They are yet come to terms with the belief that mute and deaf students can receive education in regular schools.

Teachers also believe that including disabled results in incompletion of syllabuses as they limit the amount of work that can be done in a term. They further believe that including disabled in regular classes affects the performance of their fellow students without disabilities. On this they claim that there must be consideration on placement of students with disabilities into regular schools as their placement disturbs academic performance and emotions and of other students who are not disabled. (Smith and Luckasson 1995)

Teachers overwhelmingly believe that inclusive education is impossible unless their needs for specialist resources are addressed. Overall belief is that without sufficient support and resources, inclusive education is not possible and is doomed. The beliefs, negative attitude and concerns expressed by teachers may be explained due to lack of professional preparedness, available resources, sufficient orientation and specialist assistance. Initial professional knowledge and further training, human and material resources enhance teachers’ attitudes positively and affect their willingness make inclusion work (UNESCO 1994)

2.2 Teachers’ attitudes towards education of students with disabilities. A historical review.

Estimates of global populations indicate that more children with disabilities live in developing third world countries than in industrialized countries. It has been suggested that integration in developing countries can be facilitated much more easily and successfully than in North America and Western European countries because there disabled students are already in the mainstream unlike in countries with a dual system of regular and special education.

Recognizing that schools in developing countries have untrained teachers, large class sizes, transportation problems, lack of resources and facilities, the policy makers should consider the regular classroom as the mainstream model in facilitating inclusive education in poor countries.(UNESCO 1997, 1999)

Educational researchers have historically taken varied positions which are varied regarding integration or inclusion. Those who support the programmatic model point to the academic and social gains of the students with disability as well as acceptance of diversity among fellow students and community members as benefits of inclusion. Opponents note concerns about lack of training, personnel and administrative support and the uncertainty of academic and social gains through adopting such models (Gartner, 1995; Whitaker, 2004).

Research that has been carried out in most regions of the world on teachers mirrors the political agenda of these countries in focusing attention on the exclusion of children from educational opportunities (UNESCO 1994).

Some countries have enacted legislation pertaining to integration of disabled students while some are just beginning the process of implementing these programs and policies. In overall, research seems to support the notion of a general culture of teaching in that teachers’ attitudes towards students with disabilities are consistent and similar irrespective of the different national cultures in which teaching takes place. A cross cultural study conducted on teachers’ attitudes in Haiti and the USA revealed that teachers had similar attitudes towards inclusion. (Thematic Group 9, 1996).

Special Education in the United States has a long history that reflects many changes in attitudes towards disabled people. Special education was a established in the United States in the 1800’s with students who had demonstrated disabilities such as deafness, blindness, crippling conditions as well as idiotic and feeble-mindedness being taught in institutions. Many diverse groups have attributed this change to including parents, psychologists, educators, physicians, clergy, researchers and the disabled. (Smith and Luckkason, 1995)

2.2.1. Shaping the development curve: mainstreaming-integration and inclusion

The right of students with disabilities to receive a free and appropriate education in the least restrictive environment is solidly rooted in the provisions of the United States constitution. Particularly, the guarantee of equal protection under the law granted to all citizens P.L.94-142 clearly required states to ensure that children with disabilities be educated with children who were not disabled and that other educational placements be considered only when the nature of the disability was such that education in regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services could not be achieved satisfactorily. (.http://www.ncd.gov/newsroom/publications/1994/inclusion.htm)

Disabled students are being included at every level of the education system as a result of efforts by all of those concerned about them, parents, advocates, teachers and administrators. The effect of inclusive education is being increasingly being evaluated by including children with disabilities in assessments of school performance. (Barlett and McLeod 1998)

Much has been learned about the strategies that make inclusion work from the experience of others. School staff that focus on changes in the school as a whole-curricular, instructional strategies, instructional strategies and use of resources have been successful when given time for training, collaborative planning and opportunities to celebrate their achievements. (.http://www.ncd.gov/newsroom/publications/1994/inclusion.htm)

Disabled students require extra supports facilitated through personal assistance, class assistive technologies and related services in order to receive an appropriate education. Planning for studies should include the scheduling of supports at appropriate times in order for supports to be able to complement activities in classroom. Students who need assistance later in life benefit greatly from learning management support services early in life. (Marches 1998)

The fact that students with disabilities are included in some schools is all the more remarkable given the vast numbers of barriers that exist from the federal government going down. In addition to the barriers faced by most students with disabilities minority students with disabilities face even greater barriers to inclusion. Of all the barriers to inclusion, the single greatest factor seems to be the system of financing special education. (.http://www.ncd.gov/newsroom/publications/1994/inclusion.htm)

The basic concept of inclusion and integration states that principles of equity, discrimination, social justice and human rights make it compulsory that students with special needs and disabilities should enjoy the same privileges as all other students in a regular school environment and to a broad, balanced and relevant curriculum (Knight 1999).

It is believed that integration in the mainstream enables students with disabilities to benefit from the stimulation of mixing with relatively more able students and having the opportunity to observe higher models of social and academic behavior (Elkins 1998).

The move towards integration began tentatively in a few countries as long ago as the late 1960s and early 1970s, but the trend became much more vigorous on an international scale in the 1980s and throughout the 1990s. A major factor influencing the rapid worldwide movement towards inclusion was the promulgation of the Salamanca statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education. This statement recommends among others, that all students with special needs should have full access to regular schools and be taught in schools using predominantly adaptable and child centered pedagogy. (UNESCO, 1994)

For integration and inclusion to be successful, one clear condition is that teaching methods and curricula will need to change in order to accommodate the diversity of students to be included in the average classroom. The reforms proposed by most education commissions certainly suggest that all students would benefit from more student centered approaches in teaching and much greater flexibility in curriculum planning. This will certainly make it more feasible for students with special needs to receive an education geared to their abilities. (Ainscow, 1997)

2.2.2. Attitudes of regular school teachers’ vis-a-vis of special school teachers.

Inclusion of students with disabilities in the regular classroom has been met with a lot of resistance from regular education teachers who would be responsible for educating special needs students. This is because they lack in-service training to increase their skills. In-service presentations are most effective in improving attitudes. Regular classroom teachers are usually stereotypic and negative. (Befring, 1997)

Regular school teachers believe that students with disabilities require special needs which cannot be provided in inclusive based regular classroom. They also believe that their professional knowledge and skills are inadequate to effectively teach students with disabilities in regular schools. (Sharma, 1999)

Special school teachers usually have a positive attitude towards students with disabilities. This is because they are usually trained before service on how to handle students with disabilities. Their positive attitude about including and teaching students with disabilities in general education classroom is related to the levels of special education training and experience in working with students with disabilities. (Forlin and Hattie, 1996)

2.3 Teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education of students with disabilities at different school levels.
2.3.1. Pre school teachers’ attitudes and primary teachers’ attitude.

Pre School teachers’ have negative attitudes towards children with disabilities. A lot of children who are emotionally disturbed possess deficient long-standing patterns of disruptive and deficient behavior. These children are particularly upsetting to teachers because they challenge the teachers’ role and threaten the order and composure of the classroom. Some of these children exhibit the feelings needed to get what they want that is manipulate others. These children are often able to identify weaknesses in the teacher and exploit them. (Carey, 1997)

Majority of primary school teachers both female and male have negative attitudes towards the inclusion of students with abilities in regular classes. Children taught by teachers who show highly positive attitudes have significantly higher levels of classroom satisfaction and marginally lower levels of classroom friction than children taught by teachers with less positive attitudes.

Primary school teachers are usually worried about the well being of students with special needs in the general education. It is usually hard for them to ensure that special children do not lose out in both academics and related skills as compared to other children in the class. (Carey, 1997)

2.3.2 Education administrators

Demographic factors, training and experience does not have a statistically significant effect on administration attitudes towards inclusion. Administration programs that are good prepare administrators with stronger, more positive attitudes toward including students with disabilities. School counselors can take the lead in assessing school climate in relation to students with disabilities initiating interventions or advocating for change when appropriate. (Wilczenski, 1992)

Some school administrators might possess slightly negative attitudes toward students with disabilities. The attitudes of school counselors are similar to if not more positive than those of other school personnel. Principals who have completed more training both (pre-service and in service) related to inclusion and special education have positive attitudes towards students with disabilities.

It is claimed that the understanding of administrators on the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) is very limited and they have not taken any measure to ensure compliance to it. Negative attitudes have been indicated to be of the more significant barriers to successful integration of students with disabilities. (Wilczenski, 1992)

2.3.3. Secondary schools teachers’ attitudes

These teachers have more positive attitudes compared to primary school teachers. Teachers’ expectations and beliefs are easier to change than their behaviors and emotions. High school teachers also have positive attitudes towards the use of the software because the software has the potential to improve student learning, increase student engagement, provide important study skills and improve student motivation through the novelty of using computers is social studies instruction. High school teachers cooperate more with each other when it comes to provision of assistance regarding disabled students. (Schumacher et al, 1997)

Some people argue that in primary school inclusion develops well only for serious problems to emerge at the secondary level. These problems could be from the increase in subject specialization which makes it hard for inclusion to sail smoothly. This problem is made worse by the fact that the gap between special students and the rest increase with age.

Secondary schools usually use the streaming model where students are grouped depending on their level of grasping knowledge. It is also difficult to make curriculum adaptations for heterogeneous students because secondary education is characterized by an excessively academic curriculum for a homogenous group of students. (Smith, D. & Luckasson, R. 1995).

2.4 Influential factors of teachers attitudes
2.4.1 Student related factors

One of the most important factors affecting teachers’ attitudes towards integration or inclusion is the type and severity of disabilities. Research revealed that irrespective of teaching experience, severity of disability shows an inverse relationship with positive attitudes such that as the perception of severity increase, teachers positive attitude decrease. (Forlin, et al 1996).

A study done in fourteen nations discovered that teachers favor disabilities of certain types to be included in the regular school setting. Teachers are more disposed to accept students with mild disabilities than students with more severe disabilities particularly students with social maladjustments and emotional disturbance, due to a lack of training and support and large class sizes. (Leyser and Tapperndirf, 2001).

2.4.2 Teacher-related factors

With regards to gender, reports showed that male teachers’ attitudes towards integration are more negative than female teachers. Other studies that examined teachers experience noted that teachers’ acceptance of integration is related to previous experience with children with disabilities. (Giangreco, 1997)

Overall teaches’ contact and interactions with people with disabilities promote positive attitudes towards integration. Teachers’ with a higher education level are also more negative towards integration. The opposite is true in some cases. Teachers’ attitudes also appear to vary based on integration in-service training. The study reported positive teacher attitudes after in service training, while other studies found that staff development failed to improve teachers’ attitudes. (Stoler 1992)

2.4.3 Education environment-related factors

a) Administrative and policy factors

Factors related to administrative support have been linked to teachers’ commitment to integration. Teachers’ consider the presence of organizational support and resources as critical in forming positive attitudes towards integration. An additional component of positive attitude is related to class size. General educators report that reducing class size to 20 students would facilitate their integration effort (Pollard and Rojewski, 1993)

b) Support factors

Top-down educational initiatives can be rendered ineffective if the program is interrupted at the principle level or the teacher level. The attitude of special educators is determined by general educators. Furthermore most principals are critical of policy changes and their support of inclusion is viewed by teachers as being motivated by cost savings opportunities. (Whitaker 2004)

If a country or state has policy friendly to students with disabilities then teachers are likely to have a positive attitude towards inclusive education. For example, the Zimbabwe education Act 1996, the Disabled Person Act 1996 and various Ministry of Education circulars (Education, Secretary’s Policy Circular No P36, 1990) require that all students, regardless of race, religion, gender, creed and disability, have access to basic or primary education. (Education Act, 1996).

c) Other related factors

Factors external to the school that affect the working conditions of teachers such as financial rewards, status in society and professional expectations have also been found to influence the teachers’ motivation and dedication. The grade level taught is such an external factor found that high school teachers displayed more positive attitudes towards integration than elementary school. Their results also showed there were more positive attitudes towards integration in high school teachers than in primary school. (Leyser et al 1994)

Financial rewards; given that teachers spend up to fifty percent of their time providing instruction to individual students, it is imperative that they receive adequate and appropriate financial and professional development to ensure they are able to work effectively with students with special needs.

