Category: Free Essays

Important contributions to sociological thinking about postmodernism emerged from several academics, some of whom considered themselves postmodernists and others who did not. This essay will discuss the origins of postmodernism and its views and focus primarily on the works of Jean-Francois Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard and poststructuralist Michel Foucault. In addition to this, criticisms of their work and their influences within social theory shall be analysed.

Postmodernism developed as a reaction to the inadequacies of the eighteenth century Enlightenment movement which held views about scientific positivism, the search for absolute truth, ultimate meaning and the nature of reality using rationality. Postmodernists are anti-essentialist and argue that an absolute scientific truth has been discredited as truths are multiple and always changing. The belief is that people no longer rely on science. In support of this, Fulcher & Scott (2003) argue that in 1962, Thomas Kuhn suggested that science creates its facts instead of providing given facts. He argued that scientists collaborated with other researchers who shared particular concepts and methods in common to bring about factual knowledge; Kuhn claims this tells scientists what to find in experiments and help explain observations that do not match their preconceived ideas. This view was developed further by Lyotard, which shall be discussed in more detail (Haralambos & Holborn, 2004). It is argued that the postmodern society is associated with pluralism, difference, uncertainty and cultural relativism as there is a vast choice of interpretations of the world surrounding humans. Moreover, individualism reigns and people find it difficult to form a real identity making them anxious and insecure (Jones et al. 2011, Giddens 2006, Bilton et al.2002, Connolly 2013, Boyne & Rattansi, 1990). Therefore, postmodernists stress for the need for local knowledge produced out of particular locations (Macionis & Plummer, 2nd edn).

Jean- Francois Lyotard (1995) stated ‘I define postmodern as incredulity toward metanarratives. This incredulity is undoubtedly a product of progress in the sciences’. This rejection of metanarratives is related to the postmodernist idea that there is no social theory that can provide absolute sociological knowledge. Meta-narratives which are big stories that seek to find the objective truth about society, provided by the likes of Emile Durkheim and Karl Marx who attempt to explain the social world in its entirety have been abandoned, as suggested by Lyotard. This involves scepticism towards the idea of history moving in the direction of progress, freedom and reason (Beyer 1992, Connolly 2013, Ritzer,).

Lyotard uses the concept of ‘language- games’. He argues that language is problematic as it does not provide a map for reality. With positivism however, language is considered to be a natural outlet to describe observations but postmodernists reject this notion as there are too many meanings for one word which are in constant flux. Lyotard argues that the Enlightenment brought about scientific denotative games whereby scientific statements are scrutinised by other scientists and rational argument is used to establish whether a statement should be accepted or rejected. The belief is that science can help humans to become more self-conscious. However, Lyotard rejects this view and argues that nowadays statements are judged not by whether they are true or not, but whether they are useful and efficient or not (Connolly 2013, Haralambos & Holborn, 2004).

On the other hand, Giddens (2006) argues that Jean Baudrillard sees society as characterised by simulations and hyper reality. The creation of simulacra attempt to reproduce reality and hype reality is a description of the social world in which simulations and simulacra become real and predominate. Society is dominated by media, technology and information which have created an empty world. Appignanesi et al. (2004) suggest that Baudrillard argues that this has reversed Marx’s theory that economic forces shape society. Instead, society is influenced by a constant flux of meaningless signs and images. Meaning is now created by the flow of images such as in TV programmes, pop music and so forth. Individuals now respond to media images rather than to real people or places. These provide impermanent multiples of reality to consume (Haralambos & Holborn, 2004, Kirby 2000, Agger, 1991 and Giddens 2009). Jones et al. (2011) argue that this breakdown between reality and knowledge is part of people’s knowledge in the postmodern world as suggested by Baudrillard. He calls this ‘the dissolution of life into TV’ (cited in Giddens, 2006: 115). In addition he states, ‘TV watches us, TV alienates us, TV manipulates us, and TV informs us (Haralambos & Holborn, 2004, p. 976). Baudrillard is pessimistic about the future and does not believe in socialism as suggested by Marx. He views the masses as being gradually more passive. Thus, life is led toward nihilism (Ritzer, 2008). In contrast, Lyotard is optimistic about these new changes. Unfortunately, Baudrillard’s work has been criticised for being highly abstract and relies upon examples to illustrate arguments (Haralambos & Holborn, 2004).

Alternatively, associated with post structuralism is Michel Foucault who incorporated a variety of theoretical insights, particularly from Karl Marx and Friedrich Nietzsche. Like Nietzsche, he was particularly interested in the relationship between power and knowledge. Foucault pays particular attention to the techniques that are developed from scientific knowledge and how they are used by various institutions to exert power over people via surveillance, enforcement and discipline. His work is known as Foucault’s archaeology where he sets about making sense of the familiar by looking into the past. He sees history moving from one system of domination based on knowledge to another. He suggests that there is no history but a multiple, overlapping and interactive series of legitimate vs. excluded histories. One example he suggests is that there are increases in the ability of the sane and their agents such as psychologists to oppress and repress the mad, who initially used to be viewed to possess a ‘gift’ (Ritzer 2008, Marsh et al. 2009, Giddens, 2006, Macionis & Plummer 2002, Jones et al. 2011, Appignanesi et al. 2004). This means that what counts as true, morally right is relative to a particular time, place and power struggle; truth changes according to whoever is powerful enough to define it (Jones et al. 2011). Foucault developed the concept of discourse by drawing upon the work of Claude Levi-Strauss who argued that language originates in the unconscious human mind. Furthermore, culture is also the creation of the same unconscious thought processes. Culture is therefore like language. Thus there is nothing in social life that is a result of the creation of the imaginative mind. Human beings are not the authors of their life stories as these are written for them in language and in culture which exist independently of individuals. Therefore social reality is defined by structural influences as a system of language external to the actor. This link between thought, language, knowledge and action Foucault summarizes with the phrase ‘discursive practises’ (Jones et al, 2011).

Fulcher and Scott (2003) argue that Foucault and Lyotard’s works are often linked as they both reject the idea that there are constraining structures in social life and recognise fragmentation and diversity in cultural and social life. Foucault’s writings have been influential in furthering research into power and knowledge across the social sciences (Ritzer, 2008). His approach to analysing the relationship between truths, meaning and power has shaped the theoretical and research agendas of the social sciences’ Jones et al. (2011) (p. 128). Moreover, Agger argued that ‘Foucault has made direct empirical contributions to social sciences where he has studied the discourse/practices of prisons (1977) and sexuality (1978). This research supports his argument.

Overall, postmodernism is criticized for being untestable, superficial, fragmented, relativistic, abstract and lacking depth. A consequence of this is that people are unable to make sense of an increasingly complex society. In addition to this, Giddens (1990 cited in Bilton et al. (2002) argues that the postmodernist account of contemporary society is contradictory because Lyotard and Baudrillard’s arguments are based on uncertainty. Furthermore, Giddens criticises postmodernist approaches for rejecting the notion that humans are creative agents with an active part in shaping their social worlds. The view that an absolute break with past has occurred, as suggested by Baudrillard, has been solidly rejected by most sociologists, as he was unable to identify the point of separation between modernity and postmodernity or provide a clear account of the move into postmodern society. This inadequacy may have led sceptical sociologists like Giddens (1991) and Beck (1999) to go for terms such as ‘late modernity’ to describe the social changes representative of contemporary society. Other criticisms by Greg Philo and David Miller suggest postmodernism’s inability to account for social causation and the implication of factors such as the economy. Instead, the focus was only on surface portrayals of social change and missing the impact of deep social structures and growing inequalities which should not be ignored within sociology. Moreover, Philo and Miller argue that Baudrillard is said to pretend as though media images have no connection with reality at all. In their research, they found that media audiences are well aware of the difference between reality and TV images. Philo and Miller abandon the postmodern impression that people are free to consume, do as they wish and recreate identities as they please. They believe that people are still very much inhibited and shaped by structures such as the capitalist economy. Postmodernists ignore that culture is shaped by the capitalist economy (Haralambos & Holborn, 2004). Another criticism is brought forward by Jurgen Habermas who rejects the arguments of postmodernism notion that it is impossible to understand the social world rationally (Kirby, 2000).

Nevertheless, the biggest contribution of postmodernism may lie in its methodological approach in denying both the search for absolute truths and an emphasis on finding the foundations of social occurrences. Instead, the postmodern approach suggests that the influence of authority and power need to be analysed in social theory, with the intention of concentrating on the uncovered social conditions of marginalised groups of society (Ritzer, 1997). Additionally, Agger argues that postmodern approaches have been effective critiques of positivism, interrogating taken for granted assumptions about science. However, postmodernism has not produced a concrete version to replace positivist classical theories.

In conclusion, Foucault has shown through his studies how knowledge was historically established through his concept of discourses. Baudrillard’s analysis has been suggested to possibly enhance research in the social sciences on culture and the media (Agger, 1991) and Lyotard has shown how science is just one of the many discourses currently in power to control people.

Postmodernism Identity FormationIdentity Formation in the Postmodern World
Abstract

This work shall look at the idea of identity formation in the post modern world. First, at definitions of postmodernism and identity formation, and then moving on to describe how identities are formed. To be discussed in particular, are Giddens’ sense of the “reflexive self” and Hall’s theory of the ‘crisis of the self’, drawing upon examples from recreational drug use and looking at how consumption and globalisation have led to multiple narrative representations of self.

Chapter 1
Introduction: Postmodernism and Identity Formation

What is post modernity? Postmodernism; a reaction to modernism; is a state (or complex set of states) that lacks a clear organizing principle which embodies complexity, contradiction, ambiguity and interconnectedness. It is, perhaps, essentially, the embodiment of a general dissatisfaction with modernity, reflecting fundamental changes in attitudes towards what has gone in the past and towards long-held beliefs.

Everyone, it seems, has a different view of what post-modernism actually is. Postmodernism has different definitions in different research areas and according to different academics within these different research arenas. Some academics even disagree about the presence of post-modernity, arguing that postmodernism does not exist.

Giddens (1991), for example, prefers to use the term ‘post-traditionalist’ to describe the state of society at the moment. Postmodernism is, to some, a world view, whereas to others, it is little more than a ‘buzz word’ (Hebdige, 2006).

Kirby (2006) builds on this sentiment of Hebdige (2006). He argues that, following the rise of pseudo-modernism, postmodernism is dead, whilst other authors argue that postmodernism was never a movement, rather only “…the rough outline of a set of self-referential ideals than a genuine cultural movement.” (Willis, 2007, p.44). Many have called postmodernism meaningless, in its most profound sense, as the movement as a whole (if, indeed, it can be called a “movement”), adds nothing to our collective knowledge base.

However this phenomenon is labelled, the idea of identity formation in this changing, ‘post modern’ atmosphere is of interest. How do individuals, in this fractured, multi-narrative society, form their identities? This is certainly a topic that continues to grow in sociological significance, as the factors and conditions pertaining to the construction of our identities have changed, diversified, spread and become more dynamic in this ‘post modern’ world.

Identity formation is the process by which a person develops a personality that is distinct from that of other people. This process serves to define an individual, not only to others, but also to the individual them self (see Levine et al., 2002). In terms of how this definition is maintained, the identity is actuated through a process of development of uniqueness, reinforced through continuity and affiliation (see Levine et al., 2002). The process of identity formation ultimately leads to the notion of personal identity, where identity is forged through individualism and an understanding of one’s own self-concept (see Levine et al., 2002).

What is identity in a post modern world? For many, identity is now a fluid concept, an open question, a construct that is built as one moves along, according to one’s environment and one’s interests and interactions, be these physical or virtual. In a post modern sense, the self is shifting, fluid, or as Berzonsky (2005) argues, identity is dynamic, multiplistic, relativistic, context-specific and fragmented (Berzonsky, 2005). Further, Berzonsky (2005) states, ego identity may serve as a way in which individuals reach out from a personal standpoint in this fractured, post-modern world.

As Kellner (1995) and Featherstone (1991) argue, identity, in the post-modern world, is closely identified with the active consumption of products that are offered to individuals by the media and leisure industries (Ott, 2003). Several academics, whilst disagreeing on the mechanism for this, agree that socio – cultural factors and forces, that structure difference and subsequently create the boundaries essential to identity, have changed dramatically in recent decades (Ott, 2003; see Kellner, 1995; Rosenau, 1992 and Van Poecke, 1996).

As Poster states, “…a post-modern society is emerging which nurtures forms of identity different from, or even opposite to, those of modernity.” (Ott, 2003, p.58). As Kellner (1995) argues, “…one is a mother, a son, a Texan, a Scot, a professor, a socialist, a Catholic, a lesbian – or rather a combination of these social roles and possibilities. Identities are thus still relatively fixed and limited, though the boundaries of possible identities, of new identities, are continually expanding.” (Ott, 2003, p.63).

As the mode of economics shifts from goods-based to service-based, from centralized mass-production to a trans-national, globalise and production, individuals are less likely to locate their identities in pre-given categories and ascribed roles, such that “…class, gender and ethnicity decline in social significance” (see Crook et al., 1992, p.84), whilst the active consumption of ideas and styles grows in importance (see Kellner, 1995).Such that, difference – and, through this – identity, is now defined and affirmed through consumer choice, and, ultimately, therefore, through consumption (see Ott, 2003).

As Ott (2003) argues, the culture industry performs two main functions in terms of identity formation: it provides consumers with explicit identity models showing them how to be, and also provides consumers with the symbolic resources with which to (re)construct their identities. Cultural media, such as television, magazines and general advertising, consequently come to shape the nature of identity, by providing identity models and the symbolic resources for the enactment of the chosen identity (Ott, 2003).

As Ott (2003) argues this purchasing of identity can lead to serious problems, such as losing sight of oneself: as Ott (2003, p. 74) states, in his analysis of The Simpson’s as an exemplifier of postmodern identity construction, “Homer eats, Homer drinks, Homer belches, but, in reality, there is nothing called ‘Homer’ beyond the eating, drinking and belching.

There is no being behind the doing. Homer is just the sum of his actions and no more….In this mode, the subject evaporates and all social and political action becomes futile and absurd.”. Similarly, in the postmodern world, where identity formation is so closely linked to consumerism, it is easy to lose sight of ones true self, in the midst of so many identities that, through the media, are thrown at one.

Although, as Berzonsky (2005) contends, ego identity may serve as a way in which individuals reach out from a personal standpoint in a fractured, postmodern world, through which an individual’s sense of self is preserved, as something that is, yes, adapted by consumerism but which is, essentially, the product of one’s own experiences and decisions regarding ‘self’, Further, ego identity can provide a personal standpoint for acting and decision-making in the fractured, fluid, postmodern world.

For Berzonsky (2005), therefore, identity is a fluid concept in the postmodern sense. There can, however, be no multiple identities for, by definition, identity is “…a singularity, fixed on some dimension that is conserved over time and place” (Berzonsky, 2005, p. 133). As Berzonsky (2005) states, then, there cannot be multiple identities, rather only multiple aspects of one’s personality, something that is exposed through consumerism, with different purchases allowing individuals to express different facets of their personalities.

In summary, identity formation in the postmodern age has arisen from, and is dependent on, consumerism as a driving force. In Berzonsky’s opinion, “…the quest to achieve a sense of identity is important because we live in a relativistic, postmodern age of continual social, political, economic and technological change, which requires continually shifting expressions of one’s self.” (Berzonsky, 2005, p.133).

Whilst postmodernism requires fluidity, this fluidity arises as different responses to ever-changing stimuli, through changing expressions in the different facets of an individual’s multi-faceted personality. Berzonsky’s (2005) view of identity formation in the postmodern world is not as pessimistic as that presented by Ott (2003), which suggests that nothing but a vacuum exists at the core of an individual, but both theoretical approaches to identity formation in postmodern times rely on the development of multiple narratives as a way of dealing with the fluidity of concepts that postmodernism presents to individuals. Subsequent sections of the work will concentrate on expanding these ideas further.

Chapter 2
Literature Review & Methodology

This section will describe how the literature review, which forms the basis of this work, was conducted, in terms of the methodology used to search for, and use, the literature that forms the basis of this work. This section explains exactly how the literature review was performed, in terms of what was done practically in order to find the literature that has been used as the basis for this work. This section essentially describes the methodology that was used to provide an analysis of the specific research question of interest in this work, i.e., “How is identity formed in this postmodern world?”

A literature review is, essentially, a classification and a thorough evaluation of the most relevant works that have previously been published on a particular subject. The literature review is usually organized depending on the particular research objective, so that it presents a systematic, comprehensive review of the work that has been previously published on that specific topic of interest.

From this basis, decisions as to what further research needs to be conducted on the specific topic of interest can be made, from the thorough understanding of the previous works on this subject. A full understanding of the existing literature provides not only a comprehensive review of the existing literature but will also enable the researcher to decide what specific sub-topics, for example, need further investigation.

In this way, therefore, a literature review can inform not only the current research plans but also map the way for future research. After due consideration to the human resources and time frame necessary to collect primary empirical evidence that would prove pertinent to this specific study, adopting a completely literature-based library approach was deemed the most efficient and pragmatic method of research.

