Category: Free Essays

Classical political economy was a concept that dominated social thought within the nineteenth century; the development of such a period constituted a decisive stage within the attempt to understand the economic framework that essentially became relied upon for defining the basis of society. However Marx considered that the basis of the political economy ignored the prevalent relationship between elements of human alienation and exploitation that he argued derived from the inequalities caused by the condition of the capitalist political economy. When considering this further, Marx therefore relied upon an essential critique of the political economy in light of not only the previously mentioned relationship but similarly numerous other influential dynamics within the economy, as a consequence Marx continued to establish his critique of the economic system throughout his works in an attempt to ascertain true communism as a positive expression for the basis of society.

The main concern when considering classical political economy is the regard of society as being a composition of various classes that functioned on the basis of economic purpose. Marx however recognised that in reality the theories surrounding classical political economy were unable to understand the significance of the economic purpose of the working class and the experienced struggle that consequently rooted itself within society. Marx therefore argued that the failure of classical political economy to separate human nature from the superficial construct of the economic class system possessed a dominant influence upon the ignorance of the proletarian class and the consequent focus upon the bourgeois class prevalent within society. Marx witnessed the inhumanity and irrationality surrounding human life and criticised it profusely in that the accepted capitalist economic system prevalent at the time considered it to be a natural occurrence with the progression of the economic system. As a consequence, Marx posited a class struggle between the proletarian and bourgeois economic classes, a struggle inherent and therefore inevitable within the capitalist, industrial society. With the increasing development of capitalism, class struggles became generalised across the economic system, Marx’s critique consequently deemed class struggle as originating in the process of production and he therefore continued to argue that the conflict prevalent derives from the class antagonism of labour power.

As a consequence of the class struggle the proletarian economic class were inevitably forced to sell their labour to achieve capital to survive and as a consequence Marx criticised that the capitalists had every intention of exploiting the labourers for maximum effectiveness within the production process, “Capital is dead labor, which, vampire-like, lives only by sucking living labor, and lives the more, the more labor it sucks.” (Marx: 1990: 257). To theorise how the aforementioned exploitation became the routine within classical political economy Marx criticised how capitalism employed a standard, recognised framework by which the bourgeois minority monopolised the labouring majority in order to gain the most efficient means of production. When considering the previous criticisms of exploitation the influence upon human nature must also be recognised; it can be philosophised that Marx recognised that humans are fundamentally natural producers as he defined labour as “man’s self-confirming essence” (Marx: 1833) and Marx therefore implemented a critique towards the evident distortion capitalism roots within human nature. It could be argued that the evident exploitation alienates the labourer from not only the act of production but similarly distances them from the products of their labour and as a consequence it has been argued that the alienation present becomes a process in which humanity progressively transforms into a stranger in a world created by labour (Swingewood: 2000).

Furthermore, Marx continued to route his critique of the classical political economy within the establishment and understanding of the capitalist division of labour and its consequent exploitation and oppression of the proletarian economic class. Marx recognised that the division of labour within the economy succeeded in the efficient formation of profit and value and essentially agreed with Smith in that labour was the only real resource that constituted a productive economy yet his fundamental criticism was based upon the consequent exploitation of the labourer and their constant struggle within the economic system. Marx recognised within Smith’s understanding of the political economy that he initially instigated an analysis of the capitalist mode of production. However, Marx continued to characterise that Smith in fact pays no concern to the operation of the inner foundations of the economic system and instead criticises Smith for merely recognising the immediate external and superficial extraction of the benefits resulting from the successful implementation of the capitalist mode of production. When considering Smith’s perspective further it becomes immediately evident that he accepted the proletarian struggle deriving from the economic division of labour as inconsequential and therefore argued that the exploitation was in fact the most successful method of capitalist production, consequently it could be argued that Smith degraded labourers to an abstract commodity within the production process as opposed to a living being. Furthermore, Marx criticised that Smith accepted that the desirability of the high productivity rate within his theory of the division of labour outweighed the evident exploitative costs, “Political economy regards the proletarian like a horse, he must receive enough to enable him to work. It does not consider him, during the time when he is not working, as a human being” (Marx: 1969), the consequent exploitation of the value of the labourers contribution represented a qualitative increase in productivity within the production process and therefore an increase in profit for the bourgeois economic class regardless of the abhorrent conditions under which labourers are forced to work. It is therefore apparent as to Marx’s justification behind his critique; Marx argued that Smith’s dominantly capitalist perspective failed to initially recognise and therefore appreciate the standard of conditions that the proletarian labourers are forced to accept as adequate.

Within the prevalence of the capitalist mode of production it can be considered that another fundamental element concerning the political economy is the recognition of the influence that the division of labour possesses upon the economic system. As a consequence of this, Ricardo proposed the Labour Theory of Value in an attempt to further understand the influence of labour value upon capitalist production techniques. The aforementioned theory proposes that the recognised value of goods is directly proportional to the extent of labour required throughout production. However, it is argued that Marx criticised that Ricardo’s thesis was essentially incomplete when considering the capitalist political economy as it disregards the exploitive nature of the income distribution between the bourgeois and the proletariat economic classes. Marx continued to criticise the capitalist mode of production as he connotes that the exchange value of goods was in fact deserved by the worker as opposed to the autocratic rule of the capitalist, however, as a consequence Marx proposed the concept of surplus value as a critique of the capitalist political economy. For Marx, the dominant increase in productivity resulted from the competitive and exploitive nature of the capitalist’s strife to obtain the maximum surplus value, or profit, possible from goods; it could therefore be argued that the surplus value obtained derives from the essentially unpaid labour appropriated by the capitalists within political economy.

When considering the presentation of the aforementioned critique philosophised by Marx, his attempt to provide a solution for the criticisms of the political economy must also be examined. It could be argued that throughout his entire critique his desire to ascertain a sense of true communism within society evidently underpinned his justification behind his arguments. Marx essentially fought for the recognition of labour as an important factor within the capitalist production process; he proposed that through the implementation of true communism society could achieve and withhold a beneficial economic system “Communism deprives no man of the ability to appropriate the fruits of his labour. The only thing it deprives him of is the ability to enslave others by means of such appropriations.” (Marx: 2002) Marx continued to portray how communism would in turn regard the importance of the whole of society as opposed to the bourgeois minority. He consequently urged for the removal of the inequalities he continually criticised throughout the political economy and continued to justify such criticisms through arguing that the complete abolition of private property would equate to the removal of inequalities and eventually the elimination of the class struggle. Furthermore, it must be recognised that the political economy was premised upon the notion of private property and material ownership and when considering this further Marx argued that private property wasn’t an explanation captured within the essence of human nature but rather a superficially constructed consequence of the political economies regard for the stratification of the economic class system. Ultimately, Marx argued for the free expression of everyone within society and the consequent desirability that rooted itself within his argument for communism as it was reliant upon the recognition of human freedom within the production process.

In conclusion it is evident that the basis for Marx’s critique of political economy is reliant upon the implications of the negative relationship established between the abstract regard of labour and the consequent human alienation present within the capitalist economic structure. Such critique continued through to his perspective of Smith and Ricardo and the apparent recognition Marx felt toward the evident disregard for the proletarian economic class. Ultimately it has been argued that Marx’s desire for true communism, particularly when concerning the freedom of human nature, has established that the dominant criticism throughout the evaluation of classical political economy is the concept of the exploitive nature of the capitalist mode of production and the implications for inequalities that are established within society as a consequence of such a struggle.

Marx put forward by the nature of the dialectical materialism to society by developing the understanding of the historical process and explaining the methodological structure of the formula being used.

Marxist historical materialism is the application of science to historical development. The main thesis of historical materialism can be summarized in one sentence: “People are not aware of the things that determine the presence, on the contrary, which determines their consciousness, are social beings.” (Marx, Preface to the Critique of Political Economy)

Karl Marx and historical materialism

Marx, dialectic the nature of the structure of a definite law, as determined after this law, the social-historical structures and processes in the understanding of a tend to the here and materialist approach in accordance with the shape they started the system’s historical materialism called can be reported. In the most general sense, to give a description of historical materialist development, so development of the law and evidence to demonstrate that a proper theory of historical materialism can also create content.

Marx said:

“Plus-paid labor and receive the special economic forms drawn directly from the manufacturers directly arising from the production itself and he left it as a defining influence, manage, and manage those relationships will determine. But, on this, the economic community arising from the entire process of production itself, so that at the same time has put his personal political style. The entire social structure and with it the sovereignty and dependency relationships of political format, in short, it fits the specific form of government the innermost secret, confidential basis reveal anything, anytime, production conditions, those with direct manufacturer relationships between is-it always Naturally, at some stage in the development of work methods and thus fits into its social productivity is a relationship. “

What is the meaning of communism?

Communism on social organization and a theoretical system based on common ownership of means of production is a political movement.

Primitive Communism

In Western thought the idea of communism, Marx and Engels were formed long ago. Communism in the property before the ancient Greeks already lived in complete harmony of society, humanity’s “golden age” there used to be associated with a myth. Some of the works of Plato and other ancient theorists to state a kind of communal life in defense of communism indicates. Many of the early Christian sect (and as stated in Acts, especially in the early Church), pre-Columbian indigenous tribes in America communism were applied in the form of communal living and common ownership.

In the early stages of society people do not enter the factory, would not normally consume what they produce themselves and cannot work for the weekend, they need food, clothing, etc… Be ready to accept other people for a team award with colored paper and fancy disk. This behavior is quite amazing to come to our remote ancestors. Since we had previously adopted many features of modern society, too. These claims have not heard what the socialist: “People are greedy and are bound to be usurped. Socialism cannot be reached, because you cannot change human nature. “

Primitive hunting and gathering was the foundation of society. Single division, all-natural biological reasons, women also responsible for much of the burden of young children from, was the division of labor between women and men. While the men hunted, women gathered vegetables and fruits were.

Anarchist Communism

Anarchist Communism 14 century and a desire born of a rejection is arm communist anarchism. The authority is rejected. Indeed, theorists, anarchists Proudhon in 1851 “in neither the church nor the state in what is now, what in neither the earth nor the monetary authority should be in,” he said freedom is the desired.

