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Discuss whether the use of English in non-ENL countries can be seen as a neutral, a harmful or a beneficial activity.

English, which is often referred to as ‘the language of the planet’ is spoken by more than 750 million people worldwide. This global phenomenon, if not spoken by millions as a mother tongue is spoken by many as a second language or taught in educational institutions as a foreign language.

The diversity of its speakers has sparked considerable amount of interest, along with the types of English used in many countries. Alongside an immense number of speakers of a single language come the various types of speaker: those who’s English is a mother tongue, those of whom whose English is a second language, and those for whom it is a foreign language. This analysis attempts to establish whether the use of English in non – native speaking countries have adverse or positive effects.

Only a few centuries ago did English exist as a form of dialects spoken by the lower middle classes in the province of Britain. Dominated by the prestige languages of Latin and French, the language of the pre-English period (-c AD 450) was Celtic, a language spoken by those living in Britain and surrounding areas. When the Romans first invaded Britain, a number of Celtic – speaking peoples inhabited Britain, even though Latin was the official language of the province.

According to the source Women in Roman Britain, ‘By the end of the first century AD the increasingly cosmopolitan flavour of the urban population will have resulted in many languages being heard in Britain with the consequence that a knowledge of Latin would have been essential for efficient communication between people who could have originated as far afield as Scotland, Africa or Turkey’ (Allason-Jones, 1989, p174). Residents who would have migrated from such countries inevitably needed a mutual form of communication in order to keep activities such as trade going.

During the pre-English period, the vast number of occurring mixed and interracial marriages would have resulted in the inevitable introduction of foreign languages into Britain. This thus establishes Britain as a multilingual community, having contact with other parts of the world. Since Latin, a language which had been a lingua franca in Britain had by this time, been challenged by the increasing number of inhabitants speaking English, it had to leave in order to find a new position, since people were still using it but were also using Celtic.

At this time, Latin, which wasn’t an official language of Britain had now been established as a language of communication by those residing in England and those migrating to England, and was now seen as a useful source of promoting and providing the existence of beneficial activities such as administration and trade. The use of Latin had by then been the dominant language of government and administration. How the use of such a universal and phenomenal language such as English had been established can only be discovered if its origins are traced.

The earliest piece of writing in English is said to be a carving found in Norwich dating from AD 400. This runic script is said to resemble the Latin or Greek alphabet, and was used in various Germanic languages, bought to England by those residing in mainland Europe. *The influence of Latin on the English Language is very high, even though Latin is a somewhat ‘archaic’ language, only now taught in prestige schools such as Eton College.

1066 was a year of deterioration not just in terms of radical political changes but in major linguistics. Often viewed as ‘a milestone on the road to civilization’, it also played a major part in the development of Modern English. During this precarious time when the entire Normandy dynasty had been gained by the King of France, regular contacts with the French court bought with it colossal changes in the main method of communication.

This conflict ‘brought about a period of close contact and often bitter rivalry’ between the English and the French which in some respects has lasted into the present century. Ideas about ‘Englishness’ often reflect whatever is considered to be ‘not French’ (p121). The consequence of this invasion has caused the English Language to contain many derivations of French, referred to as the language of ‘honour’, ‘chivalry’ and ‘justice’. During the period of the French invasion many English residents knew very little, if not, any of the English language.

Other linguistic changes which inevitably rose as a result of the Norman Conquest concerned the language of Law. This would have been written in Britain’s prestigious language, Latin, which was at the time highly associated with the aristocracy. This resulted in English being a minority written language. Put in simpler terms, the Norman Conquest occurred at the detriment of the English Language used in Britain, which was almost reduced to a minor language or even a mere dialect spoken within England.

Other effects of the Norman Conquest on the English Language included the vocabulary. Many French words were adopted into the English Language which explains the vast majority French lexicon in the English vocabulary we are used to today. Baldwin, who in his speech thinly veils his distaste for the French language adopted into English quoted (that the) ‘salvation’ for Britain (and indeed for the whole world) lay not in French-derived polysyllables such as proletariat but in monosyllables such as ‘faith’. ‘Hope’ ‘love’ and ‘work’ (Crowley, 1989 p255).

Here, he not only (possibly subconsciously) describes English as being a somewhat simple and basic language, but he compares it to French, a language which exhibits power and prestige. In line with the effects of French lexicon within the English language, century’s later English provinces, namely Canada now have both English and French as an official language. The French language, in Quebec especially remains under threat, even though it is used to teach in schools its significance is deteriorating and the constant debate whether to use it in schools or whether English taught in schools can have detrimental effects; if students who are taught both languages becomes proficient in only one of the official languages, the quality of their written or spoken English or French is likely to decline.

In France however, since English has no official status, it is exempt from the pressures Canada faces to exert the significance of learning both languages in schools. As French is taught as a foreign language in England, English is likewise taught as a foreign language in French schools, in order that no-one lacks the knowledge of a language vital for international communication, and therefore increase the number of people proficient in either official language.

An example of the use of English in countries where English is not a native language being a beneficial, almost crucial activity lies within the necessities of air traffic control. Granted, there are many standard English’s, each one being exclusive to its respective country, however if one peculiar, even creolized version remains misunderstood in such a situation, the results could be dire. In such circumstances, even though the existence of many standardized English’s could create confusion, a vast knowledge of a universal Standard English is crucial.

The development of English pidgins and creoles in effect also gives way to confusion as it clouds out the need for a ‘politically correct’ language. The slave trade had an inevitably immense effect on the development of English, as it paved the way for the use of vernaculars such as Black English and black pidgins and creoles. These dialects, in effect are not understood by many and if such a language is seeped into schools it could become deeply ingrained within a students’ vocabulary, thus hindering a students’ ability to speak, and even understand politically correct English.

It is thus necessary to question the term ‘politically correct’ language? Double negatives to the native speaker of English, is seen almost as a taboo in English writing. Its use not only portrays the writer or speaker as uneducated, but the use of such insolent English by a native speaker would regard such a person as illiterate. Other definitions of political correctness refer to the use of non – sexist or racist language, language used in such a way which is not seen to favour a certain age group, class distinction or creed.

According to the English born sociolinguist Anthea Fraser Gupta, political correctness as exemplified by ‘the deliberate use of non-sexist language’ is quite unusual. In fact, it is so rare that I and other colleagues have had the experience of having our non – sexist original changed into a sexist printed version by editors.’ (Gupta, 1994, p2). For example, if an adult male calls another adult male ‘boy’ because he is in a position of authority, this could be seen as highly demeaning, as this perfectly reflects the days of the slave trade when taskmasters referred to their slaves as ‘boy’, alongside other demeaning terms such as ‘dog’ and ‘nigger’.

When I asked a university student if being called ‘boy’ by one who came from a country where such terms were unheard of, his reaction was one of dismay, not to mention being highly insulted. Such deviations from social norms could prove to cause conflict, as this type of English usage in countries such as Angola, France and similar non ENL lands may prove to be a difficulty.

In countries such as China where English has no official status, there has been an increased amount of interest in the English Language. ‘In 1959, everyone was carrying a book of the thoughts of Chairman Mao; today, everyone is carrying a book of ‘elementary English’ (p31) This unprecedented growth in the interest of the English language in a country titled the undisputed home of technology, science and rapid invention makes it a harmful activity in terms of linguistics but a beneficial one in terms of world trade, production and communication.

An influx Chinese people wanting to learn English poses the question: How good is the quality of English used in such non ENL countries? In the Chinese product catalogue IBI Household, the descriptions used to describe its respective goods in small captions are written in English which is considered to be very poor to ENL speakers; for example, a product called Space Creator, an organizer used to store household goods is said to be ”The plastic organizer will help you to storage wisely”, instead of ‘This plastic organizer will help you to store your items wisely; Another example being a Car Air Ozonizer which ‘Remove smoke, eliminate air particulate from this compact air ozonizer.

These items are described in a childlike manner, not to mention that they hardly make sense. As a result, if such habits become ingrained in an English learner’s vocabulary, they may become incomprehensible to someone whose first language is English but more importantly, it may become very difficult to root these habits out. This is thus an example of how the use of the English in non ENL countries can be seen as a harmful activity its only reason for its use is likely to be that of English is seen as fashionable.

This work was produced by one of our professional writers as a learning aid to help you with your studies

Literature Review

The aim of this literature review is to assess current research on the impact of salinity of pore water on the engineering properties of the soil, including shear strength and classification of the soil, ideally using Atterburg limits. The review focuses on the study of different soils and the impact of salinity on the engineering properties of the soil, addressing the types of experiments, the procedures in setting up the samples and the tests conducted as this will provide background information for the tests conducted in this dissertation. The literature review also examines the results of these tests as this will be useful for comparison of data during the analysis stage of this dissertation.

Engineering Properties of Soil

According to Ajam et al. (2015, p.350) the engineering characteristics of fine-grained soils, particularly clayey soils are influenced by a range of factors including density, porosity, and structure, as well as the history of tension and granulation, type of clayey minerals and plastic property. The engineering characteristics are also influenced by the type of minerals and the volume of these minerals in the pore water. This suggests that any change in these characteristics will lead to a corresponding change in the physical and mechanical characteristics of the soil. Engineering properties such as density, shear strength and the plasticity of soil are important as these properties affect the structural performance of the soil particularly under foundations and in other civil engineering applications. In basic engineering theory on soil mechanics, it is commonly assumed that the pore water and solid particles are chemically inert, in other words there is no chemical interaction between the different phases. However, Ajam et al. (2015, p.350) point out that the surface of clayey mineral particles is negatively charged which means that electrochemical forces exist between the solid, liquid and dissolved phases which influences the mechanical behaviour of clayey soil. In addition, it is known that the quantity and nature of electro-chemical forces depends on the type of anion and cation in exchange phase and the impact of this interaction on the cation exchange capacity. Ajalloeian et al. (2013, p.1419) make the point that the properties of water used in construction activities such as mixing concrete is governed by regulations and international standards, however there are fewer standards, governing the properties of water used in works associated with soil for example in the construction of earthen dams. Yet there is evidence to suggest that some minerals such as salt can affect the mechanical properties of soil. Bouksila et al. (2008, p. 254) suggest that the impact of the saline on the soil is dependent on the solubility of the soil. Suganya and Sivapullaiah (2015, p.913) argue that the behaviour of the soil is dependent on the microstructure which in turn can be influenced by the water content and the chemical content of that water. Lolaev et al. (1997, p.215) suggests that the temperature of the soil and the chemical content of the salt can influence the bonds between particles within the micro-structure which in turn affects the engineering properties of the soil. Chaney and Demars (1985, p.219) point out that salt in pore can affect soil behaviour particularly in leaching which in a slope can lead to a landslide.

Salinity and Microstructure

The aim of this dissertation is to investigate the change in shear strength in the sample soil by considering the effect of values 0%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 100% of pore water salinity and it is therefore prudent to examine similar studies, to determine the types of tests conducted and the results of those tests as this can then be used in assessing the outcomes of the dissertation research. According to Santamarina (2003, p.25) soils are particulate materials which means that the behaviour of soils is determined by the forces particles experience, including forces due to boundary loads which are transmitted through the skeleton of the soil and particle-level forces such as gravitational and buoyant forces as well as hydrodynamic forces. Soil particles are also influenced by contact level forces such as capillary, electrical and cementation reactive forces. It is the balance between these forces that determine soil behaviour and very often laboratory testing can be used to understand and predict this behaviour. Sassa et al. (2007, p.143) makes the point, for example that the shear strength of mudstone is dependent on the chemistry of the mineral and their reaction with saline. It is clear therefore that there is a link between saline pore water and the engineering performance of soils, however it can be difficult to predict and simulate this behaviour.