Within the scope of this work, ‘the literature’ refers not only to literature such as textbooks, and specialist academic books, but also to the relevant research literature, via published journal articles. A review of the literature that is relevant to the research question of interest thus serves many purposes, including, as has been seen, showing how the current research programme fits in with previous research on the topic, presenting alternate views in order to allow an evaluation of how the proposed research should proceed, and, finally, showing that all of the relevant, previous, work on the current research topic has been evaluated and has been fully understood, validating the current research programme through the support of previously published work (see Hart, 1999).

A literature review is usually conducted before starting any new academic research, because, as has been seen, a thorough review of the literature provides a comprehensive overview of what research has been performed, and provides further information, such as how other researchers have analysed or solved similar problems. In this sense, a literature review is a simple review of the existing literature on a subject but is also an evaluation of this work and the relationships between the existing works (Hart, 1999).

The literature review also allows an evaluation of the relationship between the research that is being proposed and the existing research, giving the researcher food for thought, based on what has gone previously. In this sense, reviewing the literature puts the work that is being proposed in to context by asking any number of relevant questions, concerning what is already known about the topic of interest, what the relationships are between the key ideas, what ideas already exist in terms of understanding the topic, what evidence is needed to finally reach a conclusion and contribution the proposed research will make to the literature (see Hart, 1999).

This exercise, whilst it can be thought of as time-consuming, can be valuable in terms of deciding what problems to approach in the course of the research, how to approach these problems, and how to present the literature review once the relevant literature has been searched, evaluated and summarised (Krathwohl, 1988).

Reviewing previous work can, therefore, provide a practical guide as to how the research one is conducting should proceed, from before the research begins in earnest until its final completion (Madsen, 1992).

The main aim of a thorough review of the literature, as outlined in this section, is to search out and locate relevant literature, to read and to analyse the information that has been found, to evaluate the information, through finding the relevant information in the literature, in terms of positioning the previous literature within the framework of the research that is about to be undertaken (Muskal, 2000).

This requires many skills, such as knowing how to retrieve the necessary information, gathering and organizing the information, being able to critically appraise this information and developing further research questions once the information has been gathered and evaluated (Fink, 2004).

Standard bibliographic databases can be used in order to search relevant literature (Hart, 1999). If, for example, one wishes to find out about how identity is formed in the postmodern world, one would first need to know something about identity formation and postmodernism in general and would thus enter these as search terms. One would then wait for the database to return the details of any relevant, existing, literature.

Such general search terms would normally provide millions of unspecific articles, and, if this is the case, the search terms can be narrowed by entering more specific search terms, for example, ‘identity formation and postmodernism’ or ‘Antony Giddens’. The usual procedure is to enter narrower and narrower search terms until such a point that only literature containing specific information, on the specific research topic of interest, are returned.

These would be the articles that would then be looked at in detail, or used as the basis of other searches. For example, a ‘Citation’ search can be performed, which will return other related articles that focuses on the specific topic of interest that have cited the original article as a reference. This type of searching will obviously return more recent work that has referenced the original research article in some way, either through using the article as the basis for their own research or using the results of the article to support some new findings.

The results from searching the bibliographic database(s) should then be collected together, as these will form the basis of the review of the literature in any further academic work on this topic. Bibliographic database searching is an accepted research tool, and, as such, is a well-recognised ethical research tool (Anson and Schwegler, 2000).

In terms of how the literature for this work was sought for, terms such as ‘postmodernist identity’, ‘Giddens’ and ‘identity formation’ were used as search terms, amongst many others. Web of Science was used as the bibliographic database. This database contains references to most articles published in the last century, covering the fields of psychology and philosophy, amongst others. In terms of deciding which literature to following the bibliographic database search, various criteria were used to assess whether the literature should be included or not.

The literature that was returned following the bibliographic database search was read if it was of general interest to the subject i.e., if it contained any information on identity formation and postmodernism, and if the literature was recent (i.e., published within the last fifteen years) because only recent articles would contain up-to-date information.

This literature was useful in contextualizing the research, in terms of providing a general overview of the topic. The literature that was used in this work was selected if it included specific information on identity formation and postmodernism. A list of the literature used in the work is given in the References section, at the end of the work.

In terms of how the work of others can be incorporated in to one’s own research, it is necessary to build upon the work of other researchers in order for knowledge, on a particular subject, to be advanced. Research proceeds in this way; by using the work of others as a starting point; so that research is not repeated and so that research moves in a positive direction, building constructively on the work of others (Krathwohl, 1988).

Using the work of others through the development of a literature-based work is, therefore, entirely ethical, on the condition that the previous work is referenced and cited correctly within the subsequent work (Madsen, 1992). On this basis, then, the bibliographic database searches and the use of literature of interest is a valid protocol for conducting research.

Chapter 3
Examples of Postmodern Identity Formation
Recreational Drug Culture

One example of the formation of identity in the postmodern world is the taking of recreational drugs. The taking of recreational drugs increased with the development of the dance and rave scene in the 1980s, increasing during the development of the ‘clubbing’ scene.

Polls indicate that up to 79% of clubbers have taken recreational drugs at some point in their lives, with ecstasy, cannabis and cocaine being the most widely-used recreational drugs. Although ketamine, heroin and GBH were also mentioned in the responses to the survey (Home Office Survey, 2003).

The same survey (Home Office, 2003) found that the majority of the individuals interviewed felt that drug-taking was an integral part of their lives, which heightened their clubbing experience. Most of the interviewees admitting using recreational drugs and drinking alcohol on the same night every time they go clubbing.

This finding is not to say that drug-taking is as widespread in the general youth population, because many youths are not ‘clubbers’ and are thus perhaps, not involved in the drug scene (see Measham et al., 2001), however, recreational drug-taking is a huge part of many young people’s lives, the way in which they express themselves and identify themselves to others. Why?

What encourages recreational drug use amongst young people? Coggans and McKellar (1994) look at drug use amongst young people, reviewing the importance of ‘peer pressure’ in the onset of illicit drug use; finding that there is little actual evidence for a causal relationship and that, as such, the role of individual choice in drug taking needs to be analysed.

As Coggans and McKellar (1994) suggest, individuals are free to choose to take recreational drugs, whether or not this is bound to social interaction with peers or not, and the choice to do so is not, therefore, necessarily a function of peer pressure.

Novacek et al. (1991) looked at the use of recreational drugs amongst adolescents, finding that there were five main explanations as to why adolescents admit to using recreational drugs: for a sense of belonging, to cope with problems they are having, for pleasure, for enhancing creativity and to cope with the aggression they feel inside themselves. The different reasons corresponding to the frequency with which drugs are used.

In addition, Novacek et al. (1991) found that there were age- and gender-specific relationships between drug use and the reasons behind the drug use, with older males, for example, more likely to admit to using drugs for pleasure, and younger girls more likely to admit to using drugs to foster a sense of belonging.

Dorn (1975) looks at the different functions and varieties of possible explanations for drug use, finding that society has to give a label to drug use (that is usually wholly negative), in order to decide upon how to prosecute drug use. This is affected through the development of policies to achieve social control, and how to treat drug users in need of help.

As Dorn (1975) argues, there are, however, many and varied reasons why individuals take to drugs, including social and economic perspectives, and personal events which lead to the individual deciding to try drugs. Each of these routes to drug use says something about the identity the individual has fostered for themselves and, as such, represents a distinct route to identity formation.

As Duff (2004) argues, recreational drug use is no more than a ‘practice of the self’, as Foucault would say, an expression of one’s self and, as such, should be dealt with using ‘ethics of moderation’ and not as an illegal blight on society. As Duff (2004) argues, referencing Foucault and his ideas of pleasure gives a different perspective on recreational drug use, helping to understand the changing nature of recreational drug use amongst young people, and thus providing new conceptual frameworks with which to attempt to derive policies for controlling drug use.

Duff (2005) continues this reasoning, looking at recreational drug use amongst what she terms ‘party people’, finding (in common with Home Office, 2003) that, amongst this group of young people, drug use has been ‘normalised’, becoming a normal part of their leisure time, as normal as having a beer, for example, or smoking a cigarette.

As Duff (2005) argues, this normalization has implications for policy development in terms of harm minimization programmes. For the youth sampled by Duff (2005), recreational drugs have passed from being something dangerous and illegal, to something that is normal and acceptable amongst their peer group, and the wider society in which they mingle.

For the young people who take recreational drugs regularly, therefore, drugs are part and parcel of their identity formation in our post-modern times.

There is no question that they should not, for various reasons, be taking these drugs: for them, it is absolutely normal behaviour, with their safety being protected and assured through buying their drugs of choice from friends (see, also, Sherlock and Conner, 1999).

This easy, secure, access to the drugs perhaps explains the ease and comfort with which respondents admit their drug taking and use their drugs: for them, it is a natural, safe, thing to be doing, a natural part of their social lives. Many of them do not question the fact that they take drugs: it is as natural to them as any other part of the lifestyle they have chosen for themselves (Duff, 2005).

Jay (1999) looks at the issue of why young people take recreational drugs, arguing from the traditional medical framework, which suggests that people take drugs because they become addicted to them and from a newer perspective, which suggests that people take drugs for pleasure (see, also, Parker et al., 1998).

The latter hypothesis seems to make sense. It is, after all, the recreational drugs that give pleasure which consequently, give fewer records of abusive behaviour associated with them. The use of recreational drugs for pleasure has even been noted in the animal kingdom (Jay, 1999; see Siegel, 1989).

As Jay (1999) further argues, embellished in this idea of pleasure being the main motivation for recreational drug use is the fact that society has, in general, become more adventurous and accommodating as a whole. This general societal climate has led to the atmosphere in which young people grow up assuming experimentation with recreational drugs is acceptable behaviour, becoming a part of their formative years when they are forming their own identity.

They, of course, realize taking recreational drugs is illegal and potentially dangerous, but, as shown by Duff (2005), they minimize the risks by ensuring supply from trusted peers and pass off the illegality issue through references to greater, unpunished, crimes going on around them and the fact that alcohol – now legal – was also illegal only a few decades ago.

As such, the issues of drug use being illegal is not really a concern for them, as their drug use is considered, by them, to be a normal part of their lives, for which, if they keep it low-profile and at a personal level, they are highly unlikely to be punished.

McCrystal et al. (2006) looks at drug use patterns amongst 11 to 12 year olds, finding that there are high levels of drug use in these ages of children, many of whom appear to be otherwise ‘good’ students. These students use drugs for many and varied reasons, many of which are centred around pleasure seeking and relieving boredom. Very few cases of peer pressure were reported.

Although there were suggestions that drug use had become a normal occurrence amongst this group of children, similar to other studies already discussed (such as Jay, 1999 and Duff, 2005). Similar findings were reported by Bahora et al. (2008), who looked at ecstasy use in the United States, concluding that the use of ecstasy amongst those surveyed was regarded as normal behaviour, as something that ‘everyone does’. Again, recreational drug use is a way of forming one’s identity; of identifying oneself with other recreational drugs users, of being accepted into that section of society.

In conclusion, recreational drugs are used widely by youth across the world, a large proportion of whom are assumed to be connected with the dance scene in some way. That said, it is also known that children as young as 11 or 12 are using cannabis on a regular basis (see McCrystal et al., 2006), the ‘drug problem’ is not just confined to clubbers. Many reasons have been put forward as motivators of drug use in this essay; peer pressure, curiosity about what effects the drugs will have on them, a sense of belonging, to cope with problems youth may be having, for pleasure, for enhancing creativity and to cope with the aggression they feel inside themselves.

The different reasons largely corresponding to the frequency with which drugs are used (see Novacek et al., 1991). It has also been seen that people have stated that they take drugs because it is considered normal to do so, is nothing out of the ordinary, that ‘everyone does it’ and so, therefore, them too (see, for example, Duff, 2005). Thus, there are many and varied reasons as to why people start taking, and continue using recreational drugs, all of which have a basis in forging identity.

Chapter 4
Consumption and Identity

Dunn (1999) argues that postmodernism has led to a shift in the bases for identity formation, something that itself, per se, marks the post-modern era. As Lyon (2000) so eloquently phrases it: “…we are recipients of entertainment, shopping for a self.” (Lyon, 2000, p.75). Developments in information technology and the ability to shop anywhere, any time, have reduced time and space, meaning that we now demand the ability to access information in an instant.

People are on demand “24/7”, leading to reconfigurations of how we view ourselves and our place in the world. We are in a world which we feel we know much better, a world which is virtually available at the touch of a button (or the swish of a mouse), on demand. Information on anything anyone is interested in can be found instantly. Through this open, instantaneous, process, we feel we are part of a much larger culture than our long-established, local selves.

For Lyon (2000), in his book Jesus in Disneyland; Religion in Post-Modern Times,it is a complex social situation in which some of the dynamics inherited from modernism are inherited and in which some are distorted beyond recognition. For Lyon (2000) postmodernism has been defined by the development of information technology and social networking and the rise of consumerism. Information technology has made the world smaller, has made identities more fragmented and consumerism has allowed us to express ourselves like never before.

This process, whilst connecting individuals with more people, information and places than ever before, can mean that people become less connected with real – physical, intimate, face-to-face, relationships, leading to social isolation. McPherson et al. (2001) showed, for example, that Americans have significantly less friends than they did two decades ago, with social isolation increasing as a result of this.

However, McPherson and Smith-Lovin’s (1987) hypothesis of homophily – that friends are similar in character and identity – still holds for ‘virtual’ friends. Members of online forums, for example, who become close over cyberspace: similar people will always band together, with people’s personal networks being homogeneous with regards to many socio-demographic factors and interpersonal characteristics (see McPherson et al., 2001).

“The times they are a-changing” sang Bob Dylan, and nowhere is that truer than now, where children plug themselves in to their iPods, downloading music as they wish, accessing information on the internet as and when they desire. It is possible to now parcel the world into discrete pockets, according to your own desires.

Technology has allowed individuals the choice of how, and when, they want to communicate, closing off from other commuters with an iPod, sharing common musical tastes with cyber-friends, again through the iPod, joining in online forums if that is what they want to do. Choice is everywhere, choice is expected, as a fundamental right of this generation.

Through choice, through the freedom of expression that is around, through blogs, for example, and through online forums that are available for almost any specialist interest, from internet sites like You Tube and My Space, individuals can choose who they want to interact with and when they want to interact with them.

For many young persons, this ‘artificial’, cyber life, is their life. It may not be a life that would be recognizable to their grandparents, nor even understood by their parents, but that is their reality. They choose to live like that, maintaining multiple narratives with individuals they have actively chosen to communicate with.

Social isolation is not a concern for these individuals: they drive their own pathway through their lives, interacting with whom they want to interact, when they want to interact, shunning physical relationships in favour of what they consider to be more meaningful virtual relationships.

Individuals are opting out of physical interactions with people they don’t want to interact with (neighbours, commuters etc) in favour of their own world, through their he

CONTEMPORARY PARENTING ESSAY

Contemporary Parenting?

The post-modern society has been created out of a backdrop of pluralism, democracy, religious freedom, consumerism, mobility, and a plethora of technological advancements. Participants in this post-modern era are able to see that there are many structured and unstructured beliefs, multiple concepts of reality, and an a wide construct of world views; a society that has lost its faith in absolute truth, where it is cool to have doubt as a constant companion and in which people have the right and necessity to choose what to believe (O’Hare and Anderson 1991).

The decade of the 1970s, Shorter (1975) appears to have been the first to deconstruct the concept of family for a more liberal emerging post-modern family. Shorter to this end, cited three clearly conceptualised characteristics: adolescent indifference to the family’s identity; instability in the lives of couples, accompanied by rapidly increasing divorce rates; and destruction of the “nest” notion of nuclear family life with the liberation of women. In that 70’s era, Shorter cited limited reconstructions in patterns of child socialization. The liberating movement for women in the deconstruction of mothers caring for young children in the home to the use of state subsidized paid child care providers, with the mother entering once again into the world of paid employment.

‘The Children’s plan: Building Better Futures’ offers clear and comprehensive explanations of ‘why’ such legislative procedures are necessary to engage parents in ensuring that children are, educated and protected in a 21^st century Britain. This groundbreaking report concentrates on several aspects of children’s rights, in particular having listened to the needs of parents, in particular, the now common diversity of ‘family’ and ‘parenting’ that is no longer ‘cereal packet’, nuclear or indeed symmetrical in models, that was bespoken of previous generations (Abercrombie & Warde 2000). What is apparent, is that ‘family and ‘parenting’ is not vastly different and extremely contemporary. Through the ‘Every Child Matters’ pilot programme, it has been proven by substantive research that: “Families are substantively, the bedrock of society and the place for nurturing happy, capable and resilient children: “In our consultation, parents made it clear that they would like better and more flexible information and support that reflects the lives they lead” DfCSF (p.5).