Marx’s scientific socialism contradicts with anarchist ideas. Giuseppe Fanelli, founder of anarchism in Spain, with 1 participating in international Bakunin, “the world parity, and the federation of communes have become freely organized collective ownership of production and labor union organizing itself has to perform,” he says. Indeed, people at the start of the International Workers were divided into two. Proudhon, Marx, another one of these two currents, especially the Geneva (1866) and Lausanne (1867) fought in Congress. 1. in the next Congress fell from international anarchists. According to leading anarchists will be reviewed again should be propaganda. Starting from this idea, the Italian anarchists, they propose to use violence in 1877: “socialist orientation to the principles put forward by the action of the uprising, the most effective propaganda tool.

Overview of the nation to communism

aa‚¬A“From their inception in eighteenth century France, modern police forces in Europe have been involved in political policing. For example, they collected and exchanges information on persons and movements that were considered to be a threat to the established political order. After Napoleonic era, the German states not only established a central political police bureau but also founded, first in Mainz (1819-28) and later in Frankfurt (1833-48), a secret central commission for the exchange and analysis of information. The revolutionary events that took place in 1848 all over Germany brought about, in 1851, a new initiative to reinforce secret interstate co-operation in political policing: the German Polizeiverein (Police association),with its seat in Leipzig. This co-operation involved regular conferences and the exchange of weekly reports. They focused on all sorts of issues with respect to the maintenance of the established political order: illegal meeting of workers, the spread of rebellious pamphlets, the expulsion of dangerous writers etc. However most energy was devoted to the fight against Communism, in the broadest sense of most influential collaborators of the Polizeiverein aa‚¬” C.Wermuth, the police director of Hanover, and W.Stieberg, his equivalent in Berlin-published an extensive report on the communist conspiracies of the nineteenth century. This contained many details concerning the Communist movement in Germany, Austria and other Europe states.

Such information was not only collected by the many informers that Stieber and others secretly controlled, but also delivered by various police authorizes. Some, like the head of the Belgian political police bureau, were virtually extra-ordinary members of the association, participating in conferences and receiving regular bulletins. Others, like the Commissioner established close contact with the Polizeiverein. On the eve of the 1851 Great Exhibition in London, Commissioner Mayne invited the German states, France and Belgium to send officers to London in order to co-ordinate repressive measures against dangerous foreign criminals. Most of those sent belonged to the political policing sections, as London was seen as a hotbed of continental revolutionaries.aa‚¬? (httpHYPERLINK “http://arno.uvt.nl/show.cgi?fid=57599”://arno.uvt.nl/show.cgi?fid=57599 , http://www.kozonline.org/kitap_brosur/amentu6.htm)

What is the meaning of capitalism?

Capitalism, private ownership of means of production owned and operated by a section-weighted, investment, distribution, income, production and prices of goods and services of social and economic system of market economy is determined.

This system is usually created by individuals or groups or corporate entities for labor, land, production means and has the right to be able to make money trading. Practice of the capitalist economy in Europe 16 and 19 century, has become among the corporate, but some characteristics can be found in the first period, the traders during the Middle Ages, the early forms of capitalism have emerged. Since the end of feudalism and capitalism in the Western world is dominated system, the whole world was spread from Europe.

According to Marx, communism and capitalism and why communism is better?

Communism, in a manner different from the capitalist system of society is a system for predicting the organization. Accordingly, the communist stage is reached, according to all the people of the community will contribute to the enrichment capability, according to the requirements of this wealth will receive shares. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels communism developed by social class according to this theory and states will disappear, rather than private property will remain public property. (MARX and ENGELS)

The rapid development of capitalism during the Industrial Revolution, which form an important part of society and the growing number of workers living and working conditions were very bad. Men, women and child workers are run for long hours in unbearable conditions and very low running costs. Poverty, hunger, malnutrition and diseases caused by working conditions that affect large masses of the 19th century, the existing system of socialism as a counter-current of thought emerged (SOCIALISM).

In this theory, communism is the final stage. First, class and state, family, religious institutions such as the existence of a working-class power in the period envisaged. This phase is called the period of socialism. Over time, the realization of socialism all over the world, national borders, class and the state will disappear, material wealth is distributed according to the needs of the people would place under communism.

Marxism literary theory and the new criticism theory are among many wide schools of theory with historical importance. These theories differ in their methods and conclusions as well as their text. Different theories complement and supplement each other in their goals, methods, conclusions and text. The present day literary theory dates back in the 1960s. Literary theory was at its highest peak in popularity in some of the leading universities in America such as John Hopkins and Yale. It is from these universities that the influence of literary theory started spreading and by 1980s it was being taught almost everywhere. During this time, literary theory was supposed to be an academically cutting-edge, and as a result the majority of university literature departments wanted to teach and learn theory and integrate it into their curricula.

The goal of Marxist literary theories is to represent class conflict as well as to reinforce class distinctions through literature. Marxist theorists frequently champion writers who are sympathetic to the working classes and those whose works challenge the economic equalities in capitalist societies. In maintaining the spirit of Marxism, literary theories developing from the Marxist paradigm have sought Modern ways of understanding the relationship between literature and economic production as well as cultural production. Literary theory has drawn a lot of influence from the Marxism analyzes society.

New Critics in their works usually include inherent moral dimension, and occasionally a religious dimension. For instance, New Critic may read a poem by Thomas Eliot for its level of honesty in expression of torment and contradiction of a serious exploration of belief in the present world. On the other hand Marxist critic might see New critics’ point of view as ideological instead of critical. They would argue that critical distance should be kept from the poet’s religious standpoint for the poem to be understood. New criticism theories look at literary works in the view of what is written and not upon the authors’ goals or biographical issues. In contrast, the Marxists emphasize themes of class conflict.

Marxist literary criticism

Marxist literary criticism is used to describe literary criticism influenced by the philosophy of Marxism. Twentieth century leading proponents of Marxist theory are also literary critics. They include, George Lukacs, Terry Eagleton, and Raymond Williams. Marxist theory has different goals. One of its simplest goals is literary assessment of the political “inclination” of a literary work, hence determining whether its literary form is progressive.

According to Marxists legal systems, religious beliefs, and cultural frameworks are determined by social and economic conditions. Therefore Art should represent these conditions truthfully and also seek to better them. The popularity of Marxist aesthetics has reduced in nowadays consumerist society; however it continues to pose responsible questions.

Marxist basis of evaluation is hard to establish although it is one of the vigorous and varied 20th century school of aesthetics. Marxist theory has not been able to explain how the political, artistic, and legal superstructure of a nation reflects in its economic constitution. Assumptions from its generalizations have been stunningly inaccurate. For instance the hypotheses with which Marxism explained the rise in living standards of capitalist working class; the Russian-Chinese conflict revolution in Russia; and the uprisings in Berlin. The fact that Marxism fails intellectually is a prove that it has weaknesses in literary criticism.

Despite Marxist critism theories having weaknesses it is a good thing that it allows intellectual freedom. Sometimes the authors writing may have been influenced in some way by the state. For instance, the communist world was totally different from what writers were allowed to show. This means that the literary work of time could not be analyzed by simply looking at the author’s goal as it is proposed by new criticism. Reading the literary work very closely and particularly the language used by the author would help to analyze the work more critically. In this case Marxism is very crucial because what people read that is what they practice.

Some contemporary Marxists such Terry Eagleton have tried to rehabilitate or revise marx. She recognizes the fact that literary work like that of Shakespeare create value because by reading them we are made to think and get something out of them thus getting some values from them. This supplements new criticism theory that looks at the moral and sometimes the religious dimensions such as honesty.

Georg Lukacs contribution

In his contribution towards Marxism and literature, Georg Lukacs, maintained that the text contained in classic realist writings in describing events of ordinary occurrence and social conditions give a vivid picture of the entireness of a society and its evolution. He argues that the literature of naturalism shows the contradictions that exist in societies and within the individual in the context of a dialectical unit. He acknowledged the fact that realist novels present a partial image of a society. However, he also supported the idea that the value of a novel lies in its description of the nature of a society in a historic period. He also argued that any literary work does not reflect individual phenomena in isolation as modernist text depicts, but should be the whole process of life found in realism. However, Lukas was opposed by Bertolt Brecht, who argued that society is dynamic and hence reality also changes. This is why Bertolt maintained that modes of representation should change accordingly. The methods and goals of representation are always changing in the quest to describe present-day realities.

Raymond Williams contribution

According to Williams, any literature potraying an ever changing culture has the counter-hegemonic and dominant ideology. Therefore Marxist criticism leaning towards William’s theories considers literature as an important vehicle for ideology.

Williams’ believed that where there was no common culture, a cultural and literary tradition is founded on selections made in the present and shaped by value decisions and power interests. This way he deconstructed the idea that truth is integral in a literary tradition. This contribution complements the new criticism theory that seeks to understand moral dimension of every literary text.

He also suggested the term “structure of feeling” for analysis of literature. Even though she acknowledges that the term cannot be equated to an ideology since it lacks specificity of class and it is not universal; the term gives the dimension of experience more emphasis. Structure of feeling supplements new criticism theory since it emphasizes the experience dimension. This means that the text is not subjected to critical interpretations but instead the primacy of the text is upheld.

New criticism

New Criticism as a school of thought of literary interpretation stresses the significance of studying texts as comprehensive works of art in themselves. They argued for upholding primacy of text other than analysis based on context. According to proponents of this theory literary texts are usually comprehensive in and of themselves. They elevate the purpose of criticism in academics such as in the maintenance of language and poetry at the same time helping their development. Criticism is very important as it forms an inherent part of social development. Majority of new criticism studies see the theory as one that focuses on close reading of structure, theme, technicalities and the message contained in the literary works.

New criticism supplements the Marxism criticism theory in its objective. Marxism theory interprets every literary work on the basis of how it responds to social inequalities. Social development is therefore an inherent part of the Marxism theory. New criticism also gives some focus to social development though indirectly. New criticism theory expects that by focussing on criticism at the academic level, the same will trickle down to the society at large and hence leading to social development.