Tiwari et al. (2005, p.1445) suggest that an inward diffusion of the salt into clay can lead to an increase in the mean aggregate radius, which changes the structural component of the soil into what can be described as “irregular aggregation”. In soils that have more than 10% clay content the use of a saline pore water fluid can affect the physicochemical structure of the soil, affecting changes strength and compressibility of the material. For example, Kenney (1967, 1977) cited by Tiwari et al. (2005, p.1445) showed that increasing the NaCl concentration in pore fluid could lead to an increase of up to 200% in residual shear strength. Gratchev and Sassa (2013)

One of the difficulties with understanding the impact of salt on soil behaviour is that according to Chaney and Demars (1985, p.219) it is difficult to match the salinity in the field with laboratory testing because of the interstitial nature of pore-water salinity.

Research on Saline Pore Fluid and Soil

According to a study conducted by Nagase et al. (2006, p.209) the concentration of salt (NaCl) in the pore fluid affects the mechanical properties of soil as evidenced by the fact that during a recent earthquake in Japan, the saline concentration of the soil decreased due to leaching and there was a corresponding decrease in the cyclic strength of soil. Messad and Moussai (2016, p.301) studied the impact of saline on sabkha soils which are typically low strength and high compressible materials in which it is difficult to design and construct foundations. In this study the effect of salts on water content and Atterberg limits of the sabkha soil was conducted with tests using distilled water and natural sabkha brine along with saline solutions with different salt concentrations. The results revealed that the liquid and plastic limits decrease with pore fluid salinity when using conventional water content. However, it was also noted that liquid limit and plastic limit increase when the fluid content method is used.

van Paassen and Gareau (2004, p.327) also studied the effect of pore water salinity on shear strength and compressibility of remoulded clay. The study sought to compare the results with marine clay from the Caspian Sea which has a known lower shear strength than anticipated as well as a higher moisture content. This clay also has lower pre-consolidation pressures than the calculated in-situ effective stress which indicated under-consolidation. The results of the study revealed that increasing pore water salinity, led to a decrease in the moisture content of normally consolidated clays and the remoulded shear strength corresponded to these moisture content changes. The compressive behaviour of the clay is explained using the modified effective stress concept which takes account of the pore pressure and effective pressure as well as the electrochemical repulsive and attractive forces between the clay particles. van Paassen and Gareau (2004, p.327) found that the laboratory tests on the remoulded clays revealed the opposite results to those obtained by taking the measurements in the natural soils, which is attributed to the effects of soil structure and preconsolidation pressure. In addition, the results showed that the measured pre-consolidation pressure depends largely on the salinity of the permeating fluid and it was concluded that it is possible to approximate pre-consolidation pressure close to the known geological stress in marine clays with high pore fluid salinity, using a brine solution that closely resembles the pore fluid chemistry.

Yan and Chang (2015, p.153) studied the effects of pore fluid salinity on the shear strength and earth pressure coefficient at rest (K0) of three fine-grained soils including kaolin, bentonite and a marine clay. The K0 coefficient and the critical state friction angle (I•’) were determined using triaxial stress path testing on remoulded normally consolidated samples. The Atterberg limit test and sedimentation test revealed that the inter-particle force and soil structure of bentonite were affected by the salinity, whereas the other materials were insensitive to the pore fluid salinity, as shown in Figures 1 to 3. In this study Yan and Chang (2015, p.154) estimated the value of K0 using empirical formulas such as Jaky’s formula and Atterberg limits. It was found that Jaky’s formula satisfactorily predicted K0 for kaolin in all conditions with consistent underestimates for marine clay. In contrast prediction using the Atterberg limits failed in all cases, especially for the particularly for bentonite at low salinity.

Figure 1 Triaxial stress path of testing bentonite with different salt contents (Yan and Chang 2015, p. 156, Figure 4)

Figure 2 Triaxial stress path of testing of kaolin with different salt contents (Yan and Chang 2015, p. 156, Figure 3)

Figure 3 Triaxial stress path of testing of marine clay with different salt contents (Yan and Chang 2015, p. 156, Figure 5)

The laboratory tests found that the pore fluid salinity has little impact on the value of K0 and I•’ in the kaolin samples and the marine clay. However, it was also found that an increase in pore fluid salinity has a corresponding significant increase in I•’ for the bentonite and a decrease in the K0. These findings were attributed to the microstructure of the minerals in the materials (Yan and Chang 2015, p.157).

Zhang et al. (2013, p. 69) conducted tests on undrained shear behaviour of loess that was saturated with different concentrations of sodium chloride solution. The aim of the tests was to investigate the effects of NaCl concentration in pore water and desalinisation on the shear behaviour of the samples in undrained conditions. The samples of loess were taken from the ground surface in China and were saturated by de-aired, distilled water with different concentrations of NaCl. Each sample was then subjected to shear in undrained conditions. The samples were then remoulded and re-set into a shear box and re-saturated by passing through de-aired, distilled water and essentially desalinised, and subjected to shear testing, again in undrained conditions. The results of both sets of tests were compared and it was found that variation of NaCl concentration in the pore water affects the shear behaviour of saturated loess, with increases in peak shear strength and steady-state strength corresponding to increases in NaCl concentration until a peak value after which shear decreases with increases in NaCl concentration. It was also noted that the effects were reversible as the peak shear strength and steady-state strength of the desalinised samples recovered to those found in the original sample.

Ajalloeian et al. (2013, p.1422) conducted a study to assess the impact of salt water on the behavioural parameters of fine-grained soil. The tests started by determining the basic characteristics of the soil and water samples, followed by laboratory tests including Atterberg limits, standard compaction and consolidation tests as well as direct shear testing and dispersion tests including the pinhole test and chemical method. The soil sample was graded in compliance with ASTM D 4318 on soil passing no. 100 sieve, consisting of 37% gravel and sand, 35% silt and 28% clay. An XRD analysis of the material revealed that the fine grains of soil consist mainly of quartz, calcite and dolomite with some gypsum and 5% of the clay mineral montmorillonite.

The samples of this fine soil were subjected to three different type of water with varying salt content, namely distilled water, half saline and fully saline water. Atterberg Limits. The tests were performed according to ASTM D 4318 on soil passing no. 100 sieve. For half saline and saline water, this test was performed at 0, 24 and 48 hours after soil and water exposure. The compaction test was used to impact of the type of water on optimum moisture content and maximum dry density. The test was carried out according to ASTM D698-70 on soil passing no. 5 sieve with the saline test carried out at 24 hours and 48 hours after soil and water exposure. consolidation test was performed according to ASTM D2435 on soil passing no. 60 sieve and the process involved compacting a sample at optimum moisture content in a 20mm thick consolidation ring with a 70 mm diameter. The mould was left under loading equipment and a load of 1 kPa was applied on it and the sample was immersed for 24 hours. Then the sample was loaded with the stresses of 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2 and 2.5 kg/cm2. In the direct shear test, performed according to ASTM D3080 on soil passing no. 5 sieve the soil was compacted at optimum water content in 10 x 10mm mould apparatus at stresses of 0.5, 1 and 2 kg/cm2 and shearing velocity was 0.35 mm/min. “Before shearing at each stress, the sample was immersed and consolidated during 24 hours under the same stress” (Ajalloeian et al. 2013, p.1421).

According to Ajalloeian et al. (2013, p.1424), the results showed that plastic limits with distilled, half saline and saline water are 21.31, 20.43 and 20.12 respectively. Salinity has little effect on the plastic limit however this depends on the moisture content of the soil which could affect the interaction between soil and solute in water. But in liquid limit, in which soil moisture is higher, the effect of salinity will be more. The liquid limit has decreased 5 and 17 percent with half saline and saline water respectively. Mahasneh (2004) cited by Ajalloeian et al. (2013, p.1425) attributed the decrease in liquid limit and plastic index by using saline water of Dead Sea to substitution of water molecules by salts that led to the decrease of the double layer thickness and water content and subsequently it stiffened the soil. Ajalloeian et al. (2013, p.1424) also cites Mansour et al, (2008) who indicate that the presence of high valence exchangeable cations in Dead Sea brine decrease the repulsive forces in the soil microstructure thus influencing soil behaviour. This means that the Vander Waals attractive forces are dominant, which increases the capillary stress between particles boundaries. Ultimately this reduces the available surface for interaction with water as shown in the Atterberg limits. In the present study, the lower part of changes of Atterberg limits are attributed to decrease in the double layer thickness and most of the changes can be attributed to sediment salt in the soil pores, because the XRD analysis showed montmorillonit content in the soil was approximately 5%. On the other hand, salt crystals were seen in the soil after drying it. The plastic index also decreased along with the liquid limit because of the increase in salinity of the pore water fluid.

The results showed that the Atterberg limits, compression index and swelling index as well as the coefficient of volume compressibility (mv) and coefficient of compressibility (av) decreased as water salinity increased. In addition, it was clear that the coefficient of consolidation and shear strength parameters increased with increase water salinity. These impacts were attributed to the increasing attractive force between soil particles, which establishes a bond between them, forming salt crystals in pores soil and effectively acting as a cement. Despite the fact that the concentration of saline water is 50 times more than that of half saline water, the difference between soil properties is not noticeable and it appears that the variations on the soil properties decreases as water salinity increases. However, the study also found that excessive concentration of water tends to cause cations to combine with anions to form salts before they can influence the clay minerals. This means that an increase in concentration of water does not have significant impact on the behaviour of the soil. The consolidation tests showed that soil behaviour with all three types of water is similar at high pressure, attributed to the fact that inter-particles bonds are broken at high pressures.

In another study, Otoko (2014, pp.9-10) investigated the impact of saline water from the Atlantic shore on three type of soil including a clay, clayey sand and base course material. Prior to testing 10kg of each of these soil types were dried at 100oC, sieved to establish grading in accordance with ASTM D421 and ASTM D422, as shown in Figure 4 and stored at room temperature.

Figure 4 Particle Size Distribution of clay, clayey sand and base course samples (Otoko 2014, p.10, Figure 2)

An analysis of the physical properties of the above soils indicate that the clay sample has the highest specific gravity of 2.75, with the base course sample having the lowest value of 2.50. The moisture content was also measured and ranged from 15% to 29% for the clay soil, 13% to 15% for the clayey sand sample and 11% to 14% for base course (Otoko 2014, p. 14).

A series of six samples were prepared using 3kg of each of the materials; one mixed with tap water and the other with saline water from the Atlantic Ocean salty for each type of soil. Compaction tests were then carried out to establish optimum moisture content and dry unit weight in accordance with ASTM D698 – 78, ASTM and AASHTO T180 – 90, with results shown in Figures 5 to 7.

Figure 5 Compaction Curves for Clay soil using tap water and Atlantic Ocean saline water (Otoko 204, p. 11, Figure 3)

Figure 6 Compaction Curves for Clay sand using tap water and Atlantic Ocean saline water (Otoko 204, p. 11, Figure 4)

Figure 7 Compaction Curves for Base course sample using tap water and Atlantic Ocean saline water (Otoko 2014, p. 12, Figure 5)

These figures indicate that the maximum dry unit weights of the clay were 20.9, with the clayey sand and the base course material having dry unit weights of 22.5 and 19.5kN/m3 respectively when mixed with tap water. The maximum dry unit weight for the clay decreased from 20.9kN/m3 to 17.5kN/m3 when the material was mixed with saline water. However, it was noted that there was an increase in the maximum dry unit weight for both clayey sand and base course from 19.5kN/m3 to 20.5kN/m3 and from 22.5kN/m3 to 23.2kN/m3 respectively. This is attributed to changes in the intermolecular structure, where in the clay sample the saline induced repulsive force between the salt molecules and the clay intermolecular structure, which increased the intermolecular distances and void ratios in the sample whereas the increase in the dry unit weight of the base course is attributed to a chemical reaction between the salt molecules and soil particles, thus hardening the material and increasing the dry unit weight (Otoko 2014, p.14).

