Category: Free Essays

Homosexuality is a romantic or sexual fascination or natural behaviour between individuals having same sex. The word homosexual is a Greek and Latin mixture. As a sexual direction, homosexuality demotes to a continuing outline of or nature to feel sexual, care, or romantic attractions mainly to people of the same sex, it also states to an individual’s sense of personal and public individuality, originate on those attractions, performances conveying them, and devotion in a society of other people who share them. Homosexuality is solely consisted of the three main groups of sexual orientation, all along with bisexuality and heterosexuality, surrounded by the heterosexual-homosexual band. Presently, the most universal adjectives is use are lesbian for women and gay for men, however, gay can demote to either men or women. Many individual who recognize as gay or lesbian, and the ratio of people who have same sexual looks are hard and tricky for researcher to calculate consistently for a number of reasons. Gay, normally refers to affection and love between males. In the framework of sexuality, lesbian states only to female homosexuality. Homosexuality is also extensively come across in the animal kingdom. Homosexual relationships and actions have been approved in addition to condemned all through the proved history, depending on the type they took and the civilization in which they taken place. Homosexuals have made a decision to survive their lives with a person of the same sex. In the case, if it is man and man or woman and woman, they are cheerful with whom they are spending their life. Even though, many persons do not describe homosexuals as normal couples, they are capable to take care for a child only as any other couple is capable to. These citizens are also employed, working for the organization, love, fight, forgive and forget (Mucciaroni).

To discuss more about the topic, I have organized my paper into several sections. In the first section, I discuss about the basic concept, ‘should homosexual parents allow to adopting children.’ In the second section, I talk about the background and circumstances of homosexual adoption. In the third section, I converse about the disagreement to the homosexual adoption, will both parents are essential in the success of the family, misleading notion of challengers of homosexual adoption and there is no scientific proof and support which states that homosexual would be bad parent. Finally, in the last and fourth section, I talk about the rogerian discussion of solution.

For number of years, the entitlement of homosexual parents to adopt children has been an extremely disputed concern. Homosexual parents and the requirement to adopt children comes with great anxieties for the terror of probable emotional and/or psychological dysfunctions that child may tolerate. At the same time, the population of homosexual is attempting to get more identification in the concept of marriage, they are also making an effort more their privileges as parents. Parents, both homosexual and heterosexual have relates to the happiness and comfort of their children. Homosexual couples should have a right for adoption since, they can make dependable and responsible and affectionate parents as well as heterosexuals. A major issue for homosexual parents is whether the attendance of having two same sex parents will modify or discord the adopted children’s public life and sexual orientation. Sexual orientation is not a foundation on whether an individual will be fit to a parent. Many children have unsuitable parents of heterosexual orientation and those individuals are not considered by their sexual preference.

Sexual orientation states to a continuing outline of or disposition to feel sexual, sentimental or romantic appeal mainly to men, to women, or to both sexes. It also states to a significance sense of personal and social identity on the basis of those attractions, behaviours, expressing their feelings to others, sponsorship in a society of others who share them. Even though sexual orientation varies all along a continuum from completely heterosexual to absolutely homosexual, it is normally explained in the labels of three categories such as heterosexual, means having sexual and romantic relationship mainly to members of the other sex, homosexual, relates to having sexual and romantic relationship with mainly to individuals of the other sex, and third category is bisexual, which means having a important and major quantity of sexual and romantic attraction to both men and women. Sexual orientation is separate from other constituents of sex and sexuality, comprising biological sex, is the anatomical, physiological and hereditary features connected with being male or female, gender identity, is the psychological feeling of being male or female, and social gender role, and is the observance to social standards signifying feminine and masculine behaviour.

Sexual orientation is usually conferred as a quality of the individual, like biological sex, gender identity, or age of an individual. This viewpoint is partial because sexual orientation is at all times explained in relational terms and essentially includes relationship with other individuals. Sexual performs and romantic attractions are classified as homosexual or heterosexual as per the biological sex of the individual comprised in them, relation to each other. Certainly, it is by acting, or requesting to perform, with another person that individuals state their heterosexuality, homosexuality or bisexuality. This contains simple actions as holding hands with or kissing another individual. Therefore, sexual orientation is integrally connected to the close and personal relationships that human beings shape with others to meet their intensely believed essential for love, attachment and intimacy. Additionally to sexual behaviour, these relationships include nonsexual physical liking between partners, united objectives and values, joint support, and uncompleted commitment and dedication. As a result, sexual orientation is not just a personal feature that can be expressed in separation and loneliness. To a certain extent, an individual’s sexual orientation describes the world of individuals with whom one is possibly to discover the satisfying and rewarding relationships that, for many persons, include an important section of personal identity (American Psychological Association, Sexual orientation, homosexuality, and bisexuality).

American Psychological Association supports mental health professionals to ignore pretending the effectiveness of sexual orientation change efforts by sponsoring or promising modification in sexual orientation when offering assistance to individual’s concerned by their own or others’ sexual orientation and decides that the profits stated by participants in sexual orientation change efforts can be added all through methodologies that do not make an effort to changes sexual orientation. The American Psychiatric Association (APA) has described, some people think that sexual orientation is natural and fixed, though, and sexual orientation expands across an individual’s lifetime. The American Psychiatric Association also explains that, most people feel little or no sense of selection about their sexual orientation. In a combined statement with other main American medical organizations, the APA talks about that different people understand at different positions in their lives that they are heterosexual, gay, lesbian, or bisexual. A description from the Center for Addiction and Mental Health declares that, for some people, sexual orientation is permanent and fixed all through their lives. For other individuals, sexual orientation may be solution and change over the period of time. One experiment, has explained that substantial variability in bisexual unlabeled, and lesbian women’s appeal and attractions, behaviours and identities. In a recent study conducted in 2004, the female themes, both gay and straight women, became sexually produced when they pictured heterosexual and also lesbian erotic films. Along with the male subjects, though, the straight men were turned out on just erotic films with women, the gay are the ones by those with men. The experiments senior associate explained that women’s sexual wishes is less strictly directed in the direction of a particular sex, as compared with men’s, and it is more inconstant and unreliable from time to time (American Psychological Association, Resolution on appropriate affirmative responses to sexual orientation distress and change efforts).

Although, based on the American Psychological Association (APA) homosexuals were categorized as mentally deficient as recently as 1973, same-sex couples adoption emerged in the society in the response to the lack of demand for adoptable children starting in 1987. Richard Bradley, Making a Mountain out of a Molehill “A Law and Economics Defense of Same Sex Foster Care Adoptions. (Jan. 2007).

Homosexual couples may only obtain legal rights to a child through the process of second-parent adoption. This is a judicially created process in which “the non marital partner of a child’s legal parent may adopt the child, without requiring the biological parents to relinquish parental rights and responsibilities.” (Bradley) However, many jurisdictions in United States do not allow homosexual couples to adopt and to circumvent this obstacle many homosexual couples resort to “alternative methods for adoption, such as international adoption, the use of artificial insemination procedures, and single parent adoption prior to entering into a homosexual relationship.” (Bradley)

The census data from 2000 from 594000 same-sex households shows that 27 percent of the households were raising children. (Bradley) Despite the fact that many argue that children getting raised by same sex couples will be affected emotionally or psychologically, the alternative would be to leave these children in foster cares which will not afford them any permanency or stability. Children will benefit from the permanence provided by an adoptive home, as opposed to the unstable life often provided by the foster care system. “Sociological studies show that there is no evidence that child of lesbian or gay parents are confused about their gender identity or that they more likely to be homosexual.” (Bradley) “In fact, the studies show that children, especially daughters, of lesbian parents are more accepting, have accepting attitudes toward various sexual identities, and are more willing to question their own sexuality.” In 2004 the APA, an authority on human behavior, gave the following report that “there is no scientific basis for concluding that lesbian mothers or gay fathers are unfit parents simply because of their sexual orientations and that homosexual parents are just as likely as heterosexual parents to provide healthy and supportive environments for their children.” (Bradley)

Homosexual parents or heterosexual parents will have the same concerns in raising their children. Parents, regardless of their sexual orientation want to make the right decisions for their child’s heath and well being. Parents are also concerned about the financial and life changes that will be imposed upon them through parenthood. In addition, to the normal parental concerns homosexuals have many other variables that they have to deal with such as, if they will adopt, have sperm donated or even get a surrogate mother to carry the child. They also have to deal with discrimination through this process since there are many social stereotypes that they will face on their journey to adopt a child. “Historically, gay men and lesbians have been prevented from becoming foster parents or adopting children and have been denied custody and rights of visitation of their children in the event of divorce on the grounds that they would not be effective parents.” Furthermore, they are denied legal rights because of fear that affects of “stigmatization, poor peer relationships, subsequent behavioural and emotional problems, and abnormal psychosexual development,” will damage their children. These ideologies have not been confirmed scientifically, such assumptions are too broad and vague because children of heterosexual parents still experience such problems as well.

There has been a spectacular increase in the percentage of homosexual couples seems interesting to adopt children. Although, there is the increase in percentage, there have been many obstructions and difficulties from them to adopt. Such complications are like adoption agencies and some specific rules and regulations restricting them from adopting, for instance, only a number of states permit homosexuals to adopt children. As a consequence of these difficulties, they have been looking for other methods to have children. From domestic adoption agencies to independent adoptions to international adoptions to now only public adoptions, homosexuals have a range of methods of adopting, but they are behaved very in a different manner from heterosexuals. Adoption agencies should permit homosexual couples to adopt children who want love, food and protection. For many years, this argument has been taken to courts and to adoption agencies. The query is, are they so capable to be fit as parents to raise a child? In recent times, there has been an unbelievable improvement in the number of homosexual couples seeking to adopt a child. The best interest of the child is at risk when it approaches to adoption. Adoption agencies have to make sure that proper care of child will be taken, all should be supported to child, and have good responsibility in their lives also. In the case, if homosexual couples have all the superiorities to meet the necessities, they should be permitted to adopt a child. Homosexual couples must be agreed to adopt a child so as to raise a child in a secure and affectionate atmosphere. Although, they are all human beings and understand and take breathes in the same manner as a normal person, homosexuals are poorly behaved because they select to live a life in different style.

There are numerous gay and lesbian people who want to become parents. Some of them bring children from their previous relationships or a number of couples permeate through artificial insemination. Other couples are looking for adoption to their favoured procedure of bringing a child into their family. Gay couples must give evidence that they have sufficient finances, good health, and emotional steadiness, proper motivation and parenting skills. These are outstanding qualifications that should be taken care of when a couple wants to adopt a child. The dilemma is, various couples are getting away with not successfully meeting with all of the given qualifications because they are heterosexual. There is a portion of preconceived propaganda about gay parenting. Such labels about gay parenting that they raise gay kids, children of gay parents have further troubles and that gay men are more possibly to sexually misuse children are inappropriate and not a true fact. In some latest studies performed on the sexuality of gay parents and their children, there has been no proof to recommend that the sexual orientation of adoptive parents have an effect on the sexuality of their children. There are several citizens who are in opposition to gay couples being permitted to raise children. Homosexuals are normal people who live in our culture. The basic dissimilarity is they have decided to be attracted to people of their same gender. Homosexuals would be capable to give the love and esteem any parent gives to their child. They worry about others also, if not they are un-human and have no emotions and sentiments (Cantor, and Cantor).

The gender uniqueness of preadolescent children raised by lesbian mothers has been discovered dependably to be in with their biologic sex. Having a child in a home with homosexual parents is not sufficient grounds for the child to become homosexual. There are no differences have been found in the plaything, game, or any activity, clothes, footwear’s, or friendship liking of boys or girls who had lesbian mother come with persons who had heterosexual mother. It is the communications and connections within the families that make the children build up their living habits instead of the sexual orientation of the parents. A rising body of scientific literature explains that children who grow up with one or two gay and/or lesbian parents and also in sentimental, cognitive, social and sexual performance as do children whose parents are heterosexual.

As state laws differ on adoption rights, not all gay and lesbian individual has the same capability to adopt. The United States has a lot of children waiting to be adopted. Older children and those with some exceptional needs and requirements are specifically hard to place. Children who fit this category are in foster homes at present with gay parents who wish to adopt them. It appears to be very unwarranted and deceitful to the children to reject them for permanent and stable safety homes. Most children in the United States do not reside with two married parents. As per the 2000 census, just 24% homes were arranged of a married mother and father with their kids living at home. There are only total four states, such as, Vermont, New Jersey, Massachusetts and California allows same sex couple adoption. Some states authorizes single parent to adopt, other people opposes it. The reason for that, the gays are not permitted to get married, it can be difficult for gay people to adopt a child in those mentioned states. Since, Vermont has civil unions; both parents have equivalent rights in adoption cases. The Florida court disagrees that children are better off taking care in a two-parent heterosexual household. Actually, systematic and methodical learning reveals that children who grow up in gay households are simply emotionally and socially as children whose parents are heterosexual. Researchers have proved that children are more inspired by their communications with their parents, as compared to sexual orientation. With this point keeping in mind, the American Association of Paediatrics encourages gay and lesbian couples adopting children. At last, there is no lawful reason that why gays should be rejected the right to adopt children. The rules only hurt children waiting to be adopted and withdraw loving parents who would be taking care for these children (Mucciaroni).

Other communal doubts that work as obstacles to entry for homosexual parents include the fear that homosexuals have a higher propensity to pedophilia and the fear that homosexuals are simply hedonistic and cannot engage in a durable and stable relationship. There is no empirical data to show that homosexual’s have higher tendencies to engage in pedophilia or child molestation. Result of a study conducted by Dr. A. Nicholas Groth shows, that there are practically no reports of sexual molestation of girls by lesbian parents and that the adult male who sexually molests young boys is not likely to be a homosexual. People are misled that the homosexual society is predisposed to sexual abuse but it is in fact heterosexual’s that have higher rates of sexual misconduct with children.

Furthermore, the statement that homosexual’s cannot engage in a durable and stable relationship is unfair. Homosexuals have not been privileged as heterosexuals to engage in a legal marriage. And it is apparent in today’s society that homosexuals still lack the recognition of a formal marriage with an exception of a few states. Many would choose to solidify their relationship through marriage and ensure stability, but are forced to cohabitate with their partner, their relationships are inherently unstable.

Following are the circumstances for Gay and Lesbian Adoptions:

The United States has many kids remaining to be adopted. Older children and those with particular requirements are specifically hard to place. Children who suit this group are in foster homes at present with gay and lesbian parents who want to adopt them. It is unsafe and dishonest to the children to reject them permanent protected homes.

Most of the children in the United States do not reside with two married parents. In the real fact, as per the 2000 census survey, only 24% homes were created of a married mother and father with children residing at home. The Florida court disagrees that children are better developing off raised in a two-parent heterosexual family. Actually, methodical experiments which have demonstrated that children who grow up in one or two-parent gay or lesbian families only as sensitively and communally as children whose parents are heterosexual. Learning’s have explained that children are more inspired by their interactions with their parents, other than by their sexual orientation. Keeping this is mind, the American Association of Pediatrics maintains gay and lesbian couples of adopting children.

There is no lawful purpose why gays and lesbians should be refused the right to adopt children. The rule only harms children coming up to be adopted and removes loving parents who would be concerned for these children.

If a couple has a child all through the artificial insemination, just the birth parent is acknowledged as the legal protector. All through the second-parent adoption, both parents can get hold of legal protection of the child. In the condition, that do not permit second-parent adoption, if somewhat takes place to the custodial parent, the remaining parent, still if they gave been raising the child for years, can be observed as a unfamiliar person in the sense of the law. The child may not be qualified for the non-custodial parent’s health insurance, social security or other insurance but that parent turns out to be debilitated. There is no other method which can be in the top attention of the child.

Following are the reasons against Gay and Lesbian Adoptions:

Florida disagrees that it has the right prohibition to gay adoptions since it is the state’s method of saying it criticizes of gay and lesbians becoming parents.

The Florida court states that children are develop in homes with a mother and a father, who are married.

A number of challengers fight that children of gay and lesbian parents will be the area under discussion to harassment and annoyance (Belge).

Finally, this is the last and fourth section discussing about the rogerian discussion of solution. Gay couples are becoming a more common element of American society. Gays have lobbied, and in some cases at least, been awarded many of the rights that are granted to heterosexual couples (David 966). There are still many issues, however, that need to be worked out as to how gay couples fit in society and as to what rights they should be awarded (David 966). Many of these issues surround the question of whether gay couples could be fit parents (Campaigns and Elections 17). Interestingly, several states have actually banned adoptions by homosexuals (Campaigns and Elections 17). The purpose of this paper is to explore the question of whether gays should be allowed to adopt in the format of a Rogerian argument, an argument which is complete in a review of both sides of the issues and an argument which certainly results in a somewhat modified view of the positives verses the negatives of homosexual adoption. To do so, however, the thesis will be presented up front that:

Although no scientific evidence exists that demonstrates gays would be bad parents, there are simply too many variables to be able to safely conclude they would not.

To complete the Rogerian argument on homosexual adoption, we must clearly explain our elements of argument and disclaimer while at the same time avoid logical fallacies. Many feel that homosexual couples simply cannot form a nutritious family unit. There is, however, no data supporting or refuting this argument. Others argue that gays are just as capable of providing for the needs of a child as are heterosexuals. Here too, however, there is no facts demonstrating this or refuting it. Very simply, because the concept of homosexuals adopting children is a relatively new idea, no scientific studies exist that either support gay adoption or condemn it.

While there is little to no facts available demonstrating that gays would be either good or bad parents, there is considerable facts showing the negative impacts of non-traditional parenting units. Consider, for example, the impacts that have been made in the name of feminism. This impact sometimes differs completely from our perceptions of the glitter and glory of modern feminism. Some of the women who have reached the peak of our quest for liberation from traditional responsibilities, responsibilities such as commitment, childrearing, and marriage, are often not really that happy or that successful. These women are more often characterized by high stress levels and emotional insecurity about whether they have really made the right life choices. The quality of parenting cannot help but be affected by this unhappiness. The point here is not that feminism is wrong but rather that immersing our children in a philosophical framework which so radically differed from the traditional framework of earlier generations had impacts which no one had anticipated. The same could very well be true of immersing children in homosexual families.

Single parent families are another example that can be used for guidance in understanding how non-traditional families can be less than optimum. These families face many unique problems related to the familial structure itself. Although the single parent structure itself does not make the single parent family inferior to traditional families, some problems ultimately result. Many more problems could be expected to result when that single parent lived a homosexual lifestyle. This is not to say that a homosexual couples in the role of the traditional mother/father unit would result in fewer problems for the child being raised in that environment, however. Problems would undoubtedly arise there as well. Among the more obvious are how would the child be accepted by its peers from heterosexual parents and how would the child form its view of gender roles?

Conclusion

In conclusion, the above research shows societies baseless fears against homosexual adoption. Most of these misconceptions are based on social stigmatization and stereotypes. Allowing homosexual couples to adopt will provide homes for orphans thus reducing the long-term use of foster care for children. Children flourish mentally and physically when they are afforded a stable and structured home. There is always a fear in the unknown but we cannot allow ourselves to keep the right of parenthood solely based on sexual orientation. “I want you to know that I think my family is great, so why don’t you people just stop all this hate? I know that love comes right from the heart. My parents taught me love from the start.” -Hannah Jurs-Allen, fifth-grader, daughter of lesbian parents (Quotes from Gay Parents and Their Children).