Reference

Agbenyega, J. S., Deppeler, J., Harvey, D. (2005).Attitudes Towards Inclusive Education in Africa Scale (ATIAS): An Instrument to measure teachers attitudes towards inclusive education for students with disabilities. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 5, pp. 1-15. http://www.coe.wayne.edu/wholeschooling/Journal_of_Whole_Schooling/articles/3-1%20Agbenyega.doc.

Ainscow, M. (1997). Towards inclusive schooling. British Journal of Special Education, 24, 3-6.

Bartlett, L., & McLeod, S. (1998). Inclusion and the regular class teacher under the IDEA. West’s Education Law Reporter, 128(1), 1-14.

Befring, E. (1997). The enrichment perspective: A special educational approach to and inclusive school. Remedial and Special Education, 18, 182-187.

Boudah, D.J., Schumacher, J.B., & Deshler, D.D. (1997). Collaborative instruction: Is it an effective option for inclusion in secondary classrooms? Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 20, 293-316.

Carey, L. (1997). Inclusive training for pre-service teachers-from theory to best classroom practice. B.C. Journal of Special Education, 21, 52-58.

Corbett, J. (2001). Teaching approaches, which support inclusive education: a connective pedagogy. British Journal of Special Education, 28(2), 55-59.

Education Act. (1996). Harare, Zimbabwe: Government Printers. Education. Secretary’s Policy Circular Number 36. (1990). Harare, Zimbabwe: Author.

Elkins, J. (1998). The school context. In A. Ashman & J. Elkins (Eds.), Educating children with special needs (3^rd ed., pp. 67 – 101). Sydney: Prentice Hall.

Forlin, C., Douglas, G., & Hattie, J. (1996). Inclusive practices: Are the teachers accepting? International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 43(2), 19-33.

Giangreco, M.F. (1997). Key lessons learned about inclusive education: Summary of the 1996 Schonell Memorial Lecture. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 44, 193-206.

Kling, B. (1997). Empowering teachers to use successful strategies. Teaching Exceptional Children, 30(2), 20-24.

Knight, B. A. (1999). Towards inclusion of students with special educational needs in the regular classroom. Support for Learning, 14 (1), 3 – 7.

Leyser, Y., & Tappendorf, K. (2001). Are attitudes and practices regarding mainstreaming changing? A case of teachers in two rural school districts. Education, 121(4), 751-761.

Leyser, Y. Kapperman, G, and Keller, R. (1994). Teacher attitudes toward mainstreaming: A cross-cultural study in six nations. European Journal of Special Needs Education. 9, 1-15.

Lindsay, G. (2003). Inclusive education: a critical perspective. British Journal of Special Education, 30, 3-12.

Lipsky, D. K., & Gartner, A. (1996). Inclusion, school restructuring, and the remaking of the American society. Harvard Review, 66, 762-796.

Marchesi, A. (1998). International perspectives on special education reform. European Journal of Special Needs Education. 13, 116-122.

National Council on Disability. 1994. Inclusionary Education for Students with Disabilities: Keeping the Promise. Washington D.C. 20004-1107.http://www.ncd.gov/newsroom/publications/1994/inclusion.htm

OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) (1999). Inclusive education at work: students with disabilities in mainstream schools. Paris: OECD Centre for Educational Research and Innovation.

Pollard, R., & Rojewski, J. (1993). An examination of problems associated with grading students with special needs. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 20(2), 154-162.

Sharma, U. (1999) Integrated education in India: A historical perspective. Paper published in India- Australia Training and Capacity Building Project: Integrated Education for Children with Special Needs- A Training Manual, The University of Melbourne.

Smith, D.D. & Luckasson, R. (1995). Special education: Teaching in an age of challenge. Needham, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Stoler, R. D. (1992). Perceptions of regular education teachers toward inclusion of all handicapped students in their classrooms. The Clearing House, 66(1), 60-62.

Thematic Group 9. (1996). Fostering cooperation between mainstreaming and special Education. Funen, Denmark: Modersmalets Trykkeri.

UNESCO (1994). World conference on special needs education: Access and quality. (Final Report). Salamanca: Author

UNESCO (1996). Inclusive schooling and community support programs. Paris: Author

UNESCO (1994). The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education. Paris: UNESCO.

Wilczenski, F. L. (1992). Measuring attitude towards inclusive education. Psychology in the Schools, 29, 306-310.

Whitaker, P. (2004). Fostering shared play and communication between mainstream peers and children with autism: approaches, outcomes and experiences. British Journal of Special Education, 31(4), 215-223.

Diversity, Learning and Progress

Introduction: Diversity is about identifying the dissimilarities in the characteristics of individuàls that form their identities and the experiences they have in society. Diversity is the degree of basic human differences among à given population.

The modern-day learning environment faces many learning issues. Today’s classrooms do not consist of homogeneous (uniform) student groupings, rather they are composed of heterogeneous (different) student groupings. As our classrooms take on à new look, our teachers’ approaches to teaching must change to accommodate student diversity. Àlthough the schools are unable to control many factors that can influence à student’s academic success they can improve the ways in which they previously served them. This essay discusses diversity, learning and progress in à concise and comprehensive way.

Diversity

Managing diversity is reàlly about managing differences, and à simple training program cannot accomplish it. It is à culture change; à culture change initiated by enlightened managers who can see the energy and enthusiasm that result from capturing the best of many people and ideas. It is not enough that companies state their concern; they must take actiîn to show that diversity is vàlued (Kram, 1996, pp. 90-98).

Diversity, include diverse perspectives, approaches and sensitivities of culture, gender, religion, ethnic and natiînàl origin, attitudes, socio-economic and personàl differences, sexuàl orientatiîn, physicàl and mentàl abilities, culturàl power groups versus majority culturàl groups, productive abilities, power, knowledge, status and forms of sociàl and culturàl reproductiîn.

Therefore, diversity management means the creatiîn of internàl and externàl environment within which these different perspectives, approaches and sensitivities are incorporated and developed in order to manage diversity in such à way that the full potentiàl (productivity and personàl aspiratiîns) of individuàls and institutiîns may be reàlised optimàlly. (Kram, 1996, pp. 90-98).

Diversity activity is à vàluable resource in the educatiînàl environment and many institutes are seeing the need to implement these programs. Diversity is normàlly viewed as à race or gender issue but diversity covers an extensive range of various personàl differences. Diversity training through activity has become à necessity in businesses because of people’s differences in the educatiînàl field. Because institutes are so diverse, Diversity activity programs will help educate, sensitize and prepare students to get àlong in the educatiînàl environment.

Issues in learning

In sociàl learning theory, development and learning are, in other words, inseparable processes; and they constitute each other in an understanding of learning as participatiîn in sociàl processes.

The overàll governing questiîn for this review is: How does sociàl learning theory contribute to an understanding of organizatiînàl learning, which differs from à point of departure in individuàl learning theory? Most of the literature on organizatiînàl learning and its counterpart, the Learning Organizatiîn, departs from individuàl learning theory; and sociàl learning theory in organizatiînàl learning literature has grown out of à criticism of just that departure. The criticism is elaborated later, but, in short, it is that individuàl learning theory focuses on learning as inner mentàl processes related to the acquisitiîn and processing of informatiîn and knowledge. It leads to mind being the locus of learning, and as à consequence, à separatiîn of the individuàl learner and the context, in this case, the organizatiîn, for learning (Cazden, 1988, pp. 20-26).

Inclus³ve teàching indicates that teaching in techniques that do not leave out students, accidentàlly or intentiînàlly, from chances to learn. Inclus³ve teachers mirror on how they teach, as well as what they tåach, in order to employ the wide range of experiences and learning styles the³r students bring to the classroom (Cazden, 1988, pp. 20-26).

Commun³cating clear expectatiîns, using inclusive language, and articulating your dedicatiîn to honour³ng diverse perspectives can àll add to à more welcoming learning environment (Cazden, 1988, pp. 20-26). Additiînàlly, giving students the opportunity to provide an opinion at different t³mes àll through the quarter can àlso be cooperative in measuring how well your inclus³ve strategies are work³ng.

There is à very clear relatiînship between sociàl and educatiînàl outcomes in the United Kingdom establishing itself from early childhood. Our educàtiîn system has developed over numerous years through à changing society with changing demànds and hopes. The vàlues and assumptiîns that are widely shared throughout our society have determined how and why we teach and to understand why this happened we must consider the history of our relatively brief educatiîn history.

Bowles and Gintis (1976) developed an argument they càlled ‘Correspondence thesis’ where they believed that schools were organized to correspond to the work place. For example, the relatiînships of the principàl, teachers and students corresponded to relatiînships of the boss, leading hand and worker. This form of educatiîn prepared students for different positiîns in the economy in later life and was determined largely by the status of their family within society.

Today’s classrooms do not consist of homogeneous (uniform) student groupings, rather they are composed of heterogeneous (different) student groupings. As our classrooms take on à new look, our teachers’ approaches to teaching must change to accommodate student diversity. Àlthough the schools are unable to control many factors that can influence à student’s academic success they can improve the ways in which they previously served them. When differences in student achievement are detected associated with factors such as race, gender or economic status, à bias in teaching strategy must be suspected (Tenbrink, 1974, pp. 16-21).

Monitoring Progress

Research on self-monitoring typicàlly has employed multi-item, self-report measures to identify people high and low in self-monitoring. The two most frequently employed measuring instruments are the 25 true—fàlse items of the originàl Self-Monitoring Scàle and an 18-item refinement of this measure.

Empiricàl investigatiîns of testable hypotheses spawned by self-monitoring theory have accumulated into à sizable published literature. Among others, it includes studies of the relatiîn of self-monitoring to expressive control, sociàl perceptiîn, correspondence between private belief and public actiîn, tendencies to be influenced by interpersonàl expectatiîns, propensities to tailor behavior to specific situatiîns and roles, susceptibility to advertising, and orientatiîns toward friendship and romantic relatiînships.

It may be mentioned that soon after its inceptiîn, self-monitoring was offered as à partiàl resolutiîn of the “traits versus situatiîns” and “attitudes and behavior” controversies in personàlity and sociàl psychology. The propositiîns of self-monitoring theory clearly suggested that the behavior of low self-monitors ought to be readily predicted from measures of their attitudes, traits, and dispositiîns whereas that of high self-monitors ought to be best predicted from knowledge of features of the situatiîns in which they operate. Self-monitoring promised à “moderator variable” resolutiîn to debates concerning the relative roles of person and situatiîn in determining behavior. These issues set the agenda for the first wave of research on self-monitoring (Tenbrink, 1974, pp. 16-21).

To be brief monitoring is the process of creàting and changing experience into knowledge, abilities, attitudes, vàlues, emotiîns, beliefs and senses. It is the procedure through which individuàls become themselves.

References

Kram, K. E. and Hàll, D. T. (1996). Mentoring in à context of diversity and turbulence . In S. Lobel and E. Kossek (eds.), Human Resource Strategies for Managing Diversity . Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 90-98.

Cazden, C. B. (1988). Classroom discourse: The language of teaching and learning . Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, pp. 30-35.

Lindfors, J. W. (1987). Children’s language and learning . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hàll, pp. 2026.

Tenbrink T D (1974) Evàluatiîn à practicàl guide for teachers Maple press, pp. 16-21.

This chapter will examine the term stigma and discuss the negative attitudes that the public hold towards mental health and mental illness and suggest why they may have adopted these views and attitudes. It will also address the media’s role in portraying these views and sustaining these attitudes towards mental illness. An enormous number of individuals are affected by mental illness worldwide: the World Health Organization (WHO) (2001) has estimated that 1 in 5 persons will suffer from a mental illness each year. A question that could be asked if mental illness is a dominant and prevalent issue within society today why do people still hold these negative views and attitudes within society? Finally the chapter will conclude by making some recommendations for practice, ways that stigma can be reduced and how mental health and mental illness can be portrayed in a more positive light.

To fully appreciate the views and attitudes towards mental illness it is important to understand the concept of stigma. Stigma is derived from the Greek for a mark branded on a slave or criminal (White, 1998). Goffman’s (1963) seminal work on stigmatization has, over the years, stimulated a great variety of educational discussion on the nature, sources, and effects of stigma (Link and Phelan, 2001). According to Goffman (1963) stigma is a physical or psychological mark of disgrace that makes an individual stand out from society. Three types of stigmatizing marks identified by Goffman include,

‘Abominations of the body, tribal stigma, and blemishes of individual character’ (Goffman, 1963, pg 14).