A further 100g of the materials were mixed with tap water and Atlantic Ocean saline water for the Atterberg’s Limits test. Six paste specimens were prepared to determine the Atterberg limit of the soils. The results of these tests showed that each of the soils tended to stiffen with decreased Atterberg limits for the samples with salt water as shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Effect of Saline water on Atterberg limits and compactions (Otoko 204, p. 13, Table 1)

The samples were also subjected to unconfined compression testing that had been compacted to optimum water content and placed in a cylindrical shaped mould measuring 112.5mm height and 50.0mm diameter as specified in ASTMD 2166 – 85. The results of these tests are shown in Figures 8 to 10 (Otoko 2014, p.11).

Figure 8 Stress strain relationship for Clay soil with tap water and Atlantic Ocean saline water (Otoko 2014, p.13, Figure 6)

Figure 9 Stress strain relationship for Clay sand sample with tap water and Atlantic Ocean saline water (Otoko 2014, p.13, Figure 7)

Figure 10 Stress strain relationship for Base course with tap water and Atlantic Ocean saline water (Otoko 2014, p.13, Figure 6)

In the above figures, the relationship between the unconfined shear strength and strain from three soil types using tap and salty water show that the clay soil sample and the clayey sand sample have higher unconfined compressive strength for the saline state. This is attributed to the fact that the clay soil has “multi layers of gibbsite and silica sheets with hydrogen bonding linking these sheets” which become closer under axial compression, which increases resistance to compression and leads to higher shear strength (Otoko 2014, p.14). In contrast, the structure of base course contains compacted calcium oxide molecule, which as shown in Figure 10, fails “more rapidly than clay”, with the saline water enhancing the shear strength of the base course, largely because of the conversion of the calcium oxides and hydroxide into calcium chloride, which can resist higher values of shear (Otoko 2014, p.15).

A study conducted by Gratchev et al. (2007, p.349), into the cyclic behaviour of bentonite-sand mixtures that were treated with salt, found that the “cyclic shear strength at lower concentrations of salt was greater than that obtained at higher salt concentrations”. Gratchev and Sassa (2013, p.1817) studied the cyclic behaviour of soil under different physico-chemical conditions by conducting a series of undrained cyclic stress-controlled ring-shear tests on a natural soil permeated with solutions of NaCl, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to examine the cyclic behaviour of soil with different pore fluids. The study concluded that an increase in NaCl concentration from 1 meq/L to 11 meq/L leads to a corresponding decrease in the shear resistance of soil to cyclic loading. In addition, it was found that the soil environment affects the behaviour of the soil, for example in acidic and alkaline environments, it was found that the cyclic shear strength of soil decreases compared to specimens with distilled water. The changes in the cyclic behaviour of soil with different pore fluids are attributed to changes in the diffuse double layer of clay, whereby large concentrations of NaCl, NaOH, and H2SO4 can decrease the thickness of the diffuse double layer, thus producing soil structures that are less resistant to cyclic loading (Gratchev & Sassa 2013, p.1820).

Summary of Literature Review

The engineering characteristics of fine-grained soils, particularly clayey soils are influenced by factors such as density and porosity, structure, type of minerals and plastic properties. Any change in these characteristics will ultimately change the physical and mechanical characteristics of the soil. The addition of salt to pore water can affect the behaviour of the soil by influencing the electrochemical forces exist between the solid, liquid and dissolved phases. It is acknowledged that it is possible to conduct laboratory tests to understand the impact of saline pore water fluid on soil behaviour although it is difficult to mirror actual site conditions. A number of different research experiments were investigated, which revealed that:

the concentration of salt (NaCl) in the pore fluid affects the mechanical properties of soil.
the impact depends on the type of soil; for example, the impact of saline pore water on low strength, highly compressible soils, such as sabkha, increases the liquid limit and plastic limit.
increasing pore water salinity in some soils can decrease in the moisture content of normally consolidated clays and the remoulded shear strength, whereas variations of salt content in materials such as loess increases the peak shear strength and steady-state strength.
in some soils, such as kaolin, the Atterberg limits and compression index, as well as the swelling index and the coefficient of volume compressibility decreased, as water salinity increased.
shear strength parameters increase with increased water salinity, attributed to the increasing attractive force between soil particles, which establishes a bond between them, forming salt crystals in pores soil and effectively acting as a cement.
in cyclic behaviour of soil under different physico-chemical conditions an increase in NaCl concentration leads to a corresponding decrease in the shear resistance of soil to cyclic loading.
the soil environment affects the behaviour of the soil, for example in acidic and alkaline environments, cyclic shear strength of soil decreases compared to specimens with distilled water.
References

Ajam, M., Sabour, M.R. and Dezvareh, G.A., 2015. Study of water salinity effect on geotechnical behavior of soil structure using response surface method (RSM), (Case study: Gotvand Dam). Ciencia & Natura, 37, pp.350-359.

Ajalloeian, R., Mansouri, H. and Sadeghpour, A.H.,2013. Effect of Saline Water on Geotechnical Properties of Fine-grained Soil. Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 18, pp.1419-1436.

Bouksila, F., Perrson, M., Berndtsson, R. and Bahrii, A.,2008. Soil water content and salinity determination using different dielectric methods in saline gypsiferous soil. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 53:1, 253-265.

Chaney, R.C. and Demars, K.R., 1985. Strength Testing of Marine Sediments: Laboratory and In-situ Measurements: a Symposium Sponsored by ASTM Committee D-18 on Soil and Rock, San Diego, CA, 26-27 Jan. 1984, Issue 883. New York: ASTM International

Gratchev, I., Sassa, K., Osipov, V., Fukuoka, H., and Wang, G., 2007. Undrained cyclic behavior of bentonite-sand mixtures and factors affecting it.” Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering. 25(3), pp. 349–367

Gratchev, I.B. and Sassa, K., 2013. Cyclic shear strength of soil with different pore fluids. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 139(10), pp.1817-1821.

Lolaev, A.B., Shklyarov, N.D. and Lyalina, O.A., 1997. Effects of salts on physical and mechanical properties of frozen soils. Engineering Geology and the Environment In Marinos, G. (ed.) Engineering Geology and the Environment, Volume 1. Boca Raton: CRC Press, pp.215-220.

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Critically analyse and evaluate the impact of aviation on society

Introduction

The aviation industryhas dramatically changed the world we live in and has had a huge impact on almost all societies around the world. Since the first flight of the ‘Kity Hawk’ in 1903, aviation has developed at a surprising rate and has become a major component of the developed countries and their respective economies. This essay will discuss the impact of aviation on the society, along with the evaluating its positive and negative influences on the mankind. Furthermore, this essay will discuss the environmental, social and economic impact of aviation in conjunction with its contribution on globalisation.

Transformation from a local industry to global economic beneficiary

Even well into the twentieth century, most people only ever travelled short distances; it was only the rich people who enjoyed the luxury of traveling great distances in short time. However, the advent of commercial aviation has opened the doors for the less privileged as well, and now a larger number of people can travel to greater distances in the shortest possible time (Airbus, 2008). With the expansion of the commercial aviation sector, it is increasinglybecoming a cheape rmeans of travelling. Inrecent decades, the phenomenon of budget airlines has enabled many morepeople to fly (Whitelegg, 2008). Furthermore, the aviation sector has also provided the grounds forthe global tourism industry to develop. The modern tourism industry is unthinkable without aviation. This is because, nowadays, it is a common practice amongst people to travel by air quite frequently for business or pleasure.Thus, increased tourismhelps in generating more and more job opportunities, which in turn improves the global economy.

One of the most prominent impacts of aviation is that it has revolutionised the way in which goods and people are moved around the world (Pew, 2009). Earlier, transportation was a hassle as it was time consuming. With aviation, people now have a securer and faster alternative to travel or transport their goods. The other major benefit of aviation is its profound impact on the economy (Pew, 2009). It has also facilitated the development of industries and businesses,resulting in a great boost in economic activities and trade (Pew, 2009).

The transport of freight by air has also increased greatlyin the recent decades. The goods that are being manufactured in one country are now easily transported in shorter periods of time to another country (FAA, 2005). For example a product made in Manchester can now be shipped anywhere in the world, in no time. The growth of air freight hasalsocreated many opportunities for businesses- it has allowed them to export to markets that were previously not preferred due to the long distances and the subsequent costsincurred (FAA, 2005). Air freight has led to a boost in trade all over the world andhas greatly improvedthe economy of underdeveloped countries. It has also contributed to the growing globalisationof economic activities. This is the reason behind the increasing interdependency of world economies.It has also led to an increase in the productivity of various industries (Gazzard, 2009) which again, helps in the generation of wealth, subsequently benefitting the members of the society (Whitelegg, 2008).

The following sections will present some of the specific major benefits of the aviation industry which derive from the improvements it has made to transport and industry noted above.
A Source of FDI

A highly prominent feature of the modern economy is that, large multinational companies are now investing around the world. This is known as Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). The importance of FDI is recognised by many governments and is one of the leading drivers of the world economy (PTI, 2012).The opportunity created by the aviation industry has greatly facilitated the rise of FDI (Globenet, 2007). Thus,multinational companies usually have a preference of locating their investments near international airports (Whitelegg, 2008).

Employment opportunities

‘Aviation is a fast growing sector of the economy’(Whitelegg, 2008). The aviation industry, despiteitstechnological advances, is still very labour-intensive. A number of international airlines have developed their offices in various cities, providing full-fledged services of transportation. Thus, it has a pivotal role in the growth of the local economies in that it provides job opportunities to a large number of people (Whitelegg, 2008).

Levies

Many governments invest heavily in airports in order to help the aviation industry (Whitelegg, 2008). Apart from benefitting the local people, this sector also pays taxes, which are in turn spent by the government in the provision of services ranging from education to health (Bridges, 2012). The aviation industry is also heavily subsidised by governments in the form of direct subsidies and tax breaks.The fuel that the various airlinesuse is also subsidised through tax breaks. Governments subsidise the aviation industry in the belief that it helps to generate economic growth (Holliday et. al, 2002). While this may be the case in a few situations,the money used by governments to subsidise the aviation industry could be better spent on other infrastructure projects as well. However, the investment needed to create jobs in the aviation industry is very high and this same investment couldbe successful in producing even more jobs if invested in other areas of the economy.

Globalisation

Perhaps the most important trend in the modern world is globalisation. It is the increasing inter-connectedness of the world on an economic, social, political and cultural level. It has made the world smaller, and now some haveevenspoken of a ‘Global Village’ (Hopkins, 2002). The aviation industry has played a crucial role in the process of globalisation. Aviation has helped societies come closer. With the development of aviation, peoplecan travel more freely. This has helped to promote migration and the exchange of ideas— two very important factors ofglobalisation which will be discussed in the following two sections (IATA, 2008).

Source of Non-Monetary & Intangible benefits

People from different parts of the world, with different views and ideas, now traverse across the world. It has for example, allowed people to study and work in places far away from their native places. It has allowed people from different regions to come together and attend conferences and meetings. This easy movement of people brings new ideas and thoughts into an existing environment and culture. The exchange of ideas is very important, as it facilitates the creation of a more liberal and open society, and it is no longer possible for a society to stop entering those ideas into the society. Rather, it is exposed to the beliefs, values and cultures of other societies as well(Hopkins, 2002, p. 13). Aviation has opened up the world and possibly made societies more tolerant of differences and minorities.

Migration opportunities

With aviation,travel has become cheaper and easier (Kirby, 2008). This has greatly increased migration throughout the world. The modern world has witnessed unprecedented levels of migration. Migration has always been asignificantfeature of human life. People have always travelled long distances in the search for security and resources (Hopkins, 2002). Mass migration is a controversial issue. Many believe that an influx of usually younger and skilled people into a society is of real economic benefit (Kirby, 2008). Their energy and knowledge allows an economy to be more productive and efficient. Many businesses seek highly qualified migrants and it is widely believed that the ageing societies of Western Europe need immigrants in order to maintain their living standards (Crouch, 2004).Migration greatly increases the wealth of a nation as it can bring knowledgeable people which adds to the talent base and human capital of a country. However, migration also brings with it problems such as shortage of housing, and mass migration may produce tensions between immigrants and natives (IATA, 2007). The modern aviation industry has just fuelled this practice even more. This has had huge consequences for society. Many western societies are now of a cosmopolitan nature. They are now home to very many nationalities and ethnic groups who have brought with them their culture and way of life.