There is no exact and specific answer for the question of whether gays should be allowed to adopt a child. Certainly, there are more questions coming up than answers. Could the answer be one thing if the child being raised was intended as a subject matter of genetic makeup for homosexuality and an additional if that child were truthfully a heterosexual? The most relevant question, however is should we test with our children to find out? Logically says, no. The lack of research demonstrating that this would be in fact not unfavourably impact the child, says no.

In this report we will research, think creatively and critical about our topic: Should China move to a two-child policy. We will present an in-depth analysis on the consequences and benefits which could occur when china decides to move from their one-child policy and the negative consequences and losses which could occur when china moves to the suggested two child policy. Before we immediately start with our analysis, it is vital that we ask the following questions in order to fully understand the reasons why china decided to implement such a policy:

Who implemented the one child policy in China?
Why did China decide to implement the one child policy?
What where the consequences of this decision?

To answer these questions we are going to have a brief look on the history of China. After this we will look at the present situation of china and as closure the analysis.

History

In the beginning

In 1949 after the Japanese occupation of china was finally over, Mao Zedong the son of a wealthy farmer established the People’s Republic of China [1] . Also known as the communist party. Back in the 1930ties China was divided and did not have a ruler for the whole of china. Instead it had clans and war lords, each fighting for power and more land. Peasants and farmers were treated very cruel and left almost nothing to eat in a time of food scarcity because generals and other high warlords owned all the land and the Japanese occupation which dealt a severe strike on the people of China [2] . Mao Zedong was your typical robin hood and stole mostly land from the rich to give to the poor. This gave him the support of an almost overwhelming percentage of people within china, Thus began his move to unite all of china under one banner, the communist party’s one. Mao’s biggest competitor for rule over china was Chiang Kai Shek whom supported most of the wealthy land owners. This civil war left much destruction and made china weak to prevent for instance the occupation of the Japanese troops.

After the war

After 1949 Mao won the civil war and started unifying the whole of china. An accomplishment never seen before in the history of china. His party the People’s Republic of China became the government of China which we all know nowadays.

The devastation of the war and the occupation had caused birth rates to decline and death rates to increase [3] . Mao feared for what would happen if another country such as the United States and or the Soviet Union saw how weak China was and decided to invade just like the Japanese did. He devised a plan in the 1950ties [4] to encourage Chinese woman to reproduce and make as much children as possible. The propaganda he fed to the people of china was that it would encourage more labor power whilst his main reason was fear. Not knowing that this propaganda later on became a very important opportunity for foreign investors in china. Mao Zedong almost Doubled China’s population from an estimated 550 million to 900 million people [5] . As China grew larger more problems arose within the country. There was once again food scarcity. This time not caused by a war or an invasion but by the overwhelming and still growing population of china. In 1970 The People’s Republic of China came up with a propaganda family plan to battle the overpopulation and started encouraging the people to marry at a later age and only have two children, indicating the birth of the two-child policy. This however did not stop the growth and the people’s republic of china was forced to come up with another solution and fast. The people were growing restless after a horrible event took place under Mao’s leadership [6] . Losing many trust from his people. The only way for the People’s Republic of china to further reduce this problem was to make the two-child policy even stricter and reduce the number of children permitted from two to one. Deng Xiaoping was the one who gave the final order to issue this policy. Though it was supposed to be a temporary measure, it is still very much alive in China these days.

Present

The one child policy rule varies from rural and urban areas. In a substantial amount of rural areas, families are allowed to have a second child if there first born child is a girl or if there first born son has a disability, is mentally ill or is mentally retarded. The reason why families can have another child if their first one is a daughter is because of the birth ratio of 114 males to 100 females. This has become a clear problem for woman in the future. If there are more man than woman, then an increase in rape victims will be the result. In the other areas where the one-child policy is strictly enforced a huge disdain for female babies is present and this results in high abortion rates, children whom are being abandoned and even the murder of infants. It is said that since the implementation of the policy almost 400 million births from 1979 to 2011 were prevented [7] .

The rewards [8] which were given to parents consisted of a one-child glory certificate which gave them a little extra cash each month and increased your regular salary, improved health care, more priority during school enrollments and interest-free loans. Woman whom married after the age of 25 got an extended leave from work when pregnant.

Punishments varied per region. They mostly consisted of heavy fines for each extra child you produce, price depending on region. But in other regions people’s home were raided by the authorities, land was taken away, homes were destroyed, people get fired from their jobs for having too many children, mothers forced to sign sterilization papers and then forced to work in labor camps and even parents getting tortured. There have however been heavy debates about continuation of the policy and up until this moment they still are discussing and experimenting if they should remove this policy.

The analysis

China should move to a two-child policy

Economy

It will eventually have a big impact on the workforce, if China sticks to the one-child policy. This is because, by 2050, third of the population exists of old people. This will deeply affect the workforce in China. [9] After some time the youth will have to work harder to support the elderly. So the one-child policy has worsened the country’s aging crisis by limiting the size of the young labour pool that must support the large elderly population as it retires. It will lead into a never ending spiral, and that is not something positive for the economy of China.

Population

Nobody knew if the two-child policy was a good idea, so they selected a few parts in china were they appointed the two-child policy. Since 1985 they lifted the family planning controls, the one-child policy, in four experimental areas in the northern and central China. These areas had low population growth, and the birth rate has been shrinking since 2000. Furthermore, the gender balance in these areas is better, and so are the age distributions. To top that, there have been fewer conflicts between the government and the people. [10]

Politics

The policy should be changed because of the promise that has been made three decades ago, when the one-child policy was introduced. In the promise it states that if there were changes in circumstances, such as the change in leadership, the policy would also change. [11] The new government has to keep this promise or they will damage the trust of the people of China. And that is not something a new government wants to start with.

Chinese families

Chinese families made many sacrifices under the one-child policy. Such as the wish to have a second child. But also the case that many families abandon their child or even have an abortion because they know that they are going to have a girl. Because of the one-child policy, many families prefer a boy which results in many unwanted baby girls. But also a very unbalanced gender population, because half of the population exist of boys. [12]

This is mostly the error of the government because they encouraged families to abort baby girls, and preferring a baby boy. It is all about the perception that the Chinese families get from the government. Because of the government, child abandoning and death has been very high. [13] And they don’t seem to care much about these children. So the two-child policy should lower the child abandoning and death numbers, because parents can have two children. So the chance of abandoning and death could decrease massively.

Furthermore, many Chinese families were tortured/punished because they broke the one-child policy. Men and women, who have violated the policy, have been detained, beaten, fined and sacked from their jobs. And to make it worse, they have denied registration permits for their children to access government services such as education. [14] For children, of the families who have been punished, who don’t even have a chance to live their life because of their parent’s faults. So basically the government took away the chance for children to be healthy and educated.

China should not move to a two-child policy

Economy

The one-child policy has prevented overpopulation in China. Even when there is a slight uptick in population, it could put enormous pressure on the country’s health, infrastructure and educational resources. [15] Most of the population of China would fall into poverty. Plus the economy of China could collapse under the pressure.

Furthermore, many of the young generation of China would not consider getting a second child because of the additional costs. Mainly because of the soaring inflation on everyday goods and astronomical home prices in many of the Chinese cities. Every day is like a struggle for them because of the daunting costs of child-rearing and other modern societal pressures. So they think twice before having another child. [16]

Even if the two-child policy takes effect, the vast majority of the Chinese families will stick to the one-child per family rule. They do this because of the high cost that will incur if they want to have a second child. [17] If you look at financial factors, many families can’t even pay the large sum if they want to have a second child. This is because you have to pay the living costs and the social maintenance fee [18] , which is imposed by the authorities if you want to have a second child. This is of course the main reason why many Chinese people would not consider having a second child.

Population

The one-child policy has done many good things for the Chinese population. The measures of the policy have reduced China’s population anywhere between 100 to 400 million people since the 1985. This was to slow down the massive population growth. [19] If they didn’t slow down the population growth, most of the Chinese people would have lived in poverty. This is because the economy of China couldn’t handle the large population.

Politics

The policy shouldn’t be changed because of a promise made three decades ago. When changing such an important policy you have to look at the facts. Such as will it be profitable for the economy, would the number of abandoning children decrease and can the people handle this new policy. These are all things that should be looked at. Of course, it’s difficult when making a decision but you can’t make a decision based on a promise.

Chinese families

Even if the Chinese families made many sacrifices under the one-child policy, it would not count up to the benefits that the one-child policy brought. It has stopped the overpopulation in China. There is a big gender population gap, but can it really be fixed if you introduce the two-child policy? Chinese families will still have their culture of preferring a baby boy. This isn’t something that you can change easily with a policy. It is common in their culture that baby boys are preferred, because they can take over the company from their parents. And also support their parents in the future. Many believe that baby girls can’t provide this for their parents.

In our first few moments of life we begin our journey of judgement and distinction. As the doctor utters the words “it’s a …girl” or possibly “it’s a …boy” arrangements have started. In North American society we have established a term for this classification and assessment and it is stereotyping. Stereotyping are the organizational factors that virtually shape the way we think in the 21st century. They somehow manage to categorize some of life’s most complex matters into nice distinct sections. Classification and organization, at first glance seem to be extremely useful in distinguishing various aspects of modern life. However, these grouping methods can be inaccurate, leaving flawed ideas in the minds of citizens on a global level. Sexual stereotyping is very prevalent in today’s society and it has begun to dominate the scenario in almost all aspects of life. Whether the lack of female promotions, or the gay comments that are tossed at emotional men, sexual stereotypes are powerful in our world. Sexual stereotyping is a major social problem that exists within our society. In this paper I will explore what sexual stereotyping really is and why it is a social problem; the sociological theory attached with this issue, and finally create a possible solution to this epidemic on society.

Sexual stereotyping refers to the practice of assigning roles or activities to individuals purely on the basis of sex. It has become a social problem because many of us view it as harmful to not only specific members of society but society as a whole. The people affected by this social problem, or those who are involved in this social problems are basically all men and women who have experienced discrimination based on their sex, no matter their age. An example of this is sexual stereotyping is seen in the workplace normally through positional titles such as chair man, drafts man, and business man. (www.rcmp-learning.org,n.a., July 30, 1998) Sexual stereotyping can also be seen in sports. When men participate in any sort of physical activity they are praised and viewed in a positive light but for female athletes the same attitude is not always present. Female athletes are often termed with derogatory remarks such as dyke, butch, and masculine. This idea is also the same for men who participate in more delicate art forms such as dance, figure skating, and or synchronized swimming. (www.itha.edu, Kim Sebastio, n.d.). The problem is sexual stereotyping is not only role casting, but is also a change of attitude and treatment due to sex. Sexual stereotyping and prejudice can cause both men and women to be treated unequally by others, either because of hostility towards that specific sex or, less wittingly, because popular attitudes about women or men make it seem proper to treat them differently. Overt sexual prejudice is generally easier to recognize. An example is a female scientist or a businesswoman may find that she is not taken seriously, that her opinions are not as highly valued, and that her career is not considered important by those around her. (Bender, September-2004) For men it might be something as simple as disapproval for showing any sort of emotion. These examples are a clear view of what is wrong with our society. Any representation which perpetuates the thinking that men occupy certain kinds of positions or professions, while woman occupy others, constitutes sex-stereotyping “no matter if it is men or women, it is wrong for them to be judged or treated differently because of their sex” (Pasanen, 182, n.d.) Even though this sort of judgment is wrong it is still going on and that is why it has become a social problem faced by millions of Canadian’s every day.

The sociological theory attached with sexual stereotyping

In North America are society is influenced by many things one of them being gender roles. It is the distinction of men and women whom people and culture help prove the existence of these stereotypes. These sexual stereotypes come from a combination of the media, the influence of powerful people, and our past. This exact point brings me to the Theory on Gender Roles which relates specifically to this social problem, this same theory helps us as Canadians understand how gender inequality (sexual stereotyping) has become the social issue it is today. The structural functionalist view explains that society and more specifically institutions contribute to gender inequality because it argues that men work out of the home because they are physically stronger and can provide for us, and women stay at home because they are more nurturing and need to care for the children. An example of this is seen through how society instils this concept in the minds of children “children are taught gender stereotypes by their peers and adults- for example, girls learn to be nurturing and boys are expected to be aggressive. According to Rhode, these messages, international or otherwise, are widespread”. (Egendorf, pg 21, 1997) Another way this theory helps explain the issue of gender inequality (or sexual stereotyping) is through the past. This is explained in the conflict perspective which believes that women are inferior outside the home but this is also because they are more valuable in the home; they came to this conclusion after World War II. In the end the perspective that best help us understand this prevalent social issue is the Symbolic Interactions Perspective. This perspective talks about how females and males are taught the meanings that correlate with masculine and feminine. It explains how we conform to society’s definition of what is masculine and feminine, and how are these definitions getting stretched. This is seen through the media, which is a huge part of the reason why there are sexual stereotypes in our culture. An example of this is the usage of the term magazine itself, it first came about with the publication of ‘The gentlemen’s Magazine’ and the ‘The Lady’s Magazine’ in the 1720s by Edward Cave (1691-1754) (Connor, G 2001). Magazines are not the only avenues of media where sexual stereotyping exist either. The media is constantly reminding us of what role we should play as women and men, what is the definition of masculine and feminine.

Like almost everything in life this theory has its strengths and weaknesses when it comes to really understanding the social issue of sexual stereotyping. The weaknesses include the structural functionalist perspective and conflict perspective because even though at one time these ideals were functional for society, they no longer hold any relevance because women are now just as valuable outside the house as they are inside, and vice versa for men. Secondly some women today are just as strong as men and can participate in physically demanding jobs such as construction or firefighting. The strengths of this theory all come from the symbolic interactions perspective; this is because most of today’s sexual stereotyping comes from the idea of what is feminine and what is masculine, which is the key concept of this perspective.

Possible Solutions for Sexual Stereotyping

Like for all social problems we as a society are always looking for the remedy or the solution to the problem. Even though we probably won’t be able to fully eliminate gender stereotyping we can lessen it by acknowledging it. Even though our society has taken huge steps towards changing the traditional sexual stereotypes, we have also created new ones at the same time. We assume all men that have a higher pitch voice or groom themselves must be gay, and that all women who are very athletic, and enjoy watching football to soap’s must be into other women. Along with the new sexual stereotypes we have also tried to compensate for the past, but we are still not improving all these sexual stereotypes. We try to hire more female engineers, and more male nurses, but the fact of the matter is all we are doing is reversing the male/female roles instead of removing them. (Egendorf, pg 57-105, 1997) So until we stop over compensating, and really understand the dangers that gender stereotyping this social problem will never disappear.

The theory related to this social problem also has its own possible solution to this issue, which includes campaigns that advocate for men, and campaigns that empower women (Dove). Personally I agree with this solution because if we empower people rather than bring them down we can accomplish more as a society and dissolve this and many other social issues.

In today’s society, many homosexual individuals are dealing with harassment, threats, and violence on a daily basis. Homosexuals are far more likely to be victims of a violent hate crime than any other minority group in the United States, according to a new analysis of federal hate crime statistics (Southern Poverty Law Center, 2010). Research shows that almost two thirds of lesbian, gay and bisexual teens experience homophobic bullying in British schools (Equality and Human rights commission, 2007). Similarly, many homosexual teens in U.S. schools are often subjected to such intense bullying that they are unable to receive a satisfactory level of education (Chase, 2001), with 28% of gay students dropping out altogether (Bart, 1998).

Homophobic bullying is currently an issue of epidemic proportions in society today, so much so that both the British Prime Minister David Cameron, the U.S. President Barack Obama, and many more politicians, activists and celebrities have recorded personal messages for the ‘It gets better’ campaign, a project set up in September 2010 to inspire hope for gay youth facing harassment. This campaign came about as a response to the recent string of suicides among young homosexuals in the U.S.

I feel that the design of an intervention to tackle the problem of sexual orientation prejudice and homophobic bullying is of the upmost importance to society, as the benefits to society from reducing homophobic bullying would far outweigh the costs of funding this intervention in schools. The harm from bullying and the toll it takes – not only on young homosexual teens but also to society at large – is far greater than people realize. I feel it is less likely that a youngster will succeed in life and have the ability to fully contribute to society without an adequate level of education. Statistics show that anti-gay bullying truncates a child’s academic ability to excel – for example, 7 out of 10 pupils who experience homophobic bullying state this has an impact on their school work and also their attendance (Stonewall, 2007). And the cost, while initially about the child, is a greater cost to us as a society in the long run.

However, perhaps the most significant cause of concern to society is the grave issue of suicides committed by gay teens. In September 2010 alone, 5 young people, victims of homophobic bullying, committed suicide. One of these victims, 18-year-old Tyler Clementi, jumped off the George Washington Bridge in New York City after discovering classmates has posted videos of his sexual encounters on the internet. Another, thirteen-year-old Asher Brown, shot himself after severe harassment by fellow classmates. I feel that this snowball effect of teen suicides in the U.S. highlights the damaging effect of homophobic bullying to society, and I am proposing an intervention to prevent such occurrences from escalating.

Aims

The aim of this intervention is to reduce the incidences of homophobic bullying behaviour in the mainstream school setting by changing attitudes towards homophobic bullying. In order to do this I would suggest educating pupils on issues around sexual orientation and also on the severe negative consequences of bullying. I would introduce weekly classes in the curriculum designed to focus on these particular issues – for example, it could be taught in pastoral care classes, not only with the aim of educating the children and reducing the bullying, but also empowering pupils to report bullying. One recent study which has had major success with the introduction of a gay awareness class was Stoke Newington School in London. In one lesson, pupils were taught about significant gay historical figures who positively contributed to society, such as authors and playwrights James Baldwin and Oscar Wilde, artist Andy Warhol, and mathematician, computer science pioneer and war time code breaker Alan Turing. Elly Barnes, the teacher who runs the class in Stoke Newington School, stated that, four years on from when she initiated the scheme, homophobic bullying has been more or less eradicated in the school (Learner, 2010). I feel that this case is a positive and pioneering exemplar from which many schools could learn.

Design

As I feel a one-time lecture on homophobic bullying would have little impact on levels of bullying in the long-term, I am proposing a weekly class to be run in schools with the agenda of educating pupils on issues around sexual orientation and also on the severe negative consequences of bullying. I would introduce weekly classes in the curriculum designed to focus on these particular issues – for example, it could be taught in pastoral care classes, not only with the aim of educating the children and reducing the bullying, but also empowering pupils to report bullying. I am proposing that the intervention take place at the school setting, as bullying so often stems from within the school environment, and the aim is to eradicate this at the grass roots.

Methods

Before starting the intervention I would measure the pupils’ attitudes towards homosexuality using an affective questionnaire and a cognitive questionnaire – the Index of Homophobia (Hudson and Ricketts, 1980) and the Modified attitudes towards sexuality scale (Price, 1982), respectively. I would then ask students to fill out these questionnaires again at the end of the school year so as to measure whether attitudes have been improved following the intervention.

I would use a direct approach to reduce the sexual orientation prejudice by including a weekly pastoral care class into the school’s curriculum in which educators would promote diversity in multicultural societies, group equality, and teach pupils about the history of the Gay Rights Movement. I would also aim to get the pupils involved by having group discussions and role-plays to increase empathy for outgroups, and by bringing in gay guest speakers in order to improve understanding and attitudes, and to correct some misguided stereotypes and faulty generalisations that heterosexual pupils may hold against their homosexual classmates. I would also hope that having the chance to meet a positive role model from the gay community who does not conform to the negative stereotypes would create dissonance-induced attitude change. I would attempt to change the social norms of the school environment, by introducing a zero tolerance policy in the school, which states that no-one shall be discriminated against for their religion, race, disability, or sexual orientation, and educate the teachers so that they also must follow this policy.