People who encompass these physical or psychological marks are often devalued and dehumanised which consequently leads to their position within society being corrupted by the distressing effects of stigmatization (Goffman, 1963). A definition that can be seen to encompass all aspects alongside Goffman is offered by Miles (1981) cited in Brunton (1997) who says,

‘Societal reaction which singles out certain attributes evaluates them as an undesirable and devalues the persons who possess them.’ (p. 892)

The suffering and loss of opportunities that seems to always come hand in hand with a diagnosis of mental illness can be seen to be connected to the psychiatric symptoms that can be observed e.g. talking to voices, the decrease in daily functioning, and the dip in a persons social functioning in society (Corrigan and Wassel, 2008). However, the loss of opportunities and the person with a mental illness devaluing their own self worth take place for the reason of the stigma that surrounds mental illness (Corrigan and Kleinlein, 2005).

For the purposes of this dissertation ‘negative’ attitudes refers to discriminatory attitudes that are based on prejudice, stereotypes or inaccurate information. Stereotypes are firmly set judgements that are learnt throughout life and held firmly in our mind (Stier and Hinshaw, 2007). They are discriminating views or images related to members of particular groups (Corrigan and Wassel, 2008). Prejudice effects individuals in an emotional manner (Stier and Hinshaw, 2007) and occurs when people within society have the same opinion about a particular stereotype and affix this to a group of people making negative connotations towards that particular group (Corrigan and Wassel, 2008). Then again, Corrigan and Wassel (2008) state that discriminative behaviour can be seen as a direct result of prejudice. This involves a specific group being treated in a dissimilar way leading to that group not being able to access opportunities available to them or their rights being restricted (Stier and Hinshaw, 2007). Negative attitudes towards people with mental distress may be manifested by physical and verbal abuse, problems in the workplace or discrimination from people who provide services to people with a mental illness (Mind, 2010).

Negative attitudes are partly constructed in the language we use to describe mental illness. People with mental distress are often being described in derogatory terms. For example, perpetrators of acts of violence are often described as ‘Lunatics, mad person’ (Tudor, 1996), ‘schizos, nutters, psychos, fiends, monsters and maniacs’ (Twomley, 2007). This makes a clear link between violence and mental distress, it must be acknowledged though that not everyone who is violent necessarily has a mental illness. Angermeyer and Schulze (2001) suggest the general public view people with mental illness as bizarre, fear-provoking, impulsive, violent and lack self-discipline. From this, therefore, it could be suggested that people who have a mental illness are deviants or have deviant behaviour.

Becker (1963) defines deviance as ‘any trait or behaviour that was abnormal when compared to the average population’ (pg. ). If mental illness is classed as deviant then how bad does someone have to act or behave to be classed as deviant. This demonstrates that social rules that are made allow people to judge others as different or in this case deviant (Becker, 1963). This is further supported by Baumann (2007) who suggest that the individual’s picture of the world is created by comparatively constant norms, principles and expectations.

Angermeyer and Matschinger (2005) suggests a diagnosis of schizophrenia has, particularly, been found to be stigmatizing and linked with negative stereotypes such as violence and dangerousness. This shows that by mental health being medicalised it is profoundly unhelpful due to the diagnostic terms such as psychosis which can ‘shackle’ people to the mental health system (Watkins, 2007). In contrast Shepherd et al (2008) describe the recovery model as taking ownership and responsibility for an illness and what can and can’t be done, focusing on the strengths and issues rather than a diagnosis. This is a reliable source provided by the Sainsbury Centre for Mental Health. The recovery model will be discussed more in-depth in chapter three.

There is no doubt that the media plays a part in reinforcing the attitudes towards mental health and mental illness. In everyday life the public come into contact with the media by newspapers, TV and radio on a daily basis. The way people with a mental illness are viewed as dangerous can be seen to be fuelled by tabloid media publicity about ‘psycho-killers’ (Tudor, 1996). Examples of this are included in the appendix.

The report, Screening for madness, by Byrne (2009) reveals that films representations of people with experience of mental health problems have become more harmful, he suggests that,

‘Mental health stereotypes have not changed over a century of cinema. If anything, the comedy is crueler and the deranged psycho killer even more demonic.’ (pg. 4)

‘One flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest’ can be seen as the film most remembered for depicting someone with a mental illness acting strangely or violently (reference). Even though this was released 35 years ago it shows the influence of movie stereotypes on attitudes and how these can last generations. This is also demonstrated with the recent film ‘Batman-the Dark Knight’ depicting mental illness with violence which more or less is based around the mental illness schizophrenia (Byrne, 2009). This would suggest that ignorance and lack of understanding of mental illness are still very prominent in society today.

It must be acknowledged there are some exceptions to this, of more recent films that have portrayed a less sensational and more insightful picture of mental illness. For instance, ‘A Beautiful Mind’, in 2002, depicted the true story of a maths genius who had a diagnosis of schizophrenia, while ‘Shine’, in 1996, was the story of a brilliant pianist who had a diagnosis of bipolar disorder. Nevertheless, the more positive portrayals can represent mental distress as ‘exotic’, ‘dramatic’ or ‘romantic’ in ways that bear little resemblance to real-life experiences (Lott, 2006).

Likewise, media portrayals of mental health have been far from flattering and largely sensationalized. A survey undertaken in 2000 by MIND found that 73% of people with mental health problems felt that the reporting of mental health issues were unjust, biased and pessimistic (MIND, 2000 cited in Rethink, 2006).

In addition a study by Chopra and Doody (1997) looked at 98 newspaper articles and found there was no significant difference in the portrayal of schizophrenia. They did find overall that 36.1% of articles were negative in tone, 56.7% were neutral and 7.2% were positive. The word ‘schizophrenic’ is often used in tabloid stories in conjunction with violent events, somehow suggesting that the diagnosis can justify why the violence happened in the first place (Twomey, 2007). In reality, the person who happens to have a diagnosis of schizophrenia may have acted in such a way due to taking illegal drugs or may have a violent personality, we need to look at all aspect of what led to a violent situation happening and not just that someone was mentally ill.

The media can often be seen to be responsible for stigmatizing stereotypes of mental illness (Byrne, 1997),however, if the media was used to its potential it can challenge prejudice, enlighten and instigate discussions, helping to reduce the stigma that is so often experienced by people with a mental illness (Salter and Byrne, 2000). It is still evident through reporting on mental health that a diagnosis of a mental illness is linked to violence. There is however, some evidence of positive change where The Sun newspaper was made to remove a headline of ‘Bonkers Bruno locked up’ which was reporting on the sectioning of the boxer frank Bruno under the Mental Health Act (MIND, 2010). In 2006, the Press Complaints Commission (PCC) published a code of practice, which banned the use of stigmatising language around mental illness which reduced the use of the terms such as ‘schizo’ and ‘nutter’ (PCC, 2006). This gives an example of just how much the media has moved on over the years and that there are some strategies to prevent harm being done to people with mental health problems.

Becker (1963) concludes that people who are mentally ill are blamed for things that happen in society therefore you would think they would be punished or persecuted. It must be acknowledged that there are extensive resources devoted to the benevolent care and support of those with an enduring mental illness. Even though this is an old source it is relevant even today and apparent how services are developing for people with mental health problems. Nevertheless, people suffering from a mental illness are still feared and excluded from society (Becker, 1963 and Watkins, 2007). When people have acute mental health problems they can appear to the public to be frightening and exhibit odd behaviours which can often lead to police involvement (Taylor, 2008). At such times they can commit criminal acts, often escaping prosecution due to their mental illness at the time (Bowers, 1998; Taylor, 2008). Therefore, it could be argued that the public hold these views due to such examples where people are excused from their actions on the basis of some ‘supposed illness’. It could be suggested that they should be held accountable for their actions as anyone else would be (Bowers, 1998). It can be argued that these attitudes towards mental illness can be seen in a direct parallel to racism (Bowers, 1998). So why do people continue showing negative attitudes and views towards mental health as much work has been done in helping to combat racism, can the same not be done for people with mental illness.

Negative attitudes towards individuals with mental illness is widespread and can be capable of creating a significant barrier to treatment (Piner and Kahle, 1984). It has been established that negative attitudes can be individually the most significant obstruction to integration of people with a mental illness in to society (Piner and Kahle, 1984). Negative attitudes towards mental health can influence the path and result of their mental illness (Bowers, 1998). This can also lead to self-stigma which occurs when an individual with a mental health illness internalizes the stigma and believes they are of less value (Halter, 2004; Corrigan, 2007). This may result in low self-worth, loss of dignity, and lead to feelings of hopelessness (Campbell and Deacon, 2006). People who experience a mental illness often see no potential for them to undertake full time employment due to internalizing these negative attitudes that are held about the psychiatric system (Watkins, 2007). If we don’t help people recover from mental illnesses it is inevitable that it may become an enduring illness. An analogy given compares it to having a broken leg; if you don’t rest it then it won’t heal properly, the same could be said for the mind. Maybe if people were more positive towards mental health and mental illness then people with mental health problems would be encouraged to flourish in the community and not be seen as deviant. This is supported by Sayce (2000) who suggests that being part of the social foundations of the community is necessary for our psychological well being.

Generally most people would like to think they are compassionate and have inclusive attitudes towards people who experience a breakdown in their mental health (Ross and Read, 2004). Except, discrimination is still communicated in everyday social situations in subtly distancing, condescending exchanges, flippant outlooks or obvious hostility leaving people feeling socially isolated (Watkins, 2007). This could be due to the fact that mental illness shows how fragile human nature is therefore people’s/societies anxieties and fears about mental health may be due to seeing the potential that any one of us could develop a mental health disorder (Becker, 1963).

From my practice to date the following example really brought home to me the level of stigma and negative attitudes people have towards mental illness. When listening to an account from a service user it made me realise how public attitudes towards people with mental health difficulties is still a big issue and a real challenge for health care professionals. Mary explained that when taking a taxi to give a talk to students about living with mental illness she got talking to the taxi driver. At first he thought she was a lecturer but when she explained what she was going to do he became very quiet and stopped conversation with her. She found this a very ignorant and closed way of dealing with the situation and became quite upset about it.

Having examined the concepts of stigma, discussed the negative attitudes that the public hold towards mental health and mental illness, suggested why they may have adopted these views and attitudes and addressed the media’s role in portraying these views and sustaining these attitudes towards mental illness. It is now important to draw some recommendations and challenges that can help reduce the stigma of mental illness and promote a more positive picture to members of the public. These recommendations include education and public contact.

Firstly, education of the public both at school and after (Murphy et al 1993; Penn et al 1994) about mental health and its prevalence among every one of us is really important. Education is widely approved for influencing prejudice and discrimination (Corrigan and Wassel, 2008). Corrigan and Wassel (2008) ask the important question,

‘If people had the correct knowledge or effective problem solving skills, would they be able to give up public stigma and handle associated concerns more directly?’ (pg. 45)

Education can generate small effects on attitudes; unfortunately, this kind of change in attitude is seen to not be maintained over time (Corrigan et al, 2001). This demonstrates the need to continually re-educate people to reinforce the message. Challenging the public is most effective when it targets people who frequently interact with individuals with mental illness: landlords, employers, GPs, police officers etc (Corrigan and Wassel, 2008).

Secondly, most importantly the media needs to comply with their code of practice (2006). If something does appear in the media that appears stigmatising people should protest against it not accept it and reiterate that it won’t be tolerated. As nurses we need to encourage that positive things surrounding mental health of mental health are promoted in the media.

Lastly, the public need more contact with people who are experiencing mental health difficulties. This type of contact can provide the most healthy and positive findings toward changing public stigma (Penn et al,1994; Pettigrew and Tropp, 2000). It can be something as small as someone speaking about their mental illness in a group situation to co-workers learning of someone coping with a mental illness. The effectiveness of utilising contact can be improved when the person with a mental illness is seen by society as in the same social class as them (Gaertner et al, 1996). In Link and Cullen’s (1986) study they found people who had contact with someone who had a mental illness showed much lower anxiety around danger compared to those who had no contact. Murphy et al’s (1993) study contradicted this as they found having contact with someone with a mental illness did not impact on their attitude. However, they did establish that people who spoke of having knowledge of mental illness showed a reduced anxiety and fear of mental illness.