Disadvantages of Aviation

Along with the great number of benefits,the aviation industry also brings some inconveniences, in the way that it creates a negative impact on the environment (Lehrer, 2001). The aviation industry generally has a local and a global impact upon the environment (Bridger, 2013). According to Panner (et. al, 2001), the rapid economic development of the globe in recent decades, has led to the degradation of the environment. It has led to worries over the rapid depletion of scarce natural resources, pollution and global warming (Penner et. al, 2001). These environmental challenges are perhaps the most important issues facing modern societies. The planes and airports have adversely impacted upon local environments and the quality of life of those who live in these environments (Lehrer, 2001). There is usually traffic congestion around airports.Aviation has madelife very difficult for some localities in society, especially those located near busy airports as there is the problem of noise pollution. The adverse effects of noise pollution upon individuals have been recognised by the World Health Organisation in recentyears (Whitelegg, 2008). The noise pollution caused by aircraft taking off and landing at airports has been proven to have a negative longterm health impact on people.

Furthermore, modern aircrafts generate greenhouse gases likecarbon. These greenhouse gases have been proven to have a highly degrading impact upon the environment (Weele, 1999). Green house gases stay in the atmosphere and lead to global warming. Global warming in turn leads to climate change and this in the long term could have cataclysmic consequences for humanity (Weele, 1999). It could lead to the seas rising, drought and an increase in the frequency of extreme weather. The aviation industry has been proven to be a major emitter of greenhouse gases, which could lead to the catastrophe of global warming (Bridger, 2013).

However, it must be noted that the impact of the aviation industry on the environment has been disputed. In recent years the aviation industry has tried to appear to be environmentally friendly (Bridger, 2013). It has issued reports and surveys which seek to prove that aviation is not as harmful to the environment, contrary to what many believe (EC, 2014). On balance, however, the evidence suggests that the aviation industry is a major polluter of greenhouse gases and therefore is a major contributor to climate change (Hepworth &Ducatel, 1992).

Conclusion

Aviation has helped transform many societies around the globe. It has had a huge impact upon every society. While many of the changes have been good, some have been negative. Aviation has, by and large, helped to drive the global economy by allowing the free movement of goods and people (Hopkins, 2002). It has also changed modern societies by facilitating mass migration. The modern world has been shaped by aviation. However, the environmental impact of aviation can not be ignored. The local environmental impact of aviation is certainly harmful to those who live near airports (Whitelegg, 2008). However, aviation’s potential to damage the global environment is of major concern. As a major greenhouse gas emitter, aviation is contributing to the process of global warming, which could have disastrous consequences for humanity.

While the aviation sector has,overall, been a real benefit for societies around the world, there needs to be somemajor changes- it must be genuinely environmentally friendly. There may also be a need to re-think the economic benefits of aviation to society, to take into account the environmental costs of the industry to society. The industry needs to be part of an overall plan for global sustainable development that includes development that does not harm the environment or lead toany sort of negative climate change. This sector should, without delay, look into its shortcomings and try and look for constructive solutions, before it becomes too late.

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Reading List/Bibliography

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Holliday, J. C., Schmidheiny, S., & Watts, P. (2002).Walking the Talk – The Business Case or Sustainable Development. Sheffield, UK: Greenleaf Publishing Ltd.

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Kirby, A. (2008). CCCC Kick The Habit a UN Guide to Climate Neutrality. UNEMG UNEP/GRID-Arendal. http://www.greeningtheblue.org/sites/default/files/KickTheHabit_en_lr.pdf [Accessed August 10, 2014]

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Whitelegg, John (2008) Aviation the social, economic and environmental impact of flying. London: Ashden Trust.

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Energy Labelling of Buildings and The Implementation of The Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD).

1.0: Introduction

Energy Efficiency has become a critical element in the growth of the developed economies in the west. This is mainly because of the fact that the energy consumed by the developed countries is comparatively higher to those of their developing counterparts that are equally industrialised. Since the efficiency of the energy consumption is the critical element that attributes to the performance, the need for energy efficiency of civil structures especially buildings (public and industrial) is imperative. Mei ren et al (2003) argues that the energy performance has become a performance measure for the extent to which the developed nations are utilizing the energy efficiently. This makes it clear that a critical analysis on the energy performance of the civil structures (i.e.) buildings is essential in order to justify the validity of the energy performance bill that is expected be passed as legislation in2006. The research conducted through this dissertation is aimed to accomplish whether or not the energy labelling of buildings is viable and the extent to which it can support the implementation of the Energy performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD).

The energy consumption in the UK is not only identified as the primary element for the implementation of the Energy performance of Buildings Directive but also to address the requirements of the KYOTO protocol. The treaty signed by the member nations of the United Nations has increased the need for the energy efficiency as well as reduce the emission of CHG or greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Since the treaty measures the reduction in emission as a percentage reduction to the original set emission level, it is necessary to implement a legislative act that can provide energy efficiency as well as meet the demands of the KYOTO protocol.

In this report a comprehensive analysis on the energy efficiency in buildings both domestic and non-domestics presented to the reader and the implications of enforcing the Energy performance of Buildings Directive in 2006. The dissertation also aims to provide a comprehensive analysis on the potential in achieving the energy efficiency within the buildings of the European Union member states and identify the course of addressing the KYOTO protocol.

2.0: Aim and Objectives

2.1: Aim

The aim of this report is to critically analyse whether the Energy Labelling of buildings in the UK is a viable option for measuring their energy performance in order to implement Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD).

2.2: Objectives

The aim of this report is accomplished through embracing the research upon the following objectives

To conduct a literature review on the need for energy efficiency and role of developed nations in the implementation of Energy Performance of Buildings Directive.

To analyse the stand of European Union on the implementation of the EPBD.

To conduct secondary research through case study analysis on the energy efficiency of domestic and on-domestic buildings in the UK.

To critically analyse the suitability of the Energy performance of Buildings Directive implementation based upon the results derived from the case study analysis.

To comment upon the Energy performance of Buildings Directive actualisation as a legislative act based upon the results and discussions conducted in the research.

3:0 Justifications for the choice of research

Energy efficiency is increasingly demanded in order to meet the rising demand for energy resources. The fact that the energy resources are depleting rapidly makes it critical for the member states of the European Union to efficiently utilise the energy in order to gain sustainable growth in the economy.

It was identified that one of the major consumers of energy in the European Union member states are the buildings. This is mainly because of the increase in the globalization and the population explosion due to the immigration of foreign nationals to European countries. This has increased the number of buildings drastically in the European Union member states thus increasing the energy consumption as well. Hence it is essential to sketch out a method of accomplishing energy efficiency so as to reduce the energy consumption as well as the emission of CHG into the atmosphere causing greenhouse effect. This initiative of the European Union is the major reason for focusing on energy performance measurement in buildings rather than other sectors like the industries or the transportation.

The fact that the reduction of the pollutants emitted into the atmosphere by the buildings when controlled can meet the target for the KYOTO protocol as well as accomplish energy savings is another justification for the choice of the research topic.

Apart from the aforementioned, another interesting feature demonstrated by the buildings that the energy consumption is predominantly due to the improper temperature management has further created the room for investigation into the flaws of the construction design (or plan) which can be fixed to accomplish energy efficiency.

The fact that the energy savings and the energy efficiency in the domestic and non-domestic buildings will reduce the energy prices thus benefiting the consumers in the general public is one of the major elements for the choice of the research topic.

4: Research methodology

The research method adopted in this project is secondary research methodology where the research is based upon the information gathered from white papers and journals. The research is accomplished through the use market reports and journals on the construction industry and energy performance journals. Some of the popular resources of information for the research are listed below:

Chartered institute of building services Engineers

Key Note Ltd

Data monitor Inc

Journal of facilities management

Facilities journal

Building Services Engineering Research & Technology

Journals and white papers from various other resources are also utilised in the research process to accomplish qualitative research in the form of case study analysis.

The research comprises of two separate case study one focusing on each domestic buildings and non-domestic buildings. The case studies are presented separately in order to establish the subtle differences between the two categories of the buildings in the European Union that fall under the jurisdiction of Energy performance of Buildings Directive.

5: Justification for secondary research

Primary research in this topic involves fieldwork for a long period of time up to several months. This requires investment of both time and money for securing the accurate measurements of the emission, level of energy consumption and the air temperature management level. Since the project is conducted on an academic basis the research is performed using the secondary research information rather than conducting primary research.

Furthermore, the fact that the energy performance measurement for the emission and civil measurements of the buildings involve legal requirements to be satisfied prior to presenting in the report, the research is confined to the secondary information which can be referenced whilst conducting the research.

6: Scope of the research

The scope of this research is confined with the energy performance of the buildings in the Europe. The literature review presents the overview on the buildings across Europe whilst the research in the case study is confined only the UK buildings. This is mainly because of the lack of resources on buildings in other nations and the lack of time to analyse any information if gathered.

7: Summary

Energy labelling of the buildings was considered as a critical factor in the energy performance of the buildings and the overall nation among the developed countries since the late years of the twentieth century. The fact that the energy efficiency programs can reduce the energy consumption in the developed nations that are consuming more energy as stated before has made it imperative to accomplish the energy labelling procedure. G. J. Levermore (2002)has stated that the energy labelling of the buildings in developed nations will not only help reduce the energy consumption but also pave the path for achieving an energy efficient economy.

It is also interesting to note that the promotion of the energy labelling policies not only involves one country but also requires critical information on the energy consumption and the labelling methods adhered by other developed nations. In order to maintain a standard in the European Union the EPBD bill is put forth that lays a common standard to be adopted throughout the European Union.

The research in this report focuses upon the benefits of accomplishing the energy efficiency in order to meet the targets for the KYOTO protocol and the Energy performance of Buildings Directive. The report provides a comprehensive analysis on the energy efficiency of the domestic and non-domestic buildings thus accomplishing a totality in the research.

Furthermore, in this report a critical overview of the standards proposed and their implementation in the existing buildings is analysed qualitatively and constructive recommendations are provided to assist the decision makers. The discussion on the Energy performance of Buildings Directive and the recommendations are aimed to provide key issues identified in the research to the decision makers in order to effectively implement the Energy performance of Buildings Directive.

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Date authored: 23 ^rd August, 2014.

The invention of the transistor in mid twentieth century gave birth to modern day electronics. Rapid advancements in semiconductor and fabrication technologies allowed the exponential growth of electronic components especially in the last two decades. Electronics with new functionalities have started to emerge in all aspects of human life. Silicon and other material (organic and inorganic) technologies have enabled electronics to be realised on extremely smaller scales. Apart from smaller scales, these technologies also allow dense packing, durability, simpler integration, flexibility and low weight for electronics. These characteristics have rapidly pushed the trend of pervasive and ubiquitous electronics (Maliniak, 2002).

Pervasive Electronics is very much related to consumer electronics. The invention of and later improvement in silicon transistor technology reduced the size and cost of electronic devices such as televisions, video recorders, computers, mobile phones, etc. In the last fifty years, television sets and video recorders have become house-hold devices and more recently computers and mobile phones. These devices could only be realised with the help of improved and cheaper electronic fabrication processes. This resulted in the lower cost and smaller size of devices, making them affordable for the people. Rapid penetration of these electronics followed after that and this allowed these devices to become pervasive in nature. The major motivations behind all these improvements were necessity, entertainment, information access, health care, business development and better and easier life (Stern, 2012; Grant, 2011). Now the trend is towards introducing new and radical functionalities.

Pervasive electronic systems consist of active and passive electronics devices. Active devices mainly include different sensors. Theses sensors are mostly electronic devices which respond to changes in the ambient environment, user commands, human gestures, etc. These devices are more like input devices. The passive devices are usually actuators. These actuators are electronic devices that respond to the information or command send to them by the controller or user. A complete electronic system consists of both of these. The electronic system ends up being a complex integration of sensors and actuators, designed for particular or diverse functionalities or applications.