Also, I would set aside a class to talk about the issue of derogatory phrases and how they could make gay students feel, as a recent study showed that 97% of gay pupils hear offensive phrases such as “dyke”, “bender” or “poof” used in school and 98% of gay pupils hear the phrases “that’s so gay” when people are referring to something they feel is rubbish or stupid (Stonewall, 2007). The intention would be to create perspective-taking (i.e. “How would you feel if you were gay and heard those derogatory phrases?”) and instil empathy for the outgroup.

One theoretical framework which supports this is the Intergroup Contact Theory (Allport, 1954). Allport proposed that intergroup contact between two groups should reduce prejudice as long as the following were present: common group goals, equal status, intergroup co-operation and support of authorities. Therefore in the intervention, I would set tasks which both groups would have to work on to achieve a superordinate goal, I would structure the task so as the groups must rely upon each other in order to achieve this superordinate goal, and I would make sure that equality of all sexual orientations is promoted. The school itself and its educators would constitute as the authority which supports both groups. I feel that this would work in either a real situation (whereby gay individuals have disclosed their sexuality to their classmates and feel confident to be categorized as homosexual) or in an imagined situation (for example, a role-play, as many pupils who are gay may not wish to disclose this information, nor would we force them to do so). I believe that the latter may well occur as in order to avoid social stigma many gay young people hide their sexuality. Therefore, in this instance I would use the theoretical framework of ‘Imagined Intergroup Contact’ (Crisp & Turner, 2009). This theory suggests that simply getting participants to conjure up a mental simulation of a positive intergroup encounter leads to improved attitudes towards the outgroup.

I would also use indirect approaches to reduce prejudice by educating pupils on moral reasoning, promote egalitarianism within the school setting, and promote respect, understanding and tolerance of others no matter what their background is. I would also incorporate modern media into the school environment, such as using examples from music, film and TV programs to teach pupils about other cultures and groups. This is supported by the ‘Parasocial contact hypothesis theory’ (Schiappa, Gregg and Hewes, 2005), which states that the illusion of face-to-face contact with interaction can change prejudices, as people process mass media relationships in the same way as they process real-life interpersonal interactions. Schiappa, Gregg and Hewes (2005) found that parasocial contact reduced prejudice toward the outgroup.

Although the intergroup contact theory can be used for many groups such as opposing ethnic minority groups, opposing religious groups, opposing sports teams and so on, research has shown that the theory has been particularly successful in reducing prejudice toward homosexuals. Applying the intergroup contact theory to sexual orientation groups, Herek (1987) found that heterosexuals who had experience of pleasant interactions with a homosexual tend to accept the homosexual community in general. It was also shown that increased contact with a homosexual was a better predictor of changed attitudes than any other factor, including gender, race, socioeconomic background and so on (Herek and Glunt, 1993).

I would also create a classroom discussion about why certain individuals may feel threatened by homosexuals, and address the issues as to why this symbolic threat may come about, such as perceiving that your ingroups moral values and religious beliefs are different from the outgroups. I would increase perceptions of similarity between hetersexuals and homosexuals by highlighting examples of gay individuals who are good role models, religious, and so on, to show that they are not so different from straight people.

One issue we must think about when introducing such curriculum into the school setting is whether parents will approve. I would propose sending letters home to parents detailing the intentions behind the sexual orientation awareness class and highlighting the need to reduce bullying within the school. However, I would ensure that children could withdraw from the class if they strongly wish to do so; as some of the pupils’ families or religious/cultural communities may be homophobic and may disapprove of their participation, and we would not want the pupils to suffer negatively from attending this class, for example, to become ostracised from their community. Therefore we would strongly encourage students to take part, but would not force it upon them. However, the teacher who pioneered the gay awareness class in the Stoke Newington School in London, Elly Barnes, stated that she has only ever received a few complaints – “A parent complained after her son told her he had seen a film at the school that showed two men kissing. I told her we are an inclusive school and it is part of the curriculum”(Learner, 2010).

In conclusion, I propose that a school-based intervention is essential to reduce sexual orientation prejudice and homophobic bullying amongst teens in schools. I would hope that a curriculum which promotes diversity, understanding, acceptance and equality will go a long way in reducing homophobic bullying and equally, I am optimistic that the introduction of an anti-discrimination policy which all students and teachers must follow will help protect the students.

Resources

Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books

Bart, M. (1998). Creating a safer school for gay students. Counseling Today.

Chase, A. (2001). Violent Reaction; What do Teen Killers have in Common? In these Times.

Crisp & Turner (2009). Can Imagined Interactions Produce Positive Perceptions? Reducing Prejudice Through Simulated Social Contact. American Psychologist, Vol 64, Issue 4, pg.231-240.

Herek, G. M. (1987) The instrumentality of attitudes: Toward a neofunctional theory. Journal of Social Issues, 42, 99-114.

Herek, G. M., & Glunt, E. K. (1993). Interpersonal contact and heterosexuals’ attitudes toward gay men: Results from a national survey. Journal of Sex Research, 30, 239-244.

Hudson, W.W. & Ricketts, W.A. (1980). A strategy for the measurement of homophobia. Journal of homosexuality, 5, 357-372.

Learner, S. Making homophobia history. In The Guardian, p5 of the EducationGuardian section, October 26th 2010 issue.

Price, J. H. (1982). High school students’ attitudes toward homosexuality. Journal of School Health 52: 469-474.

Schiappa, E., Gregg, P., & Hewes, D. (2005) The Parasocial Contact Hypothesis. Communication Monographs, 72, 92-115

The School Report – The experiences of young gay people in Britain’s schools. (2007) Stonewall.

Under attack (2010) The Intelligence Report, Southern Poverty Law centre, Issue 40.

Valentine, G. & Wood, N. (2010) The experiences of lesbian, gay and bisexual staff and students in higher education. Equality and Human rights commission, research summary 39.

Today’s organizations are becoming increasingly diversified in many ways. With respect to sexual orientation, gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) employees constitute one of the largest but least studied minority groups in the workforce. Although invisible, sexuality is at the core of each worker’s identity. Therefore, it poses a number of complex challenges towards organizations and their human resources department. The ‘Don’t ask don’t tell (DADT) policy of the U.S. Military presents a striking example of the silence surrounding their identity on the work floor.

In this paper, the impact of silencing as well as the ways in which the voice of LGBT employees and other invisible minorities can be heard is studied.

Introduction
Diversity

Diversity includes cultural factors such as race, gender, age, color, physical ability, national origin, etc. The broader definition of diversity additionally includes religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, education, language, lifestyle, beliefs, physical appearance and economic status (Wentling and PalmaRivas, 2000). The word diversity is not contained in any report or law; instead, it grew out of academic and popular press usage.

Diversity in the workforce

With respect to the workplace, diversity refers to the co-existence of employees from various socio-cultural backgrounds. Every human being is unique, but at the same time, every individual shares biological as well as environmental characteristics with any group of others. In this context, diversity can be generally defined as recognition of the people who share such common traits. These traits -the characteristics that make up a whole person- both unite and divide us. In the domain of human resources (HR), however, the term diversity can represent three major working definitions:

– the politically correct term for employment equity/affirmative action;

– the recruitment and selection of ethnic groups and women;

– the management of individuals sharing a broad range of common traits.

The first definition represents the most narrow view of diversity and is usually found in organizations without formal diversity policies or programs. The second definition reflects the reality of many diversity programs focusing on employment regulation concerns. And finally, the last definition is the broadest and generally used in organizations containing diversity programs (Grobler, Warnich et al., 2006).

Dimensions of diversity

When talking about diversity, one should keep in mind the differences between primary and secondary dimensions. Primary dimensions are those human differences that are innate and that have a drastic impact on us. Age, ethnicity, race, gender, physical abilities/qualities and sexual/affectional orientation are examples of primary dimensions at the heart of individual identities. Alternatively, secondary dimensions are more changeable and can be discarded or modified during our lifetime. Such dimensions add depth and individuality to our lives. Education, geographical location, marital status, income, military experience, religion, work experience and parental status are illustrations of secondary dimensions. The primary and secondary dimensions can be represented as a circle, with the primary dimensions at the centre and the secondary dimensions surrounding them. An illustration of both groups of dimensions can be found in Figure 1(Grobler, Warnich et al., 2006).

Figure 1: Primary and secondary dimensions of diversity

In any initial encounter, people identify by the primary dimensions that are most readily observed: age, gender, race and physical abilities/qualities. Since most individuals live in homogeneous communities, or at least in circumstances far less diverse than our society as a whole, their entry into the workplace may be a first encounter with a diverse population. During this kind of first encounter, phenomena such as stereotyping and prejudice might appear.

Stereotyping works against people’s individuality and limits their potential. Generally, if the stereotype is that the person is not competent, then people may not perform competently. This illustrates that, to a large extent, people perform in line with the expectations placed on them. Clinging to negative stereotypes about people other than ourselves leads to prejudice, which means processing our stereotypes such that one’s own sense of superiority to the members of that group is reinforced. It is the role of the appropriate institutions within a country to recognize and eradicate both stereotyping and prejudice (Grobler, Warnich et al., 2006).

Managing diversity

Managing diversity can be defined as:

“A planned systematic and comprehensive managerial process for developing an organizational environment in which all employees, with their similarities and differences, can contribute to the strategic and competitive advantage of the organization, and where no-one is excluded on the basis of factors unrelated to productivity” (Thomas, 1996).

On the work floor, managing diversity presents a key issue for governments as well as private organizations. Its importance has mainly been brought about by the free movement of labor due to globalization. The fight for human rights by certain minority groups, who feel excluded from the employment sector, discloses another impulse for the current significance of diversity management. Within the context of equal opportunities in the workplace, workforce diversity again plays a major role. This equal opportunity philosophy is aimed at ensuring that organizations make the most out of the uniqueness of a diverse workforce, which might assist the organization to be more efficient and effective, rather than losing talent. Broadly, diversity management is the systematic and planned commitment by the organizations to recruit, retain, reward and promote a heterogeneous mix of employees (Grobler, Warnich et al., 2006).

Valuing diversity

For organizations to fight discrimination, it is essential to value diversity. This valuing starts with recognizing the fundamental difference between valuing diversity on the one hand, and employment equity and/or affirmative action on the other. Employment equity is an officially authorized approach to workplace discrimination. For instance, it is against the law to reject a person a job or job advantage because of age, race, sexual orientation, gender or other primary characteristics. Affirmative action is a reaction to the under-use of protected groups in various job classes in which a business attempts to attract people from such groups because of their failure to do so in the past as a result of inequity. Valuing diversity surpasses both concepts and leads to management designed to reap the benefits offered by a diversified workforce (Grobler, Warnich et al., 2006).

Whereas affirmative action and employment equity are government-initiated, legally driven attempts to alter -from a quantitative standpoint- the composition of a company’s workforce, valuing diversity is a company-specific, necessity-driven effort to alter -from a qualitative standpoint- the utilization of the company’s workforce. In an organization that values diversity, managing diversity becomes a substitute for assimilation (Grobler, Warnich et al., 2006).

Sexual orientation

Within the framework of diversity management, sexual orientation represents a non-observable or underlying type of diversity, as opposed to more visible traits such as race or gender. The reason is that gay, lesbian, and bisexual employees can choose to what extent they reveal their sexual orientation in the workplace. Lately, sexual orientation has received a growing amount of attention, including through the prohibition of employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation for both private and public employees. Another indication of this increasing attention regards the mounting number of organizations that fight against this type of discrimination. For instance, in the United States, in many large organizations, Lesbian and Gay Employee Groups are demanding the exclusion of discrimination based on sexual orientation, the provision of guidance to enhance tolerance in the work environment, and the equal treatment of significant others (e.g. relating to health care benefits) (Van Hoye and Lievens, 2003).

Parallel to the social and societal developments, there has been an increase in scientific investigation on sexual orientation in the workforce (Van Hoye and Lievens, 2003).

Sexual orientation in the workforce: Literature overview

Three research streams can be clearly distinguished within the literature on sexual orientation in the workplace. The first research stream studies the discrimination and minority status experienced by lesbian, gay, and bisexual people in the workplace. A second strand of studies takes the issue of coming out at work as the focal point. In fact, one of the work-related decisions that all gay, lesbian, and bisexual people face, is to what extent they unveil their sexual orientation on the work floor.

The third and last research stream relates to the more specific work-related issues of gay, lesbian, and bisexual employees (as opposed to the general character of the studies belonging to the first research stream) (Van Hoye and Lievens, 2003).

Within the first research stream, it was found that the majority of gay, lesbian, and bisexual people have once experienced discrimination on the work floor (Croteau, 1996). Here, the construct of heterosexism seems to play a central role. Heterosexism can be defined as “an ideological system that denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes any non-heterosexual form of behavior, identity, relationship, or community” (Herek, 1990). Research has demonstrated that heterosexism in the organization can lead to a decrease in perceived productivity, job contentment, organizational commitment, career dedication, and organization-based self-esteem. In addition, it can lead to an increases in perceived health problems, psychological distress, and turnover intentions among gay, lesbian, and bisexual employees (Van Hoye and Lievens, 2003).

The outcome of the second research stream reveals that there are five different levels of coming out, namely acting, passing, covering, implicitly out and explicitly out (Chung, 2001). Nevertheless, other possible classifications do exist. The concealment of one’s sexual orientation has negative consequences at the individual level (depressing work attitudes, low job contentment, anxiety, etc.), group level (dysfunctional communication, low work team cohesion, etc.) as well as organizational level (higher turnover and lower productivity) (Van Hoye and Lievens, 2003).

To date, very few studies have taken the approach of the third research stream. An example of a scarcely studied topic within this field of research concerns the influence of the sexual orientation of job candidates on their evaluation by HR professionals. One of the motives that almost no research has specifically examined the consequences of sexual orientation on hiring decisions, is that it is very difficult to examine this issue in field settings with real candidates. Thus, although the outcomes of such studies are insightful, not enough research has been carried out so far to draw sound conclusions.

For an illustration of the sexual orientation policy of the SAC company (Scottish Agricultural College), see appendix. SAC is an innovative, knowledge-based organization supporting the development of rural communities and industries. (MOET IK NOG TOEVOEGEN)

Diversity policy worldwide
IEDEREEN Z’N STUKJE OVER CONTINENTEN KOMT HIER

The United States

We first introduce the general conditions for acceptance of sexual diversity in America since these have shaped the context for coping with sexual diversity, and more specific LGBT, on the work floor . LGBT rights are very complex in the Americas since acceptance of the phenomenon varies widely between Canada, the United States or the Southern Americas. We will here focus on the United States (U.S.). In the U.S., LGBT-related laws include amongst others: government recognition of same-sex relationships, LGBT adoption, sexual orientation and military service, immigration equality, anti-discrimination laws, hate crime laws regarding violence against LGBT people, sodomy laws, anti-lesbianism laws, and higher ages of consent for same-sex activities. Generally, it was not until 2003 that sexual acts between persons of the same sex became legal in the U.S. However, many other laws are still not recognized on federal level and a wide spread amongst states concerning the enabling of those laws exist. We will now discuss the policy concerning LGBT discrimination in the work environment in the U.S.

Legislative policy: the Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA)

Employment discrimination refers to discriminatory employment practices such as bias in hiring, promotion, job assignment, termination, and compensation, and various types of harassment. (Source) In general there is no common law that states that employment discrimination based on sexual orientation is wrong and discrimination against employees who are gay, or simply appear to be gay, is legal in many workplaces in the U.S. (Ragin, 2004)

The first bill on the subject of sexual orientation discrimination was introduced in Congress in 1974. However it was not until 1994 that the Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA), a proposed bill in the United States Congress that would prohibit discrimination against employees on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity by civilian, nonreligious employers with at least 15 employees, was introduced. [1] It failed in 1994 and 1995, though by 1996, missed passage in the Senate by a 49-50 vote. Until 2009, every proposal in the legislative history of introducing the law failed. Furthermore, many versions of the ENDA only concerned LGB and did not include provisions that protect transgender people from discrimination. Currently, only twenty-two states have laws that ban sexual orientation discrimination: California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, Washington and Wisconsin. As a result of the limited coverage of States that enabled the law, LGBT people face serious discrimination in employment, including being fired, being denied a promotion, and experiencing harassment on the job. [2]

Additional to the differentiation between the several states of the U.S., another distinction in employment discrimination based on sexual orientation that can be made involves the difference in coping with diversity between public and private sectors. [3] Extensive anti- discrimination legislation protecting public sector workers makes workers in the public sector less likely to be arbitrarily fired than workers at private companies. (Boris, 2010) As a result, the public sector in the United States is noticeably more racially diverse and gender balanced than the private sector. The more protective climate and diverse workforce in the public sector may result in LGBT individuals feeling more comfortable in openly expressing their sexual orientation at work. If this is the case, the public sector may employ more openly LGBT employees. (Boris, 2010)

Attitude of employers and employees towards LGBT in the workforce

Generally, American workplaces have undergone a partial revolution over the last quarter century when it comes to LGBT equality. Public attitudes toward homosexuality became more liberal during the 1970s, then increasingly conservative through the 1980s, and then more liberal since 1990. (Roberson, 2009) Today, sexual orientation diversity is a key part of workplaces in the U.S. An estimated 8.8 million gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals live in the United States. (Bell et al., 2011) While it is difficult to ascertain how many of these individuals are in the labor force, U.S. Census data reveal that more than 86% of men and women in same-sex couples are employed, and that employment probabilities for gay men and lesbians lie below those of married heterosexual men, but above those of heterosexual women (Leppel, 2009).