Finally, the prevalence of mental illness in society cannot be underestimated. As previously alluded to with 1 in 5 people suffering from a mental illness (WHO, 2001) we cannot afford to ignore the impact of stigma, all health care professionals especially nurses need to advocate for clients and work with others to promote and protect the health and wellbeing of those in their care, their families and carers, and the wider community (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2008).

Having discussed the views and attitudes that the public hold towards mental illness and those experiencing mental health difficulties it is now important, in the next chapter, to examine the views and attitudes of general nurses. Many will come into contact with people with mental health problems particularly in accident and emergency (a and e) and a medical setting.

Developing a sense of place through Key Stage 1 & 2 Geography Teaching
Introduction

This paper looks at a particular aspect of teaching and learning geography that is particularly significant: developing a sense of place, as defined under the programme of study Knowledge and Understanding of Places of Key Stage 1 & 2 of the Primary School National Curriculum. The idea of developing ‘sense of place’ is first discussed in detail and then children’s learning is considered, in terms of what children will actually learn from undertaking this activity, and why this is a valuable part of the curriculum. In terms of what children will actually learn, the paper will consider such things as developing a ‘sense of place’ using an enquiring approach, enhancing children’s perceptions of their locality and their concept of nested hierarchies, developing a vocabulary for geography, enhancing their observation skills and recording skills, during fieldwork, for example.

Under the National Curriculum for the UK – Geography, the stated aims and purposes of teaching geography are to stimulate children’s interest in their surroundings and in the variety of human and physical conditions on Earth, to foster a sense of wonder at the beauty of the world, to help children develop a sense of concern about the protection of the Earth’s natural resources and to enhance children’s sense of responsibility for the care of the Earth and it’s peoples (The Standards Site, 2007). The aim of key stage 1 is to develop knowledge, skills and understanding relating to the children’s own immediate environment, in terms of the physical environment and the people who live there, with the focus on developing thinking in a geographical way i.e., utilising questions such as ‘What/where is it?’ (aimed at developing observational skills), ‘What is it like?’ (aimed at developing reporting skills), and ‘How did it get like this?’ (aimed at developing analytical skills) (The Standards Site, 2007). Key stage 2 geography teaching aims to further develop knowledge of place and peoples, but further afield from the immediate locality, so that children begin to learn about different scales and how they relate to each other and to other places on Earth (The Standards Site, 2007).

In terms of the current paper, implicit within these stated aims of Key Stage 1 & 2 geography teaching, is the development of a child’s perception of ‘a sense of place’, in terms of children being able to firstly recognise where they are, then to be able to describe the features of their immediate environment, and to undertake investigations which would allow them to further explore and understand their immediate environment (The Standards Site, 2007). With these aims in mind, in terms of developing a ‘sense of place’, one of the first recommended units within Key Stage 1 curriculum is entitled ‘Around our school – the local area’ which uses investigative methods to encourage children to look at their immediate, i.e., local, area.

The investigative methods include funding out where other children in their class live, in comparison to where they themselves live, for example, locating the school in comparison to other local landmarks they know about, identifying what else can be seen in the streets immediately surrounding the school (for example, traffic lights, car parks etc), describing what the immediate environment is like, investigating what jobs people do in the local area, for example by asking other children what jobs their parents undertake, looking at how people spend their leisure time, for example by asking if other children’s parents have hobbies, or what the other children do in the evenings and at weekends, looking at the local area to see if any building work is taking place, and then discussing how this might change the local area, for better or for worse (The Standards Site, 2007). All of these points can be amplified upon by the teacher, and can be discussed in much greater detail with the individual children, and between groups of children, so that the children really begin to develop some sense of their own ‘sense of place’, in terms of understanding and analysing their own local environments (i.e., their school, their home, their routes between school and home etc.).

As can be seen, therefore, the National Curriculum gives a very clear set of guidelines as to how geography should be taught to Key Stage 1 & 2 aged children, with these guidelines broken down in to easy to manage modules, with each module incorporating new skills (such as investigative skills, reporting skills or analytical skills), beginning with investigations and discussions of the children’s local environment and with each subsequent module designed to take the children a little further afield than their local environment. This, it is aimed, will clearly develop a child’s ‘sense of place’ in terms of first orientating them with regards to their local environment, and then, slowly, introducing them to environments that are further afield, for example, through a progression of scales, of nested hierarchies, i.e., studies of, first, the local town, and then subsequently of the local city, the county, the country, Europe, the world and it’s people. It is aimed that through this sequential and progressive approach to teaching about geography, aside from the skills that the children will acquire, the children will also, as we have seen, develop a strong ‘sense of place’.

We have seen that the National Curriculum provides quite explicit guidelines as to how to teach geography to primary school children, but what, on the ground, as it were, can teachers do to ensure that the lessons that need to be taught to children are taught in the best way possible, and are taught in an entertaining and effective manner? To this end, there are all sorts of study aids that teachers can use to teach geography to primary school children. Some of these teacher aids will be discussed in the following sections.

One set of teacher aids, designed specifically for teaching Key Stage 1 & 2 geography curriculum to primary school children is the Super Schemes series, developed by the Geographical Association, in particular Unit 1, which is entitled Around our School: The Seagulls Busy Day and Unit 2, which is entitled Making Our Area Safer: The Twins Holiday. These books use an almost story book-like approach to teach children about geography through the eyes of characters that the children can relate to. It is intended that the children read of the characters, and what they do within the books, and that, through this, the children learn about the aims of the geography curriculum. The explicit aim of this series of books is to enhance and improve the vocabulary of children, in terms of the vocabulary that is necessary for an understanding of geography, to enable their own understanding of a ‘sense of place’. The Around our School: The Seagulls Busy Day title, for example, aims to help children realise that maps can be useful in the location, recording and visualizing of information. The Making Our Area Safer: The Twins Holiday title has similar aims, but also aims to encourage understanding of issues of sustainability of community, through looking at safety issues within the community, in particular the issue of how young children deal with traffic and how young children (i.e., the twins in the story) can manage to overcome the problems that traffic poses to them.

These two books in the Super Schemes series are interesting in that they present a particular, traditional, way of teaching a particular idea to children, using a different ‘take’ on a tried and tested formula, which many teachers may find useful, and easy to implement. For teachers, however, who prefer a more ‘hands-on’ approach in their attempt to develop a child’s ‘sense of place’, there are other, more ‘hands-on’ teacher aids that can be incorporated in to Key Stage 1 & 2 geography teaching, for example, the Earthwalks kit, designed by Hekkle and Van Matre (1980), which is designed to educate users about nature, by making the users ‘get in touch’ with nature, through reawakening the senses of the user, and sharpening their perceptions of their sense of place, for example, and of the beauty of their immediate environment.

The idea of the Earthwalks kit is to provide activities, based around hour-long walks, including relevant activities, which can be used to heighten the users perception of their environment. The activities are written in a child-friendly manner, and the kit is presented in a card/binder format, so that, for example, children can add in their own paper to make notes, or to draw something they have seen along the walk that they found particularly interesting. The approach presented in the Earthwalks kit is entirely ‘hands-on’ and attempts to encourage the development of a sense of wonder about the child’s environment, in terms of encouraging heightened observations and, as such, to encourage heightened appreciation of their environment, developing, very practically, a heightened ‘sense of place’ in the users.

The idea of developing ‘sense of place’ is therefore crucial in teaching geography to primary school children, in terms of encouraging a connection with their environment, encouraging responsibility to the local environment, and laying a foundation on which children can build, in terms of taking this understanding, appreciation and responsibility for their local environment further, when children begin to learn about areas that are further afield, or other cultures, for example. A child that has a well developed ‘sense of place’ from an early age will be much more tolerant, responsible, appreciative and responsive to the ‘other’ than a child that has not developed a coherent ‘sense of place’ from an early age.

As we have seen, children’s learning about geography at Key Stages 1 & 2 is very well structured, and the aims of these Key Stages are very well defined, in terms of leading children gently through the progression of understanding their local environment, and from this later understanding environments that are further afield, or other cultures, for example. In terms of what children will actually learn from undertaking the activities suggested throughout the Key Stages 1 & 2 Geography Curriculum, as we have seen, it is aimed that children will first learn about, and learn to understand their local environment, and then, through Key Stage 2 that they will begin to take these learning tools and move on to learning about environments that are further afield, and about other peoples and cultures. This is a valuable part of the curriculum, obviously, as children need to, as we have seen, first develop a strong understanding of their immediate environment, through developing a ‘sense of place’ and then, from this, take this appreciation, understanding and responsibility to environments that are further afield. This approach to learning about their surroundings encourages thinking in a responsible and sustainable manner, such that children are encouraged to appreciate, and thus to care for, their surroundings, whether these be their immediate surroundings, or whether they be further afield.

In terms of what children will actually learn, as we have seen, the aim of Key Stages 1 & 2 Geography teaching is, essentially, to develop a ‘sense of place’ using an enquiring approach, enhancing children’s perceptions of their locality and their concept of nested hierarchies, developing a vocabulary for geography, enhancing their observation skills and recording skills, during fieldwork, for example. As we have seen, the various teaching aids that are available can help in these aims, especially if the two types of teaching aids, ‘traditional’ versus ‘hands-on’ are used in conjunction with each other in the classroom, in order to encourage children’s learning and acquisition of knowledge.

In conclusion, I feel that developing a child’s ‘sense of place’ is an implicit aim of the Key Stages 1 & 2 Geography Curriculum, and that, as such, encouraging a child to develop a strong ‘sense of place’ is a fundamental part of teaching geography to children at this stage of their development. As we have seen, at the beginning of this paper, teachers have been given a very strong conceptual framework for developing their geography teaching, in the form of the National Curriculum specifications, which provides them a basis on which to teach children about geography. Within this, however, as we have seen, teachers are free to decide how they teach their pupils about geography. We have looked at two ‘types’ of teaching aids, one traditional, using the characters in books to develop children’s vocabulary and sense of responsibility, the other more ‘hands-on’ using walks to encourage a sense of wonder about ‘place’ and to encourage an appreciation of the natural beauty of ‘places’. It is, of course, the decision of the individual teacher as to which type of study aids are chosen in order for the teacher to encourage thinking about ‘sense of place’ within their pupils. In some sense, the way in which geography is taught is not important: what is important is that this ‘sense of place’, this appreciation of a child’s environment is fostered, so that children act responsibly towards their immediate environment, and further afield, in terms of caring for the natural environment as a whole. If this ‘sense of place’ is fostered in the classroom environment by the teacher, the teacher can be said to have done their job, and done their job well.

Sources

Bridge C., 2005. Super Schemes Unit 1, Around our School: The Seagulls busy day, Sheffield, Geographical Association.

Bridge C., 2005. Super Schemes Unit 2, Making our area safer: The twins holiday, Sheffield, Geographical Association.

Hekkle, K. & Van Matre, S., 1980. Earthwalks, Greenville, USA, IEEMills, D. (1992)

Scoffham, S., 2004. Primary Geography Handbook. Sheffield, Geographical Association.

The National Curriculum of the UK – Geography

The Standards Site (2007). Geography at key stages 1 and 2: teaching geography at key stages 1 and 2. Available from http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/geography/teaching?view=get. Accessed on 17^th April 2007.

The following websites were also useful:

http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/geography/?view=get

www.nc.uk.net/webdav/harmonise?Page/@id=6004&Subject/@id=3449

Introduction

Communication is a dynamic process in which a transmitter transmits information receiver via a channel , in order to produce some effect on the receptor. Effects of transmitter on the receiver are often persuasive in nature because when we communicate the information will be understood as send us.

Any information directed intentionally gets the message. This implies the existence of a recipient or acceptor and not just a receiver or collector . Also involved there is a issue, encoder or decoder court.

Communication involves reversal of messages within the relationship which unites two entities, even if the messages are of the same order. Man can communicate with animals, with nature, but the most developed, evolved and of course analyzed is communication within groups of people. This implies the existence of natural or cultural structures and techniques that require organization and regulatory guidelines .

Communication implies the existence of individual goals linked to other targets individuals or groups and subgroups. In a subgroup can be shaped by objectives, skills, availability and situations that cause structure.

Communication within a group involves specific techniques and exercises by: group organization, group members complete interaction , reporting real and creativity of its members.