Unreasonable assumptions of Marxism and new criticism

One of the assumptions of the New Critics is that biographical and historical information is not important in the study of a literary text. This assumption restricts the reader so much and is often seen as excessively authoritarian. Historical and biographical information is necessary as it can create an experience dimension that can pass some values to the reader. In so doing social development occurs. Marxism emphasizes the use of historical and biographical information in analyzing literary works. Marxism assumes that a literary work is a reflection of the society that produces it. This assumption is not always true. Some literary works may have had some external influenced thus depicting a society in a way that people wants to see it and thus may not be a true reflection of the society. Since new criticism does not emphasis the historical and biographical information of text, but instead on close reading of structure, theme, technicalities and the message contained in the literary works, it complements the Marxism assumption. Therefore the blend of both Marxism and new criticism can complement each other as mentioned above.

Humanism

Marxism does not put emphasis on the use of Marx ideology of class conflict for academics but instead for social development. Therefore proponents of Marxism criticism theory believe it is most useful in the humanist world outside the academy. As discussed earlier, the new criticism is so much focussed on academics and not the society. It is so restrictive to the reader and does not use biographical and historical information in analysis of a literary work. On the other hand, Marxism can be referred as being humanistic. It is humanistic because it empathizes with the victims of social inequalities. Marxism therefore seeks to analyse literary works using the Marx ideology of class conflict. The Marxists hope that by analyzing literary works using class conflict ideology, the reader will be able to recognize the inequalities existing in the society and thus can find ways of overcoming them and bring about an equal society.

According to Patricia Waugh humanism is not only found in Marxism but rather in all theories. She sees theories as a means by which one can exercise crucial capacities of being human. One can reflect or be rational about life through a theory and in the process one can stand back to make second order judgements about the world and our behaviour in it.

In conclusion, Marxism criticism theory and New Criticism are different in many ways. These differences are what complements and supplements each other. For instance, since New Criticism does not emphasize on the use of historical and biographical information in analyzing literary works, Marxism complements it. On the other hand, New Criticism supplements Marxism’s structure of feeling by emphasizing moral dimension in the analysis of literary works. Raymond Williams a proponent of Marxism acknowledge values such as truth as integral to the literary tradition.

For this sociology essay I shall be researching and comparing three social perspective theories on crime, Marxism, Functionalism, and Feminism. I will be attempting to write how the three theories compare and conflict with each other.

Marxist perspective on crime

Karl Heinrich Marx was born the 5th of May 1818 Trier Germany to a comfortable middle class family. A historian, social scientist, revolutionary and philosopher, Karl Marx, was and still is considered the most important socialist thinker that emerged from the 19th century. Karl Marx during his lifetime was for the most part ignored by scholars. But since his death in 1883, Marx’s political, social and economic ideas quickly gained acceptance in the socialist movement.

Although Karl Marx never wrote at length about crime, he did argue the laws made by the ruling class were mostly put in place to keep the working class under control. Karl Marx had the idea that most people were not even aware they were being exploited. Marxism recognises for a society to function properly, social order is necessary. They state that in all societies apart from communist societies the ruling class always gains far more than any other class.

Haralambos & Holborn (2004) in discussing Marxist perspectives on deviance states that: the ruling class passes laws that benefits ruling-class interests. Therefore making sure the power stays in ruling class hands so they have a constant control over lower classes. (P353).

Marxists have the idea that Capitalist societies emphasise individual gain and the need to win at all costs. They feel greed explains crimes for financial gain. Marxists think the frustrations felt by dehumanising the lower classes can explain the crimes against the individual persons. They think crime in part is the creation of unequal power and inequality, and that it is a natural response to living in poverty. They feel crime is often the result of the ruling class offering the lower classes of society, demeaning work that gives little or no sense of creativity.

Although Marxists agree that crime is widespread within all social classes they argue deprived criminals are given harsher sentences than wealthy criminals. Marxists are more likely to emphasise corporate and white collar crime, they note that crimes by the upper classes cost more, and have a greater economic toll on society than lower class crimes. Marxists believe laws are approved to benefit the desires of the ruling class, they say people have unequal access to the law. Powerful people with money can hire a good lawyer this can change the odds of being found guilty or not guilty. Therefore for a Marxist, punishment for a crime could depend and vary with the social status of the criminal.

A man named William Chambliss was concerned in the fact of why certain things are made illegal and others are not, he also wondered who decided what issues are made law, and why the unequal distribution of wealth wasn’t illegal, William Chambliss also thought the ruling class controlled this power, and it was the ruling class who prevented certain issues from ever being discussed.

Dutchman Willem Adriaan Bonger 1876-1940: The 1st Marxist Criminologist wrote that all individuals in capitalist societies are infected by egoism because they are alienated from authentic social relationships with their fellow human beings, and all are thus prone to crime. He thought the root cause of crime was the capitalist mode of production and poverty was the major cause of crime, but the effects of poverty can be traced to the family structure and on parental inability to properly supervise their children. Willem Bonger supported the view that the roots of crime lay in the exploitative and alienating conditions of capitalism. The social sentiments that concerned him were altruism (an active concern for the well being of others) and egoism (a concern only for one’s own selfish interests). Willem Adriaan Bonger took his own life in 1940 rather than summiting to the Nazis. Willem Bonger (1969) Criminality and Economic Conditions.

In general Marxists believe the law is created by the ruling class, and only acts that grow out of working class life are defined as criminal. They state everyone breaks the law, but biased law enforcement means it is mainly the working class who get caught. “Marxism is the only theory that examines the crimes of the powerful”.

Haralambos & Holborn (2004): Marxists have been criticized in the past for thinking that a Communist system maybe the answer to eradicating crime, when in fact Switzerland, a capitalist society has a very low rate of crime. Feminists argue Marxists ignore the role of patriarchy whilst putting far too much emphasis on class inequality. (p355).

Functionalism perspective on crime

Haralambos & Holborn (2004): Functionalists believe that deviance and crime starts with society as a whole. Functionalism looks into society for the source of crime and deviance rather than looking to the individual itself. Functionalism is frequently thought of as the exact opposite to Marxism. Functionalists give emphasis to the positive way crime can affect a social system. Functionalism stems from Emile Durkheim. He believed that crime was to be expected in all societies. (p253).

Emile Durkheim was born on April the 15th, 1858 at Epinal, Vosges, in Lorraine, France. Durkheim is considered by most the father of sociology. He is credited for making sociology a science. During Durkheim’s lifetime he published a number of sociological studies on subjects like suicide, religion and other aspects of society as well as giving a number of lectures. Emile Durkheim (2002).

Haralambos & Holborn (2004): All Functionalists have the opinion that control mechanisms like courts and police are a necessity to keep crime and deviance in control and protect social order. However many functionalists argue a certain amount of deviance can have positive functions in society, they feel crime can even provide maintenance and the well being of a society. In Emile Durkheim’s book “The Rules of Sociological Method” (1938) crime is argued to be inevitable, and a normal part of social life. Emile Durkheim had the notion that crime was present throughout all types of society. He also felt the crime rate would be higher in more highly developed industrialized countries. Durkheim believed that if there was a perfect society of saints, occupied by perfect individuals, a society where no murder or robbery occurred, deviance would still be present because behaviour standards would be set that high the smallest slip would be considered a serious offence. Durkheim felt society would stagnate without deviance. (253).

A man named Robert Merton produced a detailed functionalist theory to explain criminal behaviour. Merton stated that all societies set goals to attain, Merton believed that if there was a sensible chance you could reach these goals then society would function, but he felt that if these goals were unobtainable then a situation of anomie occurs (anything goes). Robert Merton stated that there are five anomic responses where individuals cannot achieve Societies goals.

1, Conformity: where individuals struggle for success through accepted channels.

2, Innovation: people will accept society has goals but will reject the socially accepted means, for example organized crime.

3, Ritualism: where people accept the socially approved way, but no longer believe they can achieve success, for example people who stick to the rules no matter what.

4, Retreatism: people who have lost sight of societies goals for example drug users.

5, Rebellion: people who have adopted new goals, and different ways to achieve them, for example revolutionaries, cults. Sociology in Focus: Paul Taylor (1997)

In general Functionalist’s believe crime can play a positive role in society, they feel societies need to produce crime to set the limits of behaviour to show society what will, and won’t be tolerated. Functionalist’s state the working class are more criminal because they have fewer bonds with social institutions and therefore have less to lose. They think of society as a living organism with each function like institutions, organizations, and other mechanisms working together. J.Tattersall: (2010).

Functionalist theory has been criticized for ignoring the crimes of the higher social classes, for seeing crime and deviance as a product of society and social background (deterministic), and for ignoring the fact that many young people often choose to be deviant and they often grow out of this behaviour.

“Functionalism is the only theory that sees crime as having a positive function”.

Feminist perspective on crime

Feminist criminology thinks that crime must be viewed from all perspectives in order to understand and obtain the most complete picture of crime. Feminists see society as male-dominated (patriarchal). Feminists see men benefiting at the women’s expense. Feminists also argue that most social institutions, including the state and its policies, help to maintain women’s subordinate position and the unequal gender division of labour in the family.

According to the Feminist school of criminology, major theories in crime have been developed by male subjects, and they focus on male victimization. They feel that facts about crime tend to be focused on the gender of the criminal and not the crime itself. “Feminism is the only theory that examines gender differences when explaining crime”.

Professor Frances Heidenson (1989) criticises the male dominance of sociology she feels that most academics are male, and therefore criminology reflects male views and interests, she also stated that that most traditional theorists are gender blind, and therefore fail to explain how their theories can be applied to females. J. Tattersall (2010)

Haralambos and Holborn (2004): Otto Pollack (1950) claimed to have recognized certain crimes are usually committed by woman, he thought nearly all shoplifting and criminal abortions were carried out by woman, he also argued that many unreported crimes were committed by female servants. He noted many police, magistrates, and other law officials tended to be men. This could therefore make them chivalrous and lenient towards female offender’s, he thought because of this woman appear in statistics less. Pollack also stated that females are particularly good at hiding their crimes because of their genetic makeup. He stated that woman learn to mislead men during sex and can use this to fake interest and sexual pleasure. (pp. 382-383).

Haralambos and Holborn (2004): Pollack has been brutally criticized for some of these statements, Steven Jones (2001) points out that Pollack gives no real support that servants commit many crimes against employers, or that woman are better at hiding crimes then men. Heidensohn points out that Pollack has an unsubstantiated stereo typical image of woman and he is unwilling to point male crime to a biological predisposition to aggression and violence. (p384).