The issue on employment discrimination based on sexual orientation has become more important for many employers, workplace diversity programs have been major initiatives in US corporations over the last several years. (Day & Schoenrade, 2000) An increase in share of LGBT in the workforce since was already reported by HR managers in the eighties. (Day & Schoenrade, 2000) In response, in May of 1993, the Board of the Society for Human Resource Management, the premiere national association of American human resource practitioners, passed a resolution to include sexual orientation in its statement acclaiming the value of a diverse workforce (HR News, 1993). (Day & Schoenrade, 2000)

However, several surveys demonstrate that LGBT on the work floor is far from an accepted concept, discriminating practices are laid out by several surveys. A first example appears from a 1990 U.S. census in where Allegretto and Arthur (2001) found that after controlling for differences associated with being married, gay men earned 2.4% less than their unmarried heterosexual counterparts. (Ragin, 2004) Another range of surveys that study behavior and acceptance concerning LGBT on the work floor is cited by Day & Schoenrade (2000) A first example is a survey reported by the National Defense Research Institute in 1993, which found through several national public opinion polls that a majority of heterosexual American workers report being uncomfortable with the idea of working with homosexuals. (Day & Schoenrade, 2000) When respondents were confronted with the issue of working with homosexuals, one study found that 27 percent said that they would “prefer not to” and 25 percent said that they would “strongly object”. A second example involves a survey from Wall street Journal in 1993, which found that 66 percent of surveyed CEOs reported being reluctant to include a homosexual on a management committee. Leppel (2009) proved that discrimination on the basis of sexual rientation appears to drive up the unemployment of same-sex partners relative to that of married partners. Similarly, probabilities of being out of the labor force for same-sex partners are greater than those of heterosexual men and less than those of heterosexual women. (Leppel, 2009)

Several reasons were sought for these discriminating behavior against LGBT. One persisting cause in the U.S. is the existence of strong religious believes. A survey of Kansas Citians found that 47 percent felt that their religious beliefs and morality strongly conflicted with homosexuality (Day, 2011). Other issues involving a negative attitude towards LGBT in the workforce are related to heterosexism and homophobia in organizational America today. (Gedro, 2010)

Human resource management and LGBT

An appropriate approach of human resource management to LGBT in the workforce is urgent because the trend in American society for more and more gay men and lesbians to make their sexual orientation known since this openness may create conflicts in the workplace (Day & Schoenrade, 2000) There is some evidence that human resource departments are not fully supporting this growing need. For example, a sample of human resource professionals found that even though most believe that sexual orientation must be formally addressed in the workplace, and that they would individually speak out against anti-gay acts, only 20 percent of their companies have diversity programs that specifically address gay and lesbian work issues. (Day & Schoenrade, 2000) This increased openness in sexual orientation may also be a reason for an increasing experiencing of LGB employees as a symbolic threat. Although a law has been approved, many Americans still oppose gay marriage. One consequence of this is that some heterosexual employees may experience symbolic threat when faced with LGB co-workers who are out at work and wish to bring their partners to company social events. Ragin (2004) already presumed that this symbolic threat of homosexuality could increase if gay marriages would be legalized in some states, and LGB workers could bring their spouses to workplace events. (Ragin, 2004)

Attitude of labor unions towards LGBT in the workforce

One interesting aspect is how labor unions U.S. are reacting to the recent discussions on sexual orientation in the workforce since unions, as democratic organizations , have a social obligation to represent the interests of all of their members. (Boris, 2010) However this can cause problems when the majority interest conflict with issues of inclusion and social justice for the minority such as LGBT employees. This might lead to the exclusion of minority interests or groups within unions. It should be noted that there is a strong differentiation between the several unions in their response to this minority group. As many research has pointed out, especially structural and demographic factors help to determine an American union’s level of responsiveness to sexual diversity with American unions. (Boris, 2010) Gender mattered as unions with a female majority were more likely to address the concerns of LGBT members. Other examples of factors playing a role in determining a union’s response to LGBT issues are the role of individual agency on the part of union leaders, activists, and rank-and-file union members. (Boris, 2010)

DADT policy in the U.S. military

An example frequently cited when discussing LGBT policies in the U.S. is the issue of gay policy in the U.S. military. In 1993, new laws and regulations pertaining to homosexuals and U.S. military service came into effect reflecting a compromise in policy. This compromise, colloquially referred to as “don’t ask, don’t tell,” holds that the presence in the armed forces of persons who demonstrate a propensity or intent to engage in homosexual acts would create an unacceptable risk to the high standards of morale, good order and discipline, and unit cohesion which are the essence of military capability. (Burelli & Feder, 2009) Service members are not to be asked about nor allowed to discuss their homosexuality. This compromise notwithstanding, the issue has remained politically contentious. (Burelli & Feder, 2009) While the decision to remain in the closet may be a functional and adaptive reaction to a hostile work environment, it also increases the risk and stress associated with losing control over the disclosure process. (Ragin, 2004)

Recent progress in enabling discrimination laws

In recent years, several members of Congress have expressed interest in amending “don’t ask, don’t tell.” At least one bill that would repeal the law and replace it with a policy of nondiscrimination on the basis of sexual orientation-H.R. 1283-has been introduced in the 111th Congress. (Burelli & Feder, 2009) An Act of Congress providing a mechanism to repeal “Don’t ask, don’t tell” was signed into law by President Obama on 22 December 2010. As of February 2011, the Pentagon has started starting to dismantle DADT.

Regarding the ENDA, we have to remain patient. In 2011, the U.S. Senate will reintroduce the Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA) in the 112th congress. In the meanwhile, hundreds of companies in U.S. have enacted policies protecting their lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender employees. As of March 2011, 433 (87 percent) of the Fortune 500 companies had implemented non-discrimination policies that include sexual orientation, and 229 (46 percent) had policies that include gender identity. [4]

Africa

The issue of workforce diversity has not been a key problem in Africa before as much as it is today. Together with globalization and the need for an increasing number of organizations to spread globally to reach customers worldwide, the concept of diversity management gained attention. Managers must recognize the need for understanding more about the diverse workforce, which is deeper than what we see at the surface level (Henry and Evans, 2007).

During the 1990s, the liberalization of economies and structural adjustment policies, brought about by the Brentwood institutions, opened the doors to free market economies, especially in Africa. These free market economies have stimulated the free movement of labor as a commodity, which in turn has resulted in an increasingly diversified workforce across the continent. Further, the privatization of most of the state-owned enterprises in Sub-Saharan Africa also created an open door for migration of labor from all over the world (Henry and Evans, 2007).

South Africa

To meet the challenges of the twenty-first century, as in many other countries, South African businesses must address the best and brightest employees. Moreover, managers should understand that they can only compete successfully if they recognize the emergence of the diversified workforce and find the means to harness its energies, talents and differences for tomorrow’s challenges (Grobler, Warnich et al., 2006).

The major groups providing diversity in the South African workforce are ethnic groups, women, younger workers, South Africans with disabilities and minority groups in the context of sexual orientation. With respect to the latter, it seems that at least 10% of the South African population is homosexual. This means that 10% of the men and women in the workforce, representing around one million people, are gay.

However, while the workforce is increasingly diversifying, discrimination still presents an enormous problem in South Africa. In fact, research demonstrates that discrimination still exists in organizations, and that many South African workers still suffer from employment discrimination. Within the organization, it’s up to the HR professionals to develop and enforce policies and measures that protect the diversified workforce against illicit discrimination.

To rectify the injustices of the past, the South African government has come to some actions. Amongst others, the following legislation has been introduced: the Labour Relations Act, No. 66 of 1995 (as amended); the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act, No. 108 of 1996; the Basic Conditions of Employment Act, No. 75 of 1997 (BCEA) (as amended); the Employment Equity Act, No. 55 of 1998 (EEA); the Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act, No. 4 of 2000; and a Code of Good Practice on the handling of sexual harassment included in the Labour Relations Act (Section 203(1)).

For example, Section 9 (2) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (No. 108 of 1996) states that: “The State may not unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds, including age, gender, sex, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orientation, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, language and birth” (Grobler, Warnich et al., 2006).

ANDERE INTERESSANTE ZAKEN DIE NOG KUNNEN GEBRUIKT WORDEN

LGBT military laws

Homosexuals allowed to serve in the military

Homosexuals banned from serving; repeal of policy underway

Homosexuals banned from serving (or homosexuality illegal)

Data not available

References

Bell, M. P., A-zbiligin, M. F., Beauregard, T. A., & Surgevil, O. (2011). Voice, silence, and diversity in 21st century organizations: strategies for inclusion of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender employees. HUman Resource Management, 50(1), 131 – 146. doi: 10.1002/hrm.

Boris, M. B. (2010). Identity at work : U.S. labor union efforts to address sexual diversity through policy and practice. Advances in Industrial and Labor Relations, 17, 185-205. Elsevier. doi: 10.1108/S0742-6186(2010)0000017009.

Burrelli, D. F., & Feder, J. (2009). Homosexuals and the U . S . Military : Current Issues.

Chung, Y. B. (2001). Work discrimination and coping strategies: Conceptual frameworks for counseling lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients. The Career Development Quarterly,50, 33-44.

Croteau, J. M. (1996). Research on the work experiences of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people: An integrative review of methodology and findings. Journal of Vocational Behavior,48, 195-209.

Day, N. E. (2011). US small company leadersE? religious motivation and other-directed organizational values. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 17(4).

Day, N. E., & Schoenrade, P. (2000). The relationship among reported disclosure of sexual orientation, anti-discrimination policies, top management support and work attitudes of gay and lesbian employees. Personnel Review, 29(3), 346-363. doi: 10.1108/00483480010324706.

Gedro, J. (2010). Lesbian presentations and representations of leadership, and the implications for HRD. Journal of European Industrial Training, 34(6), 552-564. doi: 10.1108/03090591011061220.

Grobler, P., Warnich, S., Carrell, M.R., Elbert, N.F. and Hatfield, R.D. (2006). Human Resource Management In South Africa. 3rd edition. Thomson Learning. 571p.

Henry, O. and Evans, A.J. (2007). Critical review of literature on workforce diversity. African Journal of Business Management,72-76.

Herek, G. M. (1990). The context of anti-gay violence: Notes on cultural and psychological heterosexism. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 5, 316-333.

Hopper, J. E., & Salvaggio, N. (2008). Report from SIOP diversifying diversity: moving beyond race and gender: Professional Insights. Equal Opportunities International, 27(5), 465-470. doi: 10.1108/02610150810882314.

Huffman, A. H., Watrous-Rodriguez, K. M., & King, E. B. (2008). Supporting a diverse workforce: what type of support is most meaningful for lesbian and gay employees? Human Resource Management, 47(2), 237-253. doi: 10.1002/hrm.

Leppel, K. (2009). Labour Force Status and Sexual Orientation. Economica, 76(301), 197-207. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-0335.2007.00676.x.

Ragins, B. R. (2004). Sexual orientation in the workplace : the unique work and career experiences of gay , lesbian and bisexual workers. Personnel and Human Resources Management, 23, 35-120. doi: 10.1016/S0742-7301(04)23002-X.

Roberson, B. E. J. (2009). Equality for Lesbian , Gay , Bisexual , and Transgendered Employees in the Modern American Workplace Equality for Lesbian , Gay , Bisexual , and Transgendered Employees in the Modern American Workplace.

Schoenrade, P., & College, W. J. (2000). The relationship among reported disclosure of sexual orientation , anti-discrimination policies , top management support and work attitudes of gay and lesbian employees. Personnel Review, 29(3), 346-363.

Swan, E. (2010). “A testing time, full of potential?”: Gender in management, histories and futures. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 25(8), 661-675. doi: 10.1108/17542411011092327.

Thomas. (1996). op. cit., pp. 101-103.

Van Hoye, G. and Lievens, F. (2003). The Effects of Sexual Orientation on Hirability Ratings: An Experimental Study. Journal of Business and Psycho

Sexuality Men Women

Outline two or more different approaches to the study of sexuality.

Sexuality is mainly conceived as being a natural drive or instinct, which becomes inevitably part of the biological make-up of an individual, which only seeks fulfilment through sexual activity. Such a view of sexuality, which sees such as a natural entity, is most commonly referred to as essentialism. The majority of essentialist theories present today have presented sex as a natural instinct needed for the purpose of reproductive activity.

In such a way, Weeks (1986) outlines that in such an essentialist approach there is an apparent link between sexuality and biological sex/gender. “Modern culture has assumed an intimate connection between the fact of being biologically male or female (that is having appropriate sex organs and reproductive potentialities) and the correct form of erotic behaviour (usually genital intercourse between men and women)” (Weeks 1986 p.13)

In regards to an essentialist viewpoint, one is left to distinguish between men and women, in particular reference to their independent sexual desires and needs. It has been noted that women tend to have a natural tendency to promiscuity while men, on the other hand are described as having a much stronger sex drive.

Therefore, in reference to this particular discourse, human sexuality is heavily rooted in biological terms, whereby a heterosexual drive intended for the purpose of procreation would be considered “normal.” Thus, under such an approach, lesbian, gay and bisexual men and women have been largely considered deviant and unnatural, while any individuals who categorise themselves as any of these are subsequently not considered “real” men or women.

“We learn very early on from many sources that “natural” sex is what takes place with members of the “opposite” sex. “Sex” between people of the same “sex” is therefore, by definition, “unnatural.” (Weeks 1986 p.13) For both men and women, heterosexuality is clearly the norm under such an approach, while sex is ideally expressed in monogamous and marital relationships in an ideal world.

Jeffrey Weeks, who happens to be one of the key critics of essentialism has been known to reject any approach that fails to consider the historical and social forces that shape sexuality. Weeks suggests that the diversity of sexual identity and desire is also important to acknowledge. He rejects the notion that there is a true essence of sex, there is no “uniformed pattern” which is “ordained by nature itself” (Weeks 1986 p.15). The essentialist argument comes as simplistic to Weeks, as it reduces the nature of sexual relations and identities to biological factors.

Many other theorists have acknowledged the simplistic nature of essentialism, by agreeing that sexual desires may appear to be natural, but also acknowledging the idea that our sexual responses and identities may in fact be socially constructed. When we learn the patterns of our behaviour, we are subjected to the meanings attached to such behaviours as well. Such behaviours then become a product of certain social and historical forces; which can immediately be extended to include our sexual attitudes, feelings and the ways in which we feel about sexuality itself and hence our sexual identity.

It has been said that sexuality is very much shaped by the culture in which we live. The very factors that make up our society (laws, religious teachings, social policies, the media) all attach their own meaning to such meanings that are conveyed to us. This approach does not deem biology as insignificant; inevitably the body imposes some limits due to sheer distinction between being male or female i.e. we experience different things in regards to what genitalia we possess.

Yet having said this, anatomical structure and physiology do not directly influence what we do and the way we act, not does it determine the meaning we attach to the actions we choose to make. “All the constituent elements of sexuality have their source either in the body or the mind, and I am not attempting to deny the limits posed by biology or mental processes. But the capacities of the body are given meaning only by social relations”. (Weeks 1986 p.15).

In relation to social construction, the body is said to gain certain meaning in certain social contexts as different parts of the body can be defined in many different ways. For example, in the 1960s it was stated that a new cultural context emerged. It was at this point in time that the “G-spot” was discovered. Such a discovery led to the vast publication of books, with the added introduction of classes to help women explore their bodies and find their so-called “G-spot.” In such a way, the physical anatomy of women stayed the same as before but at this point it had a different social significance. This particular part of the body was given a particular and new social meaning, which was constructed to become an object of desire.

Foucault (1981) has been a very influential early theorist by shedding light on the social construction of sexuality. He argues that there is no one truth about sex. Hence various discourses, whether this be it law, religion, medicine or psychiatry have established their particular view of the body and its relative pleasures. Sexual desire is created through a set of bodily sensations, pleasures and feelings.

It is such desires which shape our sexual values and henceforth the meaning we attach to our bodies. Sex is therefore not some biological entity governed by natural laws (as suggested by essentialism) but is more like an idea specific to certain cultures and particular historical periods. The creation of definitions and in particular the categorisation such that of heterosexual, homosexual and lesbian etc becomes the ingredients of sex.

It is through this that we try to make sense of it. However, the work of Foucault, although recognised as very important has been criticised for not paying enough attention to the way gender influences sexual desire and identity.

In tangent with the work of Foucault, Weeks highlights that sexual identity is historically shaped. Weeks was apprehensive with the way in which sexuality and especially homosexuality has been embedded in an ever-changing and highly complex history over the past 100 years. With a number of influences, cited as being feminists, gay and lesbian activists and Foucault himself, Weeks developed the hypothesis that many sexual categories that we ultimately take for granted are actually the product of social and historical labels.

The distinction between the “natural” and secure are all subject to continuous labelling. Weeks felt it important to study the history of sexuality, in order to gain an understanding of the many forms of identities existent in society today, in terms of demographics such as class, ethnicity, gender and sexual preference. Again, he emphasises the point that it is reductionist to reduce the complexities of reality to essentialist biological truth. Sexual identity, therefore, according to Weeks is not achieved simply by an act of individual will but rather through social construction.

In addition to the above, “the ‘biological justification’ for heterosexuality as ‘normal’, it might be proposed, has fallen apart. What used to be called perversions are merely ways in which sexuality can legitimately be expressed and self-identity be defined.” (Giddens 1992 p.179). Giddens suggests that it is late modernity that has changed sexuality from being a single hegemony and replaced it with ‘sexual pluralism’. This significant shift brought on by the fact that sexuality as a term was largely replaced by “sexual identity,” which nonetheless is defined by individual choice, whereby sexual choice falls under one of the elements of an individual’s “lifestyle” choice.

In a historical sense, such a shift took place in a very short period of time. Sex and ways of thinking about it, provided a science of sex so to speak. These were accompanied by clear distinctions between the normal and abnormal. Such ways of thinking have produced a series of accounts of the way people behave sexually. Such accounts different to the work of the early sexologists such as Freud. Giddens introduces the notion of ‘institutional reflexivity’ to explain the shift. Through the process of reflexivity, it is the distinctions between the “normal us” and the “perverse them” that vanish. ‘Sexual diversity, although still regarded by many hostile groups as perversion, has moved out of Freud’s case-history notebooks into the everyday social world’ (Giddens 1992 p.33).

It has been found that there has been evidence to support the claim that the notion of perversion has been replaced by diversity, that our expressions of sexual desire rank alongside other expressions of self-identity, that sexual pluralism has replaced sexual monism. Some caution is necessary with this however, as Weeks points out (1986 p.81) “the admitted fact of diversity need not lead to a norm of diversity.” Such arguments and criticisms establishing the complex nature to the study of sexuality.

Amongst the essentialist/social constructionist debate, there has been a large amount of contribution from radical feminists. Radical feminists, (the assumed extreme ended form of feminism), has come under criticism for employing an essentialist viewpoint, whereby radical feminists themselves would claim to be following a social constructionist viewpoint. The essentialism that radical feminists are thought to applied to radical feminist thought is not the traditional biological sense, but a more social sense.

Radical feminists view the subordinate position of women as being universal and hence unchanging, therefore leading to a failure in acknowledging historical and cultural difference. As Ann Ferguson states “though these social constructionist theories may not technically be biologically essentialist, they are still a form of social essentialism: that is, they assume a social divide between male and female sexual natures which is unconvincingly universal, static and ahistorical.” (Ferguson 1989 p.54)

Typically, radical feminist thought on sexuality has pondered on the way in which patriarchy impacts women in particular social contexts. Radical feminists have not assumed sexuality to be universal and hence unchanging. A large part of the belief system of many radical feminists is the view that sexuality is socially constructed and therefore can be changed and reconstructed in many different ways; views on sexuality can change and be opposed.

Nonetheless, all preceding points have been ignored, as the view that radical feminists are essentialist has largely been adopted. IN addition to this, it appears that the recent that the influence of postmodernist ideas within feminism has re-instated this. For example, the words “patriarchy”, “woman” and “man” have been classifies as essentialist and problematic. Such issues and conceptions highlight the difficulty in theorising sexuality with one dominant approach.

It has been suggested that queer theory, as it emerged in the 1980s in the United States, was the distinctive factor that provided intellectual challenge to the categories that were established in the 19^th century. It was queer theory that opposed the idea that heterosexuality was the only natural and normal form of sexuality, in addition to challenging the idea that homosexuality was in fact a distinct category of people that act in a particular way.

All binary divisions that were imposed on sex and sexuality were rejected by such an approach. It was argued that the theoretical basis for the rejection of existing categories was due to the fact that such categories fails to reflect real differences, whether this be biological or otherwise, but instead reflected discourse. Such categories therefore, were part of the language of heterosexual dominance and hence had no truth outside it. (Stein & Plummer 1994).

Furthermore, queer theory also criticized the notion of distinct sexual identities. Similar to postmodern thought on sexuality, queer theory recognized that the conception of identity was made up of many different things. “Individuals can construct and reconstruct themselves through their choice of lifestyles, moving across categories and boundaries as they please” (Epstein 1994).

Queer theory not only provided a refreshing sociological analysis of the importance of social categories but also had a political aim as well. However, such a viewpoint is open to sociological criticism as some may argue that fails to recognize the sheer volume of social construction, hence leaving the approach fairly simplistic.