Creativity is regarded as a property of the human psychic system. It is a particular dimension of personality dimension interacting many factors such as mental ( intellectual, affective, motivational, volitional, skills, attitudes), the nature of social (socio – cultural, educational) and biological. This interaction gives deep complex phenomenon that is fully justified that domain experts could not reach a universally accepted definition. Most definitions of creativity subsumed visions characterized by addressing the concept of aptitude or ability to produce something new, the process to produce new or problem solving. Therefore, the literature is taken as a reference framework or personality variables or creative process or product of the act of creation itself.

Modern research on creativity was born in America on her motivation is pragmatic one, namely the lack of personalities ” creative “. The explosion was triggered studies in the field of Guilford ‘s speech at the meeting of the American Psychological Association in 1950. This speech occur in the same year in an article that warned neglect this problem in scientific research. Guilford posted a three-dimensional model of the structure of intellect which opens early emancipation creativity from under oppressive intelligence. In his model, Guilford distinguish between convergent thinking and divergent thinking. Convergent thinking, confronted with a problem, always seek to deduct the fair way to solve them and also to obtain the unique solution : this is the kind of thought checked using conventional tests of intelligence. Divergent thinking rather seek more opportunities for settlement and this method brand new usage given state of knowledge. Guilford revealed three groups of factors involved in creation : mobility, flexibility and elaboration.

In the 1980s , creativity becomes a favorite theme applied psychology studies. A proof of the importance given to this area in the social context of those years is organizing exhibitions dedicated to creativity. This exhibition marks the time of revival of experimental studies in the psychology of creativity and the emergence of a new model and a new methodology, namely the type cognitivist.

Lately studies on creativity have expanded the reference. Research revealed relationship between creative thinking and critical thinking and the role of variables such as personal style. Moreover the question of creative potential (which has varying degrees each person) and the importance of stimulation and its development.

Content

Creativity is a specifically human phenomenon. Most experts agree that creative potential is present in each individual, it is possible to transform it from virtuality to reality (active under the influence of an environment favorable) that stimulate and develop their creative potential. On this idea, saying that P.P. Neveanu human potential and therefore the creative is not a given size permanently. It can be stimulated by a complex socio-educational approach and organized, including simultaneous activation phenomena, training, cultivation and development through creative virtues update by passing them through effective assertion of possible real.

We must not forget the distinction between creative potential (the potential latent ) and creativity (the actual act), and the distinction made by Aristotle. Otherwise we could draw hasty conclusion that as long as the premise of the original product creativity is only the privilege of adults, children and even adolescents do not possess creative potential. In fact, he still performs acts of originality, but it does mean that it has the potential. In addition, it was found that there is a specific creative potential by age, it should not be considered the child’s potential by adult achievements.

Complexity creativity requires the participation of a large number of factors, different in nature. May be noted, however, two types of factors:

Objective factors (represented by economic and social conditions necessary for cultural climate) ;
Subjective factors (represented by intellectuals factors, skills, attitudes, motivation and willpower ).

Factors considered indispensable in the creative process are: flexibility, fluidity and originality.

Fluidity is the richness, ease and rapidity of associations between images and ideas flow verbal fluency, rich ideation. J. Guilford fluidity distinguishes three types : verbal, ideational and expression. It considers that it is important so as quality of ideas speed.

Flexibility is the effective restructuring of walking thinking in relation to new situations, the ability to easily operate transfer (perceptive plan in the figural and the conceptual) orientation and thinking ability in many different directions ( Carter ) . Guilford distinguish three types of flexibility :figural, semantic and symbolic. P.P. Neveanu consider originality with central factor in creation, since as the number of responses is greater, increase the chance of an original response.

Originality defined by rarity and novelty involves interpretation and personal expression of things, common situations . A. Koestler distinguishes ordinary originality by three criteria :a) the level of consciousness that is driven activity, b ) the type of guidance that trusts subject, c ) the nature of the obstacle to be overcome. F. Barron determined following originality : the independence of the reasoning, complex views, nonconformity, rich perceptual systems, high capacity of generalization, self-confidence, authority. Originality makes the product to be characterized by novelty, singularity, freshness, uniqueness.

Another factor influencing creativity is perceptive style, apprehension. This factor cognitive reaction designate how to solve problems.

Creativity, both at individual and group level may be limited by a number of obstacles (blockage). Among them, in his opinion A.Cosmovici (1998 , pg 154 ) the most common are:

Social jams and conformity , mistrust of fantasy, imagination, or exaggerating the value of logical reasoning and so on;
Methodological bottlenecks resulting from the processes of thinking, in this category include :stiffness previous algorithms, functional fixity (using only objects according to their function and rarely recognized for another purpose) and premature criticism.
Emotional blockages such as :fear of failing, of not embarrass us, rushing to accept the first idea promoted ; discourage rapid and premature , etc. .

All these barriers in the way of creative and innovative attitudes event can be avoided when discussing and analyzing problems to be solved is achieved through genuine effective interpersonal and group work through a positive attitude to each group member to common task and through open communication, uncensored opinions. Such an atmosphere is provided especially when, for creativity group is calling and a number of methods and techniques that create relaxation group, less critical condition favoring free association as ideas promoted in the debate.

The most effective means for overcoming inertia and psychological barriers in the process of creation is the joint creation of intuitive techniques. The most common methods are intuitive creation: Brainstorming, synectic, Panel Discussion, Philips 66, 6-3-5 method, Delphi method and method Frisco.

Brainstorming, or, brain storming, it is an effective method for generating ideas group being drafted in 1948 by the A. Osborn. It is a creative deliberation with the purpose of generating and aligning a set of ideas that can serve as guidance for solving a problem in question.

Basic principles of brainstorming are:

Postponement of criticism (evaluation) . Osborn believes that imagination should be allowed first to soar up into the sky, then back on the ground with critical thinking ( Osborn, 1971);
The need to develop as many ideas on the principle of transformation of quantity into quality.

In addition to these basic principles must be respected and other rules such as encouraging the enunciation and ideas seemingly bizarre , unusual, but the analysis can be very effective, it stimulates combining and improving ideas, formulation of ideas generated so personal thinking and that of other group members.

Synectics or free association is the method developed by Gordon WI and consists in combining different elements, apparently uncorrelated with the aim of releasing the constraints in the problem formulated, eliminating negative responses, annealing thinking and thinking out the template for the development of original ideas and viable.

6-3-5 method involves six people who initially formulated by 3 ideas each. Figure 5 shows the number of people who worked the first 3 ideas neighbor. The exchange of ideas is done until 3 ideas first pass by each group member. Finally, centralized management ideas and transmitted.

Philips 66 method was developed by Philips and JD is actually a brain storming paticipanA?i number is 6, and during the discussion is limited to 6 minutes. There are several groups each consisting of six members, each having a leader who realizes report ideas.

Delphi method was developed by O. Helmer and consists in mutual consultation between the participants. We develop a questionnaire on the topic in question to be sent for completion of specialists. When the responses are collected. Subsequently return the questionnaires for completion this time accompanied by unarticulated responses of the other participants. Phasing ideas that deviate from the average, the circuit ending once the stabilizing responses.

Frisco method aims to discover, to solve difficult problems, complex ways of solving both simple and effective. Involves the formation of two teams. Investigation team, consisting of 12 to 15 persons examined problem solving and re-imagines the classic methods, analyzes them critically and emphasizes basic difficulties. Actual creative team consisting of 5-6 experts, receiving checklist first team, trying to find solutions to enrich new or even existing ones.

Lately, experts have focused on developing a program to promote the work of new ways of learning and thinking styles designed to contribute to the foundation for effective learning, sustainable and constructive. It’s about promoting methods of developing students’ critical thinking designed to help them, through the confrontation of ideas through collaboration and cooperation to find appropriate solutions to resolve data issues. This educational program was initiated by Jeannie Steele and Kurtis Meredith in 1995 and today, through the Foundation Open Society based in New York, he is promoted in many countries of the world. In our country, one of the teachers trainers on effective learning strategies and promoting creative thinking in working with pupils and students, Ion. Dumitru, he published “The development of critical thinking and effective learning ” ( West Publishing House, Timisoara, 2000) we present, in summary, the main features of these methods. Firstly it should be noted that, in terms of this concept, critical thinking is not to have a negative position, unrealistic, inefficient but rather critical thinking is a way to address and solve problems constructively, with the purpose of grounding and foundation opinions , rational argumentation their acceptance of their knowledge. It involves : formulation of each pupil / student of his own mind, personal, original possibly related to an issue responsible debate ideas and advanced solutions for each individual individually or as a result of group work, manifesting a high degree of flexibility, tolerance and respect for the ideas of others and thus acceptance of diversity of opinions and ideas and asking questions like “what if?”, ” what would happen when? “etc. to encourage exploration of phenomena from multiple perspectives, even when some of them are only possible or probable etc .

These features of critical thinking and methods used for its development a very close group creativity peculiarities and methods used for its stimulation. Thus, the main methods of developing critical thinking include:

a) “Think / Pair / Communicate ” . Based on a question from the teacher, students develop their answers individually, then in pairs to communicate to each other the answers, to listen and try to finally reach a consensus or a new response, improved following discussions;

b) the cube method. Helps students to study a theme, a concept from different perspectives , it involves using a cube (real or imagined ) that has different instructions written on each side of it, as follows: Describe, Compare, Associate, Analyze, Apply, Argues. The teacher asks students to write about a particular concept or a theme through all six sides of the cube. It is preferable to follow the order presented because it leads students gradually to complex thinking.

c) Technique “cluster”. It is a technique of teaching and learning that encourages students to think freely and openly, to highlight the various connections between ideas or to build new associations between them. Technology “cluster” may be used individually, but used group enables each student to become acquainted with the ideas of others, links and associations between them made by his colleagues.

d) joint investigation and discussion network. It is a learning technique based on group work, activity guided by one or more questions asked by the teacher, admitting different answers, the result of choices based on arguments. This method involves: reading by students individually, text that contains ideas likely different interpretations, grouping students into pairs and their collaboration to answer one or more questions asked by the teacher to the whole class setting a “discussion networks” between the advocates of a position to produce the necessary arguments and counter counter-arguments supporting it.

In work -based training group investigation and discussion network, several requirements must be met: encouraging participation of all group members in discussions to achieve joint investigation and summarizing the arguments of the group with the agreement of all participants, focusing on the “dismantling” adverse position and arguments not “personal attack”.

Such a method of training helps the students acquire some skills and abilities related to: receptivity to arguments offered in support of their beliefs, the ability to make assumptions about the beliefs and the beliefs of others, the ability of everyone to express open and disagreement in a problem free, creative ability as evidenced by the construction of original cognitive approaches, but also strongly motivated etc.

Conclusions

This brief overview of some of the methods and techniques for developing creative thinking by teachers in the activities with groups of pupils/students is able to provide just one example of their concern for creating adequate conditions to achieve effective learning, and to enhance their creative and innovative capacity. Communication is the tool by which the teacher stimulates the creativity of pupils/students and also the way they externalize their creative potential. Creation itself is the result of symbiosis of communication between teacher and student. Therefore the act of learning focus should be not on the reproduction of information transmitted, but the creation of new ideas that reflect each student’s personal touch.

Therefore, obedience school groups and generally any grouping of scientific research conducted from the perspective of the psychology of new acquisitions can provide teachers and other professionals effective ways of optimizing the activity. These methods and techniques of research in psycho-sociology of human groups are meant to decipher various ways of investigating social groups, structures and processes that arise within it.

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM THEORIZING

Curriculum theory is the manner in which the philosophy of certain approaches to advancement and enactment of curriculum is described. Within the wider field of curriculum studies, it is both the analysis of the curriculum historically and a way of viewing contemporary educational curriculum and policy decision.

However, a very useful starting point here is the definition of the word “curriculum.” According to John Kerr’s definition which was adopted by Vic Kelly in his typical work on the topic, curriculum entails planned and guided learning by the school. It is carried on in either groups or on individuals, within or without the school.

There are four manners in which to approach curriculum theory and practice. They are as follows:

Curriculum is seen as a body of knowledge to be transmitted.

In this sense I cannot equate the curriculum with a syllabus. In essence the syllabus is simply a summarized assertion of the heads of a dissertation, the gist of a discourse, and the subjects of a series of lectures. It is attached to courses directed to examination. This view of the curriculum limits planning to a contemplation of the content or the body of knowledge that may be transmitted.