The functionalities and applications of modern pervasive electronics include smart and intelligent clothing, flexible displays, smart health monitoring and diagnostic systems, smart phones, wearable computing devices, energy storage and generation, smart bio-compatible devices, etc (Axisa, et al., 2005; Min & Cruz, 2012; Gallozzi, 2012).

One of the earlier pervasive electronic systems was the television set. The transistor allowed better, smaller and cheaper electrical switching systems. This helped the television set to become a household commodity in the 1950s and 1960s. Later, the advancements in display technologies and better circuitry made television sets much cheaper, lighter and compact. This resulted in an exponential growth in the number of television sets and display screens. Present day television sets are mostly LCD (Liquid crystal display) based. The old initial cathode ray tubes are almost history while other available display technologies including Plasma Displays, LED (Light Emitting Diode) displays, OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) displays, projection displays and rear projection displays are emerging rapidly as alternative electronic technologies. (Goldberg, n.d.; Fischetti, 2001)

One interesting technology is the flexible OLED. Flexible electronic displays have been developed recently and they can be used as electronic newspapers, portable TV screens, cloaking, etc. Extensive research is underway in this regard and numerous designs and modifications using different materials have been proposed. Organic materials are the more preferred choice of researchers as they allow more flexibility when compared to inorganic materials. Different substrates has been developed modifying existing printing and fabrication technologies. Inkjet printing has been extensively researched for printing electronic circuitry on these substrates (Berggren, et al., 2007). New materials such as Graphene have also been used in developing flexible electronic systems. Graphene is a two dimensional metal which provides ideal flexibility for such applications. Competing materials such as Indium Tin Oxide have emerged but constantly increasing cost along with complex methods for material synthesis have multiplied the demand for Graphene. On the other hand, conventional semiconductor materials do not have the required physical properties as Graphene and therefore, cannot be easily used as a material for flexible electronics. Although, some methods for modifying the physical properties of conventional semiconductor materials are reported in the research literature but still they are unable to match the success of materials like Graphene and Indium Tin Oxide in the domain of flexible electronics (Hamers, 2001; Y. Sun, 2007; Forrest, 2004; Nathan, et al., 2012).

Video recording and playing equipment is another example of a pervasive electronic system. It started with recording on tape. The initial devices were electromechanical devices. Later the tape took the form of a cassette. The recorders became smaller in size and the VCR (video cassette recorder) became the big thing in the 1980s and 1990s. The technology was later replaced by the DVD and DVR recorders. The tape was replaced by a digital disc and the mechanical parts in the systems were reduced to a few components. Blue Ray and Laser based recording technology emerged after the DVD technologies. These devices were compact and were easily able to interface with the existing display technologies which resulted in a massive impact on the popularity of these devices. They were cheap, compact and easily attached with the television sets or projectors, which led to the creation of personalised entertainment systems. The current trend is towards the 3D holographic and optical storage of videos (Gallozzi, 2012).

The discussion of pervasive electronics is incomplete without reference to personal computers. Computer started as a bulky machine almost equal in size to a small home, consuming enough power to run a small town and had very slow computation speeds. In the two to three decades, this machine has been transformed to the size of a wrist watch and even smaller. The contributions of people like Steve Jobs and companies like IBM, Apple, Intel, Samsung, HP, etc. cannot be ignored in making computers – a personal and pervasive electronic device. The prices have then decreased from millions of dollars to a few hundred dollars. It was estimated in year 2001 that more than 125 million personal computers were sold compared to approximately 48,000 computers in 1977 and that there will be more than 2.5 billion personal computer units by the end of 2014 (Kanellos, 2002; Lunden, 2014).

Audio technology has also improved with the advancement in electronics. Instead of huge and bulky audio systems like gramophones and phonographs, electrical and magnetic recording and sound playing systems emerged. These systems were much smaller, cheaper, compact and less energy consuming. In the last few decades the size of audio playing and recording systems has reduced drastically. The initial tape recorder and player systems, although not the size of gramophones or phonographs, were still lacking portability. First came portable electronic cassette players (e.g. Walkman by Sony) and today people are using electronic Pods and MP3 players (e.g. iPod by Apple) that are not bigger than a wrist watch (Beal, 2010; Boehret, 2012). Apart from the size, they have the ability to store thousands of songs and a battery life of almost a week. These Pods have been very popular for almost a decade now but the recent surveys and reports have shown a decline in the sales of these devices because of the emergence of smart phones, Pads and tablets (Hollister, 2014).

The success of wireless cellular phones, smart computing tablets and the emergence of internet technology is another significant chapter in the story of pervasive electronics.

Early telephones were wired and bulky electromechanical devices. Wires caused major portability issues for the phones. The first wireless mobile phone appeared in 1973 developed by Motorola and the flood gates for wireless handset technologies were opened after that. The improvement in radio frequency transmission technologies (GSM, CDMA, etc) and emergence of cellular networks led to the development of better and improved wireless handsets. This again happened because of the advancement in electronic technologies. These sets were initially simple wireless electronic devices which can be easily carried around and had calling and call receiving facilities but in the last decade only, the size reduced and the functionalities provided by the handsets increased drastically. The decrease in cost along with massive manufacturing allowed the people to have multiple handsets with them having different features. Companies like Samsung, Apple, Nokia, LG, and Motorola have a major contribution in the development and commercialisation of these handsets. Reports suggest that Samsung and Apple respectively shared about 31% and 15.6% of the world’s mobile phone sales in 2013 only (Egham, 2014).

The handsets and mobile phones of 1970s and 1980s have improved drastically with introduction of many different features and applications that now they are termed as “smart phones”. Apart from the voice calling facilities of their predecessors, these “smart phones” provide numerous other facilities to their users. These facilities include multimedia entertainment, embedded computing, internet connectivity, GPS tracking and navigation, messaging, audio/video recording and playback capabilities, etc. These functionalities are all embedded on a single electronic board inside the “smart phones” which only became possible because of improved integrated circuits and micro-fabrication techniques. This makes these devices inherently electronic in nature.

Computing Tablets or Smart Tablets are hand held computing devices. These are equipped with sensors, microphones, accelerometers, cameras, high resolution and touch enabled display screens, processors, memories and batteries in a single module. They have capability of a phone and a computer at the same time. The last decade has seen tremendous growth in the concept of such electronic devices. One of the first such devices was developed by AT&T in 1991. Many such tablets were later developed by different companies but the trend setting device was iPad developed by Apple Computers and released in 2010. In last four years, many companies have jumped into the tablet computer industry. Samsung, Asus, HP, Microsoft, Google and Lenovo are the major manufacturers of tablets. These tablets have introduced a revolutionised reading by providing the readers a new interaction experience. High resolution, capacitive and touch enabled screens enjoyed great success among book and newspaper readers. Amazon’s “Kindle Fire” and Barnes & Noble’s “NOOK” are great examples such electronic devices, with sales reaching more than 5 million units in 2010. These devices are highly portable, efficient, powerful, compact, multi-purpose and cheap. This is why they are having a huge amount of success among the people around the globe. They are now extensively employed in the third world countries for education and learning purposes. It is estimated that by the end of year 2015 the overall number of tablets sold throughout the world will be more than the number of personal computers which is currently estimated to be around 2.5 billion units as mentioned earlier. (Chen, 2012; Lunden, 2014)

The “smart phones” and “smart tablets” lose the “smart” word without the availability of the internet. The internet technology developed out of US defense research and later commercialised in 1990s. The age of internet exploded in 2000s and we are currently living in that age. Internet provides connectivity to billions of computer across the world where they are connected and can share and access information via “world wide web”. Internet also owes its success to the electronic components involved in it. Computers, communication networks, communication infrastructure, data storage centers, etc. all have electronics involved with them. These things cannot exist without electronics. It is primarily because of the constant improvement in electronics that internet is capable of withstanding connectivity of the 6 billion people across the world.

The latest trends and research for the pervasive electronics have been driven by the advancements in flexible electronics. Flexible electronic materials and substrates have renewed the interest in new bio-medical, health care devices and numerous other areas. Electronic devices with shapes conforming biological surfaces have been realised (Nathan, et al., 2012). Electronic systems replicating human senses have been demonstrated by the researchers. Electronic Tongue (taste sensors) and Nose (smell sensor) has been reported in the literature. (Buratti, et al., 2011) Similarly, bionic versions of human eye have been realised by researchers in many different manners exploiting the advancements in electronics. (Min & Cruz, 2012). The flexible electronics has started to revolutionise health care by providing non-invasive monitoring and diagnostics. It has also enabled the researchers and scientists to interact, control and integrate with living organs and organisms (Hamers, 2001).

One of the emerging trends in pervasive electronics is towards developing intelligent clothing, wearable computing and autonomous homes. Availability of many electronic technologies such as telecommunications, micro-fabrication, low power design, new textiles and sensors have made it possible to develop human friendly materials to enhance comfort and security. Researchers are developing clothes and textiles equipped with smart sensors and electronics for non-invasive monitoring of patients. Apart from the monitoring aspect, these clothing are also designed to be environment friendly, to provide health care facilities and illness protection. (Axisa, et al., 2005)

Electronic devices have penetrated in every aspect of modern day human life. Today these electronic devices are used everywhere from our homes, offices, medical centers, schools, government institutions and even for travelling around. Importance of these devices is realised when a device gets damaged. Electronics have now become a part of everyday human life bringing many advantages and disadvantages with it, but, as a whole it is impossible to realise modern world without these electronic devices.

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Introduction

This paper aims to critically explore the use of e-learning in the workplace, identifying both its benefits and its limitations as a viable alternative to more traditional forms of training and education at work. It begins by examining the growth in the use of e-learning systems and the rationale for this, and outlines its various forms. The paper then investigates the relative benefits e-learning has for organisations alongside some of the perceived challenges and criticisms of its use. The paper concludes by summarising the key learning points raised.

The growth of E-Learning

Globally, the e-learning market has been growing rapidly, and e-learning is beginning to emerge as the new model of training and education across a wide range of different sectors and industries (Su et al, 2008). This growth has resulted in part from extensive changes in the working environment, and from a shift from a product-based economy to a knowledge-based one, meaning that there is a more pressing need to train and educate workforces in new technologies and services (Ong, Lai and Wang, 2004). In addition, technological advancement and challenges in technology-oriented working life have paved the way for new forms of electronic learning (Cheng et al, 2014). Consequently, e-learning now accounts for a significant proportion of corporate investment in workforce training (Deeney, 2003).

Understanding the nature of E-Learning Systems

According to Govindasamy (2002), e-learning is a learning experience that is delivered by electronic technologies including for example, the use of the internet, intranets, interactive TV, virtual classrooms and so forth. However, there is no clear agreement on its definition and as a concept, it has been researched in various forms such as an ‘instructional medium’ (Salas et al, 2002), a ‘training method’ (Burgess and Russell, 2003), and a ‘learning environment’ (DeRouin, Fritzsche and Salas, 2005).

It has been reported that the lack of consensus over the typology of e-learning in an organisational setting, the vagueness of the terminology used, the vastness in the range of technology and pedagogy involved demonstrates the complexity of e-learning as an entity (Cheng et al, 2014).

For some, e-learning is considered only as a mechanism for delivering training and education via electronic medium (Engelbrecht, 2005), whereas for others, it is seen as a distinct form of learning which uses collaboration, internet-based communication and the transfer of knowledge to enhance and develop both the individual themselves and their organisation (Kelly and Bauer, 2004).

Whichever way it is viewed, the growth of the e-learning market has resulted in the development and innovation of a vast range of different e-learning technologies including media streaming, providing learners with a much more stimulating and interactive learning experience (Liu, Liao and Pratt, 2009).