There are five core principles of these directives to engage and protect children’s rights offers carefully planned concepts that will become the foundations for better children’s services that are enshrined in law to be protective. The specific principle that supports parents is simply: ‘Government does not bring up children – parents do – so’. This fundamental tenet is of importance in the decoding and reconstruction of the notion of parenting in which the new concept in deconstruction of the notion of ‘family’, in particular the heterosexual family unit, for a more liberalised notion of family that embraced, single-parent, surrogate-motherhood, and gay and lesbian families, and other less popular variants of the post-modern family; in some quarters, these have been viewed as the negative results of the changed noted above, or more fundamentally, as the breakdown products, of a pluralist society. Other conceptual factors can be noted as follows: Despondence with the societal norms of human progress that had embedded modern society, with the unifying benefits and regularity of the comforting moral fabric; affecting the notion of a lack of faith in the previously established order.

The study by Edwards & Gillies (2005), is mindful of core factors in parenting practices, albeit, lack of. ‘Resources in Parenting: Access to Capitals’ conducted to conceptualize an explicit policy focus for parenting, and the fundamental need for a meaningful gathering of cohesive norms and values about responsible parenting practice, as well as significant worries about the reality and creation of social capital. Moreover, they saw social change as the causal effect of weakened and broken support systems that, involved a greater failure in maintaining, parental/family and community reciprocal obligations, that saw a divergence of widespread uncertainty in new parents understanding their roles and responsibilities. But, the most stark consequences of poor parenting, amongst, younger single parents was a lack of professional instruction in learning/understanding the skills comprising good parenting practices.

The deconstruction of economic foundations underlying social conformity, for example, the need for women to marry well to stand against hardship financially and to stratify their class status to the next generation, or the need to become mothers in wedlock for them to be benefactors of family estate, that would be their core foundation of livelihood. The fundamental re-construction of the electronic age, through access to computerised media, which both inspired and legitimise the post-modern new era family reconfiguring and in doing so the conceptualisation of modern parenting which at best can be seen as contemporary; that may involve single adults, same sex parents or indeed older grandparents taking on parental role in later life, where younger parents, who formed ‘comprised ‘contemporary parenting models’ are less able to cope with parenting in which they were subjugating responsibilities close friends and even less able friends, which in effect, makes some clarity of Edwards & Gillies (2005) study, in which the closeness of the extended family was seen to be diluted and in many case study examples, notional or non-existent.

With the ability to bring the world closer together in a plethora of technological advancement, one might see the advent of contemporary support networks for parents, accessible, but, where it has reduced the separations effect that was imposed between people by physical distance, physical barriers, and social barriers, electronic communications and other media has created a ‘global village’ world that in the post-modern era, contrives to foster anonymous intimacy through internet talk, virtual advice columns, electronic mail, computer bulletin boards. In some part also providing provided advisory/counselling and other personal services available through a wealth of mediums, which are not necessitated through face-to-face contact or encounter.

The focused anonymous and instant intimacy has encroached into the world of contemporary parenting in which instant advice for parents in crisis can come from a wealth of ‘do good ad-hoc advisors’ where in-experienced parents, moreover, single parents, are engaged in anonymous social support, networking, and telecommunications, in which no names are mentioned, and anonymity is the key concept in this technological age. Thereby, creating a virtual world in which the poorly skilled parent grasps at ‘ad hoc’ advise that is often misleading, creating a systemic growth in poor practice and engagement of child protection systems, that in recent periods have been seen to be lacking. Moreover, we are seeing in some recent cases (Clembie, Baby P etc), the professional engaged in ‘child care support structure’ are not parents, and often work to ‘textbook’ scenarios to aide real families, stringent target drivers and outcomes, which result in many cases of neglect, poor practices and care (Utting 2007). Therefore, with the demise of the ‘cereal packet’, nuclear and symmetrical family models, parenting in part is becoming another casualty of modern society, in which the state is engaging in providing incentives to stemming the tide of poor childcare practices through projects like: Every Child Matters, Sure Start and First Start, in the hope of engaging contemporary less able, less economically viable parents to be ‘good parents’ (Gillies 2005, Utting 2007 & DfCSF 2007).

Utting’s study in 2007 for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation (JRF) found many situations where contemporary parents were unable to cope of feel secure in asking for professional assistance, for fear of reprisals. Moreover, he found that those parents in most need were less likely to access support, for a plethora of reasons: trust, access, availability, venue, age of professional, prejudice and even poor recommendations. But, starkly, ‘fear’ of professionals taking over childcare was a predominant factor where single younger parents lived in significant levels of poverty.

Gergen (1991) once described the post-modern family form as “the saturated family,” whose participants feel their lives scattering in intensified busyness. In addition to taking in an explosion of exposure to a world of deconstructed values, attitudes, opinions, lifestyles, and personalities, family members have become embedded in a world that has enshrined the conceptualisation of multiplicity of relationships. The technologies that now embed our social saturation (e.g. the car, telephone, television, and jet plane) have created deconstructed, and in part, dysfunctional concept of what is family, in a soup of consistent turmoil and a sense of fragmentation, chaos, and discontinuity.

The concept of ‘family’ is no longer a ‘cereal packet’ picture of a cosy environment in which parenting is a gentle and professional time honoured art, with extended family involvement. We are now seeing the demise of the family as previously known, with more diversity in the parenting model, for a more fluid and protracted notion where children are raised in contemporary parenting models: singles, teenage, unmarried, same sex etc. Some such models are sound; in particular where the parents are engaged and proactive in ensuring strong values and child raising practices, this is seen in may aspects of single professional parent households. Gay/Lesbian adoptive parents are often slighted by fundamental groups as poor models, or indeed, dysfunctional models, but, on the contrary, many gay/lesbian parents are proving to be stricter and more disciplined raising children who are well rounded and more able to cope with a contemporary world (Gillies 2005 & Utting 2007). Nevertheless, in comparison in often teenage/less educated households, where poverty is a clear factor, remarkably it is not the ‘poverty’ that tends to be the rationale for poor parenting, it is the causal effects of: stress, depression, illness, low income and poor networks that impact of disturbing and disrupting good practices (Utting 2007). Utting’ found in his extensive study of academic case studies, that at best, most contemporary parenting models were sound, and where they were not, significant dysfunctional factors like alcohol and drug dependence by parents was a contributing factor, but, in the main, where parents were in diverse less affluent circumstances: poor housing, dysfunctional communities, health/care issues, nevertheless, desire the best for their children.

With the diversity in childcare provision, where it in shared between the contemporary family and day care, new problems have arisen. While some children thrive on dual socialisation, others fail, unable to grasp either the environment or to the demands of daily transition from one environment to the other. The young child may be unable to form the necessary communication link between the two environments. Responsibilities now blurred and are seen to be divided between home and care centre; as a result, neither may be providing some crucial aspects of child development. For example, neither the care centre nor working parents may perceive themselves in charge of helping the child to develop the capacity to exercise self-control nor of teaching the child basic social comportment, such as table manners, greeting rituals, narration of daily events, and interview skills required for social orientation. This interesting conceptualisation has led the state to provide clarity and support through its extensive children’s legislation, regulation and project provision, in the hope that those parents who are able to retain employment are enabled to ensure safe and professional support for their children. Equally, those less enabled parents are encouraged through projects like ‘sure start’ to offer, guide and support learning in parenting skills, whilst improving education and learning that potentially will empower the parent to seek new skills and employment/advancement.

The focus of parent education was development of the whole child. In contrast, parenting in the post-modern world is perceived as a learned technique with specific strategies for dealing with particular issues. The target has shifted from the whole child to developing the child’s positive sense of self-esteem. In the modern era, parents made the effort to fit advice to the particular needs of the child; Elkind (1992) points out that the directive post-modern techniques may be easier for parents but the child may be deprived of customized treatment. Moreover, he strongly believes that the focus on the whole child should not be lost. Interestingly in this era of contemporary parenting, we are finding diversity at the core of parent development (Utting 2007).

The family home, is found to be no longer a refuge of harmony, serenity, and understanding, as a once cosy modern era projected, has become in many post-modern constructs the site of confrontation between people of different ages and genders, who have personal ideologies and social constructs that are as diversely suspended as misplaced objects in an untidy drawer. Many self-help organizations, cash in on this deconstructed and dysfunctional family to bring ground rules, re-focus and construction in the often tense overload by holding workshops, reality television counselling in which the participants learn to take on their personal past history, social dysfunctions and deconstructions, to try to rebuild the sense of value and purpose that was once so clearly focused in the once modern era. The sense of loss for a society that was constructed with family values, rules, and concepts, has become the loss and bereavement counsellor’s (the professional child care worker) nightmare clients, a post-modern family in reality meltdown; a cast off society, has thrown away the foundational fabric for a less picturesque reality, that is here today and gone tomorrow.

In conclusion, it is clear that the nuclear family was not at all perfection. The revolution that led to post-modern life corrected old imbalances in society through de-differentiation of parental and gender roles. Yet these radical social changes may have created new imbalances by increasing demands on children and adolescents. In so doing the concept and notion of the contemporary family, with all its flaws is here to stay. The noisy debate of the ‘back to basics’ lobby with its moralistic overtones in both political and religious circles, remains hollow in its effect, for a return to the foundational and constructed past of cereal packet family values, societal constructs of right and wrong, balance and harmony; in part a re-construction of the modern era, with a plethora of the post-modern era with foundational ground rules, constructs and concepts that knit together the very fabric of society. In part, having all the joys of the post-modern era with the sense of restrictive citizenship and responsibility of the modern, in which diversity and inclusion is purely ‘tokenism’.

Furthermore, in part the post-modern deconstruction clears the slate for the fundamental regrouping or reconstruction of reality into new underlying constructs and new paradigms that reveal a model of family life that is contemporary, viable and refreshing. However, the stark consequential tenets of which must be the state providing cohesive available sound parenting skills for those that are struggling and support where necessary like safe child care provision for those who are not.

Nevertheless, the academic debate will continue, on the validity of the contemporary parenting models revealing themselves in society. But what is abundantly clear in academic literature, published enquiry report and news media; where some professionals remain practically unskilled as actual parents and ‘textbook’ models are proactively used, where in the formative, ‘cereal packet’ concept of family/parenting, the professional health visitor, social worker etc were mainly middle aged former nurses who as mothers themselves, could draw upon their own learning, balanced with textbook learning to support new parents. Sadly in an era where the ‘back to basics lobby’ cry for formative values to be reinstated, we are still finding professionals, reasoning and supporting a ‘one textbook model fits all’ to some parenting techniques that are significantly failing struggling/dysfunctional parents and children. Notwithstanding this, the lessons being currently learnt from recent child protection enquires (Clembie & Baby P etc), serve as stark examples of how professionals who support parents need to fully understand the workings of our now contemporary parenting and family unit with all their diversity. Only in doing so, will contemporary parenting become a safely embedded model for a modern contemporary British society.

REFERENCES

ABERCROMBIE’ N, & WARDE; , (2000) Contemporary British Society; Polity Press; Cambs.

BLOOMFIELD; L. et al. (2005) ‘A qualitative study exploring the experiences and views of mothers, health visitors and family support centre workers on the challenges and difficulties of parenting’, in Health and Social Care in the Community 13(1): 46-55

BRINKENHOFF; D, et-al (1992) Essentials of Sociology Second Edition West St Pauls Minns

ELKIND; D (1981) The Hurried Child. Reading Mass Addison-Wesley.

ELDKIND; D. (1992) The Post-modern Family, A New Imbalance New York: Knopf.

EDWARD; R, & GILLIES; V, (2005) ‘Resources in Parenting: Access to Capitals Project Report’; Families & Social Capital ESRC Research Group; South Bank University; London.

GERGEN; K, J, (1991) The Saturated Family Networker September/October.

GILLIES; V, (2005) ‘Meeting parents’ needs? Discourses of ‘support’ and ‘inclusion’ in family policy’,in Critical Social Policy, Vol. 25, No. 1, 70-90 (2005)

HOLLINGSWORTH; L, (1999) ‘Promoting Same-Race Adoption for Children of Colour’ in EWALT; P, et-al (1999) Multicultural Issues in Social Work: Practice & Research; NASW (pp: 406-422).

O’HARA; M, & ANDERSON; W, (1991) Welcome to the Post-modern World Networker September/October.

PATTERSON; J, et al. (2005) ‘Parents’ perceptions of the value of the Webster-Stratton Parenting Programme: a qualitative study of a general practice based initiative’, in Child Care, Health and Development 31(1): 53-64

SCOTT; S, (2005) ‘Do parenting programmes for severe child antisocial behaviour work over the longer term and for whom? One year follow-up of a multi-centre controlled trial’, in J. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 33(4): 403-421

SHORTER; E, (1975) The Making of the Modern Family New York Basic Books

UTTING; D, (2007) Parenting and the different ways it can affect children’s lives: research evidence; Joseph Rowntree Foundation; York.

URL http://www.everychildmatters.gov.uk/

WELSH; E, et al. (2004) ‘Involved fathering and child well-being: Fathers’ involvement with secondary school age children’, published for the JRF by the National Children’s Bureau as part of the Parenting in Practice series

Drawing on material from the module, critically discuss the extent to which theories relating to post modernism inform our understanding of an aspect or aspects of contemporary social work.

Theories of postmodernism have gathered pace across all aspect of social theory. This is often referred to as the postmodern ‘turn’ (Best and Kellner, 1997). The emergence of the modern/postmodern debate in response to economic, social and cultural transformation has significant implications for professions such as social work (Crook et al, 1992). A vast array of literature has emerged with an interest in understanding changes to welfare provision and social work in relation to post modernity (Parton, 1994).

This text will critically discuss the extent to which theories relating to post modernism inform our understanding of contemporary social work. Being with the emergence of postmodern theory it will attempt to define this phenomenon by exploring the key themes. Focusing on two elements in particular, welfare and anti-oppressive practice, this text will try to identify features of postmodern social work using modernity as basis for comparison and analysis. To conclude collaborative theories such as ‘affirmative’ or ‘critical’ postmodernism will be explored as perspectives that inform understanding and guide social work practice into an approach that combines both personal and social factors.

Postmodernist social theory began to emerge in the 1960’s and 1970’s. It developed into the 1980’s where the concepts of globalization and reflexivity become incorporated. Today the postmodern debate continues to influence social work policy and practice (Walker, 2001). Postmodern theory developed as a response to a perceived ‘crisis of modernity’ brought on by factors such as accelerated economic growth, consumerism and resource depletion (Boggs, 1993). For many theorists such as Lyotard (1991) modernity failed to achieve its supposed aims of democracy, human emancipation and social justice through its evidence based world view.

Amongst theorists there is little consensus about when the world become post modern or if indeed it has giving rise to a plethora of postmodern perspectives and associated terms such as ‘late modern’, ‘post-industrial’, ‘post-structural’ and ‘high or late modernity’ (Dodd, 1999). Some theorists attempt to explain postmodernism historically whilst others “consider it synonymous with the demise of historical time” (Felski, 2000, p.2). As a result postmodernism proves difficult to define. There is however a common feature that can be identified within most postmodern theory, the demise of ‘mega-narratives’ (Lyon, 1994). Factors such as uncertainty, flux, ambiguity, pluralism and diversity have also been identified as characteristics of a postmodern society (Turner, 2006). The influx of postmodern theories has changed the discourse of social science shifting the focus from analysis of social structure to analysis of meaning (Noble, 2004).

In considering the impact of theories relating to postmodernism attention should be given to what characterises modern and postmodern social work. Social work can be considered a child of modernity (Parton and Marshall, 1998). The foundations of modernity were set in understanding the social world through reason, objectively and scientific study (Boggs, 1993). Some argue that it was this presence of logical argument and commitment to reason that equipped social work with tools to identify and address oppression (Noble, 2004). For this reason social work has spent most of its adolescence within the social sciences focusing on an evidence based approach to practice (Payne, 2005). Writers such as Gellner (1992) and Hambermas (1987, cited by Leonard 1997) advocate that if separated from repression and domination human reason is still the most progressive force for tackling the social world.

A modernist perspective assumes that there is some fixed essence or ethical base that informs social work (Noble, 2004). This was a popular perspective in the 1970’s where pursuit for a synthesized approach to theory and practice was accelerated and arguments were made for the introduction of generic practitioners and departments (Howe, 1994). The argument that in the age of modernity social order is maintained through self-regulation, systematic enquiry and expertise put forward by Foucault (1975), goes some way toward explaining the development and popularity of therapeutic approaches within social work. Promoting psychological understanding became a basis for social work with treatment and rehabilitation forming the foundations of the profession (Payne, 2005). There is of course considerable debate as to whether social work did begin with such emancipatory aims and its promotion of universalism and objectively is certainly challenged by the postmodern discourse.

Social work, from a postmodern perspective, stresses attention to power dilution, diversity, the authority of the service user, pluralistic perspectives and a fluid approach to intervention (Parton and O’Byrne, 2000). In this approach universalism is rejected and practitioners no longer strive to understand human behaviour through a theoretic framework. Multiple public inquiries into child deaths and institutional abuse have shaken faith in psychologically based techniques, questioning their ability to support individuals to function safely in society (Walker, 2001). This coupled with criticisms from radical social work perspectives has created space for a legal and social justice framework to emerge (Howe, 1994). Within this framework social workers are increasingly judged by their effectiveness giving reason, argues (Aldridge, 1996), for social workers to embrace their expertise and become more confident to articulate responses to criticism.