Heidensohn believed that there was double standards in the justice system and that the justice system was loaded against women and not for them, she thought that the justice system is more likely to punish women when they deviate from the norms of female sexuality. It has been suggested that women are being sentenced in terms of being mothers, wives, and daughters rather than examining the seriousness of their crime. It seems that lighter sentences are given to females who meet the traditional roles, whilst women who don’t fit these roles are given stronger punishments. J Tattersall (2010): (p5).

Feminists can be criticised for being ideological and prejudiced, by focussing on patriarchy they ignore the fact that men are also used for domestic labour. They fail to notice women are becoming increasingly independent, and focus on gender ignoring other important social factors such as class and race.

Conclusion- All three theories are structural theories they look at groups in societies rather than the individual. Marxism and Feminism are both conflict theories they see some groups as being less equal than others, functionalist theory is the only theory that see’s crime in a positive nature.

Compare and contrast two theories of the change in the age of marriage in industrial societies.

There are several theories which attempt to explain the causes behind the changing ages of marriage in industrial societies. While no theory should be seen as all-encompassing or as universally applicable, many have made valuable contributions to the overall debate. The theories presented by Valeria Oppenheimer (1988, 1994, 1997) and David S. Loughran (2002) are two such examples of incisive works that have influenced the direction and scholarly thought on this topic.

Before delving into the particulars of these two scholars, it is important to point out some of the problems inherent in attempting to account for such a diverse and important phenomenon. Indeed, the concept of marriage is one that is often culturally contingent and one that can vary among demographic and religious groups. Also, it is important to examine the question of how modern values have contributed to contemporary patterns of marriage. As such, not all industrial societies can be understood as uniformly similar and that the change in age of marriage should also be thought of in terms of time, socioeconomic status, race, and ethnic group.

Oppenheimer’s ‘A Theory of Marriage Timing’ is deeply concerned with challenging the then popular and prevailing notion that women’s economic independence was the major factor in the “decline in gains to marriage… (and the) rise in delayed marriage” (1988). This notion, to Oppenheimer, is particularly problematic because it tends to “push people into one of two polar positions:” the growing independence of women could be seen as too high of a price to pay because of its negative impact on society or as an “unavoidable price for women’s liberation” (1988). Instead Oppenheimer, through a modified search-theoretic framework, argues that even if the gains to marriage are reduced through economic independence, the result can have minimal effect on marriage gains in general. The greater independence that women experience creates an environment where they neither are forced to settle or remain in an undesirable situation (1988, p.587).

Oppenheimer further discredits the “independence hypothesis” in ‘Women’s Employment and the Gain to Marriage: the Specialization and Trading Model” through a detailed analysis of the literature supporting this notion (1997). Assumptions made by theorists, particularly those held by Gary Becker, are critically examined by Oppenheimer. An important criticism the author makes deals with questioning the starting point of the “high correlation of the various time series trends” employed by supporters of the independence hypothesis (1997). If one pushes these time-series backwards (and does not have them dated in the 1950’s and 1960’s) it becomes clear that divorce rates were on the rise well before women’s employment started to grow (1997). Further, Oppenheimer attempts to clarify the difference (which she believes is often misunderstood) between the delay of marriage and nonmarriage. She cites important factors why individuals may want to delay marriage, such as economic factors or educational attainment (among others) without actually delaying the relative worth or desirability of marriage (1997).

In ‘Women’s Rising Employment and the Future of the Family in Industrial Societies’ Oppenheimer explains the change in marriage through the declining position of men in the labor market. Supported by strong evidence linking the connection between early marriage and strong labor markets, Oppenheimer illustrates how men who lack a stable career or career path become less desirable, thus prolonging the search for potential mates.

Becker’s theory of marriage, which Oppenheimer connects with ideas presented by two of sociologists most notable figures (Parsons and Durkheim), maintains that “the major gain to marriage lies in the mutual dependence of spouses, arising out of their specialized functions—the woman in domestic production (and reproduction), the man in market work” (Oppeheimer 1997). As the economy grows and wages rise, women’s market work in turn also rises. For Becker, this means that the work women engage in becomes less specialized and more economically independent “leading, in turn, to a decline in the desirability of marrying or of staying married” (Oppenheimer 1997). Of particular concern to Oppenheimer is Becker’s argument that a ‘major gain’ to marriage is lost through women’s economic independence. Oppenheimer, however, calls into question several facets of Becker’s theory by arguing that families are adaptable and have placed both women and children in the workforce when it was demanded by particular economic conditions.

Oppenheimer stresses, through the employment of micro and marco level analyses, how the decline in male economic opportunity in the 1970s and 1980s served as an integral factor in reducing the supply of marriageable men. This parallels both Loughran’s and Easterlin’s (Birth and Fortune, 1987) arguments that individuals (both men and women) are more likely to be married in the areas in which higher proportions of men are ‘marriageable’ (for Loughran this notion hinges on wage inequality and for Easterlin it rests on the particulars of the birth cohort). Oppenheimer further deviates from many of her predecessors by stressing the relative importance uncertainty in career entry and path plays in the delay of marriage. Couples would thus spend a greater amount of time (the concept of delaying marriage as opposed to nonmarriage is again stressed) when searching for suitable (as defined by men and women with an established career path) partners.

Loughran, in “The Effect of Male Wage Inequality on Female Age at First Marriage” argues that “rising male wage inequality is responsible for a proportion of the decline in the age-specific propensity to marry between 1970 and 1990” (2002). The author, who also uses a search-theoretic framework, discusses how his hypothesis fits naturally into a model of female marital search (2002) and how it “reveals a negative correlation between male wage inequality and female propensity to marry.” That is, “if women search among a pool of men characterized by their wages, theory predicts growing male wage inequality will increase the duration of female marital search and, hence, age at first marriage” (2002). As similarly noted by Oppenheimer, Loughran agrees that modeling marriage behavior in this way shows that it is less of a ‘decline’ in marriage as it is of a ‘delay’. Loughran, in a similar vein as Oppenheimer, dispels alternative hypotheses such as rising female wages and employment and concludes that the rising male wage inequality increases the return to marital search, which in turn lengthens “search duration and decreas(es) age-specific propensities to marry” (2002).

When comparing the theories of Oppenheimer and Loughran, one can see that the latters economic analysis supports the formers on several key points. One of Loughrans hypotheses deals with describing how wage inequality (beginning in the early 1970s) meant greater variability in the economic suitability and stability of potential husbands thereby leading to greater rewards for women who extended and prolonged their marriage search. This notion supports Oppenheimers emphasis on taking the stress away from womens independence as the critical factor in changing age of marriage and instead placing it on the declining role of males in the marketplace.

Criticisms of these theories are bound to occur, as they fail to account for all of the intricacies associated with marriage trends. It is interesting to note the relative absence in the discussions presented by these authors of the importance of religion and its particular influence on marriage trends. When one considers the very nature of marriage, and the values and ideals it is naturally associated with, the idea of its close relationship with religious belief becomes easily noticeable. As such, it may be interesting in the future to examine these theories with respect to groups that have different levels of religiosity.

When considering both of these theories, it becomes clear that the economic opportunity of both men and women should be studied together if one is interested in discovering the reasons behind change in marriage age. While neither the growing wage inequality among young men nor the independence among young women is wholly responsible for the delay in marriage, they are both seen to be important contributors to the phenomena and overall debate. Oppenheimer, in particular, has proven to be influential in influencing the direction of the discourse by calling into question some of the key prevailing notions which have persisted throughout the past century.

References:

1.) Easterlin, R. A. (1987) Birth and Fortune: The impact of Numbers on Personal Welfare. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, second edition

2.) Oppenheimer, V.K. (1997) Women’s employment and the gain to marriage: the specialization and trading model. Annual Review of Sociology, 23, 431-453

3.) Oppenheimer, V.K. (1988) A theory of marriage timing. American Journal of Sociology, 94(3), 563-591

4.) Oppenheimer, V.K. (1994) Women’s rising employment and the future of the family in industrial societies. Population and Development Review, 20(2), 293-342

5.) Loughran, D.S. (2002). The effect of male wage inequality on female age at first marriage. Review of Economics and Statistics, 84(2), 237-250.

In India theres no bigger event in a very family than a marriage, significantly evoking each potential social obligation, kinship bond, ancient worth, burning sentiment, and economic resource. Within the composition and conducting of weddings, the advanced permutations of Indian social systems best show themselves.

Marriage is a closely related concept with that of the family. However, not every culture recognizes marriage in the same sense. Marriage in general terms is a legal and a social contract between two people. The process of becoming socially married begins with a public ceremony and ends with a death or divorce of either of the spouses.

Marriage is deemed essential for just about everybody in Indian society. For the individual, wedding is that the nice watershed in life, marking the transition to adulthood. Generally, this transition, like everything else in India, depends very little upon individual volition however instead happens as a results of the efforts of their folks. When one is born into a family while not the exercise of any personal alternative, thus is one given a relative with none personal preference concerned. Arranging a wedding may be an important responsibility for parents and different relatives of each bride and groom. Wedding alliances need some distribution of wealth similarly as building and restructuring social realignments, and, of course, end in the biological copy of families.

Especially in north India, a family seeks wedding alliances with individuals to whom it’s not related to blood relations. Wedding arrangements in north typically involve a way from family bonds. And in the Dravidian-speaking south, a family seeks to strengthen existing kin ties through wedding, ideally with blood relatives. Kinship nomenclature reflects this basic pattern. In the north, each kinship term clearly indicates whether or not the person cited may be a relative or associate relative; all blood relatives’ square measure verboten as wedding mates to someone or an individual’s kids. Within the south, there’s no clear-cut distinction between the family of birth and therefore the family of wedding. As a result of wedding within the south ordinarily involves a seamless exchange of daughters among a number of families, for the marriage all relatives square measure ultimately blood kin.

In the northern India, marriages are arranged outside the village, generally even outside of villages, with members of a similar caste. In a lot of the area, daughters must not be married into villages wherever daughters of the family or perhaps of the biological village have antecedently been given. In most of the region, brother-sister exchange marriages (marriages linking a brother and sister of 1 unit with the sister and brother of another) prohibited. The whole idea is on casting the wedding ties-wider, making new alliances by marriage making process of looking for suitable bride and groom.