The Benefits of E-Learning

Some of the most commonly cited benefits of using e-learning systems as a means of training and educating the workforce include: a reduction in costs due to decreasing the amount of time spent off-site at expensive courses, travel and venue costs, and allowing more effectual use of downtime at work (Jewson, Felsted and Green, 2015); overcoming the limitations of time and physical space to deliver training courses (Gordon, 2003); an increase in the level of compliance to mandatory training for large workforces (Harun, 2002); increased convenience for the participants themselves in terms of choosing when to undertake training and access the course materials (Capper, 2001); and not needing to depend on the time or availability of a trainer (Bouhnik and Marcus, 2006).

It has been claimed that with e-learning, employees are able to take part in self-faced and interactive learning that would otherwise not be possible, and that the learner-centered approach required by e-learning influences employees to alter their learning behaviours within their work environment as well as being an influential training tool (Bandura, 2002).

However, it has also been noted that learner control does not always deliver better outcomes; in that programmes and resources may be used superficially whereby learners skim read the e-learning materials without really absorbing the meaning of what is intended to be conveyed (Kraiger and Jerden, 2007).

It has been noted that e-learning can also be useful to organisations in terms of standardising their training and in delivering it simultaneously to large geographically dispersed employees (Brown and Charlier, 2013). Required training can also be delivered much more quickly to large numbers of staff than with more traditional approaches (Welsh et al, 2003). Furthermore, in comparison to more traditional classroom based training, studies have found that e-learning can be just as effective, and has advantages in terms of helping to overcome learning barriers associated with introversion and physical distance (McKenzie and Murray, 2010). However, it has also been recognised that undertaking e-learning may require better personal time management and study skills than those needed in a more directed taught environment (Helyer, 2010), and that e-learning may not be appropriate for all types of learning and content (Welsh et al, 2003).

Another, less frequently cited benefit of e-learning is that it has the potential to manage the growth in the amount of information that employees are required to learn. It is claimed that this growth has often led to information overload during training sessions, leading to ineffective training where learners cannot retain all that is being presented to them. By conducting the training via e-learning and only the most interactive part in a traditional classroom setting, the information can be delivered over a longer period of time, and therefore improve information retention (Welsh et al, 2003).

Finally, a further potential benefit of e-learning programmes is their capacity to track the activity of learners and their level of achievement in terms of online testing of learner activities (Welsh et al, 2003). Within e-learning, tracking and storage can be made automated. This is particularly beneficial when training is required to demonstrate compliance to mandatory training requirements for example (Welsh et al, 2003).

Limitations of E-Learning Systems

Whilst the benefits of e-learning systems are widely recognised, it has also been criticised as not being as effective or inclusive as more traditional approaches to training and education, and concerns have been expressed that e-learning sometimes fails to live up to its full potential demonstrated through high attrition and sometimes low usage rates (Wang, 2010).

Deltsidou et al (2010) found that some individuals who use e-learning systems experience higher levels of anxiety when doing so due to limited IT skills, which subsequently has a detrimental impact on their experience of learning. It has also been argued that for those who are more computer literate, some traditional types of e-learning programmes are found to be restrictive and do not facilitate effective self-directed learning (Pata, 2009). The lack of learner interaction that occurs in the more traditional classroom setting has also been identified as a potential drawback for e-learning programmes (Brown and Charlier, 2013). In particular, it is felt that senior management could become too preoccupied with the capability to push information onto employees and forget that in order for learning to become embedded it involves more than just information provision and instead also requires practice, feedback, and guidance (Welsh et al, 2003).

Other limitations of e-learning systems which have been identified stem from problems associated with the technology itself. In particular, unreliable IT systems can act as a key barrier to e-learning with insufficient access to technical support, freezing computer screens, intermittent internet connections, and excessively long download times for accessing course material (Creedy et al, 2007). Issues around security such as computer hacking and viruses can also be problematic for e-learning programmes and the organisations who use them (Ramim and Levy, 2006).

From a cost point of view, implementing e-learning systems often involves high levels of upfront investment to purchase not only the hardware that is required, but also in relation to the ongoing costs involved in maintaining and renewing licenses that are often associated with external e-learning packages (Childs et al, 2005).

Specific costs include development costs to design and build the actual courses as well as hardware and software costs to allow users to access the training (Welsh et al, 2003). Furthermore, conducting testing of learning can be challenging with e-learning in relation to assuring the authenticity of those taking the test or exam (Gunasekaran, McNeil and Shaul, 2002).

Acceptance of E-learning in the workplace

The acceptance of e-learning as an appropriate means of training and education by employees is critical to its successful implementation in the workplace, and the reasons why employees might accept or reject such technology must be considered by organisations (Joo Yoo, Han and Huang, 2012).

One of the main theories used to explain such acceptance and the relative success or failure of the implementation of new technology such as e-learning, is the technology acceptance model (TAM) (Liu, Liao and Pratt, 2009). The TAM was derived from the theory of reasoned action and proposes two speci¬?c perspectives on why new technology is accepted or not which relate to the usefulness of the technology and its ease of use (Vijayasarathy, 2004).

The greater the perceived usefulness and ease of use of a system, the stronger the willingness and intention is to use it (Davis, 1989). The perceived usefulness relates to the extent to which it is considered that the technology will improve performance, and the perceived ease of use is the degree to which it is believed that using the technology will be unproblematic (Davis et al, 1989). In relation to e-learning, Ong, Lai and Wang (2004) identified that computer self-efficacy significantly impacts on its perceived usefulness and ease of use, with those who have higher levels of computer self-efficacy being much more likely to have positive perceptions of usefulness and ease of use. Therefore, organisations need to take into consideration the level of computer efficacy amongst its workforce before implementing e-learning.

Associated with the TAM is the theory of flow. This theory is concerned with concentration and asserts that when individuals are in flow, they become engrossed in their activity, and according to Liu, Liao and Pratt (2009), this theory can help to explain the intended and actual use of e-learning programmes by individuals.

Media rich and interactive e-learning systems are more likely to engage individuals and result in ‘flow’ which then impacts on their learning outcomes and experience.

Critics of e-learning state that a high level of self-motivation is needed in order to effectively complete programmes, and Roca and Gagne (2008) propose that self-determination theory is useful for conceptualizing the influence of organisational factors in an individual’s motivation to use e-learning. From their study, they found that individuals were more likely to continue using e-learning when they feel autonomous, competent and enjoy using it. They conclude that consistent with self-directed theory, when individuals participate in learning because it is interesting and enjoyable, they are more likely to engage with it and benefit from it.

Conclusion

From the critical review above, it is evident that the use of e-learning, as a model of training and education in the workplace, is growing at a rapid pace in response to the demands from ever changing working environments, shifts towards knowledge based economies, and advancements in technology.

Numerous benefits of e-learning have been identified focusing mainly around cost savings, learner convenience, flexibility, consistency and particularly in its ability to provide training and education to large, dispersed workforces simultaneously.

However, a number of challenges for organisations have also been identified around, gaining the acceptance of the workforce in implementing such e-learning technologies, underpinned by different theories such as TAM, flow and self-determination theory. Other limitations of e-learning have also been cited in relation to high start-up costs and problems associated with equipment and internet problems. Further concerns that have been identified in the current literature are around the lack of interaction between learners with e-learning which exists with the more traditional classroom learning environment.

However, despite the identified limitations, it would appear that e-learning in the workplace is going to continue to grow alongside continuous advancements in associated technology, and sophistication of e-learning programme design.

In addition, computer usage and the use of digital technologies is expanding and becoming the norm and so acceptance of e-learning is becoming much more prevalent. It is therefore likely to continue to form a significant proportion of corporate investment in workforce training and development in the future.

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Introduction

“Play is essential to development because it contributes to the cognitive, physical, social and emotional well-being of children and youth” (Ginsberg, 2007, p. 182). Play is so important to children’s development is that it has been recognised as being of vital importance by the United Nations (1989), as it makes a contribution to the holistic development of children, allowing them to discover the world through experimenting within the various environments to which they are exposed (Bruce, 1996). Ginsberg (2007) makes the observation that all those involved with children’s development, learning and education must consider every factor which has the potential to interfere with children realising their full potential, and to work towards ensuring that every child has access to circumstances which allow them opportunities to reap the benefits that are linked with play. The aim of this essay is to investigate the notion of play in the light of learning theories, in order to determine its importance in children’s development during their early years.

Definition of Play

It is important to recognise that it is difficult to give a single definition of play (Lillemyr, 2009) and that it is regarded as an all embracing term (Bruce, 1991) which describes a diverse range of behaviours which see children interacting with each other (Dunn, 1993) in order to make sense of, and to enhance their understanding of, the environments in which they find themselves (Bruce, 1996; Wood, 2004). Play can be regarded as the means through which children are able to discover things about the world in order to amend their vision of it (Oko, 1987, p. 44 in Bozena, 2007, p. 80), as well as an avenue through which children can experience joy and/or recreation (Buhler, 1993, p. 91 in Bozena, 2007, p. 80). Play is an opportunity for children to develop a sense of self as a result of solving problems within their environment, which allows them to enhance their cognitive skills in the context of specific cultural environment/environments (Dunn, 1993; Meadows, 1993; Bruce, 1996; Gallahue and Ozman, 1998; Wood, 2004; Robson, 2006). Froebel (cited in Bruce, 2004, p. 132) believes that it provides children with opportunities to utilise their newly accumulated knowledge in different situations which encourages them to adopt flexible attitudes and ways of thinking, as well as providing them with opportunities to practice and understand societal ‘norms’ and their role in specific environments (Rogoff, 2003). Play also affords children the opportunity to discover the difference between fantasy and reality, safety and risk, order and anarchy and to grasp the concept of potential in themselves for the future (Wood and Attfield, 2005). It is a vital component in children’s physical, social, emotional and intellectual development (Elkind, 2008) which allows children to utilise their imagination whilst enhancing their communication skills through engaging in a number of different roles, depending upon their environment and the environment in which any specific interaction is taking place (Eddington, 2004).

Value/Importance for Development

The value and importance of play is the motivation behind recent developments with regard to Early Years education in the form of the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) documentation (Department for Education [DfE], 2014). The notion of child centred education is built upon the acknowledgement that every individual child is unique and is entitled to have their needs met through the careful design of activities which allow them to develop commensurate with their ability, as a result of encouraging positive relationships with all around them in order that learners become competent, self-confident and self-reliant people (DfE, 2014). The ability to communicate is critical to children’s development – the government stipulate that those responsible for providing children’s education must create opportunities for children to acquire language and communication skills through play, such that they are able to express themselves in a variety of different ways (language, gesture) and they are able to accumulate information as a result of reading and listening to others (DfE, 2014). This stipulation is a direct result of the Rose Report (2009), which highlighted the fact that curriculum provision should have explicit reference to the purposes of play and that the activities designed to promote it should be meticulously planned. Rose (2009) also stressed that children needed to engage not only in individual play but also in paired/group activities, so that language development and acquisition could be encouraged whilst simultaneously learning to cooperate with each other (endorsed by Coates & Thomson, 2009) and developing an understanding of the value of good behaviour. It is vital for practitioners to recognise that play is not some form of break from the curriculum; it is an opportunity for children to develop their physical and cognitive abilities for the 21st century (Moyles, 2010) and is an authentic means of implementing the school curriculum (Action Alliance for Children, 2007; Moyles, 2010).