An implication of accountability culture is that social work practice becomes task-orientated and performance related (Hugman, 2003). It is for this reason that postmodernism has been critiqued for responding only to the surface of events with little inclination to explore what is behind this (Ferguson and Levalette, 1999). Social work is reduced to a set of organisational procedures dictated by codes of conduct, “Once the idea of a common theoretical base underpinning all social work practices is abandoned, the full implications of the controlling nature of legislation and policy can be unleashed” (Howe, 1994, p.524).

Having considered what characterises modern and postmodern social work we can begin to explore how these perspectives inform different aspects of social work. Given that social work is submerged in the welfare debate it seems a logical starting point to consider in relation to postmodernism (Pease and Fook, 1999). Understanding postmodernist theory in this sense gives insight into the political and social climate that shapes practice. Concerns have been raised regarding the impact of the postmodern discourse. Writers such as Powell (2001) suggest that the welfare system provides an essential role in taming unwieldy elements of capitalism through a state supported redistributing welfare system. Although modernist thinkers would concede that the welfare state has never fully succeeded in addressing inherent inequalities, its very existence has improved the standards of living for the majority (Noble, 2004). Therefore it is hardly surprising that concerns are being voiced over an increasing neo-liberal agenda and subsequent downsizing of the state in favour of a free market economy (Midgly, 1999). The introduction of ‘quasi-markets’ and ‘mixed economies of care’ has resulted in what is referred to as a ‘contract culture’ (Ife, 199). Powell (2001) suggests that the erosion of the welfare state has placed barriers to humanistic social policies and as a result professions such as social work struggle to remain central to service provision and to advance their wider aims of social justice.

Postmodernism with its disregard for universal values and ethics coupled with globalisation and the continued spread of capitalism are the driving forces behind this change (Noble, 2004). Ritzer (1995) attempts to define the status of society and social relationships in relation to a global market economy. Warning of the de-humanizing influences of large multi-national corporations Ritzer (1995, p34) highlights working practices that, “exemplify the contemporary rationalisation process within globalization of culture”. The four main elements of these working practices; evolving, efficiency, calculability and predictability are increasing present within social work.

Naturally these concerns are not shared by everyone. Many postmodern theorists argue that that the welfare state has always been a source of controversy never reaching consensus on how it should be organized, funded or distributed (Dominelli, 1996). Modernists can be critiqued for failing to acknowledge the welfare state as a mechanism for reproducing social inequality through the way in which resources are accessed and priorities established (Walton 1975, cited by Dominelli, 2004). Giddens (1991) identifies the welfare state as bound to ‘traditional family and gender systems’. Fraser and Gordon (1994) observe the gendered nature of welfare suggesting that policies centred on dependency, often associated with femininity, perpetuate negative representations of women and other disadvantages groups. Jordon and Jordan (2000) suggest instead that the Third Way in politics, dismissed as oppressive capitalism by commentators such as Bauman (2002), has a moral fibre in the sense of offering justice and inclusion without forcing conformity. Rights and freedoms are offered in the context of the market place, individuals have choice by means of being a consumer (Howe 1994). It is argued that the growth of the voluntary sector and changes to decision making and management structures are creating space for more innovative and personalised service delivery which is free from the constraints of institutional barriers (Walker, 2001).

The modern postmodern debate gathers pace when considered in relation to anti-oppressive practice. Here there are further concerns regarding the postmodernism influence on social work. Writers such as Ferguson and Levalette (1999) have argued that postmodern perspectives have little to contribute to anti-oppressive practice. Without universal ethics and values it becomes difficult to transform power relations or to identify common experiences that oppressed groups may share (Callinicos, 1995). The main critique that Ferguson and Levalette (1999) lobby on postmodernism is if all discourses are to be treated as valid the basis for distinguishing oppression is removed. Some feminists among other political critics argue that postmodernism, with its rejection of meta-narratives disempowers socially disadvantages groups “at the very point at which they need to demand emancipation in the name of universalistic notions of justice and equality” (Leonard, 1997). To address this requires a separation of emancipatory theory from oppressive ideology. The notion that emancipation can have a ‘normative foundation’ is considered by postmodernism to be unsound. However advocates of modernity such as Hambermas (1987, cited by Leonard 1997) advocate the need for a standard or a form of ‘undistorted communication” to remain in order to distinguish and challenge oppression.

Smith (1994, p.26) raises concerns that in a postmodern society oppression becomes self defined, the relationship between an individual’s social situation and their identity becomes separated resulting in “no objective way to locate a primary source of oppression”. Smith (1994) also suggests that the celebration of diversity that postmodernism promises only serves to trivialise real oppression felt by many disenfranchised groups. Increasingly concepts of identity have replaced discourses of oppression (Ferguson and Levalette, 1999). Leading the charge on identity is Giddens (1991) who asserts that individuals are rational and reflexive agents who create and shape their own identities. This assumption that identity is a matter of choice has been challenged significantly. Commentators such as (Skeggs, 2001) have argued that choice and reflexivity is a classed phenomenon with many individuals having few and often undesirable lifestyles from which to choose.

There are of course counter arguments to be considered here. To some postmodernists modernity is, or was depending upon their perspective, a Eurocentric, patriarchal and destructive force legitimised through the language of science (Pease and Fook, 1999). In a modern society those in positions of power are able to determine how knowledge is understood and what knowledge is relevant (Howe, 1994). Postmodernism rejects the idea that grand theories such as liberalism, socialism and psychoanalysis have offered explanations for human development suggesting instead that they perpetuate oppression by demanding consensus to their absolute notions (Bauman, 1992).

A universal knowledge base that informs understanding of human behaviour naturally assumes something transferable that can be applied across all societies and cultures (Dominelli, 1996). It has been suggested that this form of universalism equates to cultural domination and the potential for racist ideology (Leonard, 1997).Within this critique postmodernism suggests that diversity should be celebrated “as a reflection of the polymorphous, non-unitary and con-consensual nature of the social word” (Howe, 1994, p.524). A relativist approach in contrast to a universal approach suggests all forms of behaviour are local rendering notions of human nature redundant (Howe, 1994). Postmodernism challenges the notion that perspectives such as Radical or critical social work are the only means by which emancipation can be achieved. In this context adopting universal truths as a basis for emancipation is deemed arrogant and unethical (Noble, 2004). Postmodernism “spurns the concept of reason as an empancipatory force” and suggests that a more empowering approach is through the embracing of pluralism and difference (Dodd, 1999, p.212).

A key element of postmodernist thinking is the importance of language. From a postmodern perspective it is the discourses that constitute social and economic life (Ferguson and Levalette, 1999). Howe (1994, p.552) explains that “Language, once thought simply to reflect reality, now appears to constitute our reality in an independent domain of its own which carries meaning and culture”. The notion that power is embedded in language offers scope for social workers to critically reflect and challenge dominant discourses and assumptions to avoid perpetuating oppressive practices (Fook et al, 2000). This highlights ‘the transformative capacity of critical postmodernism to improve practice and facilitate social change’ (Morley, 2004 p. 299). However Ferguson and Levalette (1999) observe that new language and terminology although a force for challenging oppressive categorisation, does not change the material situation individual’s face.

In summary it is worth considering how postmodern perspectives can be combined and developed to offer an approach to social work that integrates “diversity and flexibility of meaning with the possibility of an ethical discourse that is shared rather than individualised” (Hugman 2003, p.1035). ‘Critical postmodernism’ based on a constructionist approach, combines flexibility of meaning with the understanding that society is socially constructed through the actions and relationships of its members (Hugman, 2003). In this sense postmodernism does not need to equate to the disappearance of traditional social work but nor does it need to succumb to a neo-liberal agenda (Sim, 1999).

Ferguson and Lavalette (1999, p.28) in support of Leonard (1997) suggest another avenue in combining the postmodernism and structural discourses, “by combining postmodernist themes with socio economic developments (informed by a ‘Marxian’ perspective on globalisation and post-fordism), a rejuvenated ’emanicpatory’ social work can be developed”. Parton and O’Byrne 2000) discuss the application of an ‘affirmative’ postmodern social work which opens up thought towards greater inclusion and less prescriptive theories and methods of practice. Ife (1999) and Pease and Fook (1999) also support a social work that values diversity and uncertainty but maintains a political struggle towards social justice based on a commitment to some universal ethical and values. These theories offer a way of managing a changing society without removing a unified knowledge base or without forcing a postmodern retreat. In other words they provide a way forward that incorporates the “personal with the political so that both are integrated into a more relevant social work discourse” (Noble, 2004, p.2).

This text has gone some way towards outlining postmodern perspectives of contemporary social work. From this brief analysis we can see that social work developed during the period of ‘enlightenment’ or the ‘age of modernity’. As a result its focus became the development of a universal theoretical framework that informs knowledge in order to challenge social oppression. Changes within society have given rise to postmodern theories which offer social work the possibility of a fluid, pluralistic approach that promotes diversity and participation through the validity of all perspectives. As we have discussed neither of these approaches is without challenge or critique.

Consideration has been given to the impact of postmodernism upon the welfare state and thus social work, outlining concerns relating to a neo-liberal agenda but questioning at the same time the suggested empacipatory nature and role of the state. The impact of postmodernism on anti-oppressive practice has been debated and implications for social work considered. Conclusions have been offered in the form of theories that combine postmodernism with elements of universalism and structural analysis. It has been clear throughout this journey that postmodernist theories have and continue to impact upon social work practice. In conclusion giving consideration to a postmodern perspective helps assists “social work to examine the diverse, provisional and uncertain nature of all aspects of our world, including knowledge and skills and values and ethics” (Hugman, 2003, p.1037).

Word count 2,679

Scientific methodology in sociology, the study of the social world, is most often associated with what is known as the positivist approach. In this essay, to determine whether or not it is indeed possible to apply scientific methods to the study of the social world, I will analyse the strengths and weaknesses of positivist sociology. “As developed by Auguste Comte, positivism is a way of thinking based on the assumption that it is possible to observe social life and establish reliable, valid knowledge about how it works.” (Johnson p231) This established knowledge was then to be used to affect the course of social change and it would help improve humanity. Comte’s work was in part a reaction to the ‘anarchy’ that besieged France in the wake of the revolution. Comte sincerely believed that scientific rationality could temper the raw human emotions that had lead to such chaos. Sociology, in his definition (and others), literally the science of society, could apply such scientific rationalism, empiricism and positivism to social life, thus improving it and preventing continued anarchy. “Comte believed that social life is governed by underlying laws and principles that can be discovered through the use of methods most often associated with the physical sciences.” (Johnson p231) One would identify the methods of positivism thus;

1) careful observation – measurement;

2) quantification;

3) formalisation of concepts – precision in definition;

4) operationalisation of theoretical questions

5) mathematisation (connects with all of the previous features;

6) logic and systemisation of theory

7) symmetry of explanation & prediction;

8) objectivity understood as value neutrality.

Positivism, “Is above all a philosophy of science. As such, it stands squarely within the empiricist tradition. Metaphysical speculation is rejected in favour of positive knowledge based upon systematic observation and experiment. The methods of science can give us knowledge of the laws of coexistence.” (Marshall p510) However, as shall hopefully be shown later, these scientific methods can not show us anything about the inner ‘essences’ or ‘nature’ of things. Broadly speaking structuralism is, “Used loosely in sociology to refer to any approach which regards social structure (apparent or otherwise) as having priority over social action.” (Johnson p646) Positivism and structuralism are generally highly complementary, positivism effectively being the scientific methodology of structuralism. This can be observed in the works of Comte, Marx, Durkheim and the Vienna circle. Later theorists such as Parsons can also be described as both structuralist and positivist although in Parson’s case he does consider certain interpretivist sensibilities. Marx, Durkheim, Comte, the Vienna circle and many others all saw sociology as a science and all believed that social structure was the core component of society. “Perhaps one of the most important traits in naturalistic or positivistic sociology is the belief that social phenomena are patterned and are subject to deterministic laws much as are the laws governing the natural sciences. Sociological theory then becomes a quest for laws similar to the law of gravity or the law of material density in physics” (Poloma p3)

The main difference between the social and natural worlds is that the subject of study in the social world is humanity. People, in basic terms, have a consciousness where as the subjects of the natural sciences, rocks or atoms or chemicals, do not. People are aware of themselves and their surroundings in a way that rocks, for example, are not. This, clearly, is a potential problem for positivist sociology. However, this problem is resolved, in positivist science, by arguing that the self-consciousness of human beings (the ability to think, act and feel) is not a significant factor in our ability to understand social behaviour. This, according to positivists, is because people’s behaviour is, at its genesis, always a reaction to some form of stimulation. This stimulation can be from their socialisation (as we shall see in Parsons work), or it can be something more direct like the need to earn a living or a confrontation with another human. This produces one of the criticisms of positivist sociology, as we shall see, action and the meaning placed on that action becomes unimportant for study, only the cause of the action, the stimuli, has any sociological value for positivists.

The positivist view of sociology, of its aims, of its methods, is certainly a contentious one. Two of the first sociologists to question these methods, and the first that can be labelled as interpretivist, were Weber and Simmel. “Weber argues that sociology is not concerned with totalising explanations; only individuals have an ontological reality, society does not exist in that real sense, and so sociological explanations must be in terms of individual events and processes.” (Craib 1997 p51) Rickert’s term of Geisteswissenschaften (literally ‘the sciences of the spirit/mind) greatly influenced Weber’s conception of what sociology should be. The ontological reality which Weber speaks of is that humans are very different from other natural beings. We have free will, an inner life, use symbols, possess language, live in culture and act meaningfully. This ontological reality ensures that humanity cannot be studied using positivist scientific methodology, or any other conventional scientific methodology, sociology must use other methods. While the natural sciences wish to explain natural events, sociology, as understood by Weber, Rickert or Simmel, wishes to understand social action. Social scientists should endeavour to understand social action in very much the same way as one attempts to understand other people, by communicating, through empathy, and through argument. These views are also associated with, and expanded upon, by the philosopher Peter Winch. (Winch 1958)

“Sociology differs from the natural sciences in that it does not deal with a pre given universe of objects. People attribute meaning to their social world and act accordingly.” (Baert p97) Weber, in his Methodology of The Social Sciences, points out that all knowledge of cultural reality is always from a particular point of view. The philosophical idea that there is no truth, only human opinion is prevalent in this argument. Simmel emphasises and expands upon this point, “In the last resort the content of any science doesn’t rest on simple objective facts, but always involves an interpretation and shaping of them according to categories and rules that are a priori of the science concerned.” (Stones p74) Any scientific conclusion, be it in the field of physics or sociology, has to be interpreted by its author, then represented by that same author and then reinterpreted by those that read it. In these interpretations any ‘truth’ or ‘law’ is surrendered to human opinion, human meaning, human understanding. This criticism of positivist sociology is probably best illustrated by a discussion of a classic positivist sociological text, Emile Durkheim’s suicide study.

In his study, Durkheim analysed the differential distribution of the occurrence of suicide by country and region. Durkheim professed to have found “suicidogenic currents” (Durkheim 1963) in society; the pressures to commit suicide, the laws of suicide. Through a positivist, scientific methodology, Durkheim identified the pressures to commit suicide were greater in regions where the Protestant faith was dominant, and weaker where Catholicism dominated. Durkheim’s account posits an external force (suicidogenic currents) as the cause of suicide – cause and effect. (Durkheim 1963) However why suicide occurs tends not to be the issue. To say that suicide is caused, not entirely obviously but in part, by the following of the Protestant faith is to assume that the term suicide is a simple one, a fixed one, with no room for differing meanings. This view is wrong. What is of importance is how a “suicide” comes to be defined as such by the coroner’s court. One must remember that a suicide is not an objective fact, but a interpretation, an interpretation that can be influenced by the coroner’s own personal feelings. If a ruling of suicide is likely to cause the deceased’s family pain and suffering, as is likely if they are Catholics, then the coroner may be inclined, where ever possible, to not record a suicide verdict, but an accidental death instead

This alerts us to the problematic nature of Durkheim’s, and positivist sociology in general, reliance on statistics. For Durkheim takes those statistics as giving a ‘true’ picture of the incidence of suicide. But do they? Are they rather a representation of the interpretation of suicide as opposed to cold hard objective fact? Interactions/ interpretive work on suicide states that suicide statistics are a construction involving police, courts and coroners. Thus for a death to be counted as a suicide involves a complex social process concerning meaning and interpretation, two unquantifiable characteristics of humanity. Thus suicide is not just the effect of a societal cause, but an interpretation of events, thus not a positivist, scientific event. Therefore if sociologists wish a knowledge of social life, they cannot explain social actors’ action in terms of cause and effect. Rather, they must seek out what the social actors themselves say they are up to, what they mean. “Comte’s view shifted in later life, under the influence of Cloitilde de Vaux. He came to see that science alone could not be a binding force for social cohesion as he had earlier supposed. He argued that the intellect must become the servant of the heart, and advocated a new ‘religion of humanity.’” (Marshall p509) Comte, the originator of the positivist sociological methodology shifted his emphasis away from positivism in his later work, thus exposing the inherent problems and weaknesses at its methodological core. “Positivism has had relatively little influence in contemporary sociology for several reasons. Current views argue that positivism encourages a misleading emphasis on superficial facts without any attention to underlying mechanisms that cannot be observed.” (Johnson p231) For example, we cannot observe human motives or the meaning that people give to behaviour and other aspects of social life, but this does not mean that meaning and motive are nonexistent or irrelevant.