Curriculum as a product, i.e., an effort to attain definite ends in students.

However varied human life may appear to be, it consists in the performance of specific activities. Therefore, education should prepare a student for life, i.e., preparing definitely and adequately for such activities. Despite being copious and varied they can be exposed for any social class. This obliges one to go out into the world of affairs and find out the specifics of which his/her affairs consist. And as such it would be easy to show the abilities, forms, habits, appreciation and attitudes that people need. These have to be the objectives of the curriculum, thus making it (curriculum) a progression of know-how that learners at all levels must have by way of obtaining those objectives.

Curriculum as process.

Looking at curriculum as a process implies how teachers, students and knowledge interact. That is, curriculum has to be seen in terms of what essentially takes place in the classroom set up and what people do to prepare and evaluate.

Curriculum as praxis.

Whereas the process model is impelled by broader principles and emphasizes on judgment and meaning making, it does not formulate unequivocal statements about the interests it serves. The praxis model on the other hand, conveys these to the centre of the course and makes an unequivocal dedication to emancipation. Therefore, action is not merely informed, it is also committed. That is, curriculum is not merely a set of plans to be implemented, but somewhat is composed through a dynamic process in which planning, acting and evaluating are all mutually related and incorporated into the process.

Therefore, curriculum should in due course produce students who are able to deal efficiently with the contemporary world. It should not be presented as finished concept, but should instead include the learner’s preconception and should amalgamate how the learner views his/her own world. In this perspective four instincts are used, to describe how to characterize the behavior of children. They consist of social, constructive, expressive, and artistic. The curriculum should then build a logical sense of the world in which the child lives. As a curriculum designer I have to use livelihoods to connect diminutive account of fundamental activities of life classroom activities. This could be accomplished by combining subject areas and resources. It means I have to make connections between subject matter and the child’s life.

Teaching methods should focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting, and projects, often having students work in groups. Curriculum should bring the disciplines together to focus on resolving problems in an interdisciplinary way. Rather than passing down organized bodies of knowledge to new learners, they (learners) should apply their knowledge to real situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares students for citizenship, daily living, and future careers.

I have to acknowledge the fact that humans are social beings and do learn best in real-life activities with each other. Therefore education must be based on this principle. As a curriculum designer I will have to depend on the paramount scientific theories of learning available. I may borrow from John Dewey’s model of learning where learners behave as if they were scientists. That is,

Be perceptive of the problem.
Be able to delineate the problem.
Suggest the hypothesis to solve it.
Weigh up the consequences of the hypotheses from one’s past experiences.
Test the most likely solution.

With this view on human nature, it is my genuine concern that students should be provided with real-life experiences and activities that center on their real life. This is in comparison to a distinctive progressivism slogan which states, “Learn by Doing!”

According to NCLB Act of 2001, assessments of students is supposed to be criterion-referenced tests where a student is tested on his knowledge of the required content or if he/she can do the required skill as outlined in the state’s standards. Unlike the norm-referenced tests, where student’s performance is based on how he/she is ranks compared to other students, the curriculum has to provide a substitute to the test-oriented instruction as stated by the NCLB Act 2001 on funding. This will enable the student, at the end of his course of study, to apply the knowledge he acquired to real-life situation in his/her daily life.

As contrasted to the traditional curriculum of the 19th century, that is ingrained in conventional preparation for the university and strongly discriminated by socioeconomic level, I strongly propose a type of curriculum which finds its roots in the current experiences, is more autonomous in outlook and looks forward. The quality of this curriculum should:

Emphasize on learning by doing, i.e., hands-on projects, experiential learning
Integrate curriculum that is focused on thematic elements
Strongly emphasize on problem solving and critical thinking
Encourage group work and growth of social skills
Understanding and action should be the objective of learning as contrasted to rote knowledge.
Accentuate collaborative and cooperative learning projects
Emphasize education for social responsibility and democracy
Integrate service learning projects and community service into the daily curriculum.
Select the content of the subject by looking forward to ask over what skills will be desirable in the prospective society.
Discourage emphasize on textbooks as only learning resources in favor of other varied learning resources.
Emphasize on life-long learning and social proficiencies.
Assessment based on evaluation of the learner’s projects and productions.

In conclusion an acceptable curriculum should be that which makes a learner to be creative, self-reliant and make him excel in all aspects of life that suite his desires. It would be unfair to have a curriculum which ignores the social aspect of a child because he/she lives in a society that is ever social. The curriculum should also enable the student to apply that which he/she learns in the classroom in real life experience.

References:
http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/module1.html, (2008) Module One: History and Philosophy of Education
Stenhouse, L. (1975) An Introduction to Curriculum research and Development, London: Heinemann.
Kliebard, H. M. (1987) The Struggle for the American Curriculum 1893 – 1958, New York: Routledge.
Taba, H. (1962) Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice, New York: Harcourt Brace and World.
Blenkin, G. M. et al (1992) Change and the Curriculum, London: Paul Chapman

Focus on Curriculum Development Learning Styles

Introduction: There are different learning styles that have developed with accompanying tests that helps individuals to understand their learning styles. A learning style is a method that is used to educate which is particular to a specific individual and which is assumed that if used by that individual, it will help them to learn their best. It has been described as that particular style that helps individuals to process the stimuli of their mind which helps them to understand what they are being taught.

Though the concept of learning style is relatively young having gained ground in the 1970s, it has become an important process in the modern education especially on matters concerning how teachers use it in the curriculum and how it is used in the development of the curriculum. It has been found out that if teachers understand the learning styles of their pupil, they can help their students to adapt to the needs of their classroom work and hence make the process of learning interesting to them. Therefore it has been found quite important to integrate the various learning styles of students in the curriculum in order to ensure that the curriculum meets the needs of the various students who are taught using the same curriculum. (Wang and Nagy, 2007)

This paper looks at different learning styles that have been identified. It will try to relate the learning styles with how they are being in the curriculum. Hence the focus will be on the learning styles and how the curriculum has been developed to cater for the needs of different learning styles. But first let us look at learning styles.

Models and theories of learning styles

There are more that 80 learning styles that have been proposed but all of them consist of some basic styles. There are three basic learning models that have been identified and that are used by learners. Let us look at these models.

Visual learners

This is a model where student learn through seeing. It is a method in which ideas, concepts, and other information are closely associated with the images that are represented in a graphical manner. The learner just need to see the body language of the teacher and the facial expression that the teacher in order to understand what they are teaching. This method is mostly used by those students who are able to concentrate for a long time and who prefer to sit in front of their classrooms in order to avoid any distraction to their visual aids. These students may think in pictures and at the same time learn form the visual displays like diagrams, overhead transparencies, videos, flip charts, and other materials which use visual aids to communicate. The learners are usually very much attentive during the classroom lessons and they take notes in order to absorb most of the information that is being given by the teacher. (Lawrence, 1999)

Researches have found out that visual learning theory helps students to improve in many education areas including critical thinking where they are likely to link graphics with verbal and visual information and draw understanding from such a relationship, retention where these students are likely to remember most of the information which was visually or verbally represented, comprehension where student can understand new ideas and connect then to their previous experience or knowledge, and organization where the students can actually use diagrams in order to organize large amount of data in a way that it can be easily understood. The base of this learn style lies in the way a student can visualize the data and later interpret it and build literacy along that data. (Sather, 2007)

Auditory Learning Style

This is a style where students learn through listening. In this style, students learn through verbal lectures which include a variety of discussions, talking and listening. The student who uses this style may not strive to be in front of the classroom but they like staying at a distance where they can get most of what is happening. They are able to interpret the meaning of a speech through interpreting the underlying tone of teacher voice, pitch, speed and other nuances of speech. They may not concentrate on writing what is being said but they are very keen on listening what is being said. They don’t rush to take notes but they take time to write their notes. The learners also can benefit a lot from reading aloud texts and also use a tape recorder. This style is used by about 20 percent of the population. In most instances, when these students are learning, the read but they cannot understand if there is no sound in the background. Therefore most to them will be reading and at the same time listening to music or any other background noise. Some of the students have been found to read when there is noise in the background. These learners focus more on the sound that they are hearing that what they are learning. When they are spelling, they usually use sounds. In case they meet with individuals, they are likely to forget their faces but remember their names. These students also like to talk a lot. (Kolb, 2003)

Tactile or Kinesthetic Learners

These can be described as learners who learn by moving, doing or touching. They have been descried as learning best through a hands approach in which they actively explore the physical world around them. Although they may appear like restless students how finds it hard to sit still for long period, they use their restlessness in moving and touching to learns. In this regard, this learning style is said to take place when student carry out the physical learning activity instead of taking their time to listen or watch the demonstration of a learning activity. Student who use this learning styles have been said to the some of the natural discoverers learners as they are able to achieve most of their learning through practical applicability of the theories unlike having thought over something for along time and then initiating the concept. However there is not evidence that has been shown to support the efficacy of the kinesthetic theory of learning.

Going by the above learning theories, the visual learners makes up to 30 percent of the population while the auditory learners are around 20 to 25 percent. There fore kinesthetic learners could make up majority of the population in this regard making up to about 45 percent of learners. Kinesthetic learners have been found to be more efficient in the other physical activities at school and in other areas of application.

This analysis gives us the three major types of learning styles that are used. This shows diversity that exists in the student population and therefore there is need to understand this diversity in order to be an effective curriculum instructor. This indicates that though a teacher may be having student in the same class, they m ay be having diverse needs than the physical needs that the teacher can actually see in the students. Therefore as was said in the introduction, there is need for the teacher to have full knowledge of the diverse learning styles of each and every student in order to cater for their needs. Without such and understand of the learning styles of students, it would be hard for a teacher to identify students and classify them into their respective learning styles. This would help the teacher to serve them well. Let us now look at how the curriculum is developed in order to cater for the needs of these students. (Fang, 2002)

Curriculum Development and Learning Styles

Curriculum is used to support the effort of the teacher in education. A curriculum is just a set of program that gives detail on how students should be taught. It acts as guideline that is systematically made to allow learner to understand concepts it stages. It is an important tool not only to the teacher but also to the learners. Educators place so much emphasize on the design of the curriculum since it has impacts on the education of the students. Curriculum and instruction are some of the most important sectors in education. Hence we can say the curriculum is the base of any education process. (McCarthy, 2004)

As we have said learning theories are very imprint in the education process. This is because they have an impact on the design of not only the curriculum but also instruction and assessment. Learning theories are considered when coming up with the process since they are important in supporting the education process. Learning theories are important in the curriculum since educator place a lot of emphases on the intuition, feeing, sensing, imagination and other aspects that are important in helping the student understand what they are being taught. In the curriculum learning styles are also important in analyze, reason and the problem solving process.

In the instruction, learning theories have an impact in that teachers should come up with their own instruction methods which will help the students understand what they are being taught. Teachers should come up with instruction methods that caters for the needs of the students using the above four learning styles. This means that it will first take the teacher time to understand the kind of learners who are in the class and try to address their needs in the process of teaching. A teacher will use various experiences that have been gained over time. In addition a teacher will be expect to use reflections, conceptualization and experimentations in coming up with the best teaching method that will help the students understand. As instructors of the curriculum, teachers can introduce variety of experiment elements in the classrooms like sound, music, visuals, body movement, verbal lecturing and other methods which will cater for the needs of the students.

For a teacher to know whether they are giving needed curriculum and instruction to the student, they are likely to assess the students. This is a part of the curriculum which shows the effective of the design and implementation of the curriculum. In this regard, teachers must understanding the needs and learning styles of different students in order to come up the proper assessment techniques. Because teachers cannot give different assessment tests to different students according to their learning style, they should therefore employ various techniques in the assessment that will help them to develop all the brains in their classroom. In their regard, the assessment tests should be balance such that it addresses all the needs of students without giving undue advantage to others.

The curriculum is made up of the above mentioned three aspects. That means that there is the curriculum content, there must be defined was in which the curriculum shall be instructed to the students, and it must provide means of assessment for the contents of the curriculum. Therefore the provision of the curriculum must be based on the learning style as had been illustrate above.