Judith Butler’s work (1990, 1991) represents a postmodern attempt to theorise sexuality. Butler challenges the assumed causal links between sex, gender and sexual desire. She emphasises that the person individuals’ desire is seen to lead from either being masculine or feminine, whereby the norm construction is for desire to be directed towards the opposite gender. Not only does Butler challenge such a notion, but further goes on to address the assumption that heterosexuality is the only valid form of sexual desire. To her, heterosexuality is simply one element of desire.

What is important to point out at this point is the fact that heterosexuality is the only form of desire that has come to be seen as natural. Butler highlights that once these notions and so called links are challenged then both gender and sexual desire will become “fluid” – something which is not extensively present today. Butler is one of the few theorists who contests all forms of sexual norms. “It is not just the norm of heterosexuality that is tenuous. It’s all sexual norms” (Butler in Osbourne and Segal 1994)

Going into further detail, Butler proposes that no gender is a “true” gender. Gender is a performance; it is more about what is done at particular times rather than a universally fixed notion. Butler sees heterosexuality as the “naturalized” original, while a binary model of sexual identity i.e. the “either/or” of hetero/homosexuality is unstable as each requires the other as a reference point. For Butler, “there is no ”proper” gender, a gender proper to one sex or the other, which is some way that sex’s cultural property’ (Butler 1991 p.21).

There are, rather, ‘illusions of continuity’, by which heterosexuality naturalises itself. Such an illusion is thought to depend on the idea that “there is first a sex which is expressed through a gender and then through a sexuality” (Ibid). However, Butler argues the opposite, stating that a “regime of sexuality mandates as compulsory performance of sex” (ibid p.29). We have already established that the performance relied on masculinity and femininity.

According to Butler, the linked chain of sex, gender and desire, which becomes the make-up of heterosexuality is thought to be required yet fragile at the same time. The claim of such a chain being fragile is addressed in Butler’s Gender Trouble (1996), whereby Butler outlines a fundamental interpretation of the “Oedipal struggle” as developed by psychologist Freud. Within this text, Butler chooses to focus on the original denial of same-sex desire.

She readily argues that it is homosexual incest that was the original taboo, as compared to heterosexual incest as was claimed. “The young boy and the young girl who enter into the Oedipal Drama with incestuous heterosexual aims have already been subject to prohibitions with dispose them in distinct sexual directions. Hence the dispositions that Freud assumes to be primary or constitutive facts of sexual life are effects of a law, which internalised, produces and regulates discrete gender identity and heterosexuality.” (Butler 1990 p.64)

Therefore, the gender identification within the oedipal struggle is one that is produced by the repression and denial of same-sex desire. Such a disposition is caused by the effects of laws that see same-sex desire negatively. Some may argue that such a statement supports the idea of social constructionism.

In regards to heterosexuality, there are certain expectations that are placed on the body which relate to gender performance in order to acquire sexuality. A “feminine” woman and a “masculine” man are expected to experience pleasure via penetration of their respective genitalia.

This nonetheless explains the problems faced by transsexuals and the belief that successful acquisition of gender identity is impossible without the appropriate genitalia. Therefore, the transsexual’s gain or loss of a particular body part to establish a certain desired identity is not a “subversive” act but rather an act that portrays the nature and existence of the link between sex, gender and desire have become “naturalized.”

Although the work of Butler has been highly influential in the discipline of gender studies, it appears that a number of criticisms have been attached to her work. A major critic to the work of Butler has been Nancy Fraser, who argues that the concept of performance in relation to gender and sexuality and Butler’s immediate focus on it is somewhat ignorant of “everyday ways of talking and thinking about ourselves.” Many others have also focused on such an issue in their criticism of Butler’s work. For example, Speer and Potter also argue that Butler’s work is difficult to apply to real-life situations, as the focus on language and meaning leads to problems relating to validity.

Generally, over the past couple of decades, it appears that there have been significant shifts in the understanding and acceptance of sexuality, especially homosexuality. There has clearly been an emergence of new sexual identities, with fundamental challenged to traditional frameworks. However, having examined a number of approaches to the study of sexuality and looking closely upon the basis of the arguments presented by many of the theorists addressed in this essay it appears as though their arguments are in a nutshell rooted within the essentialist/social constructionist argument.

While there are theorists who view sexuality as determined by a particular factor whether this be it biological or anything else, there are those that view that society and history have their part to play as well. I feel that such a construction and these same assumptions, in whatever form they may come, will always remain. Sexuality will perhaps always be subjected to such connotations. What I do find important, however, is the factor of gender and its relationship to sexuality. It appears that gender is in fact an integral part of sexuality and the understanding of it. However, even discourse on sexuality and gender are yet to clearly direct us to a definitive understanding of sexuality.

References

BUTLER, JUDITH (1990) “Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity”, London: Routledge, pp. 21-29

BUTLER, JUDITH (1991) “Imitation and gender subordination” in D. Fuss (ed.) “Inside/out Lesbian theories, Gay theories”, London: Routledge, pp 64-65

EPSTEIN, STEVEN (1987) “Gay politics, ethnic identity: the limits of social constructionism”, Socialist Review, 93/94: pp 9-54

FERGUSON, ANN (1989) “Blood at the Root: Motherhood, Sexuality and Male Dominance”, London: Pandora Press, pp 54-55

FOUCAULT, MICHEL (1981) “The History of Sexuality Volume 1: An Introduction”, Harmondsworth: Penguin

FRASER, NANCY (1994) “False Anthitheses” in “Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange”, London: Routledge, p 67

GIDDENS, ANTHONY (1992) “The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love and Eroticism in Modern Societies”, Cambridge: Polity Press, p 33 p 179

HAWKES, GAIL, (1996) “A sociology of sex and sexuality”, Buckingham: Open University Press, pp 134-141

MARSH, IAN (2000 ed) “Sociology making sense of society”, London: Prentice Hall, pp 327-380

OSBOURNE, PETER and SEGAL, LYNNE (1994) “Gender as performance: an interview with Judith Butler.” in MARSH, IAN (2^nd ed), “Sociology making sense of society”, London: Prentice Hall, pp 373

RICHARDSON, DIANE (2000) “Rethinking sexuality”, London: Sage, pp 19-67

SPEER, SUSAN and POTTER, JONATHAN (2002) “From Performatives to Practices” in McILVENNY, PAUL (ed) “Talking Gender and Sexuality”, Philadelphia: John Benjamins Company, pp 150-180

STEIN, ARLENE and PLUMMER, KEN (1996) “I can’t even think straight”: “queer” theory and the missing sexual revolution in sociology”, in SEIDMAN, STEVEN (ed.), “Queer Theory/Sociology”, Oxford: Blackwell.

WEEKS, JEFFREY (1986) “Sexuality”, London: Tavistock, pp. 13-81

Sexual Harassment WorkIntroduction

It is only in the past ten years or so that sexual behavior has been researched. The history of the term “sexual behavior” is thus short. Sexual harassment accounts for behavior that is socially, morally and verbally unacceptable at the work place. This leads to an antagonistic environment to work in. Physical and psychological health is worsened. The entire life of a person may be doomed after a horrific experience at the workplace.

Definition of Sexual Harassment: According to the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)

Sexual harassment is unwelcome advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature, when submission to or rejection of this conduct explicitly or implicitly affects a person’s employment or education, unreasonably interfered with a person’s work or educational performance, or creates an intimidating, hostile or offensive working or learning environment.

The United Stated Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) defines sexual harassment in the following way

When an individual is facing uninvited sexual advances, favors, or verbal or physical abuse, and his/her employment is being affected by this, it is termed sexual harassment. (EEOC).

Continuous pestering by team mates at work is becoming part of the norm nowadays. Sexual harassment involves sexual bias. The term can be defined as any unwelcome verbal, visual, or physical conduct of a sexual nature that is harsh and affects working conditions pessimistically. According to Fitzgerald,” Sexual harassment is difficult to measure and difficult to prove.” A variety of effects follow such behavior. Livingstone (1982) describes how cultural standards aggravate a woman’s feelings of coercion following sexual harassment since socialization seems to give men the right to practice sexual encounters, and women are the main victims of these unpleasant acts.

Sexual harassment can be distinguished as:

Quid pro quo: in which the employee is demoted or downgraded due to a refrain from sexual interaction.

Hostile working environment, in which undesirable conduct of a sexual character creates a painful work atmosphere for some employees.

Gender harassment is basically when a woman is treated differently because she is a woman. This includes general sexist remarks and behavior (Fitzgerald 1990). This creates a hostile environment for women. Gender harassment differs from quid pro quo, in that the latter constitutes a sexual activity which is specifically linked towards rewards or punishments.

There are four levels of factors affecting sexual harassment:

The individual,
The interpersonal,
The institutional and
The socio cultural

Some figures on Sexual Harassment in the Workplace:

The following table shows a record of sexual harassment cases:

Percentage of cases in companies:

Outline of sexual harassment

%

Insinuating remarks

55.2

Grabbing, deliberate touching

39.8

Insinuating gestures

30.3

Staring, meaningful glances

28.4

Seemingly accidental touching

25.4

Insinuating jokes

23.9

Stipulation for sexual action

20.4

Derogatory remarks

19.4

Insult after the rejection of an approach

12.4

Showing, distribution of pornography

11.9

Displaying pornography

10.4

Promise of pros for sexual sessions

8.0

Whistling at the back of a person

7.5

Physically violating to force sexual action

6.5

Fear of professional drawbacks in cases of rejection of advances

6.0

Threat of physical hostility to force sexual activity

3.0

Source: BMFSFJ, Beschaftigtenschutzgesetz in der Praxis, Berlin, 2005; the figures do not reflect the incidence but only the allocation of forms of sexual harassment in the cases reported.—provide complete source in the reference page

The following facts have been established by the Equal Rights Advocates:

Two thirds of sexual harassment cases are brought against a woman’s immediate supervisor.
95% of suffers have to undergo stress reactions, including depression, anxiety, sleep disorders, low feeling of dignity, sexual dysfunction.
95% of cases go unreported.
Sexual harassment can cost a Fortune 500 company approximately $6.7 million per year, due to absenteeism and low productivity.
Companies with proper policies against sexual harassment cases have lower reported incidents.

Source: Equal Rights Advocates, 2000. “Facts About Sexual Harassment in the Workplace.”

The Harasser and the Harassed

Sexual harassment can be amongst any coworkers, not necessarily between male bosses and female subordinates. These incidents may constitute:

Peer – Peer harassment.
Supervisor harassing subordinates.
Women harassing men.
Same gender harassment – men to men, women to women.
Third party abuse.

The victim of the harassment is not necessarily only the recipients of the behavior, but anyone who is affected by the misconduct, is considered to be harassed.

Sexual Harassment – Sex or Power?

Sexual harassment is linked with power and takes place in societies which often treat women as second-class citizens or are degraded.

Causes

It has been reported that throughout history women have suffered from some sort of sexual harassment or the other, but it was just considered to be usual behavior and a bitter part of the job market. Women working in coal mines in olden days had to face harsh cruelties of this world defined by men.

Sexual harassment in the workplace started gaining acknowledgement only in the 70’s. (Caroline Goette, NLA Review, n.d). More women started gaining education, and got better jobs. This was the time when women started demanding equal rights as men. Emphasis was being laid upon the factor of equality.

Behavior is the product of biological drive and symbolizes the expression of sexual pull in workplaces. Certain environments like open offices and overcrowding, generate unethical and strange, undesirable feelings.

Sexual harassment does not have to be explicitly sexual in nature; it may include any single or multiple continual displeasing acts. If the gender of an individual causes unwanted behavior, this case may be considered harassment.

Apparently it is not only the females who are victimized. Men may also be the fatality. Some instances of harassment may be when:

A tutor or teacher at school constantly favors one gender (male or female).
A medical officer examines a patient in a sexual manner.
A superior asks sex-related questions.
A trainer makes certain sexual advances like touching, grabbing, etc, whilst at work.

Approximately 15,000 cases of sexual abuse or pestering are brought to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) yearly. According to media and survey reports, 40-60% of women are sexually harassed each year. About 30-50% of them have faced some kind of sexual assault or redundant sexual behavior at work (European Women’s Lobby).

A major cause of such behavioral acts is that women or men both give confused signals to their colleagues when they approach them. Harassment through text messages has also risen due to instant responding on the reception of a text message.

Sexual harassment poses a cost to business as well. Work efficiency is badly affected.

Conditions

Despite the rising frequency of harassment, individuals are still reluctant to report such cases (Gottlieb, 1990). Victims are more likely to be younger than the harassers and the people working under their direction are the ones feared to be targeted. This was the result of a survey conducted by Tangri. This is indeed a matter of grievance. The term sexual harassment may be confused with “dual relationships”, but these two elements are different from each other, in that the latter requires the consent of both parties, whereas the former case with holds a forceful act from one side. It is a single-sided affair that is annoying and highly unwanted.

Psychologists who face sexual harassment cases or who are acquaintances of directly involved victims may take such measures of inadequacy to the employing institution, for appropriate action to be carried out. They may also take the case to the Society so that legal action is taken for unnecessary acts.

If any conduct is unwelcome, then it is considered sexual harassment. It is essential to let the harasser know about his unwanted attitude toward you.

Comments about clothing, behavior or body, sexual jokes, or even threatening a person, are attributes to sexual harassment.

Physical conditions such as hugging, stroking, patting are examples of bodily harassment.

Sexual stalking also includes a condition in which a person is rejected a promotion, is demoted, is given poor performance remarks because he/she rejects sexual advances of the supervisor.

The manner of the harasser must be intense enough because a single incident is insufficient to make such a judgment. It would violate criminal laws, if such an incident occurs.

Rigorousness and Frequency of Sexual Harassment

The purpose of pairing rigorousness and frequency of an incident is to ensure offensive comments are not made in the work environment. The employee is to be protected from liabilities of objectionable remarks. A single incident may comprise sexual harassment if it is extended, unpleasant and very serious in nature, as mentioned earlier.

A combination of event with varying amounts of harshness is also termed harassment. The EEOC states, “the more severe the harassment, the less the need to show a repetitive series of incidents.” (EEOC).

Consequences

Following are the collective aspects of sexual harassment:

The abusive experiences of sexual harassment have a terrible impact on deeply-held values and beliefs.
Sexual harassment leaves a long-term effect. They distress physiological and psychological health.
The impact of harassment on interpersonal relationships (Diane K.Shrier, n.d). Work performance is influenced for the worse.

Both genders face equal amount of harassment. There are laws designed against sexual harassment in the workplace, for protection from the boss, co-workers, or customer at work. The federal law ensures employers remain responsible for preventing sexual harassment that occurs at the workplace.

The California Fair Employment and Housing Act (FEHA) forbid any sexual harassment on the job. Most state laws make sexual harassment illegal.

Taking revenge against someone is also against the law. Even investigating a sexual harassment case can cause trouble.

Employers of companies usually have certain internal grievance procedures, which employees are to follow in case of any such encounters. The employer of the company should know of any misconduct that has occurred. Embarrassment may be felt on telling someone about the harassment, but it is essential to do so because that way the employer will be held responsible for stopping such behavior in the organization.

The consequences of harassment at work may include inefficiency of the affected person too. The worker may not be hundred percent in full swing, because of the uncomfortable environment created by such acts. Productivity may be affected negatively. Dedication and devotion to work may diminish. The employee may not even feel like going back to work due to circumstances he/she has to face there. Working will just be a compulsion so that he/she can remain the bread winner of the family. There will be no satisfaction, only necessity. Job satisfaction will not persist any longer and may even disappear eternally.

Most sexual harassment cases go unreported due to the following reasons:

Women fear their reputation being manipulated and distorted at work.
There is fear of being known as a trouble maker or a menace.
There is general apprehension about discrimination in the work place.
Employees may be afraid of termination, or retaliation of the harasser, so they avoid confrontation with the high authorities about such cases.
Solutions

Every situation differs. You will have to look for different solutions in different cases. Firstly, it is important to report the sexual harassment to your employer. You can then file a charge with the state or even go to court.

How women put up with sexual harassment:

Since not all severity of harassment is equal, the reactions to the harassment incidents also differ.
The supportiveness of the environment varies the reaction to harassment. In a more supportive environment, the victims of sexual harassment are likely to go to others with their problem.
Sexual harassment can have a variety of psychologically damaging effects on victims, such as reduced self-esteem and hopelessness (Kauppinen – Toropainen and Gruber, 1996), victims coping mechanism may be reduced just at the time they need them the most.
Most studies of victim’s responses are insensitive to the dynamism of harassment.
It consists of how long the harassment has been happening, how a victim responds to the situation.

Clearly say “No”:

You have to clearly let the person know that you are offended by his/her behavior. Refuse all invitations by showing a firm attitude.

Make a record of everything:

Write down everything as soon as the sexual harassment starts taking place. Note down the dates, places and events. Try to involve witnesses as well. Do not keep this record at work, though. It is a good idea to keep it in a safe place like home.

Report to the HR department:

Tell the human resource department about your issue; they can stop the harassment. No matter who the harasser is, you must report.

Make a proper trail:

Make a written record of your incident; write down exactly what the problem is and how you want it to be fixed. A written record always holds value in such cases.

Use the personnel policies:

Read through the grievance procedures / manuals of your company. You may find a solution through them.

File a lawsuit:

You can consider filing a lawsuit. The law will let you get your job back, all the money damages, and the court can also assure of no further recurrence.

References

Legal Aspects – Information on Sexual Harassment

http://www.de2.psu.edu/harassment/legal/

Accessed October 30, 2007

Know Your Rights: Sexual Harassment At Work

http://www.equalrights.org/publications/kyr/shwork.asp

Accessed October 31, 2007

A Briefing Paper on Sexual Harassment at Work and the Ethics of Dual Relationships

http://www.bps.org.uk/the-society/ethics-rules-charter-code-of-conduct/code-of-conduct/a-briefing-paper-on-sexual-harassment-at-work-and-the-ethics-of-dual-relationships.cfm

Accessed October 31, 2007

Sexual Harassment in the Workplace in France and in the United States

http://www.nla.org/library/spring97/pg22.html

Accessed October 31, 2007

UCLA – the University of California, Los Angeles – is a public research university and a member of the Association of American Universities

http://www.sexualharassment.ucla.edu/what_is.html

Accessed October 31, 2007

Center for Women and Work

http://www.cww.rutgers.edu/dataPages/rbshintheworkforce.pdf

Accessed October 31, 2007

BMFSFJ, Beschaftigtenschutzgesetz in der Praxis, Berlin, 2005

http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/ewco/2005/09/DE0509NU01.htmAccessed October 31, 2007

Caroline Goette, NLA Review

Sexual Harassment in the Workplace in France and in the United States.

http://www.nla.org/library/spring97/pg22.html

Accessed October 31, 2007

Persistence of gender inequalities – European Women’s Lobby

http://www.womenlobby.org/site/1abstract.asp?DocID=1209&v1ID=&RevID=&namePage=&pageParent=&DocID_sousmenu=

Accessed October 31, 2007

Gruber, J. E., Smith, M. D., & Kauppinen-Toropainen, K. (1996).

An exploration of sexual harassment experiences and severity: Results from North America and Europe. In M. Stockdale & B. Gutek (Eds.), Women and Work V Sexual harassment. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Livingstone, J.A. (1982).

Responses to sexual harassment on the job: Legal, organizational and individual actions. Journal of Social Issues, 38(4), 5-22.

Fitzgerald, L.F. & Hesson-McInnis M. (1989).

The dimensions of sexual harassment. A structural analysis. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 35, 309-326.

Tangri, S.S. et al. (1982).