The best way to illustrate the above points is to set them within the context of a positivist sociological study, in this case Parson’s work on personality.

For society to function, it is logical according to Parsons to deduce that the individual members of society have to agree with society’s rule. “For Parsons, the social system is…made up of the interactions of individuals. Of special concern is… that such interactions are not random but mediated by common standards of evaluation. Most important among these are moral standards which may be called norms.” (Hamilton p155) When people in society interact the interactions themselves, the emotions that seemingly control them, the goals that the individual actors (people) are hoping to obtain, they are all in fact controlled by the norms of society. “The concept of order is located predominantly at the level of the social system itself and the cultural system becomes a mechanism of the functioning of the social system.” (Hamilton p146) These norms are adopted and agreed by each member of the society for Parsons and this is his consensus theory. Importantly Parsons’ theory suggests that the power of societal expectations, the power of norms, is more pervasive than merely being a moral standard that mediates interaction and personal relationships. They are in fact the organisational foci of personality, of people themselves.

“Socialisation is the process by which we learn to become members of society, both by internalising the norms and values of society, and also learning to perform our social roles (as worker, friend, citizen and so forth.)” (Marshall p624) The family, for instance, is controlled by the same norms as society because it is that society, just it is a smaller component of it. The subsystems of society are analogous to body parts in the Parsonian model, they are all essential, each provide their own unique function and all interrelate, interpenetrate and are dependent upon one another. Analogous to the human body where each body part has a specific function to perform, and all of those parts work in unison to keep the structure going, so society is organised. Immersion within these subsystems, such as the family leads to internalisations of norms and objects, and this in turn creates personality. Because personality is internalised from society, “The foci of organisation of both types of system lies in…the value systems.” (Parsons p357) The values of society are the values of people, or personality. People are not just guided by the norms of society, but their very personalities are organised by the very same norms and principles and morals, according to Parsons. Thus peoples actions are quantifiable, reducible to a law since they are mediated by common standards. As gravity is a constant, so are the norms of a society and therefore of personality.

The positivist law here is that personality, every action of a human is controlled by the same standards of evaluation as society. The person’s personality is derived directly from society, it is society. Thus a scientific study of society is possible because there is cause and effect, there is a reaction to stimuli. Socialisation is the stimulation that people react to. For Parsons, laws can be discerned from humanity because people will react in predictable ways, mediated by norms, to the stimulation of events and socialisation. Thus sociology can be scientific, empirical and positivist.

A major problem with Parson’s work is that it reduces human personality to being produced and organised solely by societal expectations and norms. This societal determinism fails to acknowledge or explain where certain feelings, motives and actions originate. Goffman argues that “it is . . . against something that the self can emerge. . . Without something to belong to, we have no stable self, and yet total commitment and attachment to any social unit implies a kind of selflessness. Our sense of being a person can come from being drawn into a wider social unit; our sense of selfhood can arise through the little ways in which we resist the pull.” (Goffman 196 p305) A favourite example of this for Goffman was that of mental patients in asylums. The total institution of an asylum probably forces more strict adherence to societal expectation than most other social situations by using methods such as drug induced control and disciplinary measures such as EST. Yet in these institutions, despite being forced to play the role of the mental patient, to conform to societal expectation), patients still resisted those expectations. The hoarding of banned materials being an example of this. The motivation to do this does not come from internalisation of norms, as the correct way to behave is to not horde banned items. It comes from a need to keep ones own identity, to satisfy needs and drives and wants. These needs drives and wants are absent from the Parsonian model and a full understanding or explanation of society and social actions needs to take them into account.

“The maintenance of this surface of agreement, this veneer of consensus, is facilitated by each participant concealing his own wants behind statements which assert values to which everyone present feels obliged to give lip service.” (Goffman 1990 p20-21) The norms and laws that Parsons believes to control personality and society, are revealed by Goffman as only being a veneer. Furthermore Goffman states that other feelings and motives in fact influence social action, not just norms. If, as Goffman claims, the so called common standards of evaluation that Parsons identifies are in fact a veneer that hides other motives and feelings, then the actions of humanity are not as easily quantifiable, reducible to a scientific, positivist law, as Parsons first shows.

Freud’s metapsychology deals with the general structure of mental life. For Freud there were three psychic structures. The first, the id, contains, “those basic drives we have by virtue of being human, of which sexuality is the most important.” (Craib 1989 p3) The Id is often equated to by Freud as being like an infant, demanding immediate satisfaction irrespective of societal expectations. The Id makes up the greatest part of the unconscious and it is in this unconscious realm of basic biologically influenced drives that the motivational forces that Parson’s can not identity come from. The Id influences personality. It is important to remember that, as opposed to biological instincts driving us to act like a shark would, a mindless automaton, “the unconscious is composed not of biological instincts but of the mental representations we attach to these instincts.” (Craib 1989 p4) Thus each individual creates their own mental representation for their drives thus meaning that every persons internal world has a different geography. This clearly poses problems for the positivist approach to personality and society and social action, as represented by Parsons here, for if reaction to stimulation is not predictable because each person acts differently, then universal scientific laws can not be established.

The second structure of personality according to Freud, the ego or the ‘I’ is the central organiser of mental life. The third, the superego is thought of as the conscience. “The superego is the internalisation of external control which demands the renuncification of instinctual satisfaction in order that society might be formed and maintained.” (Craib 1989 p21) The superego is the part of personality that Parson’s identifies the part that internalises norms. The basic drives of the id demand immediate satisfaction, immediate gratification of those drives, these demands are contrary to the superego norms and morality, and the conflict has to be resolved by the ego. Our consciousness, predominantly consisting of the ego and superego, protects us from our own id impulses that, if they were followed, would leave it impossible for us to exist within society. Freud stated that “Civilisation depends upon repression…If we tried to gratify all our desires, sexual or otherwise, as and when they arose, society, civilisation and culture would vanish over night.” (Craib 1984 p195) For Freud the ‘I’, is the resolution of the conflict between the id biologically directed drives, and the superego’s societal restraints. Therefore personality is the site of the, hopefully, resolved conflict between the normative mind evaluated by common standards as Parsons identifies, and the basic id drives. These Id drives, as I shall show, influence personality thus influence social action and society. This being the case then Parsons’ explanation for personality is insufficient and so is the positivist claim for the scientific study of society. The positivist tenants of careful observation and measurement; quantification; formalisation of concepts – precision in definition; operationalisation of theoretical questions; mathematisation; logic and systemisation of theory; symmetry of explanation & prediction and objectivity cannot be applied to individualistic Id drives and impulses. “The desire to kill anyone who frustrates us thus becomes unconscious, but none the less remains.” (Craib 1989 p24) Evidence for these desires for Freud appears in slips, where the unconscious desire can ‘slip’ into conscious conversation. “Freud quotes the husband who supposedly said, ‘If one of us two die, I shall move to Paris.” (Craib 1989 p24) One can not scientifically measure how these unconscious desires influence and effect social action, especially since it can be so hard to identify them as existing in the first place.

“A feature of human life is that an instinct such as the sexual instinct is not directed at any one object, but has to be socially channelled, in our society usually towards members of the opposite sex.” (Craib 1989 p4) “Human beings are restrained by social organisation from a free and good expression of their drives. Through its oppression, society forces people into neuroses and psychoses.” (Craib 1989 p19) For Freud the very problems that he and other psychoanalysts dealt with were in fact often as the result of the repression of id drives by the superego and societal repression. As such the very existence of neuroses and psychoses can be seen as evidence to the fact that this conflict does indeed exist, that the resolution of this conflict does indeed produce the ‘I’ with all its faults and problems. To fully understand society, sociology needs to be aware of societal pressures, the Parson’s personality through positivism, but also needs to recognise the other meanings and emotions that cannot be quantified, cannot be analysed scientifically. Sociology needs to use interpretivism and positivism together. In terms of this example, Parsons positivist models needs to be considered at great length and detail as he does indeed identify a huge force in shaping society, that of norms and how they do penetrate into the psyche and personality. However, a study that only concentrates on the positivist methodology misses the crucial aspects of personality that Goffman and Freud identify, and that is not in the interest of any sociologist.

“Positivism may be dead in that there is no longer an identifiable community of philosophers who give its simpler characteristics unqualified support, but it lives on philosophically, developed until it transmutes into conventionalism or realism. And even if in its simpler philosophical forms it is dead, the spirit of those earlier formulations continues to haunt sociology.” (Halfpenny p120) In conclusion positivism’s attempt at scientific sociological methodology, though fallacious is admirable and certainly many of the aspects of positivism should be considered desirable. As quoted elsewhere, “positivism is a way of thinking based on the assumption that it is possible to observe social life and establish reliable, valid knowledge about how it works.” (Johnson p231) The desire for reliable, valid knowledge is of course a relevant and important sociological aim and some of the tools that positivism uses to try to reach such knowledge are useful and worthwhile. Careful observation, measurement; quantification; formalisation of concepts – precision in definition; operationalisation of theoretical questions; logic and systemisation of theory; symmetry of explanation and prediction and objectivity, if all of these tenants of positivism can at least be attempted in a sociological study then that sociological study will indeed be the better for it. However, sociological study needs to recognise, as Comte himself did, that these aims, in their fullest, are unobtainable and that those aims are not ends in themselves, rather a very rough guide to sociological methodology. As I have hopefully shown above, sociological analysis needs positivism, needs scientific methodology, but a carefully tempered and monitored positivism. The aim of sociology is understanding and that understanding should not be limited by methodology, especially a methodology that is inherently flawed. Positivism shows us how to analyse data, data that is essential to sociological understand, but that data must not be treated uncritically thus a synthesis of positivism and interpretivism is recommended. To study the social world using a strict scientific methodology is impossible, that does not, of course, mean that scientific methodology is not a useful and critical tool in sociological study.

Bibliography

Baert, P, 1998. Social theory in the twentieth century. Polity press

Craib, I, 1984. Modern social theory. Wheatsheaf books Ltd

Craib, I, 1989. Psychoanalysis and social theory the limits of sociology Wheatsheaf

Craib, I, 1997. Classical social theory pub by Oxford university press

Durkheim, E, 1963. Suicide, a study in sociology. Routledge

Goffman, E, 1961 Asylums. Doubleday Anchor

Goffman, E, 1990. The presentation of the self in everyday life. Penguin

Halfpenny, P, 1986. Positivism and sociology. Routledge

Johnson, G 2000 The dictionary of sociology Blackwell

Hamilton, P, 1992. Talcott Parsons critical assessments. Routledge

Marshall, G 1998. Oxford dictionary of sociology. Oxford university press

Parsons, T, The structure of social action Free Press 1949

Poloma, M, 1979. Contemporary sociological theory. MacMillan

Stones, R, 1998. Key sociological thinkers. Palgrave

Winch, P, 1958. The Idea Of a Social Science. Routledge

The Industrial Revolution started in Britain during the late 1700’s. It made its way to America in the 18th and 19th century. It brought about a remarkable change from hand tools and handmade items to products produced by machines. The increase of production resulted in high profits for factory owners. In Britain the machines improved the work of talented artisans, and in America the machines assisted the entrepreneur’s productivity. The Industrial Revolution benefited the middle class more significantly, but impacted all lives through American history. (2) It created a demand for laborers and a production of mass products. It transpired from the inventions of machines and the production of new things. If society had missed out on the Industrial revolution, life would lack technology, transportation, the need for education, and other modern conveniences. (3) Therefore, the Industrial Revolution had a positive effect on American society.

The revolution made way for inventors. There were many inventions which were introduced during this time. Each of these had a huge effect on the changing of American society. Inventions became alive with newer and faster ways to produce products and transport goods. People’s lives opened up to new functions, and a commerce system was born. James Watt improved the steam engine during the second half of the 18th century, which facilitated factory growth by introducing a transportation system. In essence, the starting force of the industrial revolution was the steam engine. (9) An article published by the North American Reviewstates that “Five great causes enter into, and combine to create, the wonderful development of the century’s commerce. They may be stated in five words: steam, electricity, invention, finance, peace.” (6) Each of these items had an effect on the society from the cities to the mountains. In The Strength of the Hills, Frank P. Woodbury stated that “in the presence of these forces life will be transformed.” He wrote about the demand for the mountain people to supply labor to work on the railways, mines and factories. He mentioned the changes and power that the industrial revolution would bring to the mountain people. (5) These same ideas would bring about similar effects to all of society.

With the inventions of the loom, cotton gin, and sewing machine, there was an increase of production in the textile industry. (3) In the article A Century of International Commerce it is stated that the machines in the factories produced many more times the items a single man could make with his hands. Due to the production of more goods, other requirements became necessary; the factory system, the need for labor, transportation, communication, and financial systems. All of these are examples of what started a domino effect. Without each one of these, the US would not have gotten to the next level within the industrial revolution. (6)

The birth of the factory system brought about the need for labor, which in turn provided society with options. More jobs were needed to operate the machinery in order to produce the products. The options provided to the people were location, different ways to earn a living, and the way a life is lived. These options guided society to power and wealth. (4) Factories multiplied, which lead to competition and produced “the general spirit of enterprise”, as described by George S. White in The Benefits of the Factory System. White wrote that even though some employers abused their employees because they were allowed too much power, the employees or laborers were the real power. He articulates that the community has the right to complain, and the employers should expect protest if mistreatment is present. (4) The corrective actions of the employers will lead to universal advancement and benefit the society. In the article Effects of Machinery, the question is posed; is machinery an evil. The author responds with; “No doubt, like every other great power, machinery may be converted into an instrument of great oppression. But it is not such naturally. In itself it has been always, and, under well regulated Governments, it always will be a source of great good, of good almost unmixed. The evils necessarily incident to its introduction, are slight, partial, and transient. They reach only the surface of society, affect but small portions of the community, and speedily pass away.” The author then affirms that the positive impact of machinery surpasses the negative effects that are felt by society. (7)

As production began to increase, products needed to reach the consumers. The transportation system improved. Railroads and steamboats were built. The first steamboat built by Robert Fulton would help ship goods across the Atlantic Ocean. Lands across the ocean could possess America’s products. The locomotive was built by George Stephenson, which transported products to locations for many more people. (2) With the expansion of railways, commerce increased 40 percent by 1840 and continued to increase throughout the following years. (6) This allowed prices of goods to decrease. More goods were transported and sold; therefore, more people could afford to pay. The explosion of the railroad gave way to the movement of passengers and products to different destinations. (1) These transportation innovations provided shipping power on both land and sea; but also provided safety and accelerating speed. (6)

Inventions that aided the people to spread news quicker and more precisely presented another positive to society. The telegraph invented by Samuel F. B. Morse provided communication through a wire in the speed of light. In the Invention of the Telegraph by Alonzo B. Cornell, he states that after the National Democratic Convention in 1844, the event was telegraphed to Washington. People were shocked by how speedy and accurate the system worked. This event removed the doubts felt by the people. (8) Larger businesses previously went through many challenges to communicate across the organization. This invention allowed the business men to spread information faster about prices and markets. Workers could see machines were improving, and they could receive important news that previously had been delivered by a horse man. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone, creating a much better and faster way to communicate across America, which allowed managers to keep in contact. This led to new methods of management and an efficient production of methods in business. (3)

During this time a new development occurred which allowed electricity to be used effectively. Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction in 1831. His discovery was the driving force behind the electric motor. His thought on electricity, magnetic fields, and nature of fields inspired other inventors. (10) Thomas Edison later introduced the system of electric lighting. These inventions impacted society by allowing the first multinational companies to be established, which would later promote the electrification of cities. With the lighting of homes and workplaces, work and socialization could take place at different times, thus expanding and changing people’s schedules. This also led to improved household appliances, like the refrigerator and the microwave. Nationally and internationally, electricity became an improvement in people’s domestic lives, social lives, working routine, and productivity levels. (11)

The Industrial Revolution emerged from inventions that brought about a factory system, a commerce system, a transportation system, and a communication system. Each of these influenced a new way of life. These achievements encouraged human progress, which inspired the opportunity of individuality. It is best stated in an article written by Richard T. Ely, who writes: “Again, this material economic life of ours, this production of goods, this buying, selling, and getting gain, it must ever be remembered, is not an end in itself. It is but a means to an end. It is the basis of our higher life, and is to be valued merely as such.” When was this written? What is the source? I do not find a reference for Ely in your listing? He goes on to say that with this Industrial Revolution our society finds growth in eight areas which are divided into language, art, science and education, family life, social life, religious life, political life and economic life. Even though there were hardships during the industrial revolution society was impacted greatly by the individual’s inspirations for an advanced life. The individuality demanded changes to the social system. Abolition of child labor, improved working conditions for women, factory inspections and sanitary regulations were just a few of the improvements made by society. (12) Another affect on society was the interest of science. The people began to thrive for the knowledge of the unknown. This curiosity lead to stronger industries, but most importantly produced more questioning human beings.(3) In the Benefits of the Factory System it is stated that “the more he studies and understands the works of nature and Providence, the greater will be his admiration of the display and application of wisdom and goodness.” (4) This quote gives a sense of strength, peace and intelligence which leads to the conclusion of an improved society. From this one can establish that the Industrial Revolution had a positive effect on the success of the American society.