The notion that play enables children to enhance the skills is put forward by Hughes (2006), who contends that there are a large number (up to 16) of different types of play, including movement and discovery which involves the exploration of the environment and the use of language (endorsed by Ginsberg, 2007; Singer et al., 2006; Bateson, 2005). Other scholars such as Manning-Morton and Thorp (2003) and Burghardt (2005) emphasise the multipurpose nature of play in that children are able to use play as a means for learning through practising skills for the future, tackling and solving problems, as well as a means through which they develop their methods of communicating with those around them. A critical factor in any child’s development is feeling safe within the boundaries of any environment to which they are exposed; a number of writers (Moore and Russ, 2006; Russ, 2004; Sayeed and Guerin, 2000) allude to the fact that children must feel safe and relaxed in order to play with freedom and that play in itself allows children to relax, which has a beneficial effect on their emotional outlook (Russ, 2004). This ‘safety’ element can be achieved through practitioners building upon children’s experiences within the home environment, which can then lead on to opportunities for progression and extension through challenge (Department for Children, Schools and Families [DCSF], 2009). Critical to the learning process is the careful design of activities which take advantage of children’s innate ability to enjoy play and the fact that playing “… engages children’s bodies, minds and emotions” (DCSF, 2009, p. 10). Furthermore, through this process children are able to learn the skills associated with successful interaction with others in order to be part of a community, to experience and to manage their feelings/emotions and to develop confidence in themselves and their abilities (DCSF, 2009). Play provides opportunities for children to develop positive attitudes towards learning, in that they are able to develop their interests, be creative and experimental, to be critically thoughtful (Trevlas et al, 2003; Hurvitz, 2003) as well as developing resilience and the ability to work alongside others as a part of the educative process (DCSF, 2009).

Play and Learning Theory

The most important point about play is that it is active in nature. This active pursuit of knowledge was stressed by Piaget, who emphasised children’s ability to construct their own knowledge as individuals (Moore, 2000) through exploring their environment (Phillips and Soltis, 1998) in order to make sense of it (Wyse, 2004). Having scientifically studied children (May, 2013), Piaget put forward the notion that children develop in distinctive stages – sensorimotor (birth to 2 years), preoperational (2 to 6 years), concrete operational (7 to adolescence) and formal operational (adolescence to adulthood) – and that play becomes more complex as learners mature (for example, sensorimotor/practice play, preoperational/symbolic, pretend and fantasy play [Krause et al., 2003]). He also stated that as children came upon new experiences and knowledge, they added them to their existing knowledge base (assimilation) prior to being able to employ this new knowledge (accommodation), thus enhancing their cognitive abilities (Curtis and O’Hagen, 2003). Piaget (1973) believed that children were only able to gain a true understanding of knowledge as a result of this process of discovery, which enables them to be innovative and flexible as opposed to learning in a mechanistic way.

These constructivist principles were shared by Vygotsky, although his emphasis was on social and collective learning as opposed to learning as an individual. It was his belief that interaction with others was a key element in enabling children to learn (Buchan, 2013, Daly et al., 2004), and that learning was a social process. Vygotsky contended that the development of children’s communication and language skills relied upon their being allowed to experience the world around them in the company of others in a social context, which lead learners to an understanding of how to behave and how to control themselves in specific contexts (John-Steiner et al., 2010). This social aspect of learning is borne out by observations of children who imitate the actions of others without understanding, until such time as they are able to initiate actions for themselves [which is indicative of their level of comprehension] (Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky took this notion of learning from others a stage further when he stated that there was a difference between what children are able to do alone and what they can achieve with the help of more experienced others, labelling this difference the ‘Zone of Proximal Development’ [ZPD] (Pound, 2005). He firmly believed that every interactive process in which learners engage, irrespective of the environment in which it takes place, provides them with opportunities to develop their language and thinking skills (Whitehead, 2010). Furthermore, Vygotsky (1978) commented that play was the best and most effective means of preschool development as it enabled children to develop their skills through interaction.

Play and Current Early Years Practice

As highlighted above, the current provision as laid out within the EYFS (DfE, 2014) documentation places the child at the centre of the learning process with a specific emphasis on play, which encourages the development of communication, language and literacy skills. There are three prime areas of learning (communication and language, physical development, personal, social and emotional development) and four specific areas which supplement the prime areas (literacy, mathematics, understanding the world and expressive arts and design). It is the responsibility of individual practitioners, and indeed settings in general, to consider the individual needs and stage of development for each individual in their care. Activities within classrooms must be planned to ensure equality of access for all, irrespective of their background or ability and they should be designed to engage learners in purposeful play which is both child initiated and adult led. The balance between these two types of play is of extreme importance. Children can learn by leading their own play and allowing their needs and interests to guide their activities. However, whilst responding to individual children in a positive and warm manner, it is critical that there is a gradual movement towards activities which are more adult led, in order to prepare them for more formal learning as they enter Year 1 (DfE, 2014). Play should provide children with opportunities to explore and express their feelings, to develop relationships with others, to make decisions, choices and errors whilst being respected and valued as individuals; they need to be encouraged to develop self-discipline whilst retaining their ability to be imaginative and creative in solving problems (Bruce, 1987 cited in Early Years Interboard Panel, n.d., p. 7)

Conclusion

Play is central to the development of children in their early years. It provides a platform through which children are able to learn about themselves and the world around them through interacting with it. It allows children to have fun while they are learning, and to engage with those around them as a part of the process of learning, which not only deepens their knowledge base but also provides them with life skills such as the ability to communicate and work effectively with others. Play has been recognised as a central element within the education system which allows children to blossom through interacting with and learning from those around them. It is “… essential for children’s development, building their confidence as they learn to explore, to think about problems, and to relate to others” (DfE, 2014, p. 9).

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How might technology be most effectively applied within this context?

The use of technology in schools has been associated with small positive associations with educational outcomes (Zhao & Frank, 2003; Ager, 2013). However, this does not necessarily relate to a causal relationship as this may relate to the fact that more effective schools are often those that use digital technologies to teach (Higgins et al., 2012). In a meta-analysis of research concerning the use of technology in teaching, Higgins et al. (2012) suggest that technology is most effective as a supplement rather than a replacement for teaching. Furthermore, the use of technology in schools may vary according to the context, with some subjects and classes being more suited to the technology uses (Adamson, 2004). This essay will consider the application of different forms of technology to teaching languages. This will consider the teaching context of ten adult learners of an intermediate standard. To examine the possible uses of technology, the traditional uses of technology will first be considered in the use of a number of the more mainstream uses of technology in the teaching context will be considered. This will be followed by a discussion of some more innovative methods of learning that are currently being developed, such as Web 2.0 technology.

Audio playback offers an effective use of technology in the language-learning context. The benefits of this include the fact that learners may hear the language spoken by other voices than the teacher (Najjari et al., 2012). Given that when languages are learnt, the teacher will attempt to outline the words as clearly as possible, being able to listen to audio recordings allow the listener to establish the use of language in other contexts where less attempt is being made to establish clarity (Ibrahim, 2013). The use of audio recordings may be used in a gradated approach according to the difficulty of language and the complexity and speed of the spoken word (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). It may provide the examples of language use in everyday situations, such as playing back transcripts of discussions when making purchases in shops. Audio recordings can thus be used effectively and by providing a questionnaire or using it to provoke discussion, the listener may be effectively engaged with the listening task, rather than simply listening to the presentation (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). This allows the development of comprehension to form a part of the listening approach. The teacher may thus use it to supplement teaching by providing clear indications of how the language is spoken.

The drawbacks to the use of audio playback to aid teaching may include the fact that listening to spoken language means that the listener is engaging in a relatively false scenario of listening to a transcript rather than being able to observe the discussion in a real-life example (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). It also has drawbacks in its use for beginners in a language-learning context because they may be too challenging before some facility is gained with vocabulary (Najjari et al., 2012). However, for intermediate students, as a supplement to the teacher’s discussion, and as providing examples and comprehension exercises, the uses of audio playback are invaluable but only as part of a structured aspect of the teaching experience (Najjari et al., 2012). The listening comprehension exercise is thus a useful way of supplementing the teaching experience. In the teaching context specified, it is important to use a listening comprehension exercise sparingly to avoid it become a routine test, such as every other lesson rather than every lesson.

Television offers some similar advantages to the playback of audio recording if applied to a teaching context, but offers some other potential benefits (Ibrahim, 2013). First, the use of visual cues to supplement the listening exercise may be beneficial and provide additional ways in which the language material may be developed and learnt (Ibrahim, 2013). In audio recording, only one method is available for the student to comprehend the material, whereas through the body language of the actors, text, or visual graphics, cues can complement the use of speech to help the learner (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). However, the use of television may prove more difficult when compared to audio technology because audio technology allows the students to take notes while listening, whereas television often demands a greater level of attention from the student (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). This can undermine the impact of the use of television, and it may often prove easier for students to reduce their attention and avoid paying attention. Some programmes used involve pauses in order to allow students to take notes, but this can often undermine the flow of the programme and there is a need to predict how long the students may need. The overall impact of television may thus be minimal, in that its use may be limited; it does not necessarily achieve anything that may not be achieved well through audio technology. In the teaching context, television may be used relatively sparingly, approximately two or three times per week (Richards & Rodgers, 2014).

Audio recording technology may also provide a useful role for the teaching context as it allows students to hear themselves. In particular, many students may find this a useful approach to establishing pronunciation difficulties by being able to hear how the language sounds when played back (Al-Saraj, 2014). This is a useful approach to teaching spoken English because the potential for students to become reflective listeners of their own attempts to speak English. A drawback with this use of technology is that students may find listening to themselves embarrassing or the sound of their own voice may prove a challenge if played back to the class (Cook, 2013). The approach may therefore benefit from setting a task whereby students listen to their own exercise and provide feedback on it, or where students may listen to their own recordings. This thus offers a benefit but must be used according to an effective context.

Although the features of the technology thus far described have long been a part of the classroom, recent advances can help the ease with which they can be used. Audio recordings may now be more easily made by the student using an ordinary laptop computer, whereas until relatively recently such technology was not as easily accessible (Cook, 2013). The potential for setting tasks for students at home may be allowed by asking them to watch a video on a video hosting site, which was previously a more difficult task to complete where only videotape was used (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). However, there are also some challenges that are brought to the unsupervised use of such technology as audio technology may be used to slow down or to stop and start a section repeatedly (Beatty, 2013). On one hand, there is no harm in this being done to practice, and may in fact represent a useful tool for the student to work at their own pace without feeling penalised by the classroom experience (Cook, 2013). This can allow a more student-centred approach to language learning, allowing the students to complete some tasks at their own pace, freeing up space in the classroom for class-based activities.

The use of Web 2.0 technology can prove of significant benefit to this teaching context (Pailly, 2013; Kaliampos & Schmidt, 2014). This refers to the use of dynamic web pages that are created through user-generated content with a strong emphasis on interaction (Stevenson & Liu, 2013). In particular, this can help with classroom learning by allowing the class to develop as a community of practice (Wenger, 2011). Communities of practice are a key way in which tacit knowledge may be developed amongst students, which is defined as that knowledge which is generated and shared through an informal conversation (Wenger, 2011). Such knowledge is possible to contextualise and embody, but can pose challenges for the teacher if it is codified and expressed as part of an information segment (Wang & Vasquez, 2012). An informal forum is thus an effective way in which this may be developed as part of the language learning. Communities of practice using Web 2.0 technology may thus allow such knowledge to be developed and this can form a useful model for aiding language development.

Web 2.0 may thus provide a way in which information processing can be integrated with everyday activities. Social networking between the students and the teacher may allow for the tacit knowledge in language use to be acquired more effectively than might be the case in a didactic teaching situation (Kaliampos & Schmidt, 2014). Likewise, it has been proposed that using situations such as Second Life, where each user is given an avatar with which to interact with each other can provide a way for students to participate in the learning process (Wang & Vasquez, 2012). However, there are also some dangers in the uses of such technology, as in interacting with each other without censure, there is the danger that mistakes may become more deeply ingrained. However, the advantages of using such technology are that they can break down barriers to learning. In many cases, participation in classroom learning, particularly in language learning, is dominated by 20% of students (Pailly, 2013). The classroom environment can overcome this issue to an extent through the use of pair-working or smaller groups that give an opportunity for the different students to take part (Beatty, 2013). Interactive web technology can provide a safe environment for other students to interact.