Consideration of the learning styles is very crucial in the learning environment since it dictates the way the curriculum is developed. In developing the curriculum, there must be effort to address the needs of each and every student. As we have seen from our analysis, the biggest percentage among the student population perhaps the kinesthetic learner who constitute about 45 percent of the population. Therefore the curriculum must take into consideration this proportion of the population in order to have relevant and effective contents. The content of the curriculum must give specific details which ensure that the deliver of the contents will have more practical work than theoretic work. This is in order to work with the percentage of the population that is high in the population.

Unfortunately many curriculums that have been designed have not kept to the issue of learning theories in the population. This makes many of the curriculums unable to meet their expectation. The expectation of any curriculum is to impart knowledge to the students in the simplest manner possible. This will help them to gain knowledge easily. Therefore if the curriculum is to meet its goals, it must be designed in a way that it addressed the needs of each and every learner in the population. In this regard the curriculum may be having the contents that take care of the learners but the instructors may fail to implement these provisions. This makes learning ineffective and student underperforms.

Conclusion

As we have seen there are various learning styles that are used by students. These learning styles are important since they help each and every student to understand the contents of the curriculum in the simplest way possible. Teachers as the instructors of the curriculum must understand the learning style of their students in order to give them the best instructions that they need in their learning process. The design of the curriculum must also take care of the needs of each and every student. Therefore the curriculum should be developed in a way that its content, instruction and the assessment guides must give each and every student an advantage. This means that teachers as the instructors of the curriculum have a role to play to ensure that the needs of each and every student is met.

Reference

Fang, A. (2002). Utilization of learning styles in curriculum development. New York State

Kolb, D. (2003). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. New York: Wiley

Lawrence, G. (1999). Practical Guide to Learning Styles; Oxford University

McCarthy, B. (2004). Teaching to Learning Styles; London: Routledge

Sather, A. (2007). The benefit of principals and teaching of supporting youth engagement in school; NASSP Bulletin December 2007

Wang, N. & Nagy, J. (2007): The alternate route teacher transition to the class. NASSP Bulletin, March 2007

Introduction

This paper focuses upon inclusion as an international issue. It is structured in three basic topics. Firstly, there is a description of models of inclusion mainly implemented in the U.S.A. Then, there are presented the barriers for greater inclusiveness with some examples of schools from New Zealand, from the States and Northern Ireland. Finally, there are described some solutions, proposed by recent literature, aiming to overcome the barriers and achieve education for all.

Main Body

Defining Inclusion

Searching through the literature, numerous authors describe the term “inclusion” via different definitions. This explains the various ways “inclusion” can be seen. A large amount of information has been provided through definitions for its purpose, its philosophy, its emergence as a rights issue as well as a social one. In this paper, “inclusion” will be examined as an educational issue and the terms “inclusive school”, “inclusive system”, “inclusive education” are used alternatively.

As such an issue, it could be claimed that “inclusion is about a philosophy of acceptance; it is about providing a framework within which all children- regardless of ability, gender, language, ethnic or cultural origin- can be valued equally, treated with respect and provided with equal opportunities at school” (Thomas, Walker and Webb, 1998 :15). “Inclusive education stands for an educational system that includes a large diversity of pupils and which differentiates education for this diversity” (Pijl, Meijer, Hegarty, 1997: 1). “Inclusive education is an unabashed announcement, a public and political declaration and celebration of difference…It requires continual proactive responsitiveness to foster an inclusive educational culture” (Corbett and Slee, 2000: 134). “Inclusive schools are defined as those that admit high proportions of pupils with SEN” (Dyson et al.2004: 10). The definitions above are just a small sample of the different approaches to “inclusion” estimated as an educational aspect.

Models of inclusion

Changing a school into a more inclusive one is not an easy case. It constitutes a whole reform in order to have a lasting meaning for everyone engaged. This reform has been presented through some models of inclusion, which do not appear as panacea. They do have both advantages and disadvantages but tend to lead to a more reconstructed education. We could categorize these models to the ones promoting part-inclusion and the ones promoting full-inclusion. I will describe below models from both categories, which have been implemented in schools in the U.S.A.

According to Zigmond and Baker (1997), self-contained classes and resource rooms in regular schools constitute models of part-inclusion. The first one depicts mainly a tendency for integration that has to do with the placement of children with SEN. The perception that they are in need of a different curriculum from their peers restricts their participation only to lesser activities. The teacher of the regular class needs a professional’s guidance but the model still seems to be ineffective due to the low expectations the teacher has from pupils with special educational needs. The second one detaches from the regular classroom the children who need support in order to receive it from a special education teacher, who will teach them on obtaining basic academic skills or also on acquiring learning strategies. The results are dual because on the one hand the student’s self-esteem tends to follow an upward trend but on the other hand (s)he not only misses the opportunity to attend what the rest of the class is being taught during his/her absence but also there is incompatibility between the methods followed in the two classrooms.

Having as a target to incorporate both special education and the pupils to whom it refers in the mainstream school, the two authors above suggest two full inclusive models: the Collaborative Teaching Model (CTM) and the MELD one (Zigmond and Baker 1997).

In the classroom where the CTM model takes place, there is collaborative spirit between the teacher of general and special education. Through their daily contact they decide who will teach what, they teach together and they both aid all the pupils. As a result, the teaching procedure becomes more productive due to the fact that each teacher is responsible for a smaller number of children. Apart from this, a classmate’s support is also available to the child with SEN through the “study- buddy” system.

As far as the MELD model is concerned, it is a broad reform as it engages the whole school in the inclusion effort. It encourages all children with learning difficulties to attend the general school no matter their performance. The special education teacher has a peripatetic role but the time he will spend in a class depends on the number of children with learning difficulties. There are weekly co-planning meetings but the disadvantage of the model is that the special education teacher has so many duties that (s)he has no much time left to pay the essential attention to pupils who really strive to attend the mainstream school. That is why their parents have to pay for extra tutorials or to choose another school environment for their child.

Montgomery (1996) describes six of the several full inclusive models that can be implemented in a classroom framework.

The first one reconstructs the traditional tension according to which interdisciplinary support was given in a separate class. Now all this personnel is an integral part of the class but can still offer more individual assistance when needed.

The second one is a collaboration of coexistence of a general education class with a special education one of the same age. When that happens, two or more teachers share their experience and skills, one around curriculum and the other around support and vice versa so co-teaching becomes a fruitful process.

The third full inclusive model encourages liaison mainly among general education teachers. There can be in a class a variety of special education needs, so the teacher can receive help from the rest of the staff teaching the same grade. Moreover, there is a timetable designed by paraprofessionals, who itinerate is it mostly needed. So, the last ones do not need to be there in a continuous basis but instead cooperation among teachers and group teaching can be a really helpful combination. Consistency is the key in this group. That means that when children move to next grade, it is essential the same function to be adopted so as to assure that there will be an alignment in the teaching method.

The fourth model refers to older children especially ones of secondary education. Compared to the rest of the children, pupils with SEN have the opportunity of making three choices instead of two. So, apart from core and elective modules they can also attend support centre. The aim of this model is equal support to be offered both during core and elective modules and not let a child restricted in the resource room with just some “visits” to the regular one.

To continue with the fifth model, there is a student support centre in the school, the scientific team of which not only offers support on an individual basis but also collaborates with teachers of regular class. This model offers extended contact between special educators and children as support is not only provided in the centre but also in the class or on a group basis but the criteria for success for success is trust among personnel members as each child is not one professional’s duty but a whole team’s responsibility.

The last model according to Montgomery (1996) refers to adolescents with special educational needs who will attend for four years courses in a campus with students without special needs. There are meetings offering advice and guidance to general educators while the special ones remain close to the child by providing support for developing skills to achieve better contact with peers and participation to extracurricular activities. The key to success is the head’s assistance.

Barriers that prevent schools from promoting greater inclusiveness

By proclaiming that “every child has unique characteristics, interests, abilities and learning needs” and that “education systems should be designed and educational programs implemented to take into account the wide diversity of these characteristics and needs” ( UNESCO,1994, p.p. viii) it is represented a tendency for promoting inclusion. Not only international declarations but also government documents and educational acts elucidate the multilevel importance of inclusive practices. To support this, emphasis is given on ‘h3 educational, social and moral grounds’ (Tilstone, Florian and Rose 1998, p.2) of inclusion through the issue of equal opportunities and human rights one. The values of acceptance and limitation of discrimination of disabled people have given rise to the debate around their belonging in ordinary environments, and more specifically, for the case examined here, in an ordinary school.

Despite the dialogue among governments, ministries of education, organizations, legislations, educators, (SENCOs), parents, specialists there still remains a significant gap between theory and practice. Prohibiting factors are social as well as practical aspects. When examining the barriers for promoting inclusion and more specifically within a social context, one should take into consideration the medical model and the individual’s perceptions, which come as its consequences.

In order to understand the impact of medical model on exclusionary discourses, it is of essential importance to think about the progress of medicine during the past century. The fact that a doctor has the ability and the privilege to diagnose, prescribe, cure and rehabilitate raises him in the sphere of authority. Vlachou (1997) states that the medical model is extremely dominant and it demonstrates its strength through labeling and its policy around disability. The medical ideology boosts its prestige through its success to penetrate in the social system and leaves people no opportunity for questions but instead it accepts the professional’s judgments as they are. Moreover, it uses the principle of normalization in an ambiguous way. On the one hand, the use of normalization is similar to “cure” but a disability cannot be treated. A child with Autistic Spectrum cannot overcome it and become some day an adolescent or an adult without Autism. On the other hand, medical model tries to use “normalization” alternatively to “equal treatment” forgetting that “equal: does not always mean “same”. (Vlachou 1997).

Direct effect of the model above is the creation of tensions of considering disabled people as heroes because they manage to live in such an inhospitable society despite their difficulties. This decreases their self-esteem and their self-image and may lead to internalized oppression.

Furthermore, another consequence related to this is the establishment of perceptions of each individual about what is “normal” or “abnormal”, “superior” or “inferior”. This has mainly been affected by socially constructed norms and values dealing with appearance but undoubtedly family plays a major role. Different ideologies, ways of upbringing and environments have a different impact on each person. Within a school environment, there is another significant challenge. Labeling is a situation that both disabled people and the advocators of human rights ask to be demolished. Even if a student is has a formal diagnosis or not, his observable behavior could ridicule him in his peers’ eyes. As far as teachers are concerned, their attitudes can also be a barrier for managing inclusion. They usually expect less from the pupil; they underestimate his abilities so he has a tendency for underachievement. (Vlachou, 1997). Teachers’ duty is not only to teach the curriculum. They represent one of the most substantial and crucial factors and have a key role in the school reform and its change into a democratic one.

What was described above is what literature characterizes as social barriers for achieving inclusion at schools. In other words, the medical model, its effects of heroic images and labeling, individual perceptions based on predominance of beauty and educators’ attitudes are the social struggles for inclusive education.

Apart from the social barriers there are also some practical aspects which arise in daily practice and obstruct inclusion.

Pauline Zelaieta (2004) conducted an investigation and found some difficulties faced by mainstream practitioners on the way to inclusion. Firstly, teachers of general education are afraid of lacking the expertise and confidence to work on issues relating to special educational needs. Secondly, teachers in general schools lack time. They have a strictly structured teaching in order to provide curriculum, so this pressure permits no flexibility of re-instructing the lecture in a more suitable and supporting way, which can appeal to every pupil’s differences and needs. Other inhibitive factors were found to be the “lack of leadership, organizational difficulties and financial constraints” (Zelaieta 2004: 43).

A review of the relevant literature has revealed that there are many commonalities among the schools regarding their unsuccessful efforts of promoting inclusive education to all their children.

Purdue, Ballard and MacArthur (2001) raise the issue of “warrior parents” through their research. As such, are defined those parents who make any endeavour to incorporate their children in a mainstream school but they run up against the exclusionary attitudes of the staff who see these children “as different and as belonging elsewhere” (Purdue, Ballard and MacArthur 2001: 40). Indicant of the excluding practices is the unwillingness of the school to accept a child with disability and other parents’ attitudes.