Andrea Mewhinney

Globalisation is a real phenomenon of the new world system which has a powerful force in determining the world future image. Its dimensions vary from economic, political, social, and cultural applications. The term can be defined as a transforming process that converts local transactions and deals into global ones. This conversion results in increasing cross border trade, investment, tourism and cultural exchange. By applying principles of globalisation, several positive and negative effects have arisen today. This essay will discuss three means of globalisation, where the first two have mainly positive aspects and the next one has negative aspects. Then, the essay will evaluate these aspects that accompany globalisation.

The first mean is that the multinational companies and organisations of rich countries are brought to poor and developed countries. This movement provides countries with extra employment opportunities for both genders and contributes the governmental efforts in fighting unemployment. In addition, it has liberated people from the strong bond to their own customs that refuse coping with other nationalities through exporting jobs and business deals. In other words, the enhancement of multiculturalism in global village makes women’s work necessary for all countries. Surprisingly, females were struggling with their entire lives to have equality with men especially in closed environments where Saudi Arabia is a case of point. Nowadays, Saudi women make up a large volume in the labour force of the country and share the development of Saudi Arabia. The equality between sexes in jobs opportunities resulted from multinational companies has been expanded for higher payments, job satisfaction, self confidence and independence. As a result, some individuals become able to establish families and have their own house at the end of the age twenties. With more freedoms and opportunities, people can receive more income and improve their standard of living.

In addition, presence of global goods over the shelves in the marketplace next to local ones shows the differences between products in terms of quality, price, size and shape. Today, most countries can export and import products in the global village. Manufacturers are motivated to produce the best merchandises with good quality and reasonable price. Moreover, global trade creates competitive environment between companies. Customers become more convenient and well satisfied with cross border services. They can share interests and brands of other nations. For instance, Egyptians can enjoy eating McDonald meals and drive Mercedes cars as similar to Americans and Germans. According to Buckley (1998) Global trade can strengthens the relations between nations and makes wars less likely to occur. To sum up, global brands seem to unit nations and make them dependant upon each other.

According to the first two means, globalisation promotes business movement and global trade which both carry enormous benefits to societies. But on the other hand, TV broadcasting has serious effects on individuals.

The third example of globalisation is the broadcasting of hundreds TV channels to all viewers around the world. TV has abundant amounts of unacceptable levels of sex and violence channels that cause harm to viewers. This content is extremely damaging for youth because they might apply what they have seen and commit crimes. Furthermore, some teenagers become more aggressive and involved in organized crimes. Also, group of adults are encouraged to have sex outside of marriage which has led to social and health problems. For example, it is proven that the cause of auto immune deficiency disease is mainly due to the multi sexual relations outside of marriage. In fact, the erosion in the values of a community will cause greater social problems in the future.

It is obvious that making business in other countries will increase the overall national profits and will bring technologies to the targeted ones. Investments in developed countries have shown radical changes that attract tourists. Dubai city is a vivid example that proves the success of business movement between countries. Global trade of goods and services can cause significant reduction in prices and enable limited income people to buy them. Also, it will take little time to purchase a product from global village. Sharing interests and goods between nations may enhance peace and harmony. On the other hand, if the intensity of violence and sex on TV channels continues, there will be more criminals in societies. Governments may build new prisons to accommodate increasing numbers of offenders.

In conclusion, this essay has discussed the main positive effects of companies’ investments in developed countries and the application of global trade, where the first represents a mean of globalisation that creates benefits such as, new job opportunities, higher payments, job satisfaction and independence. Global trade increases exports and imports between countries and enables people to share brands. It gives customers the freedom to buy favourable products. The essay has discussed negative effects of broadcasting TV channels. Violence and sex content increases crimes in societies. Such practices result in sever diseases and social problems. Some individuals have acquired aggressive behaviours and others become criminals.

Chapter-1Introduction: Status and Social Position of Women

The women are the soul of our community and they are self build and self trained human responsible for the morale development of their children, inspiration for the family and an example for the community to follow. As a wife, woman is his best friend and inspiration. The history conveys that, “Each successful man has an inspiring woman responsible for success”.

According to Swami Vivekananda- “That country and that nation that do not respect women have never become great, nor ever be in future.”

According to Historian Romilla Thapper- “Within the Indian sub-continent there have been infinite variations on the status of women diverging according to culture malice, family structure, class, caste, property rights and morals.”

Tagores said, “Womens are the ornaments of society”. The society was male dominated and he ruled mainly by ethics and morals. But now a day’s womens are enjoying the topmost supremacy and these have won over intelligence and mental capacity of the men. Today if it was that the society was “Male-Dominated” then india wouldn’t have produced highlighting examples such as “P.T.Usha-The Women Athlete”, “Lata Mangeshkar-The Nightingale and the Singer”, “Sonia Gandhi-Political” and “Klpana Chawla-The Indian Astronaut”. Today the proverb given above has proved true. A woman is the pillar of a family, and concussively that of a nation. The statue of liberty which is symbol of peace and liberty is none other than that of a woman. Therefore, respect women and every life.

In spite of fifty percent of the population on the world wide, women were not in equal status with men. This differential position causes socialization raises from boys and girls are different roles. As a traditional form, the status and social role of the women in every society, specific Indian society have been women are weaker than men. Women are the teachers of the society and they are not competitors. “Woman as the mother is the best friend and teacher for the child, especially girl child (Firestone, Catlett, 1993, the Mother-Daughter Bond)”. Woman as friend is an inspiring support for any task. Woman as wife is a best friend and supportive partner for the husband. Woman as a family member is a best family manager and care taker of family values and traditions. Women as a community member are an example of love, friendliness, inspiration and the best worker. These are the common roles and responsibilities performed by the women community around the world. Woman is an all-round player in the game where, playground is ‘family’. The only difference is that, woman is an all-round player at almost all such play grounds around the world. In family, woman is an excellent manger cum worker.

The social stratification of women in-India however leaves them as a second rate citizen. This is no more evident than the violence to which a woman is subjected in her domestic setup. Violence against woman is present is every society cutting boundaries of class, culture, education and age. Even though most societies proscribe violence against woman, the reality is that she is tortured physically, psychologically, sexually and economically, the right to equality, security dignity and self worth are denied to woman. At times the place where a woman seeks love, safety, security and shelter, becomes a place of terror and violence at the hands of somebody close to them whom they trust.

If we visualize the multiple view of the, woman from various families working for her children, family and herself; we will find that there several women working for the development of their respective families. In broad sense, they are working for collectively development of the family, community and society in which they live because; community is the united from of varied families. A woman is never appreciated for her indirect contribution in this strong development and in the progress of her children, family or external community. She can be said as a silent and selfless leader. We take woman as a strong pillar on which the progress of the family and community depends. If she is educated enough to utilize and manage the family resources in smart manner and every woman does so, than such community will definitely progress irrespective of the variations in the religion, tradition, culture and financial background that are present in any community around the world. There can be many situations that can prevent woman from performing at her best. It can be lack of peer support, illiteracy, lack of knowledge, lack of resources or lack inspiration to name few.

Crime, atrocity and violence against woman is a manifestation of the historically unequal power relations between man and woman, which led to the domination of a woman’s fuller advancement. Violence in the domestic spare is usually committed by them who are or who have been, is position of trust and intimacy and power-husband’s father, brother, uncle sons or other relatives. It does not mean that women are not violent but their actions account for a small percentage of domestic violence. Such as outside homes these type activity boy friend and unknown person.

The criminals, atrocious abuser and the abused are tied together because of emotional, physical, biological, familial, residential and financial ties, and are often their intimate partners. Perpetrators of domestic violence seek power and control over their survivors. The factors which contribute to the continued prevalence of violence are mainly the women’s lack of access to legal information, aid or protection and also the lack of laws that effectively prohibit violence against women. There is also failure to reform existing laws and the efforts made on part of public authorities to promote awareness of and enforce existing laws are also inadequate. The absence of educational and other means to address the causes and consequences of violence is also the reason behind prevalence of violence.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) declares that ‘Motherhood and childhood are entitled for special care whether born in or out of wedlock shall enjoy the same protection. The Indian constitution enshrines in Art.14, 15, 39(a) (d) and (e) that the state shall ensure a just social order for women based on equality and dignity. In spite of all these, and on the sacred land of Sita, Sabitri and Damayanti it found that women are being seduced, tortured, and enjoyed and betrayed. In spite of Constitutional guarantees and legal protection there is a rise on the trend of committing offenses against women and the domestic violence is one of them. Women have always played a specific and crucial role which has been veiled in society and history. Traditionally, the Indian woman has been the keystone of the family and society in general. She creates life, nurtures it, guards and strengthens it. In her task as mother, she plays a vital role in the development of the nation.

Status and social position of women in India

Women in India have been always topics of concern since ancient period. They can as a exact example of perfect home-makers. With their incomparable quality of the calm ness of mind they easily handle even toughest situation as well. The Indian women are fully devoted to their families. They are preached in the names like as Goddess Durga, Goddess Saraswati, Parvati and goddess Kali. The evolution of the status and social position of women in India has been a continuous process of ups and downs throughout history. For the purpose of depicting a brief survey of the changing position and role of women in India throughout history, four broad periods are considered:

Ancient Period

Medieval Period

Modern India Period

British-India Period.

After Independence Period

Brief described each period on following as:-

A) Ancient Period

Many women have comforted themselves with a view of many scholars that women were greatly honored in the ancient India from Vedic times. They enjoyed freedom good status and learning opportunities. In those days women must have had certainly freedom it appears that the Vedic women were probably comparable to modern women. Recently some women historians have attempted different interpretations of the original Brahmanical Texts. On the one hand Scriptures have glorifies womanhood. They have treated women as the equals of men. On the other hand some sacred texts held women not only disrespect but even in a positive hatred. There are contradictions and generalizations, which can be interpreted in either way.

Women held very important position in ancient Indian society. It was a position superior to men. There are literary evidences to suggest that woman power destroyed kingdoms and mighty rulers.Elango Adigal’s Sillapathigaram mentioned that Madurai the capital of Pandyas was burnt when Pandyan ruler Nedunchezhiyan killed a woman’s husband by mistake. Veda Vyasa’s Mahabharata tells the story of fall of Kauravas because they humiliated queen Draupadi.Valmiki’s Ramyana is also about the wiping away of Ravana when he abducted and tried to marry Sita forcibly. The plethora of Goddesses in ancient period was created to instil respect for women. Ardhanareeshwar, which called God is half-man and half-woman, was highly worshipped. Women were allowed to have multiple husbands.

For example:-

1. Manu has told that where women are honoured the Gods are leased but where they are not honoured, no sacred rite yields any reward. But it is as clear as day light that the same Manu has formulated the theory of sacred tutelage of women when he said that a woman has to depend on her father in her childhood, on her husband in youth and on her sons during her old age and no woman is fit for freedom. ‘Pita’ rakshathi Kaumare Bhartha rakshathi yavvane Rakshanthi Putrah Stavire, na Sthree svatantram arhati.

2. Yagnavalkya had told that women are the embodiment of all divine virtues on earth. Soma has bestowed all his purity on them. Gandhrva has given them sweetness of speech and Agni has showered all his brilliance to make them most attractive. She is the goddess (Devata as well as a lurer (pramada). Manu says women are able to lead astray not only the ignorant but also even the learned men and make him a slave of lust and anger. Such lofty ideals about women have been repeated in Ramayana and Mahabharata also.

B) Medieval Period

Medieval India has not women’s age it is supposed to be the ‘dark age’ for them. Medieval India saw many foreign conquests, which resulted in the decline in women’s status. When foreign conquerors like Muslims invaded India they brought with them their own culture.

These period women was the sole property of her father, brother or husband and she does not have any will of her own. This type of thinking also crept into the minds of Indian people and they also began to treat their own women like this. One more reason for the decline in women’s status and freedom was that original Indians wanted to shield their women folk from the barbarous Muslim invaders. As polygamy was a norm for these invaders they picked up any women they wanted and kept her in their “harems”. In order to protect them Indian women started using ‘Purdah’, (a veil), which covers body. Due to this reason their freedom also became affected. They were not allowed to move freely and this lead to the further deterioration of their status. These problems related with women resulted in changed attitude of people. Now they began to consider a girl as misery and a burden, which has to be shielded from the eyes of intruders and needs extra care. Whereas a boy child will not need such extra care and instead will be helpful as an earning hand. Thus a nasty circle started in which women was at the receiving end. All this gave rise to some new evils such as Child Marriage, Sati, Jauhar, devdasi, restriction on widow marriage, Purdha system and restriction on girl education.

Sati:

“Sati” is known as the ritual of dying at the funeral pyre of the husband. According to some of the Hindu scriptures dying at the funeral pyre women of her husband go straight to heaven so it’s good to practice this ritual. Initially it was not obligatory for the women but if she practiced such a custom she was highly respected by the society. Sati was considered to be the better option than living as a widow as the plight of widows in Hindu society was even worse. Some of the scriptures like ‘Medhatiti’ had different view it say that Sati is like committing suicide so one should avoid this.

Jauhar:

It is also more or less similar to Sati but it is a mass suicide. Jauhar was prevalent in the Rajput societies. In this custom wives immolated themselves while their husbands were still alive. Jauhar are also known to place a high profile on honour. When people of Rajput clan became sure that they were going to die at the hands of their enemy then all the women arrange a large pyre and set themselves afire, while their husband used to fight the last decisive battle known as “Shaka”, with the enemy. Thus are defending the sanctity of the women and the whole clan.

Devadasis:

Devadasi system is a religious practice in some parts of southern India, in which women are “married” to a deity or temple. The ritual was well established by the 10th century A.D. In the later period the illegitimate sexual exploitation of the Devadasi’s become a norm in some parts of India.

Child Marriage:

It was a norm in medieval India. Girls were married off at the age of 8-10. They were not allowed access to education and were treat as the material being. The plight of women can be imagined by one of the shloka of Tulsidas where he writes [r1] “Dhol, gawar, shudra, pashu, nari, ye sab tadan ke adhikari”. Meaning that are animals, illiterates, lower castes and women should be subjected to beating. Thus women were compared with animals and were married off at an early age. The child marriage along with it bring some more problems such as increased birth rate, poor health of women due to repeated child bearing and high mortality rate of women and children.

Restriction on Widow Remarriage:

The condition of widows in medieval India was very bad. They were not treating as human being and were subjected to a large number of restrictions. They were imaginary to live religious life after their husband died and were not allowed entry in any celebration. Their being there in any good work was considered to be a bad omen. Sometimes heads of widows were also shaved down. They were not allowed to remarry. Any woman remarrying was looked down by the society. This cruelty on widows was one of the main reasons for the large number of women committing Sati. In medieval India living as a Hindu widow was a sort of a curse.

Purdah System:

Purdah system is the practice among some communities of requiring women to cover their bodies so as to cover their skin and conceal their form. It imposes restrictions on the mobility of women, it is curtails their right to interact freely and a symbolic of the subordination of women. It does not reflect the religious teachings of either Hinduism or Islam, contrary to common belief, although misconceptions are occurred due to the ignorance and prejudices of religious leaders of both are faiths.

Girl Education:

The girls of medieval India and above all Hindu society be not given formal education. They were given education related to household chores. But a famous Indian philosopher ‘Vatsyayana’ write that women were supposed to be perfect in sixty four arts which included cooking, spinning, grinding, knowledge of medicine, recitation and many more.

C) Modern India Period

Modern India witnessed some developments in the status and social position of women. There were many reformers in India who worked for the betterment and upliftment of their other female counterparts. The Begum of Bhopal discarded the ‘purdha’ and fought in the revolt of 1857. Many reformers measures to eradicate social stigmas from the society. Sir Sayyid Ahamad Khan established the Aligarh Muslim University for the spread of education among the Muslims. Among many the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856 was important. The education system was also elevated. English was introduced in this period. Various female English writers like Sarojiini Naidu, Kamala Das made their presence felt in this period.