In India, successful marriages are based upon love and liability, parental authority matters from the time raising children, teaching them value, providing them standards of living and helping to develop a strong character in their children, what they desire. As in India, usually females are brought up with respect to their parents, which becomes an important factor in choosing a husband for them and hence they are raised to trust and praise their parent’s decision under any circumstances, so under such society the liability of mate seeking becomes a responsibility of parents where they try to seek the ‘Best’ mate for their children.

But due to globalization and migration of people from their native town to other cities, it has made it slightly difficult in arranging the marriages, finding the perfect partner for one’s child which can be a challenging task at times. In such cases nowadays people use their social networks to locate potential brides and grooms of appropriate social and economic status. Increasingly, urban dwellers use classified matrimonial advertisements in newspapers, online etc. The advertisements usually announce religion, caste, class and educational qualifications, stress female beauty and male (and in the contemporary era, sometimes female) earning capacity.

Literature Review
‘The Relevance Of Matrimonial Advertisements For The Study Of Mate Selection In India’ by Cora Vreede-De Stuers

In this article, the author has studied the fact that how matrimonial advertisement in India have promoted the inaccuracy and exaggerated variables provided by those who use advertising a medium for match making. And as this facts and variables are exaggerated these ads are misleading those who seek for partners through these matrimonial columns. Author has also focused on how has the growing use of usual channels of matchmaking through the mediation of the traditional are in rise due to the those set of people who have to adjust to the anonymity of city life and the constant transfers of government servants. For that very reason this set of people is increasingly making use of matrimonial is as a modern adaptation of the traditional means. The author has drawn conclusion from the content analysis of his findings is that the majority of the advertisers conform completely to the prevailing value system of their status group like caste, class, profession implying that the adjustments of this group to changing situations are also reflected in the matrimonial.(CORA VREEDE-DE STUERSS,2013)

This analysis has been tested by investigations on attitudes of youth from similar social strata towards caste, marriage, family life, and the opposite sex, and in a way directly questioning the generation which matrimonial advertising is intended to benefit. This also raises a question on the fact that who inserts the matrimonial advertisements, parents or children, which determines the setting up of trends for matchmaking?

Gender stereotypes and normative heterosexuality in matrimonial ads from globalizing India by Sri Vidya Ramasubramaniana and Parul Jain, Department of Communication, Texas A&M University, College Station, USA; Department of Communication, Ohio State University, Columbus, USA

Contemporary Indian familial relations as reflected in matrimonial advertising, a deep gender divide exist where the socially expected roles are very different for husbands as compared to wives. Apparently, a social understanding and unstated consensus exists for what the ideal woman/man should be. In other words, there is a strong support for gender polarization in the characteristics of a desirable, ideal, life partner. The implications of these ideals for women and men of marriageable age are crucial for understanding the lack of diversity in the matrimonial ads indicates the potential for exclusion or marginalization of several groups of ‘non ideal’ people in the ‘marriage market.’ In order to be considered eligible in the marriage market, in line with impressions from management literature, those placing matrimonial ads seem to adhere to social norms relating to traditional gender-role expectations for both men and women. Significant difference between what males and females expect in terms of spousal personality traits. Females are expected to be ‘feminine’ by being caring, loving, nurturing, compassionate, and warm. Women, in turn, cater to these expectations by using these descriptors while announcing themselves in the marriage market. While the effortful, purposive framing of matrimonial ads is reflective of the gendered values of the communities that they serve, it is equally possible that matrimonial ads function as a space through which the complicated negotiations that lead to finding the ‘suitable’ partner begin. Further research using ethnographic methods is needed to find out the role that matrimonial ads play in facilitating (or hindering) familial communication in particular and in maintaining (or countering) gender stereotypes in society in general (Ramasubramaniam & Jain, 2008)

In the journal article ‘Love, Arranged Marriage, and the Indian Social Structure’ by Giri Raj Gupta

The author in his study has mentioned that there is growth in of “Conjugal Marriage” as against “romantic love” and love marriages occur in only less than one percent of the population. Arranged marriages are closely associated with “closed systems” wherein the hierarchies are very elaborate and more than one factor such as historical origins, ritual positions, occupational affiliations, and social distance determinants play significant roles in defining the in-group and the out-group, particularly in marital alliances. In such systems, group identity is defined by strong senses of values which are preserved and re-enforced by attributes which distinguish a group in rank and its interaction with others. Continuity and unity of the extended family is well-preserved since all the significant members of the family share the mate-selection decision make-up which involves several persons who are supposedly known to have experience and qualifications to find a better choice as against the free choice of the subject. This leads to lower age at marriage and, in turn, strengthens the pre- dominance of the family over the individual choice. As long as the social system is unable to develop a value system to promote individualism, economic security outside the family system, and a value system which advances the ideals of nuclear family, the individuals in such system continue to demand support from the family which, in turn, would lead to re-emphasizing the importance of arranged marriage. (Gupta, 1976)

PROBLEM STATEMENT

With the increasing technology and convergence of media, the marriage making process has reached to the stage where marriage is a commercial ceremony and tradition and is marketed in media with the help of matrimonial advertisements. Though there are new modern ways like matrimonial websites to seek mates online, but still there persists the traditional ideals like caste, profession, class, international exposure and the stereotyped physical features.

This study will help to understand the perception of people over marriages and in their decision making factors for choosing suitable bride/groom.

RATIONALE

According to the New York times, 1,200 to 1,500 matrimonial ads that appear across 3 or 4 pages of the biggest Indian newspapers, like The Times of India, the Hindustan Times and Dainik Jagran, are categorized by caste, religion and profession (well, in the case of doctors), and lately by the quality of being “cosmopolitan.” The newspapers charge by the space used (say, 3,200 rupees for 25 words). So this trend of matchmaking online is another way of courtship pattern which has evolved from the custom when father use to decide the bride without introducing each other before marriage. But the ideals like caste, class etc was having not even changed even after ages.

So this problem is extremely important as such trends especially affect our society by creating a wider gap between caste, class, profession and physical appearance. Perpetuation of patriarchal stereotypes and gender biases in the society through the matrimonial ads and the parameter used to seek mates online.

Objective/Hypothesis/Research Question

With the increasing technology and convergence of media, the marriage making process has reached the stage where marriage is marketed in media, with the help of matrimonial advertisements. Though there is new modern way been used to seek mates online, but till there persists the traditional ideals like caste, profession, class, international exposure and the stereotyped physical features.

How have online matrimonial websites have altered the bride/groom seeking while still retaining traditional ideals of marriage?

The purpose of this study is to understand the mindset of people who seeks for bride/groom online.

Methodology

The principal aim of this dissertation is to examine and analyze the way which the ideals like class, caste, physical appearances , status, qualifications is used as a parameter in match making process. Also the study is centered on analyzing the role played by the parents in decision making process of finding the perfect mate for their kids through online matrimonial sites. The methodology used will track two matrimonial websites, namely, Bharatmatrimony.com, how relevant and important these parameter are important in seeking bride and groom

To realize the priority that parents of the prospective bride place on these parameters.

Focus group interviews

Interviews of the marriage brokers

Theories to analyze and study the rationale of such match making and to study the wider impact of such practices.

Social Identity Theory:

This theory addresses the ways in which people perceive and categorize themselves. According to social identity theory, individuals form self-conceptions that are based on two parts: 1) personal or self identity, and 2) collective identity. Personal or self identity refers to our unique, personal qualities such as our beliefs, our abilities and skills, etc. The collective self includes all the qualities that arise from being part of a society, culture, family, groups, clubs, etc. For example, you may identify yourself as a protestant, male, football player, who is very popular with people at school.

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY

Festinger’s (1957) cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and beliefs in harmony and avoid disharmony (or dissonance). Cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. This produces a feeling of discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance etc. For example, when people smoke (behavior) and they know that smoking causes cancer (cognition). Attitudes may change because of factors within the person. An important factor here is the principle of cognitive consistency, the focus of Festinger’s (1957) theory of cognitive dissonance. This theory starts from the idea that we seek consistency in our beliefs and attitudes in any situation where two cognitions are inconsistent.

Research Design
Triangulation

Interview: Personal interviews of Marriage broker and marriage owner sites

Focus group: 6-8 people in group

(The focus group will comprise of Parents who are seeking for bride/groom, prospective bride and groom and marriage brokers. Through these focus group interviews we will help us to known the rationale behind their perception, of people choosing the suitable match based on the parameter like caste, class, profession and appearance. With the help of the comments from the bride/groom we can get the perception and rationale of the prospective brides/groom about their selection. Along with these, the input from the marriage broker, we can get an idea about marriage market and

The purpose of this study is to examine whether a relationship exists between marital status and African American mothers’ self-esteem and if it is mediated by family income. Over the past several decades there has been a substantial increase in the rates of single motherhood, especially for African American women. Ever since the 1940s the number of single mothers has doubled in number (Tucker & Mitchell-Kernan 1995). This high rate of single parent households could be attributed to the ethnic, racial and social class differences. A change in the norms and values about family formation may also be occurring. Women with previous experience with men who are unwilling to take responsibility for the care of their child may find it more desirable to raise their children alone without the fathers’ help. However, not having the financial and emotional support a husband can provide may lead to a negative emotional state which has lasting effects on a woman’s self-esteem. Research on this topic portrayed that the support of a nuclear family is important but that financial stability overrides social norms to impact self-esteem.

But does self-esteem really matter? The answer, studies show, is yes. Self-esteem was studied because it is an important component to an individual’s mental health. Having a healthy mindset is a valuable aid to mothers. Mothers with high self-esteem tend to cope with stressful situations better and are more optimistic as compared to low self-esteem mothers. A limitation of the study is that the effects of marital status and family income on the self-esteem of African American mothers have not been adequately researched as compared to that of their European American counterparts (Hope, Power, & Rodgers 1999). More research is necessary to come up with defined answers to this question of whether it is family income or marital status that affects the self-esteem of African American single mothers.