Sexual harassment at work: three explanatory models. Journal of Social Issues, 38, 33-35.

Sexual Harassment in the Workplace and Academia: Psychiatric Issues –

By Diane K. Shrier The American Psychiatric Publishing Inc, 1996

Many people in Pakistan have not recognized sexual harassment as a serious social issue in Pakistani society. Most people, including women either deny its existence or take it as a part of the normal routine of working life. This denial may be because of its namelessness. Ironically, it is not even recognized as a form of discrimination against women in the constitution of Pakistan. The academy in Pakistan inadvertently supports this policy by denying it presence in higher educational institutions. The purpose of this study was to investigate what actually constitute sexual harassment in Pakistani context and its presence in HE institutions. The namelessness, technicalities involved and broad scope of the definitions of sexual harassment confuse the women even working in academia, they find it hard to pinpoint which types of sexually harassing behaviors may be described as sexual harassment. Six in-depth interviews of women academics were conducted from two universities in Pakistan. Findings from the study revealed that sexual harassment exist in HE institutions and women academics have experienced it but did not know about the term to name their experiences. This study also showed that women academics face different forms of sexual harassment, which includes psychological, physical and professional harassment from their male colleagues in academia.

Key words: higher education, women, academics, sexual harassment, in-depth interview

I. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Universities and other higher education institutions are expected to provide learning and working environments wherein all members of the academic community can pursue their studies, scholarship and work without bias or being intimidated. These institutions must lead by setting examples in eliminating gender inequalities among all segments of the academia. However, in reality, issues related to sexual harassment in academia present a different picture in Pakistan.

Sexual harassment is still a sub rosa topic generally in Pakistani culture and society and particularly with reference to the higher education, it is not considered a recognized serious issue. People usually believe that sexual harassment is something that may sweep under the table. In the same way, women usually take it as a routine matter of their working lives.

Sexual harassment remained an unspeakable issue for generations. Recently, with efforts of civil societies and activist women groups a bill has been passed in the parliament of Pakistan to legislate against this form of violence; which has been neglected in the past due to lack of documentation and availability of data. Besides, there is a dearth of research studies that directly address the topic under discussion. Little research has been done from the perspective of the problems of working women in Pakistan [66] – [8]. Thirdly, researches conducted on sexual harassment of working women generally explore the issue in the Pakistani society from a psychological perspective [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11]. A considerable number of studies on sexual harassment in higher education has been conducted in the West and Africa [39]-[57]-[13]-[60]- [3]- [47]-[41]-[35]-[4]-[26]- [62]-[42]-[55]-[56][64]-[58]. However, in Pakistan, this issue is not much explored as stated earlier. Researchers such as Anila, Shah and Zaidi(op.cit) took an interest in research studies on this topic as late as 1990s.Little research has been done on the question of sexual harassment , especially in higher education institutions of Pakistan .

Anila [10] conducted a research study on sexual harassment that focused on the sexual harassment of female students studying in one of the institutions of the higher education in Pakistan. Sexual harassment of staff and faculty members has been investigated by a few institutional studies [47]-[25] – [30]-[58] their studies found that female faculty members report experiencing sexual harassment at some point of their tenure. They also reported that the longer a woman pursues her educational and professional career, the more likely she will experience one or more forms of sexual harassment.

In higher education institutions of Pakistan , where this research was carried out, It was informed by the respondents that at institutional level , there is no policy which directly address asexual harassment as a problem in the institutions. Additionally there is no support / counseling system to help the victims and suggest measures to prevent these incidences. It is therefore seems to appear a denial of the fact that sexual harassment exists in HE institutions in Pakistan.

II. MY OWN EMPOWERMENT JOURNEY

I must acknowledge that engaging in this research study has empowered me in many ways. I am confident that I am better informed now, as well as aware of the issue f sexual harassment from a variety of viewpoints. I am sufficiently versed in conceptualizing my self with previous research studies , and through investigating women academics ‘s life experiences working in HE institutions of Pakistan. This task provided me with a great opportunity that I developed a PG course in the Gender and Women Studies Department at AIOU addressing issues related to different types of violence against women including sexual harassment.

III. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A feminist perspective was considered appropriate for this investigation as it problematised the gendered relations in universities in order to interrogate the taken for granted relationships between men and women which has led to inequalities in the distribution of resources and opportunities among them [31]. A feminist perspective explains sexual harassment of women in terms of power dynamics. In the same way, the relationship between man and woman has the potential for economic coercion that restricts women’s economic independence. The harassment of women reflects women’s status in the society and asserts their sex role over their work role [17]-[63].

Sexual harassment is traditionally explained as biologically based natural behavior. One variation of this traditional perspective assumes that the human sex drive is stronger in men leading them to act in sexually aggressive ways to women. This traditional model of men’s behavior is usually accepted in patriarchal Pakistani society holding women responsible for men’s indecent sexual behavior towards them [10] – [66]. The variation maintains that man and woman are naturally attracted to each other and therefore inevitably engage in sexually oriented behavior in the workplace. This traditional approach has several notable shortcomings. The most important drawback is the failure to recognize that man and woman are members of gender groups that have been socialized into learned gender scripts and work behaviors. As Acker [2:45] wrote, gender refers to patterns, socially produced behaviors between females and males. It is not something that is inherited in people but individuals and social groups arrived at through interactions that occur during relationships in work places and institutions.

Martin [43] argued that traditional views made sexual harassment less significant by asserting that such behavior is “normal” or that is a futile effort to change the human nature. Feminist approach that affirms that sexual harassment involves the use of power of men which is derived from the economic or occupational sphere to gain benefits , impose punishment and assert dominance in sexual sphere. Thus, economic inequality and gender inequality reinforce each other undercutting women’s potential for social equality placing women in lower paying gender – stereotyped jobs with less promotion opportunities. In this way, their subordination makes them vulnerable to sexual harassment. [43].

IV. METHODOLOGY

Two HE Institutions in Pakistan were selected for the present study and six women academics working in these institutions were interviewed. Their ages vary from 27-55 years where as their work experience ranges from 4 years to 30 years. These women are not only academics but also administrators in their universities. Their main job responsibilities include teaching and developing curriculum at graduate and post graduate levels. At the same time, most of them had administrative responsibilities for different research projects in their respective departments. The interviews were not tape-recorded, as participants were not comfortable with the idea and resisted recording of any part of it. Notes and pseudonyms were used for in the research study. All of these interviews were conducted in Pakistan on one -to -one basis and were conversed in Urdu and English language and some quotes were later on translated into English. However, some times interviewees also used English to describe some terms such as sexual harassment, gender etc for couple of reasons, such as there is no specific word in Urdu language, or they themselves do not know about any word that they may have used as substitute. They also used English words/ sentences for expressing their feelings regarding their experience of sexual harassment. Each interview lasted for more than two hours.

In-depth interviews for data collection were preferred and were a basic tool for research. Personally, I is believed that sexual harassment is an experience that may be best described through in -depth interviews and in a face to face conversational way. As Reinharz [54:23] said that for a woman to be understood in a social research study. It may be necessary for her to be interviewed by a woman. The other important reason for taking up this method as a basic research tool is as Bell [14] argued, interviewing offers researchers access to people’s ideas and thoughts in their own words rather than in the words of researchers. This asset is particularly important for study of women because in this way learning from women is antidote to centuries of ignoring women’s ideas altogether or having men speak for women [14:97].

Majority of the feminist agree on the fact that finding one’s voice is a crucial process of research and writing [54]. Renate Klien, [cited in 54] suggested that we cannot speak for others but what we can do is speak out for others. It is realized that women are usually not encouraged to digress into the details of personal histories and recent anecdotes about their working life experiences. Author’s own interpretation and meanings to their experiences and interpretations of the events were avoided at maximum level.

The research was privileged from feminist epistemology while taking women academic’s life experiences into account since feminist epistemology is one of the few which not only fits into research paradigm and recognizes personal interpretations and experiences in formulating theory but also gives recognition to personal accounts. Besides, feminist epistemologies confer rational meaning to women’s emotional experiences and feelings and may contribute in theoretical analyses on women in a gendered oppressed society such as Pakistan.

In Pakistan the low status given to newly born girl child over a boy child and unjust treatment given to girls in the family and then to women in the society, it makes quite probable that women develop guilt for being a female in Pakistani society [34]- [52]. Hassan [34] presented a comparative view about working women in western and Pakistani culture. She discussed, in sexual harassment, vulnerability is the key factor. The weakest sections of the society and particularly women are the most vulnerable to get abused. In the case of women in Pakistan, it is both gender and culture .They are thus doubly damned. Nonetheless even in western cultures where role of working women is quite normal phenomenon, it is clear that sexual harassment in the work places is common as for the most patriarchal cultures. In Pakistan, men usually have view about working women that there must be something either with the woman or family setup that a woman of the family is outside of her home. Women are considered dependent in Pakistani society and men are considered providers for their families and if women shift from their traditional roles e.g. of mothers, daughters, sisters and wives towards earning persons, they are inviting trouble in their lives [34:305].

The problem of sexual harassment in HE is not different in Pakistan from rest of the world , However, cultural differences among the countries, preventive measures and strategies to address and politicizes the issue make the difference . As Kia-Ming [37] expressed that problems may look alike in different countries and different parts of the country but their causes and nature may be considerably different [37:76].

Due to the fact that most of the literature used for this research study on sexual harassment is derived from research studies conducted in the west, It was struggled hard to find relevant literature on sexual harassment in the context of Pakistan to support couple of arguments. It may also be relevant to mention here that though some of the reference used in this research study comparatively old , the absence of any recent literature makes them valid and relevant to Pakistani situation, as Pakistani society is passing through almost all the same period most of the western countries may have gone through 350-40 years ago with reference to awareness and level of debate regarding sexual harassment .

V. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Mauthner [45] expressed that the issue of sexual harassment is very sensitive and a delicate topic to do the research on as it reveals aspect of intimate experiences in a very personal and emotional way. Keeping the sensitive nature of the topic in mind and ensure confidentiality names of the institutions and respondents were with- held Further, participants were as referred W1, W2, W3, W4, W5, and W6.

VI . Sexual Harassment: A Nameless Issue

The word sexual harassment is generally a key in defining sexual harassment and gender harassment to distinguish it from other types of sexual interactions. The American Heritage Dictionary [5:617] defined the word harass s to “disturb” or “irritate persistently”. In simple words sexual conduct such as the use of the words, physical contact or display of sexually explicit material used in a work place or an educational institution to bully or intimidate another person, constitutes sexual harassment. In this section, focus is on why sexual harassment was kept nameless for so many years [61] – [24]-[39]. The inability to recognize sexual harassment as a phenomenon has meant that it has had no place in the language. As language is one of the ways in which people describe and shape their understandings of the world, the absence of a label makes talking about something unnamed difficult

W6 described her point of view as:

What I should have said about the torture I had gone though during my early years in this institution? I don’t know at that time what should I refer to such kind of behavior? I did not know the name of this behavior. This was the basic impediment for us to share or discuss these harassing behaviors. (W6).

Spender [61] argued that language is so powerful in structuring a thought and a reality. That it can blind its users to evidence of the physical world; objectives and events remain vague and imprecise, if they are not named. De Beauvoir (20] stated that men describe the world from their own point of view, which they confuse with the absolute truth. Spender [61] made a similar point. Her analysis showed that language plays a central part and that naming the world is essential for construction of reality. She contend that when a group holds monopoly on the naming of something then it is usually able to enforce its own particular bias on every one. This bias is embedded in that name. From this it can be inferred that those who have power to name the world are in a position to influence reality. This problem arose with the phenomenon of sexual harassment as it remained under-reported , under-debated and under-considered just because an appropriate terminology was not available to refer it to form a legal, social , academic and empirical point of view . MacKinnon [39] described that lacking a term to express it, sexual harassment was literally unspeakable, which made a generalized, shared and social definition of it inaccessible [39:1].

Once coined and used, the term became widely used, especially by women who could then relate to the issue. Farley [24] found a form of male behavior in the workplace which she said, required a name and sexual harassment seemed to come about as close to symbolizing the problem as language would permit.

Commentators concurred that women were “naming” an experience they had endured in silence for many years. Once the problem was named, women could at least speak out and mobilize politically to tackle it [13]. Mackinnon [40] argued that it was not surprising that women would not complain of an experience for which there has been no name. Dworkin [21] claimed that as men were engineers of cultures they had named all the worlds. Women had their values, perceptions and understandings defined for them. Therefore, the majority of people use language that is sexist, developed by men in their own interest, formed especially to exclude women and is used to oppress them. Behaviors that were not experienced by men remained nameless or considered normal and by default regarded as unproblematic by most women and men alike.

a. Issues in defining sexual harassment

Sexual harassment is very difficult, if not impossible to define, perhaps because of complicated factors that have delayed both awareness of and responses to sexual harassment. Lee and Heppner [38] traced historical, legal and research based definitions of sexual harassment and found multiple definitions that have evolved over time. They noticed a growing recognition by researchers and lawmakers that sexual harassment is a complex phenomenon that must be evaluated with attention to the context within which the behavior occurs. Nonetheless, sexual harassment continued to occupy an ambiguous ground, extending from flirtatious behavior to assault. One of the consequences is of the confusion surrounding concept of harassment is that although large number of women reported harassing behaviors at their work places-such as touching, fondling and propositions-only a small number of women indicated that they believe they actually have been sexually harassed [ 28]- [27]

Somers [60] asserted that problems in understanding and dealing with sexual harassment in academic setting stems largely from the lack of clear, concise and universal definition of sexual harassment. Some definitions are quite restrictive, such as guidelines of American Psychological Association (Ethical Principles for Psychologist 1981)while others are very broad [65].Definitions often suffer from the use of qualifying and descriptive terminology , which further confuse issue[19]. Crocker 1983).Crocker’ s central argument was that institutions of Higher education should remove distinctions between more and less serious forms of sexual harassment and between conduct that is ‘deliberate’, ‘intentional’ and ‘repeated’ and that which occurred rarely or unintentionally. In Crocker’s view, all definitions including these kinds of qualifies ‘potentially allow for extreme laxity in preventing, correcting or punishing sexual harassment’ [19:703]. She proposed an alternative to existing definitions of sexual harassment would be to adapt victim-based definitions. What is allowed to be counted as sexual harassment should be defined from victims’ perspectives rather than from the perspective of others that may never have experienced the problem personally.

Until 1974, many women who were sexually harassed all over the world were at a loss because they did not know how to describe this unwanted male behavior. Because of the language deficiency there was an inability to express feelings adequately or to describe a man’s unwanted approaches. Not being able to communicate the existence of such a problem prevented women from sharing experience with others, forced them into an isolated, vulnerable and silent position. One of the research participants mentioned this issue as:

In my early years in academia, though I faced some incidences that I can now name as sexual harassment. It was almost impossible to label them as such during the 70’s as there was not any name for this phenomenon. Definitely, I felt terrible and disgraceful, as my boss embarrassed me in the meetings before the rest of the colleagues. All I could do was to respond to him with nervous laughter, which now I think was not enough (W2).

Hassan [34] commented on the existence of sexual harassment inferring that it is present in workplaces in Pakistan and it is as common as it is the far most patriarchal cultures. Anila [10] explained that sexual harassment is unspeakable issue in Pakistani society. Although all women knew and experienced its different forms, yet nobody cared or dared to report it because throughout life women have been discouraged from speaking about such incidents. As more and more women in Pakistan are venturing out into workplaces, the issue of sexual harassment is becoming increasingly important to address [10:52].

b. Sexual harassment defined

Another persistent and troubling problem besides the namelessness of sexual harassment is that , in the literature there has been a lack of a widely agreed-upon definition, one that was broad enough to encompass the variety of experiences to which sexual harassment refers and yet specific enough to be of practical use. Stein et al [59] defined sexual harassment as any form of unwanted sexual attention defined by one person who is the target of the harassment. Although it lacked technical precision, it clarified the core concept of sexual harassment, that is, unwanted and unwelcome sexual conduct. Respondents were also confused about one comprehensive definition of sexual harassment. They mentioned that there are many behaviors and actions that can be labelled as sexual harassment yet have not come across any definition that may be complete enough to enfold all actions and behaviors in one concrete and concise definition. One of the respondents mentioned this dilemma as:

Actually, there is not a single concrete and complete definition that covers the whole realm of sexual harassment. There are many definitions in the literature, which define what is sexual harassment. However, nothing covers the entire spectrum of actions and behaviors. When you look it up in the literature, various groups of people e.g. lawyers, educators and researchers define this problem differently. Research studies generally showed that except for the most outrageous and clearly impropriate behavior, whether or not an incident is labeled as harassment varies with several characteristics of incident and people involved. Therefore, it is not easy to have a comprehensive definition that can be applied to all situations (W1).

The existing definitions of sexual harassment come from a number of sources. However despite many differences in the existing definitions of sexual harassment, behaviors that can constitute sexual harassment are fairly well defined and consistent for all groups and individual. Many researches [41]-[35]-[30]-[26]-[63] showed significant levels of agreement between women and men as to which behaviors constitute sexual harassment and which do not.

c. Legal definitions

Legal definitions defined the behavior that is actionable under the law and can be use for the victim’s protection. Sexual harassment is recognized as a form of sexual discrimination prohibited under the Civil Rights Act of 1964 guidelines published by the United States of America. The Equal Opportunity Commission (EEOC) in 1980 in the United States of America defined sexual harassment as:

Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature constitute sexual harassment when submission of such conduct is made either explicitly or implicitly a term or condition of an individual’s employment, such conduct has the purpose or effect of substantially interfering with an individual’s work performance creating an intimidating , hostile or offensive working environment [21]

Unfortunately, at present in Pakistan, sexual harassment is not considered as an illegal act as there is no law and legal definition available for women to protect themselves against sexual harassment [11].Therefore, working women, especially in Pakistan , cannot complain on a legal basis that they have been sexually harassed at their work places.

d. Empirical /academic definitions

Academic definitions were devised to provide an in -depth understanding of problem and to develop policy based solutions for it. These definitions have been developed empirically, through investigation of what various groups of individuals have perceived sexual harassment to be under different circumstances. Asking women who have gone through harassment to describe their experience provides empirical definitions of sexual harassment.[28]-[53].The most complete effort of this sort was of Till [64] who classified responses of national sample of college women in United States of America as a general category ranging from sexist comments to rape. A generally acceptable definition remained, however, unavailable [30]. Farley [24] described one of the earliest definitions quoted through literature as:

Unsolicited, on reciprocal male behavior that asserts a woman’ sex role over her function as a worker. It can be any or all of the following; staring at, commenting upon or touching a woman’ body parts; repeating non-reciprocated propositions for dates; demands for sexual intercourse; and rape [24:68].

Understandable and useful definitions of sexual harassment are important because they served as a guide to behavior in workplaces and academia. Crocker [19] asserted that definition can educate community and promote discussion and conscientious evaluation of behavior and experience. One can learn that certain behaviors are officially recognized as wrong and punishable and sexual harassment is one such behavior. Paludi [51] defined sexual harassment from an organizational perspective and it may be same for Higher Education institutions in Pakistan. She described that a major barrier to general acceptance that sexual harassment is a devastating force in our society continues to be the widespread belief that it is a matter of personal relation outside of an institution and unrelated to the institutional powers and prerogatives. However, the reality is that the structure and culture of an organization interact with psychological dynamics to increase women and men’s vulnerability to sexual harassment [51:78].