In the modern times, women in India are given freedom and right such as freedom of expression and equality, as well as right to get education. Women in Contemporary India are doing the same what a male can do. Various prestigious positions are held by Indian women. They are enjoying the ‘ladies first’ facility in various fields. But still problems like dowry, female infanticide, sex selective abortion, health, domestic violence, crime and atrocities are prevalent in the society. Several acts have been passed to demolish all these problems. But illiteracy and lack of awareness are the obstacles in the path of Indian women to stand against these follies.

British India Period
Women’s Struggle and Reforms

Though women of India are not at par among her counterpart in Western world but she is struggling hard to make her mark in men’s world. We can count on certain names from the British India where women put the example of extraordinary bravery which even men might not be able to show. Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi was the one such woman. She was the one who put even British rulers to dishonour with her extraordinary feat in battle. She fought for her kingdom, which Dalhousie, British Governor General, had unlawfully annexed. She was in a true sense the leader of uprising of 1857. There are certain men who took the cause of women in India. There have been social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Swami Vivekanand, Swami Dayananda Saraswati who have helped women gain their previous status in society.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Born on 22nd may 1772 he was the torchbearer of social reforms for the women. He was strictly against the evils prevalent in society in his time. He is the one who has done women a great favour by abolishing Sati lawfully. It was due to his efforts that Lord William Bentinck banned the custom of Sati in 1829. Though this law was not a great deterrent but it changed mindset of people to some extent. Ram Mohan Roy also did great work in the field of women education. He was against child marriage and favoured widow remarriage. He himself married a widow thus setting the example for the whole society. Along with ‘Dwarka Nath Tagore’ he founded “Brahmo Samaj” for the reform of Indian society and emancipation of women.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was popularly well-known as Vidyasager, which means sea of knowledge. Testifying to his name he was truly the sea of knowledge. He was a pillar of social reform movement of Bengal in 19th century. He broadly read ancient Hindu scriptures and came to know that the gender divide which was prevalent in Bengal was not encoded in our ancient texts instead it is the politics to keep women subordinate to men. He strongly supported women education in Bengal and went door to door to persuade people to send their girl child to school. He also did a lot in the field of widow remarriage. He opened many schools for girls.

Mahatma Jyotirao Phule

Born on April 11, 1827, Pune, Jyotirao Govindrao Phule was a genuine philanthropist. He was the one to open first girl school in India. He is also credited with opening first home for widows of the upper caste and a home for newborn girl children so that they can be saved from female infanticide.

Swami Dayanand Saraswati

He was the founder of Arya Samaj and gave a cry, “back to Vedas”. He translated Vedas from Sanskrit to Hindi so that a common man can read it and understand that the Vedic Hindu scriptures gave utmost importance to women. He emphasize for the equal rights for women in every field. He tried to change the mindset of people with his Vedic teachings.

Mahatma Gandhi

The social reformers of 19th century laid down the stage for the emancipation of women but it was Mohan Das Karam Chand Gandhi under whose influence these reforms reached masses. He was the one who liberated Indian women from the rule of ‘Purdah’ and other social evils. He brings them from their confinement and asked them to participate in the struggle for independence. According to him women should survive liberated from the slavery of kitchen only then their true potential could be realized. He said that liability of household is important for women but it should not be the only one. In fact she should arrive forward to share the responsibilities of nation.

When Gandhi come to the step of Indian struggle for independence then the average life span of Indian women was 27 years and only 2%women were educated this shows what a Herculean task it was to bring the women of India who was not getting her basic rights to fight for the cause of the nation. But it was due to his efforts that so a lot of women like Sarojini Naidu, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kriplani and Rajkumari Amrit Kaur came forward. He spread the message of equality of the gender to the masses and criticized the desire of Indian people to have male child instead of a female. Gandhiji was strictly beside the child marriage and favoured widow remarriage. He urged the youth to come forward and accept young widows as their life partner. He said that the girls are also capable of everything boys can do but the need of the time is to give them opportunities so that they can prove themselves. It was mostly due to his efforts that when India get independence ‘right to vote’ came naturally to Indian women whereas in other developed nations like England and America women got this right very late and that too after lot of protest.

Spread of Education

The idea of imparting education to women emerged in the British period. Earlier, it was almost universally hailed that since women need not earn their livelihood, there was no need of education for them. After the Bhakti Movement, the Christian Missionaries took interest in the education of the girls. The Hunter Commission too emphasized on the need for female education in 1882. The Calcutta, Bombay and Madras institutions did not permit the admission of girls till 1875. It was only after 1882 that girls were allowed to go for higher education. Since then, there has been a continuous progress in the extend of education among females. Though the number of girls studying at various levels was low, yet there has been a marked increase in the number of female students at every level from 1941 onwards.

After Independence Period

The status of women in modern India is a sort of a paradox. If on one hand she is at the peak of ladder of success, on the other hand she is mutely suffering the violence afflicted on her by her own family members. As compared with past women in modern times have achieved a lot but in reality they have to still travel a long way. Their path is full of roadblocks. The women have left the secured domain of their home and are now in the battlefield of life, fully armoured with their talent. They had proven themselves. But in India they are yet to get their dues. The sex ratio of India shows that the Indian society is still prejudiced against female. There are 933 females per thousand males in India according to the census of 2001, which is much below the world average of 990 females. There are many problems which women in India have to go through daily. These problems have become the part and parcel of life of Indian women and some of them have accepted them as their fate.

The main problems of Indian women’s are includes:- Malnutrition, Poor Health, Maternal Mortality, Lack of education, Mistreatment, Overworked, Lack of Power, Marriage, Dowry, Female infanticide/foeticide.

Malnutrition

Generally in India, women are the one who eat last and least in the whole family. So they eat whatever is left after men folk are satiated. As a result most of the times their food intake does not contain the nutritional value required in maintaining the healthy body. In villages, sometimes women do not get to eat the whole meal due to poverty. The UNICEF report of 1996 clearly states that the women of South Asia are not given proper care, which results in higher level of malnutrition among the women of South Asia than anywhere else in the world. This nutritional deficiency has two major consequences for women first they become anaemic and second they never achieve their full growth, which leads to an unending cycle of undergrowth as malnourished women cannot give birth to a healthy baby.

Poor Health

The malnutrition results in poor health of women. The women of India are prejudiced from the birth itself. They are not breastfed for long. In the want of a son the women wants to get pregnant as soon as possible which decreases the caring period to the girl child whereas the male members get adequate care and nutrition. Women are not given the right to free movement that means that they cannot go anywhere on their own if they want and they have to take the permission of male member of family or have to take them along. This results in decrease in women’s visit to doctor and she could not pay attention to her health as a result.

Maternal Mortality

The mortality rate in India is among highest in the world. As females are not given proper attention, which results in the malnutrition and then they are married at an early age which leads to pregnancies at younger age when the body is not ready to bear the burden of a child. All this results in complications, which may lead to gynecological problems, which may become serious with time and may ultimately, lead to death.

Lack of education

In India women education never get its due share of awareness. From the medieval India women are debarred from the educational field. According to medieval awareness women require just household education and this perception of medieval India still persists in villages of India even today. Girls are supposed to fulfil domestic duties and education becomes secondary for them whereas it is considered to be important for boys. Although scenario in urban areas has changed a lot and women are opting for higher education but majority of Indian population residing in villages still live in medieval times. The people of villages consider girls to be curse and they do not want to waste money and time on them as they think that women should be wedded off as soon as possible.

The main reason for not sending girls to school is the poor economic condition. Another reason is far off location of schools. In Indian society virginity and purity is given extreme importance during marriage and people are afraid to send their girl child to far off schools were male teacher teach them along with boys.

The lack of education is the root reason for many other problems. An uneducated mother cannot look after her children properly and she is not aware of the fatal diseases and their cure, which leads to the poor health of the children. Uneducated people do not know about hygiene this lack of knowledge of hygiene may lead to poor health of the whole family.

Mistreatment

In India violence against women is a common evil. Not just in remote part but in cities also women bear the brunt. They are subjected to physical and mental violence. They are the one who work most but are not given their due. Women are safe anywhere neither at home nor at workplace. An hour a woman is raped in India and every 93 minutes a woman is burnt to death due to dowry problem. There are a lot of laws such as The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, The Hindu Succession Act of 1956, The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act of 1856, The Hindu Women Right to Property Act of 1937, The Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961, to protect women and punishment is severe but the conviction rate of crime, atrocities and violence against women is very low in India.

Overworked

Indian women work more than men of India but their work is hardly recognized as they mainly do unskilled work. Their household chores is never counted as a work, if a woman is working in a field to help her husband it will also be not counted as a work. A study conducted by Mies in 1986 states that in Andhra Pradesh a woman works around 15 hours a day during the agricultural season whereas a male on an average works for around 7-8 hours.

Lack of Power

In India a large percentage of women do not have power. They cannot take decisions independently not even related to their own life. They have to take permission of male members for each and every issue. They don’t have any say in important household matters and not in matter of their own marriage.

Marriage

The family mainly fixes the marriages in India. The scenario in villages is very bad. The girl is not consulted but is told to marry a guy whom her family has chosen for him. They are taught to abide by the whims and fancies of their husbands. Going against the wishes of husband is considered to be a sin. In marriage husband always has the upper hand. The groom and his parents show as if they are obliging the girl by marrying her and in return they demand hefty dowry.

Dowry

It’s a serious issue. Courts are flooded with cases related to death due to dowry harassment by husband and in laws. In ancient times women were given ‘Stridhan’ when they departed from the house of their parents. This amount of money was given to her as a gift which she can use on her and her children but her in-laws did not have any right on that amount. This amount was supposed to help the girl in time of need. Slowly this tradition became obligatory and took the form of dowry. Nowadays parents have to give hefty amount in dowry, the in laws of their girl are not concerned whether they can afford it or not. If a girl brings large amount of dowry she is given respect and is treated well in her new home and if she does not bring dowry according to expectations of her in laws then she has to suffer harassment. Due to this evil practice many newlywed women of India have to lose their lives.

Female infanticide/foeticide

As women were supposed to be and in some areas of India are still considered to be curse by some strata of society their birth was taken as a burden. So in past times they were killed as soon as they were born. In some of the Rajput clans of Rajasthan newly born girl child was dropped in a large bowl of milk and was killed. Today with the help of technology the sex of the unborn baby is determined and if it is a girl child then it is aborted down. In all this procedure women do not have any say they have to do according to the wish of their husbands even if she does not want to abort she have any choice.

Divorce

The divorce rate in India is not accordingly high compared to western countries but it does not mean that marriages are more successful here. The cause behind low level of divorce rate is that it is look down by the society. It is regard as the sign of breakdown of marriage, especially of women. She is treating as but she has committed some crime by divorcing her husband. In some community like Muslim women did not have the right to divorce their husband they were divorced at just the pronouncement of “I divorce you” by their husband thrice and they could not do anything except to be the mute spectator. Recently Muslim Law Board has given right of divorce to women. After divorce women is entitled to get her “Mehr” for herself and her children’s sustenance. In Hindu society women obtain maintenance for themselves and their children after divorce.

WOMEN’S MOVEMENT

That is evident fr

This study on the perception on the portrayal of homosexuals in Bollywood film industry was majorly chosen as homosexuals have always been a topic the researcher wants to research on. Moreover there have been several research on homosexuals laws, their societal status, their recognition in the society, their rights, etc. but there have been less study in relation of homosexuals in media that to in the Indian film industry – Bollywood. After the case and the controversies of the movie FIRE people in India have got an idea about homosexuals but they have still not come out and spoke about it or have accepted them as a part of their societies. Major protest, rallies have been taking place on recent schedules in India in different cities by these homosexual people but the society has still not stood up to answer them. India has about 2.5 million homosexuals which makes it 15-20 % of the population. Further few studies conducted in relation to this topic say that homosexuals have a bad image in the society as they are the minorities and they are seen as negative people in the society. So the researcher carried with the research on the portrayal of the homosexuals in the Bollywood movies their perception in South India.

If any well-educated man is asked to control is sexuality towards a women he would say NO they why does the society see homosexuals alone in a different way? Just because they are minority in the society? Doesn’t every individual have their own rights in selection of their sexuality that to from a democratic country like us? The question that is yet to be answered is whether to start discussing these complex issues such a gays and lesbianism. Clearly the place of them in the culture is one of the central debates for decades and media representation will continue to be contested terrain for some time.

Homosexuality, it is true that it was practiced in the ancient era and other parts of the world including few tribes of Africa where it is still practiced. But in today’s world it is a known concept and practice in major parts of the countries and cities. In India on a continuous basis different rally’s has been taking place in the major cities such as Bangalore, Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi to educate people about the group and also to seek their own rights in the society. From culture to sex everything is related to education it starts from there. Thus this topic homosexuality has been chosen by the researcher in an attempt to make the general public aware of the existing relationship between similar sexes and to help this minority to gain their basic rights.

Among all the media in the mass communication field, cinema is the most powerful and a popular one. Films being the main source of entertainment in India, people of every section of the society like to watch and enjoy movies. The lack of alternative mode of entertainment in rural centers had resulted in the emerging cinema and it is also a cheap form of entertainment for the lower classes who’s only other mode of entertainment is chit chatting and roaming in the streets.

When cinema has the power to attract so many people in a society like us, one can imagine the influence it has on the audience life style, but at the same time one cannot also deny the fact that the reel is similar to the real. Especially in Indian movies, cinema in a way reflects our society. It is also a form of social phenomenon. Cinema makes use of all the socio-cultural beliefs and as and how situations changes the film makers also change the pattern of presenting it to the public.

All these specialties of Bombay cinema makes it a powerful instrument of image and opinion building in the minds of our society. Films are a social document and representation of reality. In the case of homosexuality there has been a lot of information provided in the printed, television and the internet but when it comes to cinema there is a separate genre called the “Queer Cinema”. How effectively has this genre reflected its main concern that is the homosexuality is the reason behind the selection of this topic by the researcher.

Films being a great artifact of the society at these times, they have a great and deep impact on their audiences. And keeping the Indian audience in mind film has been selected to be the most appropriate mediums it goes across the literacy level and encompasses all sections of the Indian population society, so the best medium to reach out to society and to examine the portrayal of homosexuality is through films especially Bollywood films.

3.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The objective of the study is to examine the portrayal of homosexuals in the Bollywood films through both Quantitative as well as Qualitative research methods.

To understand how Bollywood Films as a form of media has portrayed the homosexuality?

To comprehend the Perception of the Homosexuals on the Portrayal of homosexuality in the Bollywood Films?

To examine the perception of media professionals and the public on the portrayal of homosexuality in Bollywood Films?

3.3 OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS

Homosexuals: they are people who get attracted to the same sex mentally, physically and sexually.

Gay/Lesbians: Gay is when a man is attracted to another man mentally, physically and sexually. Lesbian is when a woman is attracted to another woman mentally, physically and sexually.

LGBT: Expansion – lesbian, Gay, Bi-sexual, Transgender. It is a community to help the minorities in the society.

Queer culture: The pattern of life, behavior, attitude, relationships of the members of society who has an alternative sexual orientation.

Queer Films: The movies whose central themes are based on same-sex relationships.

Homophobia: Homophobia is a feeling of hatred or fear towards the homosexuals. Negative attitude towards non-heterosexual people and also hostility towards them.

Sexual minority: People in the societies who are less in number and discriminated in accordance with their sexuality or orientation or gender identity.

Perception: The process by which people translate sensory impressions into a coherent and unified view of the world around them. Though necessarily based on incomplete and unverified (or unreliable) information, perception is equated with reality for most practical purposes and guides human behavior in general. (Business Dictoinary)

3.4 RESEARCH DESIGN

Research is a way thinking, analyzing examining critically the various aspects of day to day professional life understanding and formulating procedures that govern a particular procedure and testing it with theories for enhancement of the studies. In simple words it is one of the ways to find answer to a question. In this particular study the research is done to find out the perception of public, homosexuals and media professionals on the portrayal of homosexuals in the Bollywood films.

“Research is a process of collecting analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions” (Berger, 2000)

To do a research there are two methods:

The Qualitative 2) The Quantitative.

Qualitative research is generally conducted to know the standard the quality and the analysis of a particular topic. Whereas quantitative research is done on the validation of a number or numeric. The researcher did both Qualitative and Quantitative study.

3.4.1 Methods of data collection

Methods of Data Collection

Secondary Sources

Primary Sources

Documents

Questionnaire

Interviewing

Observation

Mail Questionnaire

Participant

Structured

Collective

Questionnaire

Unstructured

Non-Participant

GOVT Publications

Earlier Research

Census

Personal Records

Client Histories

Service records

(Cited from Research Methodologies, Ranjit Kumar-2005, pg. 118) (Kumar, 2005)

3.4.2 Quantitative Research:

Different researchers have Different definitions for quantitative research methods. According to Cohen and Manion (Cohen & Manion, 1980), quantitative research is a social process that involves empirical methods and statements. He explains empirical statement as descriptive statement about what is the case and real world that what ought to be. Whereas, John Creswell (Creswell,1994) he defined quantitative research as a type of research that explains phenomena by collecting any numerical data that are analyzed using mathematics (in particular statics).