It is a fact that married mothers have higher psychological health than unmarried mothers (Diener, Gohm, Suh, & Oishi 2000). Married mothers deal better with stressful situations compared to single mothers, and this is not due to different levels of psychological health before marriage. We can see clear differences in psychological health of mothers based on marital status. This is true for a study of African American mothers which found that if they have their first child when they were still unmarried it led to high depression, regardless of socioeconomic status and age of the mother (Kalil & Kunz 2002). Being married provides a support system as well as additional financial support, which single mothers lack.

The suggestion that husbands offer mothers more than simply financial support can be clearly depicted with married couples (Popenoe, 2004). This outlook, that husbands provide more than just financial support, predicts that even with relatively equal income, married mothers will have higher self-esteem than unmarried mothers. However, this assumption has been criticized for ignoring the adaptive qualities of nontraditional family structures that have formed over the past decades especially those of African American families (Dickerson, 1995). So, even if family income accounts for some of these effects, this model predicts that marital status will affect the self-esteem of African American mothers regardless of their financial incomes.

The cultural equivalent perspective suggests that like any other unmarried mothers, African American mothers are at risk of psychological problems, but the effects are mainly related to the clear differences in family income between married and unmarried mothers. For example, in 2004, 28% of single-mother families in America lived below the poverty line compared to only 5% of married families (DeNavas, 2005). Therefore, one can conclude that marriage is vital because it keeps families financially stable. This mindset argues that family income leads to the effects others attribute to marital status. In one study of 156 African American women who lacked adequate family income, it showed that their financial burdens gradually led to higher depression and lower self-esteem. Some had to seek medication to suppress these effects. Ultimately these studies suggested that it is mainly financial resources that impact mental health, and marital status has a far smaller effect.

The cultural variant perspective suggests that African American households do not follow the structures and cultural norms of nuclear family units as ethnic majorities often do. They may be influenced by a different set of social issues attributed to their different cultural background than that of European American mothers. Marriage, regardless of financial resources may have a different meaning and significance to African American women. For example, Rank and Davis (1996) found that married African American mothers would rather be outside of marriage as compared to married European American women who preferred to raise their children in a nuclear family setting. Married European American women would rather live according to the social norm of society, which is the life style of a nuclear family. This allows for adequate income to live a comfortable life. Furthermore, the large extended family of African American mothers showed an option for seeking social support from avenues other than marriage. This different mentality about marriage may reduce the supposed negative psychological effects of being unmarried.

Studies indicated that most African American mothers are unmarried, and this has been the case for the past few decades. This has led to adjustment to single motherhood. These high rates of single parent families have led to less stigmatization in African American communities. This has in turn led to the perspective that suggests that marital status does not affect African American mothers’ self-esteem, regardless of family income. Unmarried African American mothers who successfully control their family income may partially mediate the effect of lower self-esteem, but it will not reduce the effects of marital status for low income African American mothers. This is because feelings of security and financial support that a marriage partner offers are still unavailable to single mothers. Moreover for lower income single mothers living in relatively dangerous urban environments, the probability that they or their children will be victims of violent crimes is a constant fear and source of high anxiety and stress. This stress and fear can build up over time to affect their self-esteem and overall mental health. Financial resources will undoubtedly allow the low income mothers to live in relatively safer neighborhoods, which may reduce the anxiety and safety concerns that many lower income African American mothers face.

The studies continue to reveal that higher income unmarried mothers have been found to have much higher self-esteem than lower income unmarried mothers. The stress and feelings of incompetence associated with low income can have vast effects on the psychological health of both women and men irrespective of their marital status (Cairney et al., 2003). The results of this study suggested that lower income unmarried African American mothers, who have the added responsibility of taking care of children without a husband, have to endure the effects of lack of adequate resources in the household. This can increase the burdens associated with raising children which can undoubtedly be significantly reduced with enough financial resources.

Being a higher income unmarried mother has its benefits. Those who have achieved social status based on their own accomplishments are more highly regarded and associated with higher self-esteem than obtaining high social status based on the accomplishments of others. The fact that these mothers are high income earners, in spite of having to raise children primarily by themselves, could boost their self-esteem and also their sense of accomplishment. This may be especially true for single African American women, because of the negative social barriers which they all too often have to face in their daily lives (Dickerson, 1995). This shows that marital status does not necessarily need to affect the self-esteem of an unmarried mother to the same extent that income does.

I found the findings of African American mother’s self-esteem unique compared to those of their European American counterparts. The relation between having a marriage partner and higher income did not result in higher self-esteem due to differences between an achieved and ascribed social status. High income married mothers had the same self-esteem as lower income married mothers and high income unmarried mothers. These findings may also be related to social variables if the income is based on the mother’s accomplishment, which may boost her self-esteem especially for unmarried mothers. Although there is no clear interaction between mothers’ self-esteem, marital status, and family income it is clear that for many of the married mothers with higher family incomes their financial situation may reflect mostly income from their spouse’s employment. This could explain why income does not have added self-esteem benefits for married mothers.

The effects of marriage vary from individual to individual. For most women including It is important to have a constant family income to reduce the negative effects of single parenthood for African American mothers.

Marital satisfaction also called marital quality is defined as the happiness and satisfaction one feels about their relationship with their spouse, as well as how well one feels their spouse fulfills their needs (Booth, Johnson, and Granger, 2005; Peleg, 2008). Marital satisfaction is the subject of much sociological research. Most of this research has focused on how certain influences affect marital satisfaction. Current research examines how factors such as division of labor, income, and parenthood affect marital quality (Kluwer, Heesink, and Van De Vliert, 1997; Tichenor, 1999; Cox, Paley, Burchinal and Payne, 1999). Studies shows that many factors play a role in the happiness spouses feel about their relationships.

Much of the early research in this area focused on the traditional roles of husbands and wives. Because of recent trends such as the increase in dual-earner households and the fact that many women are making more money than their husbands, more recent studies focus on how gender role ideologies affect the marital relationship. Gender role ideology is how a person relates to family or marital roles that are usually linked to gender (Minnotte, Minnotte, Pederson, Mannon, and Kiger, 2010). Gender role ideologies are defined by Mickelson, Claffey, and Williams (2006) as spouses’ expectations of each other as well as of themselves within the context of the marital relationship. Mickelson et al. (2006) investigate the impact of egalitarian and traditional gender roles on marital satisfaction. Gender role ideology is shown to be a major influence on the levels of marital satisfaction reported by husbands and wives. Marital discord also influences marital satisfaction. Rogers (1999) defines marital discord as problems and conflict in the marital relationship. Communication and interaction between spouses can have a major impact on marital quality.

Does gender play a role in marital satisfaction? This article will examine previous research on the major factors that influence marital satisfaction, including gender role ideology, division of labor, income, children and parenthood, and communication and marital interaction beginning with the factors that correlate most with gender.

GENDER ROLE IDEOLOGY

Gender role ideology is defined by Minnotte et al. (2010) as the identity one assigns him- or herself with regard to gender-linked marriage or family roles. The difference in expectations between egalitarian and traditional gender roles can have a major impact on marital satisfaction. Lower marriage satisfaction in women seems to be the result of traditional gender role expectations (Ng, Loy, Gudmunson, and Cheong, 2009). However, lower marriage satisfaction in men tends to be influenced by egalitarian gender role expectations (Ng et al. 2009). Traditional relationships can appear to be less conflicted than egalitarian ones, but this is likely the result of conflict avoidance in the traditional relationship (Kluwer et al. 1997). Egalitarian relationships may seem to observers to have more conflict, however, they also have more communication and conflict resolution, whereas traditional relationships foster lower marital satisfaction by evading conflict management (Kluwer et al. 1997).

Studies show that the gender role ideologies of husbands and wives play a significant role in their levels of marital quality. Men’s marital quality is higher when the husband and wife share the same role ideology and is lower when the ideologies differ (Minnotte et al. 2010). When work responsibilities interfere with family responsibilities, the quality of marriage and other familial relationships can deteriorate. Minnotte et al. (2010) explain that egalitarian wives’ marital satisfaction suffers with relation to work-to-family conflict (lower marital satisfaction is related to high work-to-family conflict). Work-to-family conflict is defined as conflict that occurs when family needs are negatively impacted by the demands of one’s work (Minnotte et al. 2010).

DIVISION OF LABOR

Division of labor continues to be a contentious issue between spouses. Saginak and Saginak (2005) define labor in the context of marriage and family as responsibilities of the home, including domestic, emotion and organizational work necessary to maintaining a family home. Dew and Wilcox (2011), Faulkner et al. (2005), and Ng et al. (2009) all report that a perception of inequitable distribution of household labor is directly related to marital dissatisfaction. In addition, Kluwer et al. (1997) report that just because a couple does not report household labor conflict doesn’t mean that it is not present in their relationship. In traditional marriages, wives frequently avoid division of labor conflict, however discontent they may be, according to Kluwer et al. (1997).

Evidence shows that instrumental support is crucial to marital satisfaction for egalitarian wives (Mickelson et al. 2006). However, the level of egalitarianism in men is negatively related to their marital satisfaction, probably because there is a higher expectation of household labor duties for egalitarian men compared to traditional men (Mickelson et al. 2006). This shows that in spite of egalitarian beliefs, many men still do not consider household labor their responsibility.

INCOME

The amount of money a woman makes doesn’t influence marital quality in the ways we may think. Tichenor (1999) finds that gender has more of an impact on marital satisfaction than status or income. In families where the wife earns more money than the husband, most women reject the power they may get from earning more money and create an image of their husband’s control of the family (Tichenor, 1999). These status-reversal relationships appear to seek the image of a conventional marriage (Tichenor, 1999). Tichenor’s (1999) research shows that most husbands prefer the label of provider and do not object to this manufactured image. Wives who earn more money than their husbands are still doing a majority of the housework while contributing a majority of the family income (Tichenor, 1999). This shows that housework is gendered and not influenced by wives’ income. Women cannot exchange money for housework by earning more money than their husbands (Tichenor, 1999).