The use of Facebook or other social media may be used to supplement language learning in this teaching context because it may be used as a method to enhance communication and collaboration between students (Kaliampos & Schmidt, 2014). This is already a popular format among students, and thus any encouragement to use it to improve upon learning goals may be achieved. Social media forums may be set up by the classroom itself, with exercises set to allow students to engage in discussions can also help ensure that such communication can take place (Kaliampos & Schmidt, 2014). This can be achieved by setting tests where students are given assignments to present a short forum subject, and then to comment and discuss another individual’s work. This can give the students the opportunity to participate in discussion and gain experience and confident in such discussion (Beatty, 2013). However, the extent to which this may reflect a real-life experience can be questioned. To an extent, the fact that the students are using their learning language may reduce the extent to which they provide this work (Blake, 2013). Furthermore, the fact that the students are encouraged to communicate in an informal setting may mean that they adopt a more colloquial method of writing, which may achieve communication while being largely inaccurate.

The benefit of using the interactive technology may thus be gauged according to the aims of the class (Blake, 2013). If the aim is to achieve a perfect understanding of the language then the extent to which encouraging students to interact in their own time may be questioned (Beatty, 2013). However, if the aim is to provide a medium in which students may practise their writing and reading work, allowing them to interpret the meaning through reading other students’ work, and ascertain their clarity by examining the response, then this technology may prove an important way to supplement the teacher’s work (Kaliampos & Schmidt, 2014). There may be different approaches to the assessment of exercises, but perhaps the most important method in this is to encourage participation, language practice, and this can prove of benefit to overall language learning goals (Pailly, 2013). It would therefore seem an effective contribution to this teaching context as it not only complements the provision of learning in school but provides the possibility of allowing language learning to cover aspects not easily covered through formal teaching.

In conclusion, there are a number of ways in which technology may be applied to the learning context in language teaching. Many of these have been used in different forms to complement language teaching for some time, and the use of audio playback and television has been a mainstay of language learning since such technology has been made available. However, with the rapid development of computer technology, it has become possible to streamline these approaches, allowing such media to be combined. Furthermore, Web 2.0 technology provides the opportunity for communities of learning to be developed online, which can allow tacit understanding of language concepts to be developed as well as different features of language use to be explored. Ultimately, it seems unlikely that technology can replace the traditional centrepiece of teacher-based language learning, but it can offer some important complementary activities that can benefit learners to a great extent.

References

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Introduction

Education should be the means through which children are provided with guidance with regard to spiritual, moral, cultural, social, physical and mental development which should, in turn, provide equality of opportunity, justice, access to democracy, and a productive and sustainable economy for everyone (The National Curriculum, 2000 cited in Inman et al., 2003, p. 5). The National Curriculum (2000 cited in Inman et al., 2003, p. 5) sets out the expressed aim that pupils should be encouraged to develop enduring values which foster integrity whilst helping them to develop into autonomous responsible citizens who are able to make an active contribution to the society in which they live. The curriculum should provide opportunities for students to reflect upon the belief systems and culture of those around them, while simultaneously developing their sense of self, as well as a sense of respect and tolerance for diversity (National Curriculum, 2000 cited in Inman et al., 2003, p. 5). The notion that Personal, Health, Social and Economic Education (PSHE) is the appropriate curriculum area through which this might be delivered is endorsed by the recent review conducted by the Department for Education (DfE, 2015). This document states that an in-depth review of over 70 studies found that these lessons could benefit pupils across a diverse range of outcomes if there was a coherent, universal approach towards the social, emotional and behavioural development of students (Sklad et al., 2012). Furthermore, Langford et al. (2014) state that concerted efforts to promote health and well-being within schools had a demonstrable positive effect on issues such as smoking, bullying, diet and exercise. The aim of this essay is to look at the place of PSHE in the curriculum and the influence that this (as a subject area/concept) can have upon the life of a school.

Definition

PSHE is described as an important part of a child’s education which should be delivered by all schools (DfE, 2013). The DfE (2013) state that the non-statutory nature of the subject allows PSHE to be moulded to the needs of specific groups of pupils, depending upon the environment in which they live and their particular needs. A critical aim provided for by this subject is that it should enable pupils to be able to make sound assessment of risk, and encourage learners to build up the necessary skills and knowledge to enable them to make considered, informed decisions (DfE, 2013). This is particularly important with regard to issues such as drug education, sex and relationships education, financial education and health education (DfE, 2013). The subject is described as the vehicle through which meaningful debate about essential issues can be brought into children’s lives (Goddard et al., 2013) which allows them to develop the life skills to become independent, informed and active citizens (Department for Education and Employment/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority [DfEE/QCA], 1999; endorsed by Worcestershire County Council, 2007). The DfE (2015, p. 4) state that PSHE “… is a planned programme of school-based learning opportunities and experiences that deal with the real life issues children and young people face as they grow up,” covering those issues in two strands: personal well-being covers sex and relationships education, drug and alcohol education, emotional health and well-being, diet and healthy lifestyle and safety education, with economic well-being covering careers education, work-related learning, enterprise education and financial capability.

It is pertinent to note that although PSHE for Key Stages 1 – 4 is not compulsory, some aspects are statutory, such as education with regard to sex and relationships, drugs, careers and work-related learning. It should also be noted that schools are expected to coordinate, plan, monitor and assess their provision of PSHE, as with any other subject area (DfE, 2015).

Development

In order to be able to fully comprehend PSHE in its current form, it is important that there is an understanding of its development which began with an acknowledgement that children’s personal and social development should be at the centre of any educative process, in order to ensure balanced cultural, spiritual, moral, mental and physical well-being (DfES/QCA, 2004). As stated above, the educative process should foster attitudes of equal opportunity, democracy, healthy living and sustainable development which in turn should enable pupils to develop a profound sense of self (DfES/QCA, 2004). Its inception as a subject came in the 1980s although much of the content associated with it was delivered via the hidden curriculum (Goddard et al., 2013). With the advent of the National Curriculum (DfE, 1989) came the notion that this content could be delivered as a part of the 10 curriculum subjects stipulated as being compulsory by the government. It was only as a result of the increased emphasis upon inclusive education that PSHE began to be seen as a discrete subject in its own right, being driven by the need for a citizenship education programme (Citizenship Advisory Group, 1997; DfEE/QCA, 1999) and a renewed commitment to the highest quality educational provision for all children (Department for Education and Employment, 1997). Health education as well as personal, social and emotional development were addressed via the Foundation Stage curriculum documentation (DfES/QCA, 2000) which paved the way for the Early Years Foundation Stage [EYFS] (Department for Children, Schools and Families [DCSF], 2008). This document, and documents produced for educational provision post 2003, were influenced by the Every Child Matters (ECM) initiative which called for a greater degree of multiagency working in order to ensure the safeguarding of children. ECM (DfES, 2004) aimed to provide teaching which allows children the opportunity to develop the knowledge, understanding and skills which enable them to be healthy, to remain safe, to enjoy life and to achieve things, to contribute to society around them and to be able to attain financial stability. There are palpable links between these aims and that of any good quality PSHE provision (Knowles, 2009) as well as additional support programmes across all age groups, such as the Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning Syllabus (SEAL, DfES, 2005) which provides a holistic approach towards encouraging “… the social and emotional skills that underpin effective learning, positive behaviour, regular attendance, staff effectiveness and the emotional health and well-being of all learning and work in schools” (DCSF, 2007, p. 4).

Present Role and Influence

The role of PSHE is critical in a number of ways. It provides opportunities for educators and society as a whole to provide children with the opportunity to develop a balanced perspective about many important issues which they will face during the course of their lives and to develop life skills. Often it also has the role of coordinating the delivery of compulsory aspects of education such as Sex and Relationships (SRE), work-related learning, and careers guidance (PSHE Association, 2010). In fact, it is viewed as being so important that there has been a recommendation by the government that PSHE should become a statutory subject in all schools (DCSF, 2009). McDonald’s report (DCSF, 2009) recommended that learning in the primary sector should focus upon physical development, health and well-being with the secondary sector having PSHE as a foundation subject. He also suggested that research should be conducted with regard to how this core provision could be most effectively delivered and stipulated that the subject’s profile should be enhanced with practitioners through increased levels of professional development programmes, and the use of external providers within PSHE programmes.

Further acknowledgement of the benefits that PSHE brings to pupils was highlighted by the DfE (2010) who made the point that the subject develops pupils’ skills to the extent that they are able to make informed choices and can help schools and society address major issues such as the misuse of drugs and appropriate sex/relationship behaviour (BBC News, 2015). Furthermore, the government has stressed the need for personal development within education through highlighting the need to provide a balanced curriculum which affirms the importance of subject knowledge and personal, social, health and economic awareness (DfE, 2011). This review of the National Curriculum (DfE, 2011) confirmed the government’s view that PSHE should form part of the statutory curriculum, although they recommended that the provision should be under the control of individual schools/local authorities in order to cater for the needs of children within specific environments, with the proviso that children’s personal development could be clearly observed and documented. Clearly, PSHE simultaneously fulfils a number of roles – a legislative role which ensures the safeguarding of children, a societal role that enables children to make a valuable contribution as they mature, an academic role in helping to raise educational standards as a result of children feeling emotionally secure, and a human rights role (Goddard et al., 2013).

The level of influence and impact that PSHE can have within any educational environment will depend upon the way in which the subject is approached and the extent to which the staff, and indeed the school as a whole, are committed to it. Schools can adopt a discrete subject approach which provides it with a greater degree of gravitas for both pupils and teachers which is more easily achieved in a secondary school environment (Kitson, 2004). A cross curricular approach is one that is seen as more desirable in a primary setting, in that children are able to make cognitive links between different subject areas whilst tackling the activities that are set for them by practitioners (Hayes, 2006; Savage, 2011). A whole school approach requires the whole school community to become involved in delivering a specific ethos which is provided not only through lesson content, but also in the interactions which take place across the school environment as peers interact with each other and adults (practitioners, ancillary staff, and support staff) engage with children (Denman et al., 2004). Government inspectors recommend that the subject be delivered in discrete lessons which should be supplemented through links being made to it in other curriculum subjects (Office for Standards in Education [Ofsted], 2013), and through engaging in whole school, cross curricular activities as well as group teaching/guidance in specific aspects of development and learning (PSHE Association, n.d.). Whichever route is taken by individual schools, it is critical that the delivery is one which is interactive, vibrant and engaging, which provides children with an opportunity to express their feelings and views with regard to the important issues of the day (National Children’s Bureau, 2006), although current government thinking (DfE, 2015) indicates that a whole school approach should be taken towards PSHE. This whole school approach should foster good relationships within the school community, include lessons which are interactive and engaging, provide students with a voice, encourage an acceptance of diversity, are relevant to the circumstances in which pupils find themselves and encourage not only a sense of self but also a sense of community (DfE, 2015). This type of approach can be evidentially linked to pupils’ readiness to learn, with links being found between pupils’ health and well-being and attainment levels in schools where health and well-being form part of a schools effectiveness strategy (Public Health England, 2014). Evidence would also suggest that PSHE can improve the physical and psychosocial well-being of students, which has a beneficial effect upon their academic achievement (DfE, 2015). It has also been found that good quality careers education, information and advice can have a positive impact upon pupils, in that it has been shown to increase the levels of self-confidence and enhance decision-making skills, both of which are beneficial to students’ prospects for a stable economic future (Hughes and Gration, 2009).

Conclusion

Clearly, PSHE has a central role to play in the curriculum with regard to providing pupils with opportunities to explore important issues which effect of them as individuals and society in general. The approach which individual settings take with regard to this area will have an impact upon the effect that it can have in children’s lives. It is critical that the school’s approach to PSHE is one which is engaging, thought-provoking and inclusive in order to provide equality of opportunity and an acceptance of difference irrespective of individual pupil backgrounds, abilities, faith, sexual orientation and gender identity (DfE, 2015). The whole school community must work as a team from the governors all the way through to the youngest pupils in order that pupils are provided with opportunities to develop as balanced, fair minded individuals.

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