“In a quantitative project, the problem is best addressed by understanding what factors or variables influence an outcome.” (Creswell, 1994)

The word quantity comes from a Latin word meaning “quantitas”.This particular research method measures, counts, focuses and it is statistical , describes and predicts and finally leads to hypothesis and theory. There are different methods of conducting quantitative research but in this particular study the researcher adopted surveying method to collect data from the general public and to know their perception on the portrayal of homosexuality in Bollywood movies.

Surveying:

“Surveying design provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population.” (Cresw,1994) . A research method used to get information from particular or certain groups which represent a larger group of people who are to the interest to us. We concentrate things on what people know, what they think, they do, their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors etc. There are two kinds of surveys: Descriptive surveys and Analytical surveys. Surveys collect data in two methods:

Interviews or the self-administrated questionnaires. Questionnaire is a list of questions which is passed over to a large number of people and they are asked to answer it and hand it over to the senders. Interviews can be group, individual, and personal through face to face or even telephone. This method is in-expensive and it is very common. In this method information can be attained at one time because it collects quantitative and numeric data. (Berger, 2000)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Quantitative Research Methods:
Advantages:

Enables the description of the social structure that is not directly observable.

Well suited for comparison between groups, areas, etc.

None biased and Analysis is between social phenomenon

Well suited for Quantitative description

Description of change is applicable.

Disadvantages:

Applicable only for measureable phenomena

Simplifies the complex reality

Difficult to study process and dynamic phenomena

Description of perspective, meaning and intentions are difficult.

3.4.3 Qualitative Research Method

Qualitative research is focussed on deeper significance that the subject the researcher aspires to research one. Interpretive, naturalistic approaches to the subjects are a part of the qualitative research analysis. It gives more importance to the data collected or existing information.

Qualitative researches rely on text and image data, have unique steps in data analysis and draw on diverse strategies of inquiry (Creswell, 1994). There are several characteristics for qualitative research methods:

It takes place in natural setting.

Uses multiple methods that are interactive and humanistic.

It is emergent rather than tightly prefigured.

It is fundamentally interpretive.

It is via a social phenomenon.

It totally depends on the participants and their biography and their information.

Complex reasoning’s are used.

Types of data collection in qualitative research methods are:

Observations

Completer participant

Observer as participant

Participant as observer

Complete observer

Interviews

Face to face

Telephone

Group

Mail

Documents

Public documents

Private documents

Email discussions

Audiovisual materials

Photographs

Videotapes

Art objects

Computer software

Film

The word quality is from a Latin word “qualitas” meaning “what kind?” It involves matters such as text, degree of excellence and distinguishing characteristics. The common qualitative research methods are

Field Studies

Focus Group

In-depth interviews

Case studies

Content Analysis

In this particular study the researcher had chosen qualitative method in which he would conduct in-depth interviews to get the perception of the homosexuals and the media professionals.

In-Depth Interview:

In-depth Interview also called as Intensive interview are hybrid one to one conversation or communication. “In-depth interviewing is qualitative research technique that involves conducting intensive individual interviews with a small number of respondents to explore their perspective on a particular idea, programme or situation.” (Boyce & Neale, May 2006)

Qualities of intensive interviews are:

Small samples

Gives a detailed background and specific answers

Lengthy observation of respondents.

Customized to individual respondents

The rapport between the interviewer and respondent matter

Process of conducting in-depth interview :

Plan

Develop Instrument

Train Data Collectors

Collect data

Analyze Data

Disseminate Findings.

Advantages and Disadvantages of in-depth interview (Boyce & Neale, May 2006)
Advantages:

Wealth of details the method provides

Data is more accurate responses on sensitive issues when compared to other methods such as survey

The rapport between the interviewer and respondent is easy to develop

Practical in nature

Information obtained through this method is virtually impossible to be obtained from other method.

Defectiveness is involved

Dis-advantages:

Generalization Takes place sometimes

Sensitive to interviewer Bias

Sometimes problems in Data analysis

3.4.4 TRIANGULATION

“It is selected a model when a researcher uses two different methods in an attempt to confirm, cross-validate or corroborate findings with a single study.” (Greene & Caracelli, 1997)

Triangulation is a research method used in combination of several research methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon. In this particular research a combination of qualitative and quantitative is used for the study. This traditional method was originally used in social science research studies. It is an appropriate method in studying the credibility of the qualitative research analysis. It is one of the mixed method models in the research methods. This traditional model uses both quantitative as well as qualitative in balancing both the methods negatives and doing an in-depth research. The triangulation research process has different models such a convergence, Data Transformation Model, Validating Quantitative Data Model, Multilevel Model. In this particular research the researcher used triangulation model to collect data’s from all the groups and to validate data.

In this particular study the researcher had chosen the triangulation method for a comparative analysis of the perception of the homosexuals, media professionals and the public on the portrayal of homosexuality in the Bollywood movies.

-Triangulation Convergence Model: (Creswell & Clark, Mixed Method Research, 2007)

QUAN-Results

QUAN-Data Analysis

QUAN-Data Collection

Interpretation – QUAL+ QUAN

Compare

And Contrast

QUAL –

Data Collection

QUAL-

Results

QUAL – Data analysis

-Advantages and Disadvantages of Triangulation research method: (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007)
Advantages:

Overall interpretation is from variety of different factors.

Cross validation.

Balance between methods.

Well validated and sub-stantiated findings and well known for many researchers.

Disadvantages:

Increased amount of time needed in comparison of both the methods data collected.

Difficulty of dealing with the vast amount of data.

2.5.5 SAMPLING

“Sampling is the tradition of metric research to develop claims that generalize across populations of people, media industries, media texts and the like.” (Anderson, 2012)

Therefore most of the research involves some method of sampling that enters a set of population in the research. There are basically two types of sampling: Probability and Non-probability sampling.

Probability Sampling: It is when each one of the population has an equal or known chances of selection. The best of this sampling method is that every member of the population either in equal chances as in simple random sampling or known chances as in

Stratified random sampling. This method gives each and every individual a chance of being selected.

Non-Probability Sampling: This method of sampling requires more concentration and thought more than probability sampling. This method can still represent a population in the criterion basis. Every effort has to be made for the control of the sources and to avoid errors in the study. There are different types of non-probability sampling. They are:

Convenience Samples: In this sample the analyst attempts to anticipate the arguments against its acceptance.

Quota and Judgment Samples: This sampling method needs to ensure that the evidence for the quota values and the judgments made is strong enough to justify their use.

Panel Studies: The research panel will draw out a random sample drawn according to best practices.

Snowball Sampling :

Snowball sampling another type of non-probability sampling and a method which will be used in this particular study. Snowball sampling is when one particular participants help is finding out other participants. In simple terms it can be called as the respondent -driven sample. This method is greatly affected by the initial point of access- the one who starts the snowball. This method requires advance knowledge on the set of population that’s being sampled. This particular sampling method helps in understanding the entire group of sample to be studied but it is a complex method as it is difficult for analysis and errors might take place due to communication process. The researcher adopted this method in finding out samples for the qualitative research methods to examine the perception of the homosexuals about the portrayal of homosexuality in Bollywood movies. The researcher interviewed a samples size of 10 for the in-depth interview and one extended interview that is with a sample one for the media professional’s perceptions about the portrayal of homosexuality in Bollywood movies.

Purposive Sampling:

“The purposive sampling technique, also called judgment sampling, is the deliberate choice of an informant due to the qualities the informant possesses.” ( Dolores & C. Tongco, 2007) This sampling is a non-probability sampling method which does not need any of the underlying theories or set of informants. “Simply put, the researcher decides what needs to be known and sets out to find people who can and are willing to provide the information by virtue of knowledge or experience “(Bernard 2002, Lewis & Sheppard 2006).

For the quantitative method the researcher has adopted survey method with non-probability sampling i.e. purposive sampling and collected questionnaires from people in south India who has watched Bollywood movies. A sample size of 150 was collected from which the researcher got about 120 completed questionnaires. The age group concentrated was from the 18-30. The table below will explain the distribution of the survey method sample by age and gender. Sample will be equally distributed among the gender and age so that the analysis is not gender or age biased.

Table 3.1: Distribution of respondents according sex

Frequency

Per cent

Valid Per cent

Cumulative Per cent

Valid

female

59

49.2

49.2

49.2

male

61

50.8

50.8

100.0

Total

120

100

100.0

Table 3.2: Distribution of Respondents by Age

Frequency

Per cent

Valid Per cent

Cumulative Per cent

Valid

18-22

41

33.9

34.2

34.2

23-26

40

33.1

33.3

67.5

27-30

39

32.2

32.5

100.0

Total

120

100

100.0

s

Pornography is a form of violence against women because it could lead to battery, rape, sexual harassment, pain and even death. Pornography is frequently differentiated from other erotic material. Erotic material could have the aim of provoking sexual arousal without the expression of violence and abuse. On the other hand, pornography is a sexualised image of men and women. However, those images are violent and abusive. “aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦pornography is the recorded physical and sexual abuse of women” (Itzin, 1992:65). Pornography became a very big concern for women in the beginning of the second wave feminism. Anti-pornography feminists argued that the image women bear goes a long way in determining how men behave towards them. Pornography was “the targets of women concern in the beginning of the early days of second wave feminism. The crux of the argument was that these images affect men’s behaviour towards women” (Pilcher &Whelehan, 2007:97). Pornography and other sexualised images of women influence men’s behaviour towards women.

“Anti-porn feminist were particularly exercised by hard-core porn which they claimed depended on violent imagery, and by rumours of the existence of the so-called ‘snuff’ movies (supposedly depicting the actual torture and death of a woman on-screen)” (Pilcher &Whelehan, 2007:98).

In hard-core porn women are beaten with whips, some women are bound and chained. A lot of times, women are made to suck the male genital, and in most cases it goes deep down their throats.

“There are pictures and descriptions of men trying up women, gagging or blindfolding them, pretending to or actually torturing them and sometimes stimulating or, in some cases, actually recording on films their rape or deaths” (Itzin, 1992:134).

These sorts of images are violent because that is what violence ia all about. Violence is an action or activity that hurts other people bodily or emotionally.

An analysis of hard-core porn movies shows that violence has become fatal and brutal since the 1970s (Allison &Wrightson, 1993). This shows that pornography is a form of violence against women.

Most of the women used in the production of some of the porn movies we have today were actually forced to participate in them. When we watch these porn movies, we always tend to overlook the violence involved in it. We tend to believe that the violence are not real but only staged. There are lots of times that some of the women who were used in the production of pornography confess that they were forced to participate in it. Some women even confessed that they were actually tortured and raped in the production of the porn movies they participated in. A very good example is the confessions of Linda Lovelace. In the book ‘Ordeal’, she admitted that she was actually violated, assaulted and abused in the production of the porn movie called ‘Deep throat’. “Much of the time, the violence is real in pornography. So are the women who have been bought and sold to appear in the pornography” (Cole, 1989:20). In most hard-core porn, the violence involved in it is actually real. Linda’s case shows that most of the women used in pornography do not actually derive any pleasure in it though they appear to enjoy it.

In the same vein, pornography could lead to all sorts of sexual violence such as rape, battery and sexual harassments. Pornography increase men’s desire for sex.

“aˆ¦aˆ¦..pornography today is used to described sexualised depictions of women and men intended to provoke arousal in the spectator, often posed in scenes suggestive of sexual congress or anticipating a sexual act” (Pilcher & Whelehan).

When men watch videos of naked women or see pictures of naked women, they crystallize those images, and that automatically increase their urge for sex. At such times, they will be willing to do anything to satisfy their sexual desire. That is one of the reasons why some men sexually assault their wife or girl friend. When some men see the rape involved in pornography, they tend to see it as normal and something they can do and get away with. Pornography can thus influence a man to want to rape. A young man once confessed that he began to develop rape fantasies after watching a porn movie. In his words,

“I went to a porno book store, put a quarter in the slot, and saw this porn movie. It was a guy coming up from behind a girl and attacking her and raping her. That’s when I started having rape fantasies. When I seen that movie, it was like somebody lit a fuse from my childhood on upaˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦.I just went for it, went out and raped” (Allison &Wrightsman, 1993:37).

The account of this man indicates that pornography could lead to rape, battery and other forms of violence against women.

Pornography subordinates women to objects of sex – it makes men regard women’s body as an object to satisfy their sexual desires. It also makes men believe that women derive pleasure in rape, battery and other forms of sexual violence because it always seem like women enjoy sexual violence in porn movies.

Pornographyaˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦..represents women merely as sexual commodityaˆ¦aˆ¦..it tells men that women enjoy sex and are always available for it, even when they deny it. It tells men that women secretly enjoy rape” (Itzin, 1992:140).

Pornography makes men see women as sexual objects, and as a result of that, they tend to believe that they can use women at their own will. In most cases, when women do not give in to men’s sexual demand, men tend to use force and violence to exercise control over women’s body and sexuality. They thus forget that women are human beings as themselves, and their bodies have to be respected. “Pornography “depicts women as dispensable objects, as things less than human” (Cole, 1989:19).

As a result of the many violence, pain and harm that pornography constitutes for women, anti-porn feminists argued that pornography depicts violence against women. They thus advocated that pornography should be regulated. Anti-porn feminists argued that pornography is one of the tools of patriarchy and one the many ways in which women are exploited and oppressed.

” Sex for many feminists moved away from being question of pleasure and desire, to simply a means through which male power is enacted and this again affected the perception of pornography” (Pilcher &Whelehan, 2007:97-98).

Catherine Mackinnon an anti-porn feminist argued that pornography is an action against women. She argued that it is one of the ways in which men oppress and exploit women. She argued that pornography is also one the ways men exercise their supremacy over women. She said that women are terrorised and assaulted in the production of pornography. She also argued that pornography has established an incorrect way of viewing women’s sexuality. Like other anti-porn feminists, she supported the view that pornography should be censored. Another anti-porn feminist, Andrea Dworkin also argued that pornography is closely associated with rape, battery, sexual harassment and other kind of sexual violence against women. She argued that the production and consumption of pornography both depict a lot of violence against women.

On the other hand, pro-sex feminists argued that pornography is not the cause of male violence against women. They refute the anti-porn feminists call for the censorship of pornography. They thus argued that pornography should not be censored or outlawed. In their view, banning pornography would restrict the freedom of individuals to take part in and use pornography. They thus advocated that women choice to participate in and use pornography should be protected by the law and not restricted by the law.

“During the 1980s, then the battle line became drawn between those who felt pornography should be banned and those who feared that that ever more stringent censorship would put a greater curb on people’s freedom and would first affect those already seen as marginal – such as gay men and lesbians” (Pilcher & whelehan, 2007:98).

A pro-sex feminist, Carole Vance argued that pornography is not the cause of male violence against women. She argued that male violence against women is a characteristic of the patriarchal structures of the society.

“From Carole Vance’s point of view, the fantasy that violence against women is located or originates in objectionable sex magazines or videos rather than being part of the deep cell structure of every institution, in our culture struck some feminists as hopelessly naA?ve and wrongaˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦” (Pilcher & Whelehan 2007:99).

It is true that some women consume pornography. However, we should not ignore the many dangers that pornography poses to women. So far, this essay has shown that pornography is a form of violence against women. We must understand the fact that pornography is mostly produced and consumed by men. Only a few women use pornography. “Pornography represents the general interest of men” (Itzin, 1992:557). The free circulation of pornography causes more harm to women than good. However, those harms are misapprehended, misinterpreted, misrepresented or ignored by those who opposed the censorship of pornography. There are evidences that pornography poses a lot of harm to women. The account of the young who confessed that he began to develop rape fantasies after watching a porn movie clearly shows that pornography could lead to sexual violence. Research also showed that men who often use pornography tend to be sexually violent against women. “aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦.studiesaˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦show that men who are exposed to violent pornographic materials (either in printed or pictorial medium) develop calloused attitudes towards women, and are more likely to be more aggressive towards women in subsequent interactions than those who do not view such materials” (Allison & Whelehan, 1993:38).

Research and studies have consistently shown that pornography can instigate sexual violence against women. In the light of this, the safety and well being of the majority population of women should not be jeopardised just because we do not want to restrict individual’s freedom to participate in or use pornography. Pornography should therefore be outlawed as it is a form of violence against women.

In conclusion, it is very evident that pornography is a form of violence against women. It has led to different form of sexual violence and assault against women. It develops the fear of being raped in women.

Pornography also depicts violence against women as it contains images of violent, abusive and aggressive behaviours towards women. It is also evident that some of the violent images in pornography are actually real.

Pornography also objectifies women. It reduces women to objects of sex – a sex machine. Pornography helps men to exercise control over women. This thus indicates that it is one of the many weapons of patriarchy.

It is very imperative that pornography is outlawed. Pro-sex feminists have argued that male violence against women is not a consequence of pornography. That is certainly not true because research and studies have revealed that pornography is closely linked with rape and other forms of male violence against women.

The feelings, emotions and lives of women should not be put at risk because we want to defend the liberty of individuals who want to get involved in or consume pornography. Pornography should therefore be outlawed as its costs (violence and harm against women) outpace its benefits.