Rogers (1999) reports that wives’ marital dissatisfaction significantly influences wives’ income. Marital discord can contribute to a woman’s decision to get a job, but husbands’ marital dissatisfaction has no influence over their wives’ income (Rogers, 1999). Interestingly, Faulkner, Davey, and Davey (2005) report that wives’ job loss creates less marital conflict and a higher level of marital satisfaction for them. However, the time their husbands spend working outside the home is negatively related to their marital happiness (Faulkner et al. 2005). When a wife is unhappy, she is more likely to get a job outside the home, but when an employed wife loses her job, it contributes to less conflict and more satisfaction in the marriage. This illustrates the tendency of many men to have traditional gender role expectations.

CHILDREN/PARENTHOOD

The effects of parenthood on marriage are also more complicated than expected. Cox et al. (1999) argue that having children creates a decrease in marital satisfaction, but that the severity of the decrease is significantly influenced by whether the pregnancy was planned or unplanned, the gender of the child, and the conflict managements skills of the couple prior to pregnancy. Levels of marital satisfaction have been shown to bottom out around the child’s first birthday, and then increase in small increments during the child’s second year of life (Cox et al. 1999). Planned pregnancies purported higher levels of marital satisfaction than unplanned pregnancies. Studies show that parents of male children report higher levels of marital satisfaction than parents of female children, although the difference was slight (Cox et al. 1999). Dew and Wilcox (2011) report that wives’ decrease in marital satisfaction shortly after childbirth was attributed to a decrease in time spent with their spouse as compared to prior to the birth of the child.

COMMUNICATION/MARITAL INTERACTION

Communication plays a vital role in marital quality. Disclosure is the sharing of information about the self including past information and future plans (Finkenauer, Engels, Branje, and Meeus, 2004). Disclosure is a key aspect of marital communication. Finkenauer et al. (2004) state that disclosure in horizontal familial relationships is positively related to relationship quality. Sharing between spouses can lead to more intimacy and feelings of closeness (Finkenauer et al. 2004). Loss of time spent together as a couple can contribute to low marital satisfaction (Dew and Wilcox, 2011). Spending time together can lead to more sharing and disclosure, and has been shown to lead to higher levels of marital satisfaction for husbands and wives (Finkenauer et al. 2004).

Interpersonal differentiation is also very important to personal relationships. Peleg (2008) defines interpersonal differentiation as the capacity for both intimacy and autonomy in relationships with others. Peleg (2008) argues that the differentiation of self is crucial to marital satisfaction. There is delicate balance of togetherness and separation that contributes to a healthy marriage (Peleg, 2008). More marital conflict is experienced by couples with low differentiation (Peleg, 2008). Peleg (2008) also states that low differentiation can result in negative feelings, which can negatively impact marriage satisfaction. These factors were equally significant for both men and women (Peleg, 2008).

High marital locus of control (MLC) is associated with increased marital happiness (Myers and Booth, 1999). Locus of control is defined by Myers et al. (1999) as the level of control one feels over the conditions of their life. High MLC among spouses is directly correlated to lower reported marital instability and conflict (Myers and Booth, 1999). In other words, a perception of more control over marital activity equals increased perceived marital quality (Myers and Booth, 1999). Gender has not been shown to play a role in the MLC factor.

Another aspect of the level of marital satisfaction has to do with the increasing number of aging wives caring for their ill and/or aging husbands. Between impaired husbands and their care giving wives, reciprocity of emotional support is directly related to lower perceptions of burden and increased marital satisfaction in the wives (Wright and Aquilino, 1998). Although reciprocity levels depend on the impairment of the husbands, increased interaction leads to higher marital quality perception in care giving wives (Wright and Aquilino, 1998.)

CONCLUSION

There is no simple answer to whether gender influences marital satisfaction. Simply stating that one gender is happier in marriage than the other is oversimplifying the facts. Most literature on marital satisfaction focuses on the different factors that influence marital satisfaction such as gender role ideology, income, children and parenting, communication and marital interaction, and division of labor. Some research goes a step further to distinguish how each factor is affected by gender, and some does not.

There are so many angles from which to look at the quality of marriage that it would be next to impossible to isolate gender as the single most compelling issue in marital satisfaction. For example, a husband who has traditional gender role expectations is more likely to report higher marital satisfaction if his wife stays home with the children and does all the housework. However, if the wife does not share the traditional gender role expectations, she will be unhappy in the marriage, which will no doubt affect the husband’s satisfaction with the relationship. These multi-layered findings make it obvious that gender is not the most significant factor in determining marital satisfaction.

Differing gender role ideologies clearly influence marital satisfaction, as does each spouse’s expectations about their partner’s income. But husbands and wives are shown to have the same preferences when it comes to marital communication and disclosure. They also report almost identical patterns of marital satisfaction when it comes to the transition into parenthood. This illustrates how although influential, gender is not one of the most significant factors in marital satisfaction.

Future research on this topic could focus specifically on how gender alone directly affects marital satisfaction. Excluding other influential factors could mean isolating the specific ways gender affects marital satisfaction in a way that hasn’t been done before. This would be challenging, but finding a way to focus on gender would provide information that isn’t currently available.

This information can be useful to professionals who study the breakdown of marriage or to marriage counselors who are trying to help troubled couples salvage damaged relationships. It could also provide researchers with data that may predict the likelihood of success in future relationships.

Marital Counseling MarriageEffects of Pre Marital Counseling on the length of a Marriage

In today’s society so much emphasis is but on divorce and the rising rate of divorce, there seems to be little attention on what can be done before the marriage takes place to help prevent divorce. While some couples today participate in some form of premarital counseling most do not. Not realizing the benefits of premarital counseling and the effect it could possibly have on how long you marriage will last and the benefits it will have on helping you deal with married life why couples do not participate in it is still unknown.

Getting married without premarital counseling is like starting a business without knowing anything about the type of business you want to start. Premarital counseling or classes can reduce the risk of divorce by up to thirty percent (Khulman, 2007). Couples should realize that good, skilled based premarital counseling really can reduce the odds of divorce.

Premarital counseling is based on the reality that it is important to make sure that your relations is as strong as it can possibly be, after all only about half of the marriages that do last are marriages where the couple is truly happy. Research shows that here is a window of opportunity during the year before the wedding and about six months after when couples get the optimum benefit from premarital counseling (Stanley, 273). Premarital counseling improved the strength of a marriage even with couples who think that they will

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not encounter any problems can greatly benefit from premarital counseling. According to Dr. Jason Carroll and Dr. William J. Doherty, couples who participate in premarital programs experience a 30% increase in marital success over those who do not participate (Carroll and Doherty, 105). An important purpose of premarital counseling is the help the couple determine their individual readiness for marriage.

It can also help couples become aware of the assets and liabilities of their relationship, which are important factors in deciding who and when to marry. As they evaluate these factors, couples have a chance to slow things down and think seriously about their relationship. In other words, premarital education allows couples to plan their marriage rather than just a wedding.

Data for this research will be collected on the following; Communication with each other, balancing job and family, handling finances, sexual relationship, lack of time spent together and handling other issues outside of the marriage.

Couples getting married today face many challenges and many do not have a strong support line. The typical marriages today consist of two working adults who are trying to raise a family. This requires that couples have the ability to communicate, resolve issues and stay married. The hypothesis

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that will be tested by this research paper is: couples who participate in premarital counseling are better able to resolve issues that arise in their marriage and stay married longer than those who do not receive premarital counseling. Premarital counseling can boost a couples capacity o handle different issues that arise in a marriage. Couples today need every advantage that they can get to stay married. Many couples’ expectations of marriage revolve around the belief that love will conquer all and will get them through rough times.

While love is important, it won’t be enough if couples don’t have the basic attitudes and skills they need for a successful marriage. Marriages that last require partners who respect one another, who have gained knowledge about what makes marriage work, and who have developed skills that will enhance the relationship.

The purpose of this study is to show that premarital counseling provides couples with the basic foundations that will enable them to solve marital issues that arise and stay married. Premarital counseling can send a message to couples that their marriage does matter, and it can help couples learn about their options if they need help later in their marriage.

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There is also proof that some couples with some types of premarital training can lower their risks for marital distress. Situations will always arise in a marriage that is not foreseen at the time the wedding takes place. Problems with in-laws, money and sex are blamed as carrying the greatest thereat to marriage (Top Three Threats to Your Marriage, 2004). There appears to be a lack of research into the effect that premarital counseling has on marriages.

While there are studies indicating the value of counseling for couples who are already married and seeking help for current issues in the marriage there are many more studies assessing the couple’s levels of satisfaction with their marriage. The author of What works in premarital counseling, reports that review of current “articles on program modes and theories conclude that although more has been written and more programs offered in the last decade there still has been fewer longitudinal outcome studies done” (Groom, 47).

This is evident on the web site for the Council for Relationships http://www.councilforrelationships.org/research. On this website the Council gives a list of articles that they published none of which address the issues and benefits of premarital counseling. Thus the need for this study is evident. Not only is there a huge lack of empirical evidence to prove of couples actually do benefit from premarital counseling, there is also a greater need to develop and

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test a premarital counseling theory that can be used in future research. Williams, Riley and Vandyke (1999) conducted a general empirical research study on the values of premarital counseling. In their research they surveyed more than 3,000 who have been married anywhere from one to eight years. The research concluded that support for the overall value of premarital counseling is great, but they did not closed define that value.

One of the draw backs of not have enough research on this topic is that there are no specific data instruments designed specifically to access the value of premarital counseling, it is necessary for an data instrument to be designed in order to obtain reliable and valid data. This lack of prior research leaves open the accessibility of several choices on how the data for this research can be collected.

For a study that would be more extensive in investigation and take on longitudinal characteristic the pre-test/post-test design would be more suitable. This is not a longitudinal study and a better research approach would be a review of the end result. This would be a comparing of the strength of marriages of couples who had premarital counseling to those who did not by using the survey method.

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Sampling was done using the random approach. Data for this research was collect from 45 couples via survey. There were 15 couples married more than ten years who did not receive premarital counseling, 15 couples who are divorced which were a mix of couples who did and did not receive premarital counseling and 15 couples married more than ten years who did receive premarital counseling. The couples were contacted in mid October about the research paper and all were eager and willing to participate.

All of the original couples contacted were able to participate. The couples were give a questionnaire that consisted of two sections used to access relative background information and marital satisfaction. The first section contained demographic questions regarding their age, number of children, number of years married/divorced, number of children, and if they had received any premarital counseling.