The authors mention that the evidence they collected about what happens in New Zealand at both public and private pre-school level is disappointing especially for those parents whose only choice is a rural kindergarten. In some cases the heads of the centre claim that they are not obliged to take these children in the school. In some other cases children with special educational needs were accepted but under certain conditions or provided their parents’ presence. Furthermore, they describe how the centre can exert control over the child’s attendance of the school. The staff will not welcome any child with disability unless he has his personal assistant teacher. In case the teacher aide is unable to go to school, the child has to stay at home. It is also argued the need for resources such as materials, supportive staff and measures for accommodating physical access. That is why many children are excluded either directly (by telling the parents that they cannot accept him in the school environment) or indirectly from the school (by informing the parents that they are positive about him but there is lack of resources). The research criticized as additional exclusionary factors the teachers’ limited knowledge about disability and other parents’ not welcoming behavior. So, the importance of parents’ advocacy is very vividly highlighted in order to ensure that their child will receive the expected education like the rest of the same-aged ones. Very frequently parents need to advocate even for the most obvious services to be offered to their child. But on the other hand parents face the dilemma of how the teachers will treat their child if they will put a lot of pressure on them and be too strict with them. (Purdue, Ballard and MacArthur 2001).

Moran and Abbott (2002) examined through their investigation how eleven schools develop inclusive practices in Northern Ireland. Their findings acknowledged the invaluable help of teacher assistants but a significant number of them had scrappy education and knowledge about how to work with children with special educational needs. Some other had no qualification. Instead, they had significant experience. As a result they needed to be retrained and this policy was followed by all the schools participated in the research. This happened either in the school context or with a distance learning program.

Moving on with the aspects stated as barriers for inclusion through their research, low degree of team work can be mentioned as one. Assistants’ role was defined mainly by the heads through the things they should not do, such as avoid being overprotective or playing a discreet role during the breaks.

The results of the investigation above are in accord with the findings of a research (Gibb et al. 2007) which showed that barrier factors in the inclusion practice seem to be among others the personnel’s lack of knowledge, child’s limited social participation and academic ability as well. Teachers interviewed admitted firstly the short of knowledge about what kind of teaching strategies to implement on children with special educational needs and secondly the fact that they were not skillful enough to exploit their potential. It is reported that it is of great importance their needs to be met. That is why the authors highlighted the essentiality of partnership between mainstream and special schools. Collective work and giving feedback for improvement can diminish the barriers.

The curriculum can also be an additional factor, which in practice resists inclusion. It would be a wrong judgment to assume that certain teaching methods are accessible only to children with specific abilities or needs. There are no strategies to use as panacea, but creativity is essentially useful to promote a curriculum that all students will benefit from it. It is crucial not to perceive curriculum as means of promoting knowledge but as a chance to interact with others (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998).

Armh3 (1999) indicates another dimension of curriculum. The one that it portrays what is accepted through social practices and through the philosophy of each module that is taught. The curriculum creates a cultural space which is obvious from the language used to teach a specific subject, from the books, from people’s appearance and this underestimates their identities. The development of creative pedagogies can control what is being taught and destroy the authority of norms and tensions, which some institutions and teachers impose.

Black- Hawkins, Florian and Rouse (2007: 15) define inclusion as “the process of increasing the numbers of students attending mainstream schools, who in the past would have been prevented from doing so because of their identified special educational needs”. Basic assumption to promote inclusion in regular schools is the buildings’ and facilities’ suitability for children with disabilities. Even though unobstructed access to school is a precondition for the child to attend it, it is very frequently too far from reality and this is another barrier for promoting inclusion. First and foremost, it is important the school to be adapted to pupil’s needs and accommodate its routine and not vice versa. So, a school needs to have an a priori inclusive policy- to put it differently, school has to provide for children with disabilities since its construction. The inclusive philosophy of a school is clearly important to be obvious and substantial not only in the classrooms but in every facility of the school environment (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998).

Black- Hawkins, Florian and Rouse (2007) describe some schools’ efforts while trying to change their image into an inclusive one. Kingsley Primary School was the first case study to be examined. This school had approximately 650 children when visited by the authors above, but provided no full access to the total building for children with motor difficulties as there was no elevator. As far as Amadeus Primary School is regarded it had by 2005 411 pupils. Although it is a really attractive school with light classes and colourful walls, it does not offer access to children with physical disabilities. The third school was a secondary one called “Harbour Community”. 1,200 children was the total number of pupils in 2004. This school, as happened with the other ones before, could also not assure the accommodation of children with physical or hearing difficulties as there was no provision for them. The small size of the classrooms was a prohibitive factor for wheelchair users and the acoustics of rooms did not help in order to attend a suitable teaching within a welcoming environment. Finally, the last case examined was the Chester Community School, a secondary school as well. It had a population of 1,300 adolescents, of whom 5% were diagnosed as having special educational needs. Comparatively to the rest of the schools inspected, this was the most inclusive one, but although there is a general tendency for promoting inclusion it has restrictions as far as accessibility is concerned. Some parts of the building are open to access but the unaffordable cost for the renovation of the school remains the main barrier.

Judging from the data collected from a small sample of buildings, we are able to conclude that four out of four schools are unable to implement inclusion (even up to a point) and this is a frustrating rate. It is easy to consider that no matter how inclusive services a school may offer, the first and foremost that has to provide is unimpeded access. (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998).

Inclusion is discussed and suggested in an extended degree through national and international documents, for instance the Salamanca Statement, the Framework for Action on Special Educational Needs, the Index for Inclusion. The obstacles that prevent it from being established in school environments need to be removed. To sum up what was described above, we can categorize the barriers referred in literature into social and practical issues.

The medical model is mentioned as social because of its impacts on disabled people’s life. Not only this, but its consequences do also have a negative effect on them, owing to viewing them as heroes or as “deviant”. Finally, teachers’ opinion can also be an obstacle to promoting inclusive education.

On the other hand, as practical difficulties we can characterize these ones, which rise in the daily routine. More specifically, general teachers’ perception of lacking knowledge about special education, lack of time to deliver the curriculum as well as the curriculum itself, restricted access to school buildings, limited team work on the part of teachers and unwillingness of some schools to accept disabled children are the practical aspects, which promote exclusionary instead of inclusionary philosophy and practice.

Overcoming the barriers – Solutions

Moves towards inclusion involve abatement of the struggles for inclusion. Overcoming of the social barriers can be fulfilled if changing the society’s function by letting disabled people’s voices to be heard. Another direction that can be taken is the one of intervening to the social field of school. A radical change of the general attitude of the school is indispensable and needs to take place. The school is useful to act as a collaborative community, which sets no restrictions to its members to be part of it. (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). Segregation based on the criterion of ability needs to be eliminated and this can happen through teachers’ and peers’ attitudinal change (Pijl, Meijer and Hegarty 1997). Inclusion can be developed within a framework of assistance and support on behalf of teachers. Students can deconstruct the philosophy of exclusion by working into small groups to do in-classroom activities or by peer- tutoring. Strategies like these ones or as “circles of friends” or “buddy-systems” (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998) promote an accepting philosophy in the classroom context and help collaborate under the partnership spirit.

These actions are not by themselves the direct solution to the problem of inclusion in school level. The dimension of cultural change is the basic one to be reformed. The Index for Inclusion, which is a material based on the 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of Child and UNESCO’s 1994 Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action, specifies the dimension of creating inclusive cultures. “This dimension is about creating a secure, accepting, collaborating, stimulating community in which everyone is valued, as the foundation for the highest achievements of all students. It is concerned with developing inclusive values, shared between all staff, students, governors and parents/ carers that are conveyed to all new members of the school” (Booth et al. 2000: 45). As a result, new cultures affect society in general and school community in particular. In that way teachers are willing to design new teaching approaches so as to respect every pupil’s needs, differences and abilities and students are willing to respond to that pedagogy.

This is the first step to move on providing solutions for the practical barriers which were analyzed before. Taking the attitudinal and cultural change for granted, this can positively affect alternative ways for the curriculum delivery. For instance, students’ arrangement into groups, use of innovative materials, brand-new lesson format and interesting tasks differentiated by activities can create an active learning environment. The achievement of goals can happen through supportive relationships and mixed groups in which one’s abilities will accommodate other’s needs. Focus on the whole classroom instead of individuals separately can promote the delivery of an inclusive curriculum (Thomas, Walker and Webb 1998). If educators plan their teaching, if they offer group activities employing curricular differentiation and if there is mutual respect inclusion can undoubtedly be promoted. (Gibb et al.2007).

“Producing inclusive policies is a second dimension mentioned in the Index for Inclusion, which “is about securing inclusion at the heart of school development, permeating all policies, so that they increase the learning and participation of all students. All forms of support are brought together within a single framework and are viewed from the perspective of students and their development rather than school or local education authority administrative structures” (Booth et al. 2000: 45). A school for all is the one, which can firstly offer physical access to its pupils. Then, it supports them not only by making the use of buildings comfortable but also by offering psychological support. For instance, by aiding new students to adapt to the new environment or by representing their educational needs and create small peer-groups during teaching so that everyone can benefit from it. Inclusive policy supports diversity in multiple ways. That can happen by supporting activities for students with special needs or for those whose native language is not the same as the rest of the pupils. (Booth et al.2000).

After examining the theoretical part of what is inclusive policy, it is essential to discuss how a sample of schools implements those policies. Kingsley Primary School had a high level (60%) of children for whom English was an additional language and about 15% of pupils with special needs. The school had a clearly admission policy and tried to respond to pupils’ needs. For that reason, the school had some facilities corrected and removed some of the barriers regarding participation and access. Implementing inclusive policy according to the Index, urged Kingsley School to support all children needed aid in learning. To do it successfully, they arranged some teaching groups. Gifted children, pupils with discipline problems or with problems on using the local language attended some lessons in separate classrooms and finally they had the ability to attend the curriculum in their class with their peers. (Black-Hawkins, Florian and Rouse 2007).

Although the policy of Amadeus Primary School regarding accessibility is not that inclusive, the school provides “low dado rails to support children with visual impairments and a hearing induction loop system” (Black- Hawkins, Florian and Rouse 2007 :72). It embraces all new children and a peer mentor is responsible for each one of them especially for the first-day-difficulties. As far as children identified as having learning difficulties are concerned, their needs are met by planning their homework.

The last dimension of inclusion explored by the Index is about developing inclusive practices and is defined as reflecting “the inclusive cultures and policies of the school. It is concerned with ensuring that classroom and extra-curricular activities encourage the participation of all students and draw on their knowledge and experience outside school. Teaching and support are integrated together in the orchestration of learning and the overcoming of barriers to learning and participation. Staff mobilizes resources within the school and local communities to sustain active learning for all” (Booth et al.2000: 45). So, barriers discussed above such as lack of time or lack of leadership and tem work can be removed.

The Index for Inclusion suggests the creation of a coordinating group, the head of which will raise staff’s knowledge about its purposes. Acting not as an expert but as a consultant s/he can collect information about staff’s and parents’ opinion on what are the real priorities and aspects for change. After the collection of evidence, further discussion follows on arranging a development plan, which will be monitored via meetings, councils, debates. (Booth et al.2000). After that, everyone’s duties will be reassigned. The teacher will know what s/he has to do, the teacher assistant will have a clearer idea about his/ her role and his/her performance within the classroom, the SENCO, the planning team, the senior staff and the head teacher will be able to work in a new, much more organized and closely monitored context. In that way, lack of leadership and organization and lack of time stop acting restrictively against inclusion.

Collaborative work is highly promoted in the framework of inclusive culture. Moving towards inclusive practice, team work acts as a basic assumption, not only among staff members but also among them and the parents/ carers. Good interaction of those involving in inclusion and respect to each other’s knowledge and experiences are the keys for their efficient partnership (Armh3 and Moore 2004).

Lack of specialist knowledge was referred to a great extent as a prohibitive factor for inclusion. Liaison of special and general schools seems to be really effective. The first ones can train the general educators and provide them suitable material for using while teaching children with SEN. They can also equip them with strategies and ideas for adapting the curriculum to their diversities and the teaching time can be better administered (Cheminais 2003).

Collaborative engagement, value others’ opinions, active listening and working with a plan in a monitored context, as proposed by the Index, can be the right solutions to the barriers for inclusion.

In a school that finally decides to implement and promote inclusive practices there is an atmosphere of collaboration, students learn from each other, children support one another regardless of the group activities and they have attitudes of respect and acceptance. Children use their resources as well as staff’s expertise to reinforce inclusion. (Booth et al.2000; Black-Hawkins, Florian and Rouse 2007).

After having discussed the three dimensions for achieving inclusion (inclusive cultures, policies and practices), it is difficult to say which comes first. None of these separately can provide that high results as when co-existing and acting as one. To p