Paludi’s organization view that sexual harassment resulted from opportunities presented by power and authority relationships, created by hierarchical structure of organizations. Paludi [51] further claimed that, since work and academic organizations are defined by vertical stratification and asymmetrical relations between supervisors ad subordinates, teachers and students, individuals can use its power of their positions to extort sexual gratification from their subordinates [51:78].

She is of the view that, in sexual harassment the harasser is an individual who holds expert and informational power in an academic work or workplace, e.g., grades, letters of recommendations and promotions. Thus, sexual harassment is about abuse of power within the society and at different levels in different organizations.

The key point of the behaviour to be defined as sexual harassment is that it is unwanted. This is the only factor that was common to all definitions of sexual harassment. Sexual harassment can also be defined as any behaviour that makes women feel different usually in detrimental way because of her sex. One respondent described sexual harassment as:

Any behavior or comment that can make women worry in a way and relates to their sex in a detrimental manner. Any phenomenon that makes them feel unsafe, insecure, embarrassed, and inferior and reduces women to a status of objects. I think that any behavior designed to get at a woman and which shows obvious disregard of her basic rights to be educated with respect and as a human being and not an object (W4).

Evans [23] argued that the reality of sexual harassment has also been obscured by popular myths that are contradicted by women’s actual experience. The prevalent myths about sexual harassment are that women some how enjoy it or it is trivial and unimportant and happens to particular types of women who seek attention from men in any form and whose moral conduct may be questionable. It is therefore, not the problem of all the women and can be handled by women if it happens at all. Evans [23] also claimed and this study showed that women’s real feelings about sexual harassment are in fact quite different from the myths prevailing in many societies all over the world.

VII. FORMS OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT

Sexual harassment can be manipulated in many ways in educational setup as well as in workplaces. This section is intended to provide some of the forms that women academics mentioned.

Sexual harassment is a part of violence against women

In a number of important ways, sexual harassment is more similar than different from other forms of violence against women [47]. Sexual harassment is a form of women control. As with rape, incest and battering, the locus of control is sex [41]- [42]. When successfully practiced, it sustains male dominance and women’s subordination by privileging the sexual desires of men over the needs of women. Like other forms of violence against women, secrecy-covered incidences of sexual harassment victimization [29].Sexual harassment is practiced in the majority of workplaces in Pakistan too, yet talk of this experience is a taboo. Women have been socialized to keep details of their victimization to themselves. Thus, pain that sexual harassment brings often goes unnoticed and the suffering of its victims is greatly underestimated. One respondent offered her opinion as:

I take sexual harassment as an act of violence against women; it may start as casual sexual jokes and can end up in rape. I consider it as a form of violence against women because; it violates the basic right of women as a human being. It destroys the life and reputation of women and they feel humiliated and suffer unforgiving pain in which they accuse their own self (W5).

2. Sexual harassment as a form of sex discrimination

Sexual harassment has been identified as the most common form of sex discrimination experienced by women in universities that is rarely acknowledged or reported about [26]- [41]-[15]-[17]-[51]. Sexual harassment acts like a wall that blocks young women’ movement towards equality. Equal opportunity has increased young women access to education but sexual harassment ensures that they remain unequal there , promoting further discrimination and exclusion[64]. Sexual harassment is a form of discrimination based on one’s sex. It is a type of discrimination that limits women’s abilities in workplaces and academic settings. One of the woman academics commented:

I think it is a form of sex discrimination against women. Once I had an opportunity to attend a training workshop. one of my male colleagues was very much interested in that course, though it was not very relevant to his field of research . He started to pressurize administration to take my name off from the list of the people chosen by selection committ

“Sex tourism requires Third World women to be economically desperate enough to enter into prostitution; once they do so, it becomes difficult to leave. The other side of the equation requires men from affluent societies to imagine that African women are more available and submissive than women in their own countries. Finally, the industry depends on alliance between local governments in search of foreign currency and local foreign business willing to invest in sexualized travel” (Enloe, 2000:36).

Otherwise known as sex prostitution, sex tourism is tourism for which the main motivation of the trip is to consummate or engage in commercial sexual relations (Graburn 1983; Hall 1991; Ryan and Hall 2001). The number of men and women travelling to Third World countries seeking sex tourism has increased tremendously (Herold et al. 2001). In the past, notorious sex destinations have been mainly the South East Asian countries, today it has spread to other regions of the world including Kenya, Tunisia, South Africa, Brazil and The Gambia (Ryan and Hall 2001, Enloe2002; Chissim 1996).

This paper discusses gender and the political economy of sex tourism on the Kenyan Coast, its health and socio- economic impacts.

International Tourism and Sex Tourism in Kenya

Tourists visit Kenya because of several reasons including its beautiful landscape, wildlife safari, the humid climatic conditions along the Kenyan Coast and the beautiful Coastal beaches. International tourist arrivals in Kenya have been increasing tremendously from 69 million in 1960 to 160 million in 1970, 458 million in 1990, and 625 million in 1998 (WTO, 1999). This increase has led to massive increase in sex tourism, a condition evidenced by inclusion of Kenya among the world’s leading sex tourism destinations (Vatican 2003; Boston Globe 1995; East African Standard 1995 and Chessim 1996).

Although not officially stated, a good percentage of foreign tourists who visit Kenya often indulge in sex tourism during their trip (Chissam 1996; Sindiga 1999). These tourists mainly come from Germany, the UK, Switzerland, Italy and France. Others are from North America, Japan, Australia, New Zealand and European countries such as Spain and Sweden. Many of these countries have been generating sex tourists to some of the world’s renowned sex tourism destinations such as Thailand (Ryan and Hall 2001). Hence we can conclude that they are likely to engage in the same activity while in Kenya.

Kenya is a developing country with agriculture contributing 24.0% of GDP. Overall, Kenya’s economic performance has been declining since early 1990’s. The country’s per capita is about US$ 260 and more than 70% of Kenyan population currently lives below the poverty line; the worst hit are women (CBS 2001).

The Economics of Tourism and Sex Industry

The main economic activity in Kenya at independence in 1963 was Agriculture whereby the country relied on cash crop exports. After independence, the government tried to diversify the economy by implementing an “open door” economic policy to attract foreign investment. However, the limitations of agricultural and manufacturing sectors coupled with the appreciation of employment potential forced Kenyan government to turn to tourism as a central industry.

Since 1987, tourism industry has been the leading foreign exchange earner, (CBS 2001) surpassing the traditional export crops of coffee and tea (Gakuhu1992; Weaver 1998 and CBS 2001). The industry employs about 1.5 million Kenyans, approximately 8% of wage earning labor force (Weaver, 1998 and CBS 1999). In addition, Tourism is linked to many domestic industries and it is a potentially useful tool for generating development in neglected areas. The industry also contributes substantially to government revenues through taxes and import duties. Tourism is therefore officially promoted in Kenya as the main foreign exchange earner, source of employment and general development. Its significance on the Kenyan economy has a lot of bearing on tourism policies including those related to sex tourism.

Sex Tourism Market on the Kenyan Coast

Sex tourism is believed to be increasing at a high rate in Kenya. This is mainly because of the reality that there is a sex tourism market for female and male tourists. Female tourists, mainly from European countries come to Kenya to meet with local beach boys because they imagine that black men (or men of color) are stronger and more active in bed than men in their home countries. On the other hand, male tourists come to Kenya to meet with black women; mainly young girls who are believed to be ‘hot’ in bed.

Child prostitution is also emerging in Kenya involving young boys and girls. This is commonly along the Kenyan coast where many children choose not to go to school but instead go to beaches in search for white men and women from European countries who exploit them sexually.

The Kenyan Coast located along the Indian Ocean caters for about 66% of Kenyan tourism activities. Sex tourism is a major activity in Kenyan Coast (Sindiga 1999, Migot-Adhola et al 1982; Bechmann 1985). The Kenya coast as a tourism destination has existed since 1920 attracting mainly the white settlers and colonial government officials who sought holiday excitements.

Major tourist attractions at the Kenyan coast include the wildlife, white sandy beaches, sun, sea, sex, scene features, diverse cultures, hospitable people, historical sites, national museums, national parks and reserves near the coast and tourism facilities of international standard such as hotels and airport.

The presence and availability of Britons, Germans, Italians, Americans and others in Mombasa and other coastal towns in search of rest, fun and recreation has been the main factor attracting Kenyan girls and children to get involved in sex tourism (Sindiga 1999 and Chissim 1996).

Different Forms of Sex Tourism

Sex tourism sometimes involves production of videos featuring nude dancing in which no direct physical contact occurs; the tourists engage in voyeurism.

There are also casual prostitutes or freelancers who move in and out of prostitution depending on their financial needs. In this case, sex tourism may be regarded as incomplete commercialized and the relationship between sex worker and the client may be ridden with ambiguities (Cohen 1982; Ryan and Hall 2001), particularly if the relationship shifts from an economic to a social base. However, some women entering into sex tourism in Kenya are not financially needy but only seeking fun and ‘social class’, whereby the community views women seen socializing with white men with high esteem and associate them with wealth and success in life. Some of these women have jobs in noble professions while others are college students.

There is also the more formalized form of prostitution where the workers operate through intermediaries. Since sex tourism is illegal in Kenya, prostitutes use entertainment establishments such as night clubs, bars, beaches and other retail outlets to get customers. The other type of sex tourism is that of bonded prostitutes. This is more of slavery because it is enforced by people such as family members through abductions and kidnapping.

Motivation Factors: Why do Tourists Look for Sex

Most tourists tend to behave differently while in the countries they are touring. This is because there is an assurance of anonymity, which releases them from the usual restraints, which determine their behavior in their home countries. Tourism allows people “to lose their identity” and gives them the freedom to escape realities and live their fantasies. They spend more money, relax more, drink more, eat more and get involved in pleasures they would not at home. Men who would never visit brothels in their home countries will end up doing so in a foreign country where there is negligible chance of detection and penalty. For the same reason, women who would never have sex with boys young enough to be their grand children at their home country would do so in a foreign country.

Tourists tend to seek commercial sex services in Kenya because the services are readily available and quite cheap compared to what they would pay for such services in their home countries. Such tourists are able to enjoy lifestyles they could never enjoy in their home countries. Furthermore, some of these tourists may hold menial jobs in their industrialized home countries but because of the disparity in salaries and high exchange rates, they may appear comparatively rich when in a poorer country like Kenya. They would therefore tend to spend their money in sexual activities that they associate with the rich and the famous in their home countries. Chissim has illustrated this in his interview with a German tourist visiting Kenya (Chissim 1996:18).

“aˆ¦. Morco said he was in Kenya for a month but within four days, he boasted of already fucking five girls. He said he fucked one girl on the beach but pretended that he had no money, so he got that one for free. Another girl he fucked on the beach for 100/- (about $1) and told her that he had no more money. The others he said he had to pay 200/- (about $3) aˆ¦”

For some of these tourists, Kenya represents Africa where life is perceived as raw and wild and a place where people are uncontrolled, liberal and polygamous. These reasons partly explain why some European women visit Kenya to look for sex from beach boys young enough to be their grandsons. It is estimated that more than 5% of all European women who visit Kenya go in search of sex, especially those from German, Switzerland and Italy (New York Times Feb. 14, 2002).

Many Kenyan communities highly value virginity. This motivates tourists to have sex with younger girls; in the anticipation of having sex with a virgin who may be free from HIV/ AIDS.

Some tourists engage in sex tourism because they may be fleeing from unhappy relationships at home and, perhaps, from women who may tend to question male domination. Male supremacy is perceived as a natural kind of authority in many cultures and world religions. Cultural values defining traditional male sex roles are power, dominance, strength and supremacy, while those defining female roles are submissiveness, weakness, inferiority and passivity. Women are perceived as property of men and sex as exchange of goods, which further entrenches male supremacy. This notion also teaches men that females are worthless and less deserving and may be treated as objects of men.

The mafia- style drugs and sex industry along the Kenyan coast is another motivating factor for sex tourism. People with a lot of money are capable of bribing their way out of trouble if caught Such people are also responsible for organizing sex services for clients outside the country (Sindiga 1999; Chessim 1996).

Supply Factors: Why Do Sex Workers Get Involved

“Many times I don’t feel anything during sexual encounters. It is because I need money for myself and my children that I keep doing it. I have learned to do motions mechanically in order to satisfy my clients. If I do it well, they will come back and that means more money.” (Lin Lean Lim 2000:74).

This Filipino woman quoted by Lin Lean Lim expresses the reason why many women from Third World countries practice sex tourism and their feelings about sex work. The main reason for sex tourism for many is poverty. Many Kenyan women are economically desperate. With the increasing rate of unemployment and high cost of living, prostitution is left as the only option for them to earn a living and support their children. Such women migrate to coast with hope of finding white tourists who can pay more for the services or even may end up marrying them.

Some girls involved in sex tourism come from broken homes or very poor family backgrounds and are never taken to school to attain formal education. They resolve to sex prostitution as a means of supporting themselves economically.

In Kenya, women are generally poorer than men because women have limited access to resources such as land, capital, farm equipments and agricultural inputs. Inheritance practices in most Kenyan communities seem to favor men. This means that men can easily have access to other productive resources because they can use land as security to borrow money if needed to purchase other productive resources. This option is normally not available for women.

In many Kenyan communities, illiteracy levels in women are higher than those of men. This is because parents give priority to boy’s education particularly if resources are limited. Along the coast, education is not valued because people from these areas are used to receiving tokens and money from the tourists. Children of school going age therefore prefer to go to beaches in search for tourists who give them tokens in exchange for sex. Other factors affecting education for girls include unwanted pregnancies and the fact that they are forced to early marriages by their parents for economic gains.

Kenyan women are discriminated against in most areas of formal employment and more often left with poorly paid jobs or no jobs at all. This makes prostitution an alternative.

The HIV/AIDS scourge in Kenya is estimated to claim 500 lives daily leaving many orphans. The young children left become heads of the families and may often turn to sex tourism and prostitution as a means of earning a living to support their siblings.

Impact of Sex Tourism in Kenya

Sex tourism can be seen as both a risk and an opportunity. Most women in sex tourism face the risk of material loss because their clients may not pay them for the services (ref. The Marco case). Women are generally helpless against such exploitation and take it as part of their business.

Sex workers face the risk of losing their money to thieves and police because they have to bribe their way out if caught as they mostly work at night.

Women can sometimes face attacks by dissatisfied customers. These attacks may be in form of rape, cruelty, violence or even murder.

“Monica Njeri was a 32- year old mother of two and a prostitute in Mombasa. She was brutally murdered by Frank Sundstrom a 19 year old USA navy service man who wanted the kind of sex that Monica could not provide. When he was not satisfied with merely sleeping, he woke up and tried to steal back the money he had given to her plus her own money but she woke up and caught him in the act. In ensuing struggle, he broke a beer bottle to make a weapon and repeatedly stabbed her until she died.” (Migot- Adhola 1982:74).

Although Sundstrom admitted the offence, his only sentence was to sign a bond of 500/- (equivalent to US$46 at that time) to be of good conduct.

Women in sex tourism industry and prostitution are continually exposed to sexually transmitted infections including HIV/AIDS. Many tourists may not accept to use protection such as condoms because they argue that it interrupts the flow of sex and carrying it may imply that one is promiscuous (Clift and Grabowski 1997).

Sex workers are also faced with the danger of susceptibility to anal or cervical cancers, additionally, since many women are forced into sex work, many of them only work under influence of drugs and/or alcohol. This may lead to depression or alcohol addiction.

Sex tourism has been blamed in Kenyan coast for increasing rate of school drop-out, poverty and illiteracy. This is mainly because children of school going age choose not to school but to follow tourists who lure them to sex tourism.

However, some women that have risked sex tourism have been able to build better houses and invested in urban businesses. This is largely because earnings from prostitution are often more than those from other alternative employment opportunities open to women.

Sex workers contribute to national economy by boosting profits of many transnational hotels and airlines, taxi drivers, brothel owners and many other intermediaries. The Kenyan police, the state, as well as the local and international enterprises are well aware that sex has a market value even though they proclaim that prostitution is immoral (Ryan and Hall 2001).

Sex tourism has also contributed to cultural exchange because many sea workers are forced to learn foreign languages so that they can communicate with their clients. There are occasions when these temporary relationships have led to marriages hence removing such girls from prostitution. The other positive impact is that health workers are encouraged to go for regular medical checkups because of the nature of their work, hence paying more attention to their health.

A Study about Negative Impacts and Positive Impacts of Sex Tourism and Child Sex Tourism in Bangkok, Thailand. Abstract: This proposal conducts a study about the negative and positive impacts of sex tourism and child sex tourism in Bangkok, Thailand. The study will mention the problems and benefits Bangkok, Thailand is experiencing through sex tourism and child sex tourism. There will be three chapters, in the first chapter, there will be a short introduction of sex tourism and the study in general, what are the problems the study will look at, the assumption obtained from the study and conceptual framework from various authors. Then the second chapter consist of literature review of the chosen topic and last but not least the last chapter, methodology, a research design will be carried out, which include questionnaires, sample frame, data collection and analysis procedure.

Introduction

Sex tourism and child sex tourism have been booming in the last past recently years. It has been one of the main sources of economic in Thailand, when people think of sex tourism and child sex tourism; Thailand would be one of the first countries that pop out into people’s mind. However, there is always a bad side to it. Sex tourism and child sex tourism could be bad to the society and morality.

In this analysis, there will be a study about negative impacts and positive impacts of sex tourism in Bangkok, Thailand. What are the benefits it brings to the country and what are the damages it causes?

Current situation of the sex industry in Thailand

According to Far eastern Economic review (2009) due to the current economic slump, hundreds of factories and projects have shut down across Thailand, causing countless workers both Thai and foreign unemployed. The estimate number is approximately 100 000 workers a month and it might jump up to 1.5 million by the end of the year. Even though they built up more and more unskilled factory jobs, however the wage is ten to twenty times lower than the pay of the lowest sex worker employed at beer bars (Ashoka). Therefore most women would choose to be a sex worker instead of factory worker. Many of them are having double lives and keeping their employment hidden from their families. Even some of them get treated badly, they silently suffer and tolerate with it because they need money to support them and their family and they know there is always a ready group of poorer migrants that are available to replace them anytime.

Sex tourism in Thailand is a colourful industry, where u could almost ask anything you are looking for pertaining ‘sex’. They have from prostitutes, escorts, transsexuals, show girls, lady boy show, go-go bars, clubs and massage parlors to ping pong show. More and more thrilling entertainments are going in the market to lust more tourists to Bangkok, Thailand, Asia’s Red District.

Most of the girls working as a prostitute or hookers can be found easily in red district areas. Most of them are sexy, cheerful and fun and can speak English. They can spend all evening, all week with the customers if both parties agree on the price but they can be a bit bitchy too if the customer is stingy. Some girls they will name the price but some are shy, they depend on the generosity of the customers. The cost of Bangkok prostitutes can be ranged from 1000 baht (short time) to 6000 baht. However for the girls who work in the bar, the customer has to pay a bar fine before he can take her home with him, a fine should be around 200 to 500 baht depend on the place. An entertainment show like a lady boy show cost a customer around 550 baht. But, for child prostitute, a customer can get a child with 30 baht.