The second section consisted of questions how satisfied or dissatisfied the couple was with their marriage, communication issues, conflict resolution, and decision making. For the second section of the questionnaire the questions were based on yes or no, number in order of importance and give a brief explanation.

Research has shown the relationships between some of these factors in the areas communication and conflict solving, communication and self esteem, role absorption and self esteem, and role absorption and communication. The hypothesis was proved because the couples who received premarital counseling prior o marriage were able to use tools that they learned in counseling to work through their issues, the couples who were still married with no premarital counseling answers showed that they really did not understand their partner and were probably stilled married because that was the way they were raised.

The couples who are now divorced, but received premarital counseling seemed to have benefited from premarital counseling but for one reason or another still decided to get a divorce. Based on the number of couples used among those who received counseling the divorce rate was low. The divorce rate for those who was on their first marriage with not premarital counseling the rate was about 25 percent.

Among the couples who received premarital counseling the rate was much lower. While there are many variables that could be assessed that would change the results the overall study supports the hypothesis that couples who receive premarital counseling are able to better deal with marital issues and do stay married longer. The only ethical issues that I could see arising from this study would be where and how the couple would decide to receive their counseling. Some could prefer counseling in a religious setting based on their background which could be more detailed or in a group setting with other couples and the depth of the counseling.

Works Cited

Carroll, J. S. & Doherty, W. J. (2003). Evaluating the effectiveness of premarital prevention programs: A meta-analytic review of outcome research. Family Relations, 52, 105-118

Groom, Joan (2001). What works in premarital counseling? Journal of Pastoral counseling, 36, p. 47.

Khulman, Greg.2007. Is pre marital counseling for you? Retrieved December 3, 2007 from http://www.wedalert.com/content/articles/premarital_counseling.asp

Top Three Threats to Your Marriage. (2007). DrPhil.com. Retrieved December 3, 2007 from http://www.drphil.com/.

Williams, Lee, Riley, Lisa, Van Dyke, David. (1999 July-September). An empirical approach to designing marriage preparation programs. American Journal of Family Therapy, 27(3), p 271

Stanley, S. M. (2001). Making a case for premarital education. Family Relations, 50, 272-280.

Marine animals have been held captive for hundreds of years and for a variety of reasons. As humans began to investigate the fascinating world below the ocean’s surface, animal captivity became an everyday occurrence. Some animals have been captured as a means of research so scientists, as well as the public, can observe and learn more about them (“Marine Mammals in Captivity”). However, marine animals have also been exhibited simply for amusement and profit (“Do Marine Mammals Belong in Captivity in the 21st Century?”). Throughout history, humans have abused their relative power over marine creatures by capturing and detaining them. This cruel and unjust captivity commences with the act of capture and continues by diminishing marine animals’ quality of life.

The crime of captivity begins as early as marine mammal capture. In the past, animal capture was a violent and traumatic process. Over the years, it has become progressively less malicious. However, the animals still suffer. Hunters herd the animals into shallow waters and proceed to entrap them in nets and slings (“Do Marine Mammals Belong in Captivity in the 21st Century?”). Captures can include high-speed chases intended to exhaust the animals, which makes them easier to catch. Some fisherman will actually ride the animals until they are completely worn out (“The Case Against Marine Mammals in Captivity”). In Japan, fisherman are hired by captivity agencies to herd entire pods of dolphins so that the best and most promising mammals can be selected, while the remaining dolphins are slaughtered (“Global Ocean – Marine Mammal Anti-Captivity Officer”). In another instance, over 200 dolphins were driven into a fishing port, where they crashed into boats and each other. After becoming tangled in the chaos of nets, boats, and animals, many dolphins died of drowning (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). Although the government works to regulate the individuals and organizations that capture marine animals, even the gentlest capture causes unforeseeable consequences.

Marine animals such as dolphins travel in groups and while it may seem like taking only one or two of the animals would cause no harm, it is extremely detrimental to the group as a whole. Whales, specifically orcas, are the largest animals held in captivity (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). While orcas remain with their mothers for life in the wild, hunters often separate mother and child. Dolphins swim together in “pods,” a family unit that consists of an adult dolphin and her offspring. These families are torn apart by captivity. Even if not all of the animals are captured, the free animals are left without a crucial member of their community. Some dolphins die simply from the stress of losing a family member or watching their companions being captured (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). One study found that the mortality rate for bottlenose dolphins increased six-fold immediately after a capture (“The Case Against Marine Mammals in Captivity). The negative affects of animal capture are undeniable proof that holding marine animals captive is an unnatural and immoral act.

Even after the vicious and traumatic capture, marine animals continue to suffer in captivity. Although many trainers work to ensure that animal habitats are suitable for the animals they house, no man made structure can replace the natural habitat and ecosystem of the ocean. In addition, these artificial environments pose many risks to the animals they accommodate. First, the water of the tank can cause serious health risks. Many aquariums and marine parks pump water in directly from the ocean. However, this water is filtered and chlorine is added while micro and macro marine life is removed (“Killer Whales in Captivity”). This treatment creates harsh water full of chemicals, which can irritate the skin of marine mammals. Although the chemicals are used to purify the water, bacteria are still present and the animals’ skin cannot tolerate the alien bacteria. Some dolphins go blind (French), while others animals suffer from skin diseases (“Marine Mammals in Captivity”). In other cases, orcas experience dorsal fin collapse. This occurs because the whales do not have the support of a large body of water, such as the ocean, and gravity pulls the tall appendage downward (“Marine Mammals in Captivity”).

The issues are not limited to physical conditions. Being held in captivity actually affects the mental functions and capacity of marine creatures. Animals such as whales and dolphins utilize echolocation while living in the ocean. In this wide and varied body of water, these animals are constantly alert and exercising their brains. However, in a dull environment such as a small aquarium, these animals have no use for their highly evolved talent (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons). Instead, they are forced to swim in circles without exercising the functions of their brain. For orcas, which are extremely sensitive to sound, the outside noises of water pumps and cheering crowds harm their hearing (“Killer Whales in Captivity”). Some studies show that dolphin brains shrink a frightening 42% while in captivity (“The Life of a Dolphin in Captivity”), and some dolphins have been driven insane by the constant reverberations of their own sonar waves that hit nothing but blank walls (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”).

Not only are marine animals’ brain functions halted, they also become socially and emotionally upset while in captivity. As mentioned earlier, dolphins and orcas are negatively affected by the separation of pods. Despite being social creatures that tend to have long term companionships, these mammals are separated from their families and isolated on their own when they are held captive. (“The Case Against Marine Mammals in Captivity”). The issues are furthered by trainers’ treatment of the animals. For example, trainers will separate the acutely social dolphins when they misbehave, forcing them into isolation (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). The torture continues in the feeding. In a technique called the “Pavlovian regime,” trainers starve dolphins so that they will perform. Food is only administered as a reward to the dolphin for successful completion of tricks. Trainers effectively teach the dolphins that food is not a natural right of existence, but is instead only attained through submission and performance (“The Life of a Dolphin in Captivity”). It’s also important to consider the food given to the animals – instead of live, freshly caught, natural marine organisms, captured marine animals are fed frozen fish and vitamin supplements (“Killer Whales in Captivity”). This unnatural diet hurts the metabolism of these creatures and hinders their instinctual predatory behavior.

Dolphins that live in captivity are forced to swim in circles in six-foot deep tanks that stretch twenty-four inches by twenty-for inches (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). This lack of space literally suffocates the dolphins, who swim up to 100 miles each day in the wild. Finally, it’s important to consider the behavior of freed marine animals. Dolphins and whales alike spend their days diving hundreds of meters, swimming hundreds of miles, and roaming freely about the ocean (“Marine Mammals in Captivity”). Unlike seals and sea lions, dolphins and whales rarely come up to the shore to perch and can stay underwater up to thirty minutes. The confinement of a tank forces a creature that previously spent 80-90% of its time underwater into a creature that is constantly above the water (“Marine Mammals in Captivity”).

Some would argue that marine animal captivity has positive benefits for animals. For example, if a marine animal is held captive, humans are able to study and observe the animal, which in turn allows for a greater understanding of the species. This understanding allows humans to actually go out and assist the marine animals in the future. However, a marine animal held in captivity actually holds little educational value. These animals are forced to act differently than they do in the wild. Because they are confined to cages and tanks, they cannot roam and live as they would in the vast ocean. This means that when scientists observe an animal in a tank, he or she is not seeing the way the animal really acts, lives or behaves, but instead it’s contrived adaptations to life in a tank (“The Case Against Marine Mammals in Captivity”). Others argue that holding marine animals in captivity saves them from the harsher environments in the wild and protects them from predators and pollution. However, this argument is incorrect. It is impossible for humans to judge what environment is too harsh for any particular animal. Marine animals have survived and evolved for thousands of years without human salvation or interaction and humans must allow this natural cycle to continue. In the wild, unhindered by human meddling, the evolutionary cycle will continue as it should and as is natural. Some species may become extinct or evolve into even more complex animals – this is not a negative progression but is instead the circle of life (“The Case Against Marine Mammals in Captivity”). While dolphins in their natural habitat can live to their forties and fifties, dolphins in aquariums and tanks often die before they reach twenty (“Marine Mammals in Captivity”). Over the years, nearly 4,000 sea lions, seals, and dolphins have died in captivity, and more than half of these deaths are human related. This includes things such as swallowing coins, dying of heat stroke, and swimming in contaminated water (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). Although they claim to increase the longevity of marine animals’ lives, those who capture marine animals end up hurting them and, in the long run, harming the natural flow of life.

It’s certain that important information can be gained from marine animal captivity. However, holding wild animals hostage is immoral and unnecessary. Although humans are capable of capturing marine animals, this prevents them from existing in their natural habitat and only serves to hurt the species. To help stop captivity, it’s important not to visit captive marine mammals in zoos or parks (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). Also, instead of holding the animals hostage under the guise of saving them from even harsher natural environments, society should work to be environmentally conscious and preserve the animals’ natural habitats, allowing them to live without the pollution of human waste. Holding marine animals in captivity is unequivocally wrong. No matter the claims of salvation and education, animal captivity is exploitation of animals.