Problem Statement

Sex tourism and child sex tourism, it has become one of the most attractive type of tourism in this modern world. More and more people are going for sex tourism and they do not feel shy or embarrassing to admit they travel for sex experiences. Sex tourism and child sex tourism can bring a lot of money to the country and job opportunities to people directly or indirectly but however, due to the fast growing of the industry; sex tourism and child sex tourism have brought many misleading consequences and damages. Sex trafficking, sex trade and diseases. Once the victims are traded or trafficked, the traffickers will make sure they have complete control over the victims, leave them no rights or freedom over their own bodies thus enslaving them to the sex industry world. Furthermore, they will leave the victims so psychologically and physically abused that they do not dare to run away. They put dept bondage on them and force them to pay back before they could leave the sex trade. According to ECPAT, studies have shown that a child prostitute can serve between two to thirty clients per week, which can be estimated between 100 to 1500 clients per year and many of them are below 10 years old (Nair, no date). Most of them are still so young and they do not know what really is going on, all they know is listen to the orders else they would be beaten or left starve. The victims that are engaged in sex industry have both their mental and physical psychological affected. Their living condition is bad and their meals are irregular and not healthy and they rarely receive treatment when they are sick only until it gets too serious. Not to mention STD, HIV/AIS, according to a research, HIV positive rates are 42% to 54% among sex workers and the percentage will increase in the future. Apart from that, they suffer from exhaustion, infections and violence. If they do not work hard and earn enough money they would be punished. Most of them would feel scared, hopeless, depression and low self-esteem since they do not know who to run to for help or protect. Few are brave enough to run away but most of them will choose drugs and suicide to forget and reduce the suffering.

Every problem has reasons behind it, so do sex trafficking, sex trade and the diseases. The demand with lenient laws on prostitution has pushed Thailand sex industries grow faster and stronger. The more unique demands pour in the better the services and the greater surprises would be provided. So there will not be any stop for it. Go in hand with it; it is the poverty and cultural perception. Thai believes in working as sex worker is their only choice and what their ancestor did so they keep faith in it. In addition, there are too many poor families in Thailand and they have very little education and skills in them so they would not earn much if they work in factory or restaurant compare being as a sex worker.

Research Questions

Here are some research questions that I will look into for my proposal:

Whether Thai government purposely promotes sex tourism to drive Thai national growth?

What are the reasons for not legalizing sex tourism in Thailand?

Why Thailand should not practice child sex tourism?

What are the damages sex tourism and child sex tourism have caused to Thailand?

What are the benefits sex industries bring to the country?

Research Objectives

The research objective of this study is to find out the answers for the questions mentioned above.

To investigate whether Thai government purposely promotes sex tourism to drive Thai national growth.

To investigate the reasons for not legalizing sex tourism in Thailand.

To investigate the reasons why Thailand should not practice child sex tourism.

To do a research on the damages sex tourism and child sex tourism have caused to Thailand.

To find out the benefits sex industries bring to the country.

Hypothesis Statement

In this statement, a requirement to determine the significant relationship between the cause and effect of sex tourism is recommended. The hypothesis should be able to predict the relationship between the variables.

Sex industry in Thailand increases the number of child prostitutes.

The intercourse between sex worker and customer could cause STD and other diseases.

The existence of sex tourism does increase the number of STD patients.

Human trafficking will increase as the demand for sex tourism and child sex tourism increase.

Theoretical/ Conceptual Framework

Figure 1: The trafficking triangle.

The conceptual framework above was designed by Phinney (no date), the author designed a relationship between supply, demand and impunity with human trafficking. The author shows a relationship between them which helps human trafficking activities develop and growth. When there is demand, there will be supply since there are purchasers who demand for it and due to demand, supply and lenient law; the traffickers take it as their advantage to traffic more and more women and children. In another hand, supply is the most visible factors among the three. The drives behind it contribute significant reasons for more trafficking to happen, poverty, unemployment, threaten and dream of a better life, etc. And then impunity, since sex tourism injects a lot of money to the country economy, so the government often close one eye unless a victim is caught and agree to report, else they would let the situation going on until it is getting out of control.

Figure 2: Reasons/drivers for sexual activity along a continuum of volition.

This conceptual framework was conducted by Weissman (2006). This research concentrates in the prevention of HIV among the youth, especially the girls and the reasons why young people engage in the sexuality activity. The framework above shows the drivers of 2 different points of view, one is by forced and the other is by volunteer. He believes there are reasons behind for young girls volunteer themselves in having relationship with older man or another boy her age. It might due to emotional security, material security like gift or money, or for the pleasure during the intercourse or it was due to the ambition for power, social status, and an escape for a better life. Whereas for the young girls who are forced, the main reason is because of money, most of them have financial problems or they have been threatened by other to turn themselves as prostitute. Even though, his point here is to educate them, either they are forced or offered themselves willingly they should protect themselves to avoid HIV/AIDS or other STD infections.

Scope and Limitations

Scope: I choose Thailand for my topic is due to its booming now in the world and of its unique nature services. Everyone knows about Thailand as one of the hubs for sex tourism and also the range of services they provide, as long there is a demand for it, Thailand will not disappoint the customers.

Limitation: Being students, we have a lot of limitations, we do not get a lot of help and support that we seek for. Most of the time, we can only get the information through journals and perhaps people’s opinion through internet and not directly from the source. For instance, one of my research questions I ask about “Whether Thai government purposely promotes sex tourism to drive Thai national growth?” Due to my limitation, it is almost impossible for me to get a chance to have an interview with the government people. I will not be able to get an audience with them.

Besides that, there are money issues, time restraints and limited resources, for research experiment, I need to conduct surveys or questionnaires to the people that are concerned include sex workers, pimps, traffickers, victims, etc but I do not have time, resources and money to go to Thailand to do so. In addition, a GPD is needed to prove the importance of sex tourism in Thailand economic but most of the time the country do not give fully information about it, because there are so many illegal parties going on in Thailand sex industry. Apart from that, I need to identify the location of the commercial sex markets and the places where all the activities occurred.

Significance of the study

The main reason why I choose this topic to write about is to alert the world and tell them what sex tourism and child sex tourism is all about. Many people have very vague ideas of the industry and how it actually works. Most of them only look at how they want sex industry to be and they totally ignore the bad effects behind it. For instance, sex shows, do the tourists even think about the girls who are doing it, how they actually think or feel or whether they were forced to do it for something call ‘money or threaten by the brothels or traffickers’. Does human right even exist in this context? And human trafficking, many women and children have been trafficked, traded or sold but no one seems to try to stop it but they just close one eye. ECPAT estimates there are more than one million children worldwide that are engaged in sex trade each year. Poverty, cultural perception and demand are the main reasons that make the industry grow faster and stronger. Whenever there is a demand, there will be supply as many people are unemployed and most of them are in financial crisis. However, people are neglected what might hunt them afterwards, the diseases, the psychological effects and their unsure future.

CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Introduction

Sex tourism “involves travel across national or international borders in order to take part in a non-reproductive sexual encounter. The sexual encounter may be with an adult or minor, man, women, transsexual or transvestite. It must involve an exchange of money or material goods for a sexual act” (Ward, 2010).

According to ECPAT (2008), child sex tourism (CTS) is defined as “Sexual exploitation of children by a person or persons who travel from their home district, home geographical region, or home country in order to have sexual contact with children.”

Gregg (2003) stated that ‘sex itself constitutes a social structure, emerging from desire, poverty, and gender inequalities that enable men to drink, be violent, and fornicate openly, but sanction women to suffer bodily and linguistically. Women’s pursuit of security with at best quasi-monogamous primary partners heightens their exposure to bearings and STDs but also their honor in the eyes of the community. Pursuing liberdade (freedom) instead with multiple partners expands their options but risks social approbation, dampened marital prospects, and cancer. Sexism, racism, colonial exploitation, and academic research forged misconceptions of femaleness and sexuality that endanger their health. Cervical cancer is absurdly loaded with metaphoric potential”.

The origin of sex tourism as a global industry may be traced back to Asia during Vietnam War against America. In Thailand, sex tourism started to have its new path after Vietnam War in late 1950’s. It has gained its popularity in every way. During the war, American used Thailand as their base and a place for recreation and rest for American soldiers, which the soldiers themselves called I&I, it stands for intercourse and intoxication. During their stay, many brothels, clubs, bars and massage parlors were formed and they boosted up Thai economic; it contributed around $16 million into Thai economy annually (Phoenix, 1991). From then, it has become one of the main sources of economic in Thailand. In order to satisfy and increase the demand, Thai government legitimated the Entertainment Act which allowed the operations of all forms of entertainment to serve the military. Then the government kept encouraging the development of sex industry openly to increase the revenues from the prostitution business. At the same time, many rumours were spreading about the cheap available sex in Southeast Asia that many curious men had to go and witness themselves. In another word, American soldiers transformed local prostitution markets into massive prostitution industries.

Alongside with it, child sex tourism was developing. It was all due to the lack of child protection laws and regulation of child prostitution but above all, it was the cause of poverty.

2.2 What drives sex tourism?

So what drives sex tourism in Thailand? Many studies have been carried out to identify the reasons that drive sex tourism in Thailand. Many explanations have been pointed out like the poverty, the government policies, the demand from the tourists, the cultural perception, and in addition the low cost and the unique services that they can provide the customers.

Firstly, the poverty, one of the major problems in Thailand, except for the big cities, many rural area and un-development districts are very poor. Added to it, they do not plan birth control, so many poor families have 4 to 5 children which just make their situation worse. Many are struggling to find a way to support their family. Alternatively, in another case, where the family is in debt and they are threatened to pay for it or they fail their agriculture or farm work and they need money to cover for it. Many parents have sold their children to pay for the debt. So when the agents tactfully approach the families, most of the family would trade their daughter for money and let them become sex workers. Not only that, many married women who then become widowed or left by their husbands and have their children to take care of, they do not have much options. It also includes many young girls that fed up of living in a life with no future; they are willing to trade everything for a better life. Many of them are exposed through television how a luxury easy life should be, the feeling of being rich, the ability to buy expensive beautiful things. And then they get influenced by their friends or follow the lead of the oldest among them, believing by becoming a prostitute they could change and become rich. Moreover, for them, foreigners equal to money, a gateway for a better life and a ticket to over-sea where they can experience what they deserve. Whether they are on business or leisure most of the time they could pay more than the average local clients or if the girl is lucky they could become their lover and have a better life. For the girls, becoming a prostitute for them is one of the easiest options to achieve what they want.

In 2006, a study shows the annual turnover rate of sex industry in Thailand is around US$ 43 billion per year, which is equivalent to one third of Thai economy. Daily around 4.6 million Thai men demand for prostitutes and yearly number of foreign tourists is 500 000 and most of them come from wealthy countries like America or Europe. Corrupt government is another factor that encourages the growth of the industry, however the amount of money they receive from the industry is much more than the other industries which contribute the expansion of prostitutions. This is the main reason why sex tourism in Thailand expands; the government wants the money it contributes to the country. Even though the government does not advertise it openly but most of the time they close one eye on most of activities sex industries do. In addition, lack of employment opportunities and vast income gaps between developing world on the one hand combined with local and international demand for commercial sexual services on the other, continue to create the push and pull factors forcing women and children onto prostitution.

Then, the cultural perception, from long ago, Thai convinced that in the family the oldest daughter supposes to support the family by earning money, the second help the family by doing the chores, taking care of the family and the younger one receives the education. So in most Thai families, the oldest one is often encourage going to bigger city to find job to support the family. For them it is a sense a duty or obligation to their parents, to share the family’s burden. If they come from village or have little education or no work skills, they have only little choice but become a sex worker as it is the only job that helps them to earn fast money with good pay. Moreover, many Thai women believe prostitution will protect them from getting raped and working as a prostitute is less degrading than working in the factory or fast food restaurants. There is also Thai society placed on virginity, which is meant to be preserved for one’s husband. However, the belief is backfired, for instance, among rape cases; after the girls lose their virginity they think they do not have any value anymore, so the only choice left for them is to become a sex worker.

There are also cultural and sociological factors that affect children way of thinking. They are expected to listen to all the rules set by the adults, disobedient is an act that cannot be tolerated and they can be punished for it. Besides that, with a historical legacy of foreign imperialism and the societal hierarchy such a system had fostered, children become vulnerable to adult predators, precisely those who are foreign.

Thirdly, the demand, mainly the demand for sex tourism and child sex tourism is from male customers, especially from wealthy, developed nations and the fact that commercial sex is considered a male right in a male dominant commodity culture; contribute a lot to this demand. Even though, the majority of sex tourists are male but there are still female who travel for sex and child sex tourism.

Thailand is known for providing good services with reasonable price. In addition, Western men are often attracted to Asian women’s characteristics, for instance, their hair, the features, the way they talk or their graceful movements. Besides that, the nature of services is different too, for example, for them, sexual services are usually bought the same way as normal commercial goods, both parties agree on the price for a specific task, and then the services will be delivered. After the service, they do not longer expect the prostitute to cuddle or act as their lover after sex but leave them after it. But compare to Asian women, some of them even cook, clean their room for the customers after the service and do not ask for extra money. They like the way they are treated by Asian women. Therefore, the demand from the tourists will keep increase and not decrease.

Many people believe that sex tourism is not an exploitative practice and the children and female workers who are involved in the industry are willing and decide to choose this type of job for themselves. The idea of the workers being forced never cross their mind, because most of the time sex workers always look cheerful and smiling in front of sex tourists. Another common belief among sex tourists is that they think they are helping the victims financially. They believe by giving the victim money and gifts in exchange for sexual service they have helped the poor child and his or her family out of poverty. One of child sex tourists said “On this trip, I had sex with a 14 year old girl [aˆ¦] and a 15 year old [aˆ¦] I am helping them financially. If they don’t have sex with me, they may not have enough food. If someone has a problem with me doing this, let UNICEF feed them. I’ve never paid more than $20 to these young women and that allows them to eat for a week.” It may be true what the child sex tourist said but where is the moral behind it. It then leads to another reason why third world countries have a high demand for sex tourism, ‘racist’. Many sex tourists hold a strong view about them being superior than other people compare to their own and have sexual activities with younger girls in those countries consider acceptable than it is in developed world (The Protection Project, 2007). When there is a demand there will be supply. As Pavena Hongsakula, a Minister in the Prime Minister’s Office in 1999 wrote to The Bangkok Post, “aˆ¦The Thai government does not and will not condone sex tourism. Although sex tours may bring in some foreign currencies, they are against all the moral principles we believe in. The sexual service business is an internal problem that we are trying to curb, but controlling the supply will not help much if the demand keeps pouring in.”

Furthermore, Thailand is known as the “Land of Smile”, they reassure they would provide whichever services that are asked from the customers and it would exceed what they expect from. For instance, Ping pong shows which refers as human zoo tourism, MacKinnon said, “Pornography of Asian women sold in the West has been almost entirely pornography of torture, this is just presenting that in the flesh”. In the show, women have to do ridiculous terrible things, from eels to snakes to catfish, it is hurt to watch but for western men it is a form of entertainment. One tourist commented on the Ping Pong show, said, “It’s like a form of art, these women are really talented. They’re making money the same way any other athlete makes money”. The tourists really do not care much about the value of the sex workers and they have no respects or sympathy towards them.

2.3 Child Sex Tourism

There are two types of child sex tourists, one travel for a short period and they will come back to their home country, the later, they stay in the destination and travel around those neighbor countries too, most of the time they would apply for a job. However, most of them tend to travel independently to the chosen destination. They learn about the places through internet, forum chat or word of mouth. They also have specialized websites where they could post on the updates of information, advices and experiences of different destinations. In the websites they have chat room where they can discuss and suggest each other. Once they are in the destination, they could get more information through taxis drivers, advertisements, hotels or bars to gain the access to child prostitution. Otherwise, for instance, in Cambodia, they find their victim by working around the neighbourhood, beach area, riverside where the poor children are living on the street, begging or selling souvenirs. To make their first move, they will give the kids gifts, candies, meals or jewellery (The Protection Project, 2007). In many other places, the children will seek the paedophiles by themselves in the area where foreigners are known to congregate, or the pimps will approach the tourists for negotiating. Then those who stay for longer period of time and travel back and forth within the region of interest or take up residence with the purpose of abuse children. For instance, they travel to Thailand then move on to Cambodia or Philippines and shift back to Thailand for renew visa purpose or other circumstances. Reports from Southeast Asia, Central America and Africa all pointed out that most of them often look for employment as English teachers, helping workers or similar occupations to possess easy access to the children. For instance, they would come in close contacts with the victims even his or her family, so the family would somehow depends financial on them because while abusing they would provide the family money or gifts. Many other cases occurred where the foreigner adopts the child and claims he would take care of the child but in reality, he is using the child for abusing and sexuality purposes. In addition, there is also tour operators that organize sex tour to Thailand, most of them always promise the customer the finest girls they could find in Thailand but there is no guaranteed whether the girls are not underage (The Protection Project, 2007).

In 2006, studies conduct by Thai government and NGOs of Thailand reported there is approximately 30 000 to 40 000 prostitutes are below the age of 18 that are exploited in the commercial sex industry in Thailand. (World vision 2007)

2.4 Human Trafficking

According to the UN protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, human trafficking means “the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability, or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery or practices similar or slavery, servitude or the removal or organs.”

In 2003, 177 of 257 cases of suspected human trafficking reported by the DATJP were receiver through the Hotline. In 2005 the hotline received over 700 calls, which indicates the numbers of human trafficking is increasing and the authority cannot do much to stop them.

Sex trafficking in another word is modern day form of slavery in which the victims are forced, fraud or coercion in sex act. Victims of sex trafficking can be anyone, women or men, girls or boys but mostly are women and young girls. Due to the lack of knowledge and hardship of finding employment from newly industrialized cities in Thailand, many of them rely on trafficking illegal immigrants to work as sex slaves. Many women and children are being sold by parents, lovers into sex trade or being kidnapped by traffickers. And many others naively agree to migrate with traffickers in hope of having better life in another country, financial opportunities that are promised or a false marriage proposal that turns into a bondage situation (ACF, 2008). Unfortunately, few of them aware of the life that they are going to live in, bad food and living condition, low wages, sexual abuse, as well as the physical force and psychological control by traffickers. For instance, a study of post trafficked women in Europe reports 95% of victims interviewed experienced physical or sexual violence while they were in trafficking situation. Sex trafficking victims are forced to work for many different forms of commercial sexual exploitation such as prostitution, pornography, stripping, or live sex shows. To keep the victims under control, the traffickers put a lot of pressure and threat on them. The TVPA (2008) identifies that traffickers use psychological, physical pressure and bondage to keep the victims under control. Psychological and physical abuse include treats of serious harm to or physical restraint against the victims, added to it they use scheme and pattern intended to bring the victims to believe that if they do not listen or fail in performing a task, the consequences would be in serious pain. The victims would be lie about the debt bondage, the trafficker will tell the victims about them owning a certain amount of money from the travelling and living expenses where they need to pay the dept in order to leave (ACF, 2008). The victims would be punished severely if they do not listen or try to escape. The traffickers will not care whether the victim is a lady or a child, whoever does not listen to them will be treated very badly, which includes beating, threats of violence, rape, starvation, forced drug use, isolation, intimidation and emotion manipulation. As the result, regardless of the symptoms experienced the victims will usually have psychological problems; they tend to have low self-esteem and they are afraid of many things which prevent them from develop and re-enter the society again once they escape or are rescued from the sex industry. For this reasons many shelters from both government and private have been built for the purpose of helping the victims to cope and start a new life. For instance, the main government shelter is Bahn Kredtrakarn, Bangkok; they can nurse up to 500 rescued victims (Arnold & Bertone, 2008). The shelters provide them a place to stay, food, medical care and counselling to recent rescued victims (ECPAT 30). They have psychologists to talk to the victims to try to help them out. Because they all went through tough time during trafficking situation, individual counselling will be given to take care of